renewable energy resource that could bene- fit European citizens by increasing energy security, enhancing economic growth, creating jobs, and mitigating the ...
Energy Research Knowledge Centre
Overcoming Research Challenges for Ocean Renewable Energy
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Contents Ocean energy brochure scope
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Policy background and main figures
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Technological research key points and future challenges Tidal barrage Tidal current converter Wave energy converter Barriers and challenges Defining research priorities beyond technology improvements: an integrated approach Resource potential assessment Sustainability assessment, marine spatial planning and integrated coastal zone management Grid integration
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Recommendations
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References
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List of Acronyms
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Manuscript completed in April 2013 EUR Number: 25941 ISSN: 1018-5593 (print) 1831-9424 (online) ISBN: 978-92-79-29514-0 (print) 978-92-79-29513-3 (pdf) Catalogue Number: LD-NA-25941-EN-C (print) LD-NA-25941-EN-N (online) DOI: 10.2790/8776 (print) 10.2790/8711 (online) Publisher Name: Publications Office of the European Union Publisher City: Luxembourg Publisher Country: Luxembourg
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This publication was produced by the Energy Research Knowledge Centre (ERKC), funded by the European Commission, to support its Information System of the Strategic Energy Technology Plan (SETIS). It represents the consortium’s views on the subject matter. These views have not been adopted or approved by the European Commission and should not be taken as a statement of the views of the European Commission. The manuscript was produced by Gianmaria Sannino from the Italian National Agency for New Technology, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development (ENEA) and Cristina Cavicchioli from Research on Energy Systems (RSE Spa). We would like to thank Antonio Negri, Director of the Environment and Sustainable Development Department, Research on Energy Systems (RSE Spa) for his support. We would like to extend our grateful thanks to Ana Brito e Melo (Wave Energy Centre, WavEC), Tony Lewis (Hydraulics and Maritime Research Centre, University College Cork) and Sian George (CEO of the European Ocean Association) for their review of the manuscript and their valuable support. While the information contained in this brochure is correct to the best of our knowledge, neither the consortium nor the European Commission can be held responsible for any inaccuracy, or accept responsibility for any use made thereof.
Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged.
Additional information on energy research programmes and related projects, as well as on other technical and policy publications is available on the Energy Research Knowledge Centre (ERKC) portal at:
Cover: © GOPA-Cartermill
setis.ec.europa.eu/energy-research
© European Union 2013
Photo credits: Courtesy of ADAG (page 2, 8), EMEC (Mike Brookes-Roper, page 6), Pelamis Wave Power (page 10), Flumill (Mike Brookes-Roper, page 10), Istockphoto (cover, page 13, 14, 17). Printed in Belgium
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Key Points Emerging technologies at pre-commercial stage, with potential for market competitiveness Growing political interest, but coherent support measures needed Grid integration and access barriers limit deployment Need for assessing the environmental and socio-economic impacts through a territorially integrated research approach
Ocean energy brochure scope Within the dynamic evolution of renewable energy, ocean energy is emerging as an alternative source which may contribute to the EU 2020 strategic goals and, from 2020 onwards, to the EU objectives for 2050. Ocean energy is still at an earlier stage of development than offshore wind. At present, it only represents a tiny percentage of the overall energy supply, and is available only in a few Member States. However, tidal systems have a high potential at several points along the European coast, while wave energy potential is primarily distributed along the length of Europe’s Atlantic coast. The capacity offered by the main classes of ocean energy technology is theoretically high, potentially meeting a substantial part of the
electricity demand of several European countries – particularly Ireland, the United Kingdom, Denmark, Portugal, Spain, France, and Norway, especially in remote areas. Technology classes covered here include wave energy, tidal range, tidal currents, ocean currents, ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC), and salinity gradients (osmotic power). The barriers to ocean energy are both technical and non-technical in nature. Although the basic technology for ocean-generated electricity already exists, for some technologies installation and on-site construction at locations in open sea conditions still poses significant challenges. What is required are optimised systems with a proven track record of successful operation at sea.
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Evolutionary developments are still required that will allow for high-efficiency energy conversion and low-maintenance, long-lasting operation in a corrosive biofouling environment. Furthermore, ocean energy technologies will require similar infrastructure and supply chains as offshore wind, such as grid connections, port facilities, vessels etc. The connection of ocean energy conversion plants to the electricity grid and their integration in the electricity market present a significant additional challenge, particularly for isolated sites, given prioritised access to the electricity grid-system for electricity from renewable energy sources. Non-technical barriers include planning and licensing procedures. The lack of processes for planning and licensing marine activities in areas where many different interests (transport, energy, tourism, fisheries, etc.) converge can increase uncertainty and cause project delays or failures.
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Environmental compatibility and social impacts are also significant items that need to be properly considered. As with other technologies, such as offshore wind, offshore areas that are suitable for ocean energy uses may compete with other marine activities such as fishing, maritime transport, tourism, and military use, or they may be located in sensitive and protected areas. In this context it is important to involve the main public and private stakeholders. This brochure aims at providing suggestions to promote awareness of ocean technologies and their actual potential. It highlights the current status of ocean energy research for the different ocean energy technologies, based on the main European and national programmes and projects, and drawing attention to the main knowledge gaps and research needs. It also proposes an integrated research approach that will address the challenges anticipated for the future of ocean energy.
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Policy background
and main figures Ocean energy is currently recognised as a renewable energy resource that could benefit European citizens by increasing energy security, enhancing economic growth, creating jobs, and mitigating the negative impacts of climate change. The European Energy Roadmap 2050 (COM 2011 885/2) explores the challenges posed by the EU’s decarbonisation objective – reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 80-95 % below 1990 levels by 2050; inter alia by increasing the use of renewable sources for energy production. Within this context, ocean energy has the potential to make an important contribution to electricity supply in the longer term. On June 2012 the European Commission Communication “Renewable energy: a major player in the European energy market” (COM/2012/271) advocates higher priority for research in ocean energy. It is one of the five sectors of the blue economy highlighted in the Communication on “Blue Growth” (COM/2012/494).
Vertical axis marine turbine. © Courtesy of ADAG
There are several estimates of the overall resource available. The European Ocean Energy Road Map 2010-2050 published by the European Ocean Energy Association (EUOEA) estimated that installed Ocean Energy in Europe could reach 3.6 GW by 2020 and leap to nearly 188 GW by 2050. Based on this scenario, in 2050 a world-leading ocean energy industry in Europe could mitigate 136.3 1 2
million tonnes of CO2 emissions per year and create and around 470,000 new jobs (directly and indirectly)1. At the international level, ocean energy technological development is being supported in several countries, including the US, Canada, Japan, Australia, China and South Korea. The EU is currently at the forefront of technological developments in this sector.
Ocean energy has the potential to make an important contribution to electricity supply in the longer term. A number of European countries have indicated that the ocean energy sector will account for part of the renewable energy contribution within their National Renewable Energy Action Plans (NREAP)2 by 2020. The combined capacity target was estimated at 2 253 MW by the end of 2020, based on a summary of the NREAPs of European countries in which ocean energy technologies are currently being developed (Tables 1 and 2) (Beurskens L.W.M., et al. 2011). It should be noted that these estimates are currently being reviewed by most Member States, in the light of recent financial challenges and other barriers facing the sector.
The Ocean Energy System (OES), an IEA Technology Initiative, estimates that worldwide there is the potential to develop 337 GW of wave and tidal energy by 2050, and possibly as much again from ocean thermal energy conversion. By 2050, the ocean energy deployment could create 1.2 million direct jobs and mitigate nearly 1 billion tonnes of CO2. Renewable Energy Directive (2009/28/EC).
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Table 1: Ocean energy electricity scenario, 2015-2020, MW 2015 Finland France Ireland Italy Netherlands Portugal Spain United Kingdom Total
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2018
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Figure 1: Ocean Energy RD&D spending, in million € 2019
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10 318 0 1 27 75 10 200
10 333 13 1 54 100 30 400
10 349 25 1 81 125 50 700
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641
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Ireland Norway Denmark France Australia Korea
Source: NREAPs, ECN (2011)
Sweden
Table 2: Ocean energy electricity scenario, 2015-2020, GWh 2015 Finland France Ireland Italy Netherlands Portugal Spain United Kingdom Total
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2017
2018
Canada 2019
0 789 0 1 0 75 0 0
0 861 0 1 103 112 22 690
0 933 42 1 206 159 66 1380
0 1006 81 2 308 206 110 2070
0 1078 124 3 411 297 165 2980
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1789
2787
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0 1150 230 5 514 437 220 3950 6506
Source: NREAPs, ECN (2011)
In the context of their renewable energy support schemes, some European countries have developed economic policy instruments, such as ‘technology-push’ mechanisms to encourage the deployment of prototype devices including prizes (UK), market incentives for ocean energy electricity (Belgium, Italy, Germany, Portugal, Ireland) and financial support for industry and supply chain development (UK, Ireland). EU research spending on ocean energy remains relatively modest (4.25 % of total RD&D spending on renewable energy in 2010). In the last 20 years the Commission has allocated just €75 3
IEA- Energy Statistics- RD&D statistics
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million to RD&D for ocean energy technologies. Nevertheless, national public budgets in the sector highlight that there is a growing interest in the main OECD countries (Figure 1). In addition, the private sector has invested over €600 million in ocean energy technologies over the past seven years. Within Europe, the highest ocean energy RD&D expenditure relative to total renewable energy RD&D spending can be found in the United Kingdom (13.4 %), Ireland (12.4 %), and Sweden (12.1 %)3.
UK 0
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Source: IEA RD&D Statistics
EU research in ocean energy is currently supported by initiatives such as FP7 energy projects, Intelligent Energy - Europe (IEE), INTERREG IV (Merific), and NER3004. Cooperative research is ongoing as part of numerous projects such as the SI Ocean Project (Strategic Initiative for Ocean Energy Development), which aims to identify and develop a broad consensus on the most effective way to overcome the main barriers to delivering a commercial wave and tidal energy sector in Europe. Other examples of similar projects include the FP7 MARINA Platform (Marine Renewable Integrated Application Platform) project, and the Ocean Tomorrow (FP7-Ocean) projects
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Mermaid5 and Plocan (Ocean Platform of the Canary Islands)6. Another valuable initiative for the development of ocean energy is the MARINET, a network of research centres and organisations that are working together to accelerate the development of marine renewable energy technologies. Furthermore, the European Energy Research Alliance (EERA), one of the key objectives of which is to accelerate the development of new energy technologies by conceiving and implementing Joint Research Programmes in support of the SET-Plan, launched a Joint Programme7 on Ocean Energy in 2011. This
“NER300” is a financing instrument managed jointly by the European Commission, European Investment Bank and EU Member States; www.ner300.com www.mermaidproject.eu www.plocan.eu Participants/Associates: the University of Edinburgh (UK), Technalia (ES), Wavec (PT), IFREMER (FR), ENEA (IT), HMRC (IE), SINTEF/MARNTEK (NO), Fraunhofer (DE)
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Commission consultation on ocean energy, and a proposal for European Commission funding of an EU Ocean Energy ERA-NET has been recently submitted to facilitate the further development of collaboration between Member States9.
programme is based around six key research themes, which have been developed based on existing research roadmaps identifying the critical research areas required for the successful growth of the industry. The research themes are: Resources, Devices and Technology; Deployment and Operations; Environmental Impact; Socio-economic Impact; Research Infrastructure; and Education and Training.8
On a national level, the United Kingdom is the leading EU country with regard to ocean energy development. In 2003, the UK established Europe’s first test centre - The European Marine Energy Centre (EMEC) Ltd. EMEC was set up by a grouping of public sector organisations following a recommendation by the House of Commons’ Science and Technology Committee in 2001. To date, around £30 million of public funding has been invested in the centre by the Scottish Government, Highlands and Islands Enterprise, The Carbon Trust, the UK Government, Scottish Enterprise, the European Union and the Orkney Islands Council10. Other examples of national initiatives include the French institute France Energies Marines (FEM), and the Ocean Energy Development Unit (OEDU) set up by the Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland.
Nine EU Member States have joined the Ocean Energy Interest Group. In November 2011, a report was published in collaboration with the European Ocean Energy Association “Towards European industrial leadership in Ocean Energy in 2020”, calling for funding and support from the European Commission to drive forward ocean energy. The Interest Group has since submitted an agreed response to a recent
Member States along the so-called “Atlantic Arc”11 are involved in multiple activities and demonstration projects to develop ocean energy12. A number of them have put in place attractive financial incentives in terms of both revenue support and capital grants, with the aim of achieving the 2020 ocean energy targets set out in the Member States’ National Renewable Energy Action Plans.
Marine operations at test site. © EMEC, Mike Brookes-Roper
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European Energy Research Alliance: Joint Programme on Ocean Energy; www.eera-set.eu The recently concluded ORECCA (Offshore Renewable Energy Conversion Platform Coordination Action) project was an EU FP7 funded collaborative project supporting this enhanced cooperation www.orecca.eu 10 http://www.emec.org.uk/about-us/ 11 The high resource ‘Atlantic Arc’ region describes the areas, spanning the western facing Atlantic coastline and the northern area of the North Sea, encompassing the territorial waters of Denmark, France, Ireland, Portugal, Spain and the UK. 12 An example is the Atlantic Power Cluster project funded by INTERREG: www.atlantic-power-cluster.eu
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Technological research key points
and future challenges
The energy resource in the ocean comes from six sources, each with different origins and requiring different technologies for conversion: ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC), salinity gradients (osmotic power), surface waves, tidal range, tidal currents, and ocean currents. The distribution of these sources in the oceans is not uniform. In the EU offshore zone, energy can be exploited mainly from tides, salinity gradients and waves. Tidal energy conversion techniques exploit the natural rise and fall of the sea surface of the oceans (tidal range) due to the gravitational pull between the Earth and the Sun and Moon. The movement of ocean water, caused by the changing tides, creates tidal current energy. This kinetic energy can be harnessed, usually near-shore and particularly where there are constrictions, such as straits. Tidal range can be harnessed by building barrages or other engineering constructions across an estuary. The energy of tidal streams is captured using converters, and wave energy can be harnessed by using specific energy conversion devices. A description of the different technologies is provided below. The EU potential and the outlook for each technology are also mentioned along with an overview of the installations (small or large) currently in operation.
Tidal barrage How it works A tidal barrage consists of a large dam-like structure built across the mouth of a bay. Water flowing through the barrage during both ebb and flood tides can turn turbines and provide power. The principle of conversion is similar to the technology used in traditional hydroelectric power plants. Tidal barrages are the oldest and most mature of all ocean energy technologies. However, as with all large civil engineering constructions, there is a series of technical and environmental risks to be addressed.
Potential The tidal range energy potential in the EU is estimated to be about 200 TWh/y, most of it concentrated in France and the UK. However, because of the technology’s high generation costs, long payback times, and the environmental impact on local ecosystems (it impedes fish migration, and changes the tidal regime downstream and upstream), it is unlikely that tidal range energy will be commercially developed in the EU.
Installations in Europe In France, the La Rance Barrage is the first tidal power plant installed in the EU. It has a capacity of 240 MW, and has been producing 600GWh/year since 1966.
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Tidal current converter How it works Tidal current converters are installed directly in the tidal stream and generate energy from the tidal flow. Converters are generally grouped into three types: axial, cross-flow turbines and non-turbines. Axial and cross-flow turbines capture energy from the ocean in a similar way to wind turbines. Non-turbines include oscillatory hydrofoils, vortex-induced motion, and hydro venturi devices. There is a variety of methods for installing tidal current devices, including seabed anchoring (via a gravity base or driven piles) and floating or semi-floating platforms fixed to the sea-bottom via mooring lines.
Potential The EU tidal current energy resource is very large. Countries with a high resource potential in terms of tidal current energy include the UK and Ireland. There is a relatively smaller resource also present in the Mediterranean Sea (Strait of Gibraltar and Strait of Messina). The potential for tidal current in Europe is estimated to exceed 12 GW.
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Installations in Europe In 2007 Ireland’s OpenHydro installed the first tidal in-stream turbine at the EMEC tidal test facility. The turbine is an experimental 300 kW, six metre-diameter device that can be lowered for testing and raised above the water line for inspection and servicing on a pair of mono piles. OpenHydro is also testing a gravity base foundation at EMEC. The Atlantis Resource 1MW, Tidal Generation 500 kW, Scotrenewables 250 kW, and the Andritz Hammerfest 1 MW devices have also been installed and tested at EMEC. In 2008, Marine Current Turbines (MCT) installed the largest tidal in-stream device to date: the 16 metre-diameter dual-rotor SeaGen machine rated at 1.2 MW was installed in Strangford Narrows in Northern Ireland, an environmentally sensitive site. In late 2009 a 1MW, 10 metre-diameter OpenHydro machine was installed at the Minas Passage tidal demonstration site in Nova Scotia. In 2012, a full-scale device prototype of the GEM - Ocean’s Kite was successfully deployed in the Venice lagoon, in Italy. The GEM device has a floating body (9.2 metres long) with two lateral counter rotating horizontal axis turbines (three metres in diameter), equipped with specially designed diffusers doubling the power output. The GEM device is 10.4 metres wide and 5.2 metres high, and its rated power is 100 kW, with a current speed of 2.6 m/s. It has been installed 13 metres below the water surface. In addition, a number of in-stream tidal demonstration projects are ongoing and planned in the UK, France and Italy. If these early undertakings prove successful, arrays up to 1–10 MW in capacity could be deployed within the next ten years (Bedard et al. 2010).
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Wave energy converter
Figure 2: Average Theoretical Wave Power (kW)
How it works Wave energy technology is rapidly growing and varies widely in the application of conversion devices. Energy conversion devices can be situated on- or offshore. Four categories of wave energy technology exist: attenuators, point absorbers, overtopping, and oscillating water column (OWC) and oscillating wave surge converter technology (OES 2012). Point absorbers and attenuators capture wave energy by being placed in the path of the wave. Attenuators are situated parallel to waves and energy is captured over the surface area. Point absorbers are moored to the sea bed or float near the surface, collecting wave energy from all directions. OWCs capture water through an opening into a partially submerged platform and allow that water to rise up in an air column, compressing the air and driving a turbine to generate electricity. Today’s wave energy conversion technologies are the result of many years of testing, modelling, and development by many organisations.
Potential Wave energy potential can be evaluated based on a study of the specific power of the waves in various European seas, as shown in Figure 2.
Installations in Europe About 4 MW of capacity have been installed to date worldwide, primarily as engineering prototypes. In 2000, the two first shore-based, grid-connected wave power units, which used OWC technology, were built into the coastline of the island of Islay by WaveGen (later acquired by Voith Hydro) in Scotland.
32 33 55 65 50
63 60 67
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70 76 68
15 53 47
55 50 46
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39 33 13
Source: European Wave Energy Atlas13
In 2003, WaveDragon was the first offshore, grid-connected wave power unit and, as the device was not full-scale, it was deployed in a protected bay in Denmark. In August 2004, the Pelamis prototype was successfully tested at the EMEC. In 2008, Pelamis became the first commercial-scale offshore wave power machine (3 750 kW units) to generate electricity into a national grid in Portugal. In 2009 and 2011, Aquamarine installed two Oyster offshore full-scale prototypes in the
CAD drawing of the Ocean’s Kite. © Courtesy of ADAG
13 European Wave Energy Atlas http://www.seai.ie/Renewables/Ocean_Energy/Ocean_Energy_Information_ Research/ Irelands_Wave_and_Tidal_Energy_Resources/
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industry in the 1980s, and commercial systems could become available between 2015 and 2025. Globally since 2011, more than 25 ocean energy technology demonstration projects have been carried out, all of them in the pre-commercial stage. Currently there are 10MW of operational devices installed for demonstration in open sea conditions in European waters – this compares with just 3.5MW in 2009 (EU-OEA).
© Pelamis Wave Power
Orkney Islands with a capacity of 315 kW and 800 kW respectively. Additional demonstration projects are ongoing and planned in the UK, Ireland, Spain, Portugal, and Italy. If these early demonstration schemes prove successful, medium-size wave farms with capacities up to 50–100 MW could be deployed within the next five to ten years (Bedard et al. 2010). In 2011 the first multi-turbine OWC device was built at Mutriku, in the Basque region (Spain). It has 16 air chambers and 16 sets of Wells turbines with an electrical generator of 18.5 kW each. The device is integrated in a breakwater. In 2012 construction was begun on the first full-scale OWC prototype at Civitavecchia in Italy, designed by Wavenergy S.r.l. and called REWEC3.
Barriers and challenges Most ocean energy technologies are under demonstration or have a limited number of applications (IEA-ETSAP, 2010). Marine wave and tidal stream technologies are at a stage of development similar to that of the wind
Multiple barriers still limit the development of ocean energy. Plant construction and maintenance costs are still not clear, but can be very high, especially in the start-up phase. Due to a lack of experience, operations at offshore facilities are still carried out by the oil industry and so are costly (JRC, 2011). In addition, licensing and authorisation costs and procedures are very high and complex: a lack of dedicated or experienced administrative structures results in long permit procedures. Moreover, with the advent of the deployment of ocean energy technologies, coastal management is a critical issue to regulate potential conflicts with other maritime activities over the use of coastal space (EC-SETIS, 2009)14. The environmental impact of various types of ocean energy devices will not be fully known until large commercial farms are operating. Ocean energy growth has been further slowed by uncertainties over the grid connection of demonstration projects and a lack of collaboration between developers. Despite these challenges, the industrial system is reacting: the supply chain has started to develop bespoke solutions for ocean energy technologies and, for example, in Scotland, Marine Scotland is a one-stop-shop which has made a public commitment to providing responses to consent applications within nine months of submission.
14 http://setis.ec.europa.eu/newsroom-items-folder/ocean-energy/view
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Work is in progress to develop guidelines and standards that enhance project development, evaluation, testing, and comparability. This will better enable stakeholders, such as policymakers, electricity network companies and investors, to select the technologies that meet their needs (Lewis et al. 2011). Unlike tidal stream technologies, for wave energy technology there is a clear indication that convergence has not yet occurred. However, both persistent R&D efforts and the experience gained over the past years in the fields of new materials, construction, and corrosion have contributed to the ongoing improved performance of ocean energy converters and have brought some devices closer to commercial exploitation than ever before. Different prototypes have proven their applicability in severe operational conditions. A number of concepts are at the stage of proving their long-term viability and several commercial plants are currently under consideration. There is a lack of information and understanding regarding performance, lifetime, operation and maintenance of technologies and power plants. For the majority of ocean technologies to succeed, rigorous and extensive testing on prototypes is still necessary to establish the new technologies. Large deployment can be successful with convergence of technologies, thereby reducing the number of isolated actors and allowing technology development to accelerate. Industrial R&D and continuing academic R&D should move in parallel. Research aims to reduce key technological risks. The main challenges facing the industry are15: Increasing affordability through innovation and cost reduction;
Flumill. © Mike Brookes-Roper
Improving predictability of energy output, increasing the level of knowledge at the sea testing stage for a given climatic condition, and developing tools to help enhance the understanding of turbulence and its contribution to component fatigue; Evaluating reliability by determining a clear understanding of components’ Mean Time Between Failure; Developing highly qualified engineering techniques and testing procedures to allow survivability and remote operability of devices and components operating with average extreme loads; Providing affordable installation vessels and techniques to optimise installation costs; and Moving from first scale prototype to commercial production, to demonstrate the manufacturability of optimised component and system designs and the use of alternative new materials as substitutes for steel.
15 SI Ocean Strategic Initiative for Ocean Energy http://si-ocean.eu/en/upload/docs/WP3/Technology %20Status %20Report_FV.pdf
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Defining research priorities beyond technology improvements: an integrated approach Ocean energy can play an important role in enhancing the coordinated economic development of marine and coastal areas at a local level, compatible with the sustainability principle.
The exploitation of marine resources needs an integrated approach. Beyond the technology development as such, other features of ocean energy exploitation also need to be taken into account: Resource availability is not uniform, and local peculiarities (e.g. waves, tides, currents, sea bed depths) mean that technical solutions are not exportable everywhere: different areas may require different technical solutions to exploit the same resource; The high complexity and fragility of the marine ecosystem, combined with the over-exploitation of some marine functions (e.g. fishing), need to be properly taken into account during the up-scaling process; Given the local environmental and social impact of energy generation installations,
the local level should be a priority for intervention and involvement, with the ultimate goal of promoting local awareness and oversight of resource management and protection in a sustainability paradigm. An integrated approach to research will help define a balanced and sustainable route to the exploitation of ocean energy. The key elements of such an approach are outlined below.
Resource potential assessment Estimates on resource potential for ocean energy at macro level are quite well known: nevertheless, the availability of data on resource potential varies greatly: while for wind energy and, to a lesser extent, wave resources, there are a lot of publicly available data for Europe, there are fewer data available for tidal stream resources, and the data utilised mostly derive from measurements made at sites which have been identified as potential locations based on their geographic conditions. In any case, there is a strong need for standardisation among the different resource assessment tools and databases (atlas), in order to allow full comparability of data representativeness, accuracy, and availability at different levels. There are developments
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underway with the IECTC114 (International Standards Development for Marine and Hydrokinetic Renewable Energy) and guidelines are available as a result of the FP7 EquiMar (Pre-normative research for Ocean Energy) project16. Further R&D is needed in the field of resource assessment, both on the measurement side (i.e. measurement site deployment and the development and use of remote sensing techniques), and on the development and validation of suitable modelling systems.
Sustainability assessment, marine spatial planning and integrated coastal zone management Sustainability assessment should effectively combine the analysis of environmental, economic, and social aspects: sustainable exploitation of ocean energy resources cannot be properly performed without a suitable procedural support framework. Research projects on the environmental impacts of offshore renewable energy devices are recommended to focus on priority areas that include: Cumulative effects; EMF (electromagnetic field) effects of subsea cables; Flow alteration; Sedimentation and habitat change near generation devices; and Actions mitigating the effects of piling. Comprehensive assessment, including both impacts and costs should be performed, applying the well-known Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology to ocean energy generation, thereby covering a new range of technologies, devices and sub-systems that need in-depth analysis. 16 www.equimar.org/
Tidal energy underwater turbine tap. © istockphoto
There is also a strong need to consider competing pressures and uses (such as climate change, fishing, and marine transport) and there should be recognition that the positive impacts of developments might outweigh some localised environmental impacts. Such an integrated approach to the exploitation of marine resources is a well-travelled path in European policy concerning the implementation of Integrated Coastal Zone Management (CZM): the European Commission has recently launched a proposal for a new Directive, aiming to establish a framework for maritime spatial planning and integrated coastal management in EU Member States, with a view to promoting the sustainable growth of maritime and coastal activities and the sustainable use of coastal and marine resources. Because current Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) tools do not explicitly deal with offshore renewable energy generation, there is an
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increased focus on the development of evaluation and planning tools for territorial analysis that are suitable for the marine environment and focus on ocean energy generation (and transmission) issues. This contribution will support governments and authorities in ocean governance, and allow them to provide clear guidance to the private sector. Improved planning and licensing procedures will play a key role in the actual implementation of ocean energy projects. These procedures also need to address the issue of social acceptance. Coastal communities and those engaged in more traditional marine activities tend to be wary about new activities. Planning and licensing processes for ocean energy therefore need to be open and comprehensive enough to take into account their concerns. However, in contrast to spatial planning on land, Member States generally have limited experience, and sometimes inadequate governance and rules for planning and licensing in the marine environment. The lack of processes for planning and licensing marine activities in areas where many different interests (transport, energy, tourism, fisheries, etc.) are concentrated can increase uncertainty and cause delays in, or failure of, projects at sea. This can be a barrier to securing investment, and could in part be addressed through improved and coordinated maritime spatial planning.
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Grid integration The potential for ocean energy integration into the electric power grid is high, but the degree of penetration will depend on the impact it might have on the power network and the technologies available to manage such an impact. The major risks for the development of ocean energy arising from grid connection and integration have corresponding financial implications: grid costs for offshore technologies are very high due to site location. Besides the high cost of connections, the project developer should also commit in advance to substantial financial liabilities to cover the capital costs of the electricity network operators. Furthermore, there is a substantial risk of long delays in providing the connection, particularly due to delays in consenting and constructing transmission reinforcement. Most of the lessons learned from the integration of offshore wind farms can be readily applied to ocean energy generation. The main issues can be summarised as follows: The degree of variability of energy generation time patterns; The need for a collection grid, connecting the generation devices to a common collection point, in order to effectively transfer
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the energy in a suitable form to the onshore grid; The need for long-distance HVDC transmission, via subsea cables; and New grid codes, to resolve issues like the control of generated power and the mitigation of disturbances (e.g. low voltage harmonics, power fluctuations, etc.). Systems for forecasting resources need to be put in place and integrated with plant operations. While significant wind variations may occur from one minute to the next or from year to year, ocean wave and tide variations are mostly limited to hourly and seasonal variations. Tidal variations occur on two major time-scales, i.e. a half-day cycle and a 14-day cycle, and are therefore easily predictable, whereas wave variations are more stochastic, and deep-water wave height and frequency variations depend on wind forces that have transferred the energy flux into the water body. Though ocean energy plants cause lesser fluctuations than, for instance, wind turbines when connected to an electrical grid in terms of resource variability, for wave energy generation a suitable forecast system should be further developed and implemented; a combination of wave buoy measurements, maritime navigation satellite network, weather-monitoring data and wind forecast models could be applied. Due to a noticeable focus on energy storage, particular care should be devoted to assessing the possible integration with potential shoreline and/or near-shore storage plant options, such as marine pumped hydro and sub-marine CAES (Compressed Air Energy Storage). Appropriate research into other possible energy vectors could help resolve the problem of difficult or costly grid connections.
Offshore Wind Farm in East Anglia, UK. © istockphoto
Intense RD&D activities are focusing on issues like marine sub-stations, AC or DC collection grid components, HVDC converters, multi-terminal HVDC connections and, last
but not least, the environmental effects of large cables on marine ecosystems. These issues are largely common to both ocean energy and offshore wind farms. Therefore, there should be a synergy between the two: in general the above-mentioned technologies will be developed for offshore wind parks and then, if demonstrated successfully, will be deployed for ocean energy installations. Moreover, in some locations, ocean energy generation plants could benefit from connection infrastructure that has already been deployed for offshore wind. From a more general point of view, it is worth noting that only a few devices have been tested in grid-connected mode and the duration of these tests was relatively short. Longer comprehensive tests should be encouraged, because resource and experimental performance data would facilitate device modelling and characterisation, thus allowing system studies to identify electrical network impacts. Finally, suitable guidelines detailing grid interconnection requirements should be developed to: Allow coordinated work by the project developer and the utility; Contain adequate measures to ensure the effective management of connection risks by the utility; Provide flexibility, in order to accommodate proven and innovative generation device characteristics; Encourage self-imposed certification processes by process and/or device developers such as the IEC standards that are currently underway; and Allow for effective technology transfer from the early project results, in order to ensure a sound and well-established standard. The development of grid codes and connection procedures for ocean energy will be helped by analogous activities for offshore wind.
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Recommendations From a medium- and long-term perspective, ocean energy has high potential to make a significant contribution to low-carbon electricity generation; it is expected that different principles of energy conversion will be utilised at various locations to take advantage of the variability of the ocean energy resource. Despite the fact that there have been technological advancements in recent years, the technologies are still at the prototype or precommercial stage and there are still a number of obstacles standing in the way of ocean energy development. The main barriers are: Technology advancement: reliability and cost reduction; Project development: frameworks for facilitating project development (planning, grid integration, port and harbour infrastructure, supply chain, etc.); and Finance and market mechanisms to support growth. Up to now, ocean energy projects have been financed mainly through research and demonstration project funds. The need to progress from a single pilot device installation to farms with tens of MW calls for targeted investment in specific and ambitious projects. This requires large-scale public–private partnerships. Incentives are needed for private entities to invest in ocean energy technologies. Market conditions need to be created at the early stage of industry development to create a market pull and to incentivise early adopters. An overall assessment, including both economic and environmental impacts, should be performed according to local requirements. Other barriers to be overcome include administrative procedures, competition for marine space and public acceptance.
As a consequence, a set of issues and priority actions should be put in place to promote the accelerated development of ocean technologies, namely:
Technology development – foster activities for cost reduction and improved competitiveness of ocean energy These activities will include measures such as: Device power up-rating: following the wind industry pathway, wave and tidal energy devices will increase in size, improving output; Multiple generators per foundation: foundations make up a significant proportion of the costs of ocean energy projects, and structure innovation can reduce project costs significantly; Reliability and maintainability: experience leads to improving availability schedules and maintenance strategies; and Supply chain and production: deployment will enable the supply chain to scale up and promote innovation, and the establishment of specialist production facilities will reduce manufacturing costs.
Resource mapping – increase the effort to develop a European Sea Use Map Top-level analyses of the available ocean energy resources have been carried out and are widely available. Now these analyses, which deal primarily with the physical potential of the resource, need to be expanded to include all the barriers or constraints that may prevent the harvesting of ocean energy in specific areas, i.e. other uses of the sea, points of access to the electric grids, anthropic activities (fishing, tourism and ports), protected areas, etc. Reliable model tools for energy production forecasts and weather window calculations for O&M activities are also required.
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Ocean energy transmission optimisation - support research to advance HVDC transmission technology HVDC transmission technology will provide optimum control of electricity trading and avoid the need for onshore reinforcement near coastal areas. This R&D topic cuts across the borders between the marine energy sectors and is a crucial issue for the development of renewable energy in general. Therefore, generally speaking, the main R&D areas concerning HVDC technology are related to: AC/DC conversion technology; Multiple HVDC links; System regulation and control; and High performance cables.
Effects on ecosystems – analysis of environmental impact Incentive schemes should be provided to promote demonstration of new devices and arrays of advanced devices to gain experience and to investigate potential environmental impacts and further increase understanding of environmental issues.
Social acceptability facilitation – public awareness As a developing industry, ocean energy suffers from a lack of public awareness. A public awareness campaign will help disseminate information, which is crucial to generate social involvement in the evolution of marine areas, and the related decision-making process. Action should be taken to promote public participation in the governance process, supporting complex decision-making.
Investment Incentivises – target the best way of reducing costs and associated risks through larger-scale exploitation Throughout the history of industry, artificial market conditions have been created to foster infant industries and to pull market share and incentivise early adopters. This market
Tidal Wave, Canary Islands, Spain © istockphoto
pull can have three elements: incentives for investors (investment tax credits), incentives for end-users (investment and production tax credits) and feed-in tariffs that make highcost pre-commercial installations attractive to investors and end-users. Large-scale deployment of wave and tidal energy faces a number of hurdles related to risks associated with securing finance. Increased clarity for investors, appropriate distribution of public funds to wave and tidal technologies as well as a coherent design of public support schemes may help overcome these hurdles. Ocean energy still requires large-scale investment and R&D to develop and deploy viable and scalable commercial technology and infrastructure, better understand environmental impacts and benefits, and secure market share. Most new projects are oriented towards bringing technologies to pre-commercial status, promoting easy access to research facilities or supporting the creation of new demonstration sites at sea. There still remains a lack of knowledge of many different issues. Ocean energy technologies (and offshore wind) are relatively new and could profit from information exchange, giving developers the opportunity to benefit from the lessons learned by existing smaller-scale developments. A common approach and collaboration between Member States would encourage stronger development of the sector. Finally, the environmental impact of ocean energy development on the marine area must be addressed coherently across marine regions.
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References Bedard, R., Jacobson, P., Previsic, M., Musial, W., Varley, R., 2010. An overview of ocean renewable energy technologies. Oceanography 23, 22–31. Beurskens, L.W.M., Hekkenberg, M., Vethman, P., Renewable Energy Projections as Published in the National Renewable Energy Action Plans of the European Member States, Covering all 27 EU Member States with updates for 20 Member States, ECN-E--10-069, 28 November 2011, www.ecn.nl/nreap. Costello, R., Teillant, B., Weber, J., Ringwood, J.W., Techno-Economic Optimisation for Wave Energy Converters, 4th International Conference on Ocean Energy, 17 October, Dublin, 2013. de Miguel, B., Ricci, P., Touzón, I., Ojanguren, M., New perspectives on the long-term feasibility of wave energy conversion: a techno-economical approach, 4th International Conference on Ocean Energy, 17 October 2013, Dublin. 12th Eurobserv’ER Report, The state of Renewable Energies in Europe, 2012. www.energiesrenouvelables.org/observ-er/stat_baro/barobilan/barobilan12.pdf European Commission, Communication “Blue Growth”, COM/2012/494. European Commission, Communication “Renewable energy: a major player in the European energy market”, COM/2012/271. European Commission, Energy Roadmap 2050, COM(2011) 885 final. European Ocean Energy Association (EU-OEA), Oceans of Energy. European Ocean Energy Roadmap 2010-2050, TREN/07/FP6EN/S07.75308/038571, 2012. European Parliament and Council, Directive on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources, 2009/28/EC. European Renewable Energy Council (EREC), 2011. Mapping Renewable Energy Pathways, March 2011. European Wave Energy Atlas http://www.seai.ie/Renewables/Ocean_Energy/Ocean_Energy_ Information_Research/Irelands_Wave_and_Tidal_Energy_Resources/ EWEA, ECN, 3E, CORPI, CRES, LNEG, SOW, UOB - SEAENERGY 2020, Delivering offshore electricity to the EU, May 2012. EWEA, The European Wind Initiative - Wind Power Research and Development to 2020, January 2013. Huckerby, J.A., and McComb, P., (2008). Development of Marine Energy in New Zealand. Published consultants’ report for Energy Efficiency and Conservation Authority, Electricity Commission and Greater Wellington Regional Council, Wellington, New Zealand, 2008.
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IEA, 2010b. Energy Technology Perspectives–Scenarios and Strategies to 2050. IEA, 2010c. Implementing Agreement on Ocean Energy Systems, Annual report 2010, http:// www.iea-oceans.org/ IEA, Energy Technology Perspectives 2012 - how to secure a clean energy future, 2012. IEA- Energy Technology Systems Analysis Program (IEA-ETSAP), 2010. Technology brief E13 November 2010 www.etsap.org IEA Energy Technology Systems Analysis Programme (ETSAP), www.iea-etsap.org/web/E-TechDS/ PDF/E08-Ocean %20Energy_GSgct_Ana_LCPL_rev30Nov2010.pdf IPCC, 2011: IPCC Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation. Prepared by Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Edenhofer, O., Pichs-Madruga, R., Sokona, Y., Seyboth, K., Matschoss, P., Kadner, S., Zwickel, T., Eickemeier, P., Hansen, G., Schlömer, S., von Stechow, C. (eds)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 1075 pp, 2011. Jahangir Khan et al., An Assessment of Variable Characteristics of the Pacific Northwest Region’s Wave and Tidal Current Power Resources and their Interaction with Electricity Demand & Implications for Large Scale Development Scenarios for the Region - Phase 1; Report No: 17458-21-00 (Rep 3), PowerTech, British Columbia, Canada V3W 7R7. JRC Scientific and Technical Reports. 2011 Technology Map of the European Strategic Energy Technology Plan (SET-Plan). Technology Descriptions. JRC 67097. EUR 24979 EN. ISBN 97892-79-21630-5 ISSN 1018-5593. Lewis, A., Estefen, S., Huckerby, J., Musial, W., Pontes, T., Torres-Martinez, J., Ocean Energy. In IPCC Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation [Edenhofer, O., Pichs-Madruga, R., Sokona, Y., Seyboth, K., Matschoss, P., Kadner, S., Zwickel, T., Eickemeier, P., Hansen, G., Schlömer, S., von Stechow, C. (eds)], Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 2011. Ocean Energy Systems (OES), IEA Technology Initiative, Annual Report 2011, Implementing Agreement on Ocean Energy Systems, 2011. Ocean Energy Systems (OES), IEA Technology Initiative, An International Vision for Ocean Energy, 2012. ORECCA European Offshore Renewable Energy Roadmap, ORECCA Coordinated Action Project, September 2011. Paish, M., Can 1MW Tidal Systems compete with Off-shore wind? An analysis of the opportunities and challenges associated with scaling up, 4th International Conference on Ocean Energy, 17 October 2012, Dublin. Previsic M., Epler, J., Hand, M., Heimiller, D., Short, W., Eurek K., The Future Potential of Wave Energy in the United States, 4th International Conference on Ocean Energy, 17 October 2013, Dublin. SI Ocean-Strategic Initiative for ocean energy, Ocean Energy: State of the Art, December 2012.
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List of Acronyms AC CAES CZM DC EC EERA EMEC EMF ERA ERKC EU EU-OEA FP7 FEM GEM GHG GW(h) HVDC IPCC kW (h) LCA MCT MSP MW (h) NREAP O&M OECD OEDU OES OTEC OWC R&D RD&D SET-Plan SETIS TW (h) WEO
Alternating Current Compressed Air Energy Storage Coastal Zone Management Direct Current European Commission European Energy Research Alliance The European Marine Energy Centre Electromagnetic Field European Research Area Energy Research Knowledge Centre European Union European Ocean Energy Association Seventh Framework Programme France Energies Marines Generatore Elettrico Marino (Marine Electrical Generator) Greenhouse Gas Giga Watt (hours) High Voltage Direct Current Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Kilo Watt (hours) Life Cycle Assessment Marine Current Turbines Marine Spatial Planning Mega Watt (hours) National Renewable Energy Action Plans Operation and Maintenance Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development Ocean Energy Development Unit Ocean Energy System Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Oscillating Water Column Research Development Research Development and Demonstration Strategic Energy Technology Plan Strategic Energy Technologies Information System Terawatt hours (hours) World Energy Outlook
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Ocean energy is emerging as an alternative energy source which may contribute to the EU 2020 strategic goals and, from 2020 onwards, to the EU objectives for 2050. This policy brochure aims to promote awareness of ocean technologies and their potential. It highlights the current status of ocean energy research for the different technology groups and draws attention to the main knowledge gaps and research needs.
