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Contents
Sl. No.
Title of the Article
Author / s
Page No.
Vocational Education / Training: Reduce the Fissure between the Education and Entrepreneur
P. Viswanadha Gupta
5
1
2
Right to Education in India: A Need for Economic Development
13
3
Saakshar Bharat Programme: Glimpses of Islands of Success
N. Santosh Ranganath G. Tulasi Rao P. Viswanadha Gupta B.S. Vasudeva Rao
4
Inclusive Education in India: Perspectives and Prospects
Deepa Antony M.A. Sudhir
45
Vocational Skill Development Programmes in Saakshra BharatAn experiment in A.P
B. Krishna Reddy G.Srilatha
59
5 6
Lifelong Learning : Ideology and Challenges
Satish Shirsath
67
7
Attitude of School Teachers towards Sex Education
Siva Murugan
74
A Study of Literacy and Life Skills Rajesh Biresh Pachisia Building among Female Sex Workers in Delhi
88
8 9
ICT in Adult Literacy Programmes
B. Krishna Reddy
98
Continuing Education Programme In Visakhapatnam District: A Study Of Differential Impact
G. Srinivasa Rao P. Viswanadha Gupta
117
10 11
Rural India: Gandhian Approach
M.V.S.S.Prakasa Rao
138
12
Impact of Sustainable Agricultural Practices on Rural Development
S.V.Lakshmana Rao N.Appala Raju
152
13
Impact of Rural Credit Cooperative K. Sivachithappa Societies on Upliftment of Weaker Sections – A Case Study of Hassan District
28
Siva Kumar
1
161
Sl. No.
Title of the Article
Author / s
Page No.
S. Alamelumangai
186
14
Awareness of Health and Sanitation Aspects among Rural and Urban People in Tiruchirappalli District
15
Literacy is the tool for changing the N.Kalpana Kumari life-pattern women from Violence
201
16
Saakshra Bharat-Life Long Learning
B. Krishna Reddy
206
Rajesh
214
17
Role of Saakshar Bharat 2012 under Lifelong Learning & Extension of the University System: A study
T. Venkatachalaiah
223
18
Livelihood Security and SocioEconomic Empowerment of Women Through Micro Finance – A Case Study in Tumkur District
Navdeep Kumar Gandotra
240
19
Panchayati Raj Institutions and Saakshar Bharat – An Appraisal in the Context of Empowering Rural India
D. Sivakumar N. Arunachalam
251
20
Relationship Between Multiple Intelligence and Achievement in Science among High School Students
Amruth G. Kumar
266
21
Class Room Practices at High School Level Equivalency Classes in Kerala: A Qualitative Analysis Based on Adult Educators Views
22
Environmental Imbalance - A Global Problem
Rakesh A Joshi Falguni Vyas
283
Impact of the Adult Education Programmes on Cretin Aspects of the Functionality Particulars
G. Srinivasa Rao
291
23
2
Rama
PREFACE A nation that is literate is one where its citizens are empowered to ask questions, seek information, take decisions, have equal access to education, health, livelihood, and all public institutions, participate in shaping ones realities, create knowledge, and exercise agency fearlessly and as a consequence deepen democracy. Systems are to be in place to build a nation that builds citizenship, which is truly informed and literate and in the process the content of governance, development and democracy is vitalised. To meet this challenging task the practice and policy must always be informed by the voices of the learners themselves and the challenges they face in accessing literacy, information and knowledge. This would necessarily entail respecting the poor, their capacity to think for themselves and providing for local institutions and structures that facilitates their participation in a genuine fashion and not as tokenism. Such an institutional framework would undoubtedly throw up new ideas and this would have to be supported by availability of resources and greater investment in education. Recent World Bank work identifies important emerging and powerful dynamics that affect the ways knowledge and skills contribute to development. In particular, national and regional economies expecting to rely on knowledge-based sectors and activities and to meet the increased competition partly arising through technological advances will need to establish or reinforce institutions and structures that encourage and enable citizens to acquire the needed competences and skills. Lifelong learning has been advanced as a concept that can provide the framework for appropriate policies to boost needed workforce skills and competences, and not just in the developed economies. Why lifelong learning? First, if citizens are to meet rapidly changing needs, they will be obliged to undertake a continuous updating and adaptation of their skills and knowledge. From this angle, “opportunities for lifelong learning throughout one’s lifetime are becoming increasingly critical for countries to be competitive in the global knowledge economy.” Second, it is neither feasible nor effective to conceive of full provision of the needed learning through public formal education and training programs and structures. Indeed, the uneven evidence on and experiences with responses from such programs to the emerging demands for learning has attracted interest to lifelong learning as a promising framework to guide policy development. Here, a lifelong learning orientation is understood to encompass learning activities and engagement not only over the life cycle but also in different
3
learning environments i.e. formal, non-formal and informal; public and private. In its broadest terms, a lifelong learning approach calls for a sweeping shift in policy orientation, from schools / colleges and programs to learners and learning. More than recurrent education or non-formal education and training for citizens, lifelong learning is now widely understood to mean learning activities and engagement that encompass all learning over the life span. It is the focus on learning, progression, and continuity that marks lifelong learning as a departure from other, sectorbased policy orientations. Lifelong learning seeks to harness a wide range of learning activity – in schools, at enterprises and on individual initiative for the development of needed skills and competences. It directs attention to foundation skills and knowledge – variously termed “new basic skills” or “personal competences” to signal basic literacy and generic competences (the latter comprising communication skills, problem-solving skills, the ability to work in teams, ICT skills and learning to learn). Lifelong learning broadly addresses civic and personal interests as well as labour market demands. Our regards to the authors who have been accepted the invitation and contributed papers. I extremely thankful to Publisher for bring out this book in reasonable time. I thank all those who have helped us directly and indirectly to bring out this volume. P. Viswanadha Gupta
4
Chapter – 1 Vocational Education / Training: Reduce the Fissure between the Education and Entrepreneur Dr. P. Viswanadha Gupta Assistant Professor, Department of Adult, Continuing Education and Extension, University of Pune, Pune, Maharashtra – 411 007. E-mail:
[email protected],
[email protected]
Abstract The aim of the paper to understandings to bridge the gap between employment opportunities and the vocational skills and knowledge base of the unemployed youth in the country and therefore, help them to get suitable employment opportunities. The findings and analyses provide a conceptualization of strategies to upgrade and enhance the relevance of vocational skills training and to improve access to skills. The study presents critical factors include macro-economic policies to maximize opportunities for pro-poor employment growth, an enabling environment for sustainable enterprise development, social dialogue and fundamental investments in basic education. Improving people’s skills is a real ‘win, win’ for all – for the economy, for society, for employers and, of course, for individuals themselves. Vocational education is a catchy buzzword that encompasses a variety of educational endeavors that try to promote behavior change among young people.
The concept of Vocational
Education is usually a mix of communication, negotiation and coping skills, which can vary from time management to refusal and assertion skills and so on.
5
Introduction The shortage of appropriately skilled labour across many industries is emerging as significant and complex challenge to India's economic growth and future. The India's higher education system contributes about 3,50,000 engineers and 2.5 million university graduates annually to our workforce, yet at any given time about 4.5 million graduates remain unemployed. McKinsey Global Institute’s research survey reveals that multinationals having only 25 percent of Indian engineers employable. According to NASSCOM, only 25 percent of technical graduates and 1015 percent of other graduates are considered employable by the rapidly growing IT and ITES segments. The U R Rao Committee has projected that India needs well over 10,000 PhDs and twice as many M.Tech degree holders for meeting its huge research and development needs, but India produce nearly 400 engineering Ph.Ds per year. Hence, what we have today is a growing skills gap reflecting the slim availability of high-quality college education in India. In response the government has been increasing investment in education and training as a proportion of national income. However, the effort has been inadequate to address the direct needs of the corporate sector. Indian Higher Education System In recent past, especially during the last two decades, there has been an increasing awareness about the role and responsibility of education, and with it, a growing concern about the manner in which educational systems were organized and administered. The elementary and secondary education becoming universal in most developed countries, higher education got transformed into a mass education initiative. At present, India has more than 20,000 colleges and just fewer than 20 million students and more than two-thirds of these colleges are 6
classified by the University Grants Commission (UGC) as “Arts, Science, Commerce and Oriental Learning Colleges”. Recent growth is much greater in professional colleges (especially engineering, management and medicine), as well as in private vocational courses catering especially to the IT sector. India produces more lawyers than doctors and nearly 0.7 million students were enrolled in engineering / technology. There has been a rapid expansion in higher education, with student enrollment growing at about 5 percent annually over the past two decades. This growth results increased demand for higher education shown in Table-1 and Table-2 Table-1: Growth of AICTE approved Technical Institutions in last six years Year
Enginee ring
Manage ment
MCA
Phar macy
Arch
HMC T
TOT AL
Added in Years
2006 – 07
1511
1132
1003
665
116
64
4491
171
2007 – 08
1668
1149
1017
854
116
81
4885
394
2008 – 09
2388
1523
1095
1021
116
87
6230
1345
2009 – 10
2972
1940
1169
1081
106
93
7361
1131
2010 – 11
3222
2262
1198
1114
108
100
8004
643
2011 – 12
3393
2385
1228
1137
116
102
8361
357
Table-2: Student Intake for UG/PG/Diploma
2007 – 08
Total UG / PG Student intake 907822
Polytechnics: student intake 417923
Total intake seats 1325745
2008 – 09
1139116
610903
1750019
2009 – 10
1408807
850481
2259288
2010 – 11
1790751
1083365
2874116
2011 – 12
2046611
987929
3034540
Year
7
Strategies to develop skills There is need for proper understanding of the needs / gaps from the perspective of academic institutions and the employers.
We should
identify that a major obstacle to productive dialogue is the lack of proper understanding of each other’s perspectives, roles and needs.
Such
recognition would pave the way for a productive dialogue between the two, leading to a structure of collective representation of interests and a mutual awareness of a common purpose. Employers’ Perspective Academic institutions interaction is currently characterized by problem of skills mismatch between what employer want and what academic institutions can provide. So that the academic institutions must design a strategy for the proper identification of employer’s skills requirements. For a result, oriented dialogue therefore, and on the part of employers, they should do the following:Conduct Gaps Needs Analysis We must find a way to determine the status of current and future skills gaps by organization / division, job category, and demographic segment. This should be a comprehensive skills inventory for employees required over time, from entry-level workers to senior executives and prioritize the most critical skills gaps. Based on the gap need analysis, University and employers could collaborate on :Monitoring of Trends There is the need to adopt a Benchmark Process to track critical indicators of progress over time. Using the results from the needs survey, and other key business development indicators, an annual evaluation of progress (in skill gaps) should be conducted. Such a “progress report card” 8
will assist both employers and academic institutions in their efforts to make continual improvements to the development of highly skilled labour force. Academic Institutions Perspective The academic institutions may argue about the difficulty of businesses identifying and articulating their requirements / needs, and that frequent changes in business strategy may mean that there is little consistency to businesses’ stated skill needs.
Many businesses /
employers, on the other hand, may not be familiar with and, hence, are not utilizing workforce development programs and services, which are supposed to be available in the academic institutions. This disconnect has remained a major source of gaps in interaction between academic institutions and employers.
To bridge this gap therefore, academic
institutions must consider creating a resource guide for employees, analyse current capacity relative to the needs of employers and outline key workforce programs and services. Ensure curriculum adaptations move as fast as the pace of Industry change: Universities and educational institutions have been unable to update their syllabi in tune with the high speed changes taking place in the world of technology. Hence, the students churned out are not equipped to meet the current industry requirements and often companies have to incur additional expenses (time and monetary) to train new hires. Besides the technology aspect industries also evaluate competencies ranging soft skills, team building, overall attitude, and values ICT literacy: Literacy in ICT must become an imperative of the educational process and integrated into the curriculum at all levels of studies to match the challenges and opportunities before us. Our objective must be to empower Indian citizens with the IT skills they need for life9
long learning, both in the workplace and in private life. Our citizens must have the technical skills, confidence, and flexibility they need to adapt over the course of their lifetimes. Industry’s needs: The drivers for adoption of a productive dialogue with industry / working partnership with industry on skill development in relation to the curriculum include knowing the industry’s skills requirements. What skills make graduate more employable? (These may include, for example, analytical skills, methodological knowledge and skills, communication and presentation skills, management skills, interpersonal relations skills, computer science skills, inter-disciplinary skills and knowledge, social skills, creative thinking, problem-solving etc.) Employability of Graduates: In order to overcome persistent mismatches between graduate qualifications and the needs of the labour market, university programmes should be structured to enhance directly the employability of graduates and to offer broad support to the workforce more generally. Skills are portable if the skills acquired are transferable and can be used productively in different jobs, enterprises, both in the informal and formal economy.
Emphasis should be placed on
entrepreneurship development to make our graduates well equipped for self employment, innovation and creativeness. Work Ethics: An instructive lesson learnt from the current global meltdown is the role of education. While the key perpetuators of the crisis had the education (many are educated at elite universities) they however lack that single, most crucial ingredient of business skills: work ethics. Adult education: A key incentive in terms of serving students / workers is the possibility of creating ladders of opportunity especially for mature students through access to education. It also entails offering non-degree courses for adults, enabling them to bridge their skill. In this regard, more 10
innovative learning approaches can be possible to adopt through lifelong learning departments in the Universities Various studies, research and discussions between leading industry and academic institutions, have arrived at the following areas the institutions need to focus on 1. Educational Reform/Curriculum 2. Develop joint Academic – Industry Degree Models 3. Build up relationship with industry and career advisors 4. Tailor make education for the unemployed in shortage areas, for Small and Medium size Enterprises (SMEs) 5. Collaborate to develop “Learning Models” 6. Development of research based teaching material 7. Alumni networking and developing broad based relationships 8. Mutually enabling processes for capacity building of the faculty, students and the companies Conclusion It is high time now for us to reboot the India education system and joint initiatives by the industry and academia will play an important part in plugging the talent gap in the years to come. Training individuals for the jobs of the future and allowing them to visualise what it possible today will not only make a difference in their lives but will enrich our communities now and for the future.
11
References Ahmad N and Siddiqui (2006) Empowerment of socio-Economically weaker sections through education: commitments and challenges, University News, Vol. 44, No. 37. Bhosle S (2009) Education for Empowerment and Development of Women, University News, Vol. 47. Janaki D (2006) Empowerment of women through Education: 150 years of University Education in India, University News, Vol 44 (48). National Policy of education (1986) Ministry of Human Resource Development, Govt. of India, New Delhi. S. Venkataiah (2001) Women Education, New Delhi Anmol Publications. Sheela Gulati (2006) Women Education in 21st Century , New Delhi, ABD Publications. V S Ganesamurthy (2008) Empowerment of Women in India: Social, Economic and Political, New Delhi, New Century publications.
12
Chapter – 2 Right to Education in India: A need for Economic Development N. Santosh Ranganath Faculty Member And Dr. G. Tulasi Rao Professor Dept. of Commerce and Management Studies Dr. B.R. Ambedkar University Srikakulam, Andhra Pradesh – 532410 Abstract Education is viewed as an integral part of national development. Development is not only ‘economic growth’; rather, it ‘comprehended opportunities to all people for better life’ with ‘man as end of development and instrument’. Education and development are linked in a variety of ways. First, education, as stated earlier, is a human right, the exercise of which is essential for individual development and fulfillment. The capacity of an individual to contribute to societal development is made possible and enhanced by his or her development as an individual. In this light, education is also a basic need. It is also a means by which other needs, both collective and individual, are realized.
Thus, education is the
instrument by which the skills and productive capacities are developed and endowed. All these interrelationships of education and development are inseparable from the conception of educational policies. It is in the second order of ‘action’ that problems arise. The problems of illiteracy will not solve by itself in the flux of time.
Without organized literacy action,
illiteracy will continue to stagnate indefinitely along with the associated ills of poverty and underdevelopment. In the light this paper discussed, Literacy and Right Education have overlapping connotations both as an engine of socio-economic progress as well as for individual growth. 13
Keywords: Literacy Rate, Human Right, Foreign Direct Investment, Poverty Eradication. Introduction: Education in India has a history stretching back to the ancient urban centers of learning at Taxila and Nalanda. The Nalanda University was the oldest university-system of education in the world. Western education became ingrained into Indian society with the establishment of the British Raj. Education in India falls under the control of both the Union Government and the states, with some responsibilities lying with the Union and the states having autonomy for others. The various articles of the Indian Constitution provide for education as a fundamental right. Most universities in India are Union or State Government controlled. India has made a huge progress in terms of increasing primary education attendance rate and expanding literacy to approximately two thirds of the population. India's improved education system is often cited as one of the main contributors to the economic rise of India. Much of the progress in education has been credited to various private institutions. The private education market in India is estimated to be worth $40 billion in 2008 and will increase to $68 billion by 2012. However, India continues to face challenges. Despite growing investment in education, 35% of the population is illiterate and only 15% of the students reach high school. Primary education is the foundation on which the development of every citizen and the nation as a whole built on. In recent past, India has made a huge progress in terms of increasing primary education enrolment, retention, regular attendance rate and expanding literacy to approximately two thirds of the population. India’s improved education system is often cited as one of the main contributors to the economic development of
14
India. At the same time, the quality of elementary education in India has also been a major concern. Free and compulsory education to all children up to the age fourteen is constitutional commitment in India. The Parliament of India has recently passed Right to Education Act through which education has become fundamental right of all children of age group 6-14 years. The country is yet to achieve the elusive goal of Universalisation of Elementary education (UEE), which means 100 percent enrolment and retention of children with schooling facilities in all habitations. It is to fill this gap that the Government has launched the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan in 2001, one of the largest such programmes in the world. In this era of information technology, ICT is playing commendable role to bridge the gap between haves and have not’s in the education system, particularly in rural India. The primary education vertical of India Development Gateway is an attempt to empower the children and teachers by providing ample resource materials to archive the goal of Universalization of Elementary Education in India. Enhancing Human Rights through Education The contribution of human rights in unifying fragmented sectoral strategies is exemplified in subsuming education under social rather than economic development, as has been done with international development goals.This conflicts with the priority accorded education in the elimination of poverty. Education as an economic right necessitates the adaptation of schooling to facilitating subsequent economic self-sufficiency through employment or self-employment. Integrating economic, social, cultural and political facets of education is facilitated by the indivisibility and interrelatedness of human rights. Hence, such an integrated approach
15
facilitates adapting education to key contemporary challenges, including suppression of terrorism and prevention of violence.
With the benefit of hindsight, it is easy to highlight the main features of the collapsed model of schooling, which defined education as the springboard to guaranteed employment in the civil service. The whole educational pyramid could be designed according to this model as long as the Government was the principal employer. The language of instruction was the official language of the country, primary schooling was merely a preparatory stage for further education, the right to work was defined as access to a public-sector, often lifelong, job. The collapse of that model created phenomena such as graduate unemployment, or - worse - the abandonment of schooling, which visibly and painfully testifies to the need for adaptability of education. Available evidence indicates that the key to reducing poverty is secondary rather than primary education. The Republic of Korea, often cited as the model for the economic rationale behind its investment in education, has found that secondary education had the crucial relationship with economic growth. The South African Human Rights Commission has objected to eight years of schooling defined as basic education deeming it acceptable under the current fiscal constraints, but urging the Government to extend it to 10 years. The United Nations Economic Commission for 16
Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) has found that young people have to complete secondary education to achieve an 80 per cent probability of avoiding poverty, and its subsequent research has confirmed that between 72 and 96 per cent of families where the parents have less than nine years of education live in poverty. There is more heat than light in the current debates about vocationalizing primary education, with some advocating this approach as a way of making education relevant and others opposing the addition of vocational purposes and contents to formal schooling. Experiences with the implementation of the governmental obligation to provide education for children rescued from intolerable forms of child labour are generating necessary empirical evidence as to what works, how and why, thus providing valuable input for much-needed legal reforms at all levels, from global to local. Right to education in India The Right to Education Act has finally become a reality, and guarantees every Indian child the most basic fundamental right… the right to education. The Act — with its latest amendment — that became operational, guarantees every child in the 6-14 age group both free and compulsory education. While under the latest legislation government schools will continue to provide free education to all children, private schools will have to set aside at least 25 per cent seats for poor students free of cost. A National Commission for Elementary Education will be constituted to monitor all aspects of elementary education, including quality. As expected, there has been a furore from private schools, particularly the elitist ones, which are protesting at the extra financial burden on them. Of course, the Education Minister, Mr Kapil Sibal, has 17
assured these schools that what the government spends now on the elementary education of each child will be made available to them. But this is obviously peanuts for those schools that charge tens of thousands of rupees as annual fee. There is little doubt that today, the poorest of poor in India aspire for some kind of quality education for their children. That is why private schools have mushroomed not only in the outskirts of cities but also in the larger villages, particularly in southern and western India. The right to education is recognized as a human right by the United Nations and is understood to establish an entitlement to free, compulsory primary education for all children, an obligation to develop secondary education accessible to all children, as well as equitable access to higher education, and a responsibility to provide basic education for individuals who have not completed primary education. India joins the list of few countries where Right to Education is a fundamental right. The Act promises to ensure education for all children between 6 and 14, a whopping 22 crore children, out of which nearly 1.1 crore are out of school and the act makes it obligatory for the appropriate governments to ensure that every child gets free elementary education. The Act mandates that even private educational institutions have to reserve 25 per cent seats for children from weaker sections. The Finance Commission has provided Rs 25,000 crore to the states for implementation of the Act. Main features of Right to Education 2009 act The salient features of the Right of Children for Free and Compulsory Education act are – • Free and compulsory education to all children of India in the six to 14 age group; • No child shall be held back, expelled, or required to pass a board examination until completion of elementary education; 18
• A child above six years of age has not been admitted in any school or though admitted, could not complete his or her elementary education, then, he or she shall be admitted in a class appropriate to his or her age; Provided that where a child is directly admitted in a class appropriate to his or her age, then, he or she shall, in order to be at par with others, have a right to receive special training, in such manner, and within such timelimits, as may be prescribed: Provided further that a child so admitted to elementary education shall be entitled to free education till completion of elementary education even after fourteen years. • Proof of age for admission: For the purposes of admission to elementary education. The age of a child shall be determined on the basis of the birth certificate issued in accordance with the provisions of the Births. Deaths and Marriages Registration Act, 1856 or on the basis of such other document, as may be prescribed. No child shall be denied admission in a school for lack of age proof • A child who completes elementary education shall be awarded a certificate; • Calls for a fixed student-teacher ratio; • Will apply to all of India except Jammu and Kashmir; • Provides for 25 percent reservation for economically disadvantaged communities in admission to Class One in all private schools; • Mandates improvement in quality of education; • School teachers will need adequate professional degree within five years or else will lose job; • School infrastructure (where there is problem) to be improved in three years, else recognition cancelled;
19
• Financial burden will be shared between state and central government Right to Education and Poverty Eradication The two focal points of international financial support for education at the beginning of the new millennium are human rights and poverty eradication. Neither of the two is new but the linkage between them is novel. Clearly and powerfully articulated human rights - both in education and in poverty eradication - are necessary in order to prevent the current focus on poverty from lowering the goals of international development cooperation. Cynics could discern lowered ambitions in the shift from development to poverty eradication, from education to basic education, and from education as a public good to education as a tool for poverty eradication. The definition of education in international human rights law is therefore a necessary safeguard - it spans the right to education, human rights in education, and human rights education. Without education, people are impeded from access to employment. Lower educational accomplishment routinely prejudices their career advancement. Lower salaries negatively affect their old-age security. Denial of the right to education triggers exclusion from the labour market and marginalization into some form of informal sector, accompanied by exclusion from social security schemes because of the prior exclusion from the labour market. Redressing the existing imbalance in life chances without the full recognition of the right to education is thus impossible. Moreover, illiterate people in quite a few countries are precluded from political representation. There is thus a large number of human rights problems which cannot be solved unless the right to education is addressed as the key to unlocking other human rights.
20
Constitutional guarantees of free and compulsory education for all children Countries where free and compulsory education for all is constitutionally guaranteed: Albania,
Algeria,
Countries with progressive realization or partial guarantees:
Argentina, Bangladesh,
Australia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Bhutan, Barbados,
Belarus,
Cameroon,
Benin, Comoros,
Belize, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, India, Iran
Belgium,
Bolivia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, (Islamic Republic of), Iraq, Israel, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Cape Maldives, Micronesia (Federated Verde, Chile, China, Colombia, States of), Monaco, Mongolia, Congo,
Costa
Rica,
Croatia, Myanmar,
Namibia,
Nepal,
Cuba, Denmark, Ecuador, Egypt, Nigeria, Pakistan, Saint Kitts and Estonia, Gambia,
Finland,
France, Nevis, Sierra Leone, Sudan, Togo,
Georgia,
Germany, Uganda,
United
Republic
Ghana, Haiti, Honduras, Iceland, Tanzania, Uzbekistan, Zimbabwe Ireland,
Italy,
Japan,
Liechtenstein,
Latvia,
Lithuania,
Madagascar, Malta, Mauritius, Mexico, Netherlands, Norway, Palau, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Republic of Korea, Republic of Moldova, Romania,
Russian
Federation,
Rwanda, Saudi Arabia, South Africa,
Spain,
Sri
Lanka,
Suriname, Sweden, Switzerland, Tajikistan, Thailand, the former
21
of
Yugoslav
Republic
of
Macedonia,
Trinidad
and
Tobago, Tunisia, Ukraine, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland,
Uruguay,
Venezuela,
Yugoslavia Countries where guarantees are restricted
Countries with no constitutional guarantee:
to citizens or residents: Armenia,
Bahrain,
Cambodia, Angola, Antigua and Barbuda,
Chad, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Bahamas,
Botswana,
Democratic People’s Republic of Darussalam,
Burkina
Brunei Faso,
Korea, Dominican Republic, El Burundi, Central African Republic, Salvador, Greece, Guyana,
Equatorial Grenada,
Guinea, Côte d’Ivoire, Djibouti, Dominica,
Guatemala, Eritrea,
Hungary,
Ethiopia,
Jordan, Indonesia,
Fiji,
Jamaica,
Gabon, Kenya,
Kazakhstan, Kuwait, Kyrgyzstan, Kiribati, Lao People’s Democratic Libyan
Arab
Luxembourg, Morocco,
Jamahiriya, Republic,
Malawi, New
Lebanon,
Lesotho,
Mali, Liberia, Malaysia, Marshall Islands, Zealand, Mauritania, Mozambique, Nauru,
Nicaragua, Philippines, Qatar, Niger, Oman, Papua New Guinea, Sao
Tome
and
Principe, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the
Seychelles, Slovakia, Slovenia, Grenadines, Samoa, San Marino, Syrian Arab Republic, Turkey, Senegal, Turkmenistan, Vietnam, Yemen
Singapore,
Solomon
Islands, Swaziland, Tonga, Tuvalu, United States of America, Vanuatu, Zambia
22
Source: Economic and Social Council Annual report on the right to education The forthcoming public access human rights resource and training service on the right to education has been founded upon the recommendation of the Commission on Human Rights for advancing human rights education. The vast amount of background information which is needed to depict the international legal framework for the right to education, such as ratifications, reservations, reporting procedures, or access to international remedies, is best made available through a database. Domestic constitutional guarantees relating to the right to education, as well as provisions on direct applicability of international human rights treaties, constitute the complementary part of such background information. Domestic education laws, strategies and policies are too numerous to be collected into an easy-to-use database. Moreover, the human rights approach requires a focus on the substantive guarantees and procedural mechanisms for securing remedies when these guarantees are breached. Right to Education and India’s Economic Development India’s economic growth rate is running very fast most of the macro indicators look positive. Such as (GDP) Gross Domestic Product is approaching to 10 percent, Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) is increased a record high, capital market is also moving to upward direction. Real estate demand for flats and land shows growing fast at high rate. Demand for car is also increasing from rich class. All this shows that people’s purchasing power has been increased. But this only half side story the other side shows us that, 26 percent people are living below the poverty line and near about 50 percent people are just struggling to survive on poverty line. Therefore, it is clear that only 24 percent people are sharing the national economic growth. 23
Education play very important role in the processes of development. It is considered education as most powerful agent for bringing about desired changes in society and it is a prerequisite for organized effort for launching any social movement in the modern times. Education was an instrument to liberate the masses from illiteracy, ignorance and superstitious and thus enable them to fight against all form of injustice, exploitation and oppression. Therefore, the highest priority to education is struggle for the liberation of economically poor from the age old oppressive character of the Indian society. The Fathers of the Constitution of India decided that education should be available free of charge and that attendance in schools should be compulsory for all children up to the age of 14 years as incorporated in Article 45 of the Directive Principles of State policy. This provision in Article 45 of the Directive principles of State policy reinforces Article 24 which reads “no child below the age of 14 years shall be employed to work in any factory mine or engaged in any hazardous employment. The Constitution also directs that children cannot be abused or forced to work and to enter avocations unsuited to their age or strength” through article 39(e) and (f). All the above provision indicates a clear commitment to giving Indian children in this freedom and dignity and recognizing their essential contribution to building a democratic nation. However, the proportion of public outlays that goes to finance the education sector is indicative of relative importance assigned to the sector. While these figures are indicative of the relative lack of public commitment to developing the education system, education is being increasingly looked on as a ‘market’ for major national and multi-national corporations. Where, immense profits are to be made instead of public service. Social investments are required for sustained economic growth. In China public spending on
24
education is 2.3 percent of GDP while that on health is 2.1 percent GDP. The outcomes for human development are clear. Literacy stands at 84 percent, infant mortality rate at 32 per 1000 live births and under five mortality rates at 40 per 1000 live births. India, in contrast, has traditionally had lower spending levels. Health spending stands at 1.3 percent of GDP (Central and States Governments combined). Spending on education has increased significantly, from 0.8 percent of GDP in 1950 to 3.2 percent in 2003, though it still falls short of the government target of 6 percent of GDP. Human development indicators for India remain much lower than for China. Literacy stands at 65 percent, infant mortality at 68 per 1000 live birth, and under five mortality rates at 96 per 1000 live births. It was clear, he argued, that the British government was running India in the interest of British manufacturers. After independence it was told by the authorities at that time that Indian Government will spend more money eradication poverty, education to all and health facilities at low cost or free to the poor, employment generation and number of other promises were given to Indian people. Conclusions and Recommendations The right to education has an initial period of three years within its general effort to impart higher visibility to economic, social and cultural rights. The remedial action, aiming at a gradual elimination of disadvantages affecting economic, social and cultural rights, has itself faced many obstacles. Education is increasingly defined as the key to development and the right to education as the key to the enjoyment of many other human rights. The complexity of economic and social rights is evidenced in the necessity of addressing obstacles at the global, not only the domestic level. The right to education requires close cooperation between, at least, educators and educationalists, economists and human 25
rights lawyers so as to make the mainstreaming of human rights in education strategies at all levels - from local to global - effectively reflect all its necessary components. The multi-disciplinarily of human rights work requires close collaboration between different professions with each contributing its own expertise. During economic recessions, the importance of human rights work increases, in spite of greater challenges. Globalization, much discussed in theory, has in practice demonstrated its harmful effects by globalizing the cyclical slowdown of the economy that began in the second half of 2K. It is at a time of economic crisis that human rights guarantees become crucial, precisely when they are under the greatest strain. The association between the Great Depression and the subsequent affirmation of economic and social rights in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights is well known and worth recalling at this juncture. Raising the global priority of education necessitates ranking its long-term benefits over short-term priorities. The human rights perspective enables the connection of issues that tend to be treated in isolation within a comprehensive legal framework that applies both domestically and internationally. The integrated conceptual framework which the human rights approach entails facilitates cross-sectoral linkages whereby education can be adapted to the goals of poverty eradication, gender equality, or the prevention of terrorism and violence which leads to nation’s economic development.
26
References: Bailey, J., & du Plessis, D. (1997), Understanding principals' attitudes towards inclusive schooling, Journal of Educational Administration, 35(5), 428-438. Blackwell, Fritz (2004), India: A Global Studies Handbook, United States of America: ABC-CLIO, Inc., ISBN 1-57607-348-3. Carrington, S. (1999), Inclusion needs a different school culture. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 3(3), 257-268. Elder, Joseph W. (2006), "Caste System", Encyclopedia of India (vol. 1) edited by Stanley Wolpert, 223-229, Thomson Gale: ISBN 0-684-31350-2. India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition), New Delhi: Additional Director General (ADG), Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, ISBN 978-81-230-1557-6. Prabhu, Joseph (2006), "Educational Institutions and Philosophies, Traditional and Modern", Encyclopedia of India (vol. 2) edited by Stanley Wolpert, 23–28, Thomson Gale: ISBN 0-684-31351-0. Raman, S.A. (2009). "Women's Education", Encyclopedia of India (vol. 4), edited by Stanley Wolpert, 235-239, Thomson Gale: ISBN 0-684-31353-7. Robertson, C. (1999). Initial teacher education and inclusive schooling. Support for Learning, 14 (4), 169-173. Setty, E.D. and Ross, E.L. (2007), "A Case Study in Applied Education in Rural India", Community Development Journal, 22 (2): 120–129. Sripati, V. and Thiruvengadam, A.K. (2004), "India: Constitutional Amendment Making The Right to Education a Fundamental Right", International Journal of Constitutional Law, 2 (1): 148–158. Suri R.K. and Kalapana Rajaram (2008), "Infrastructure: S&T Education", Science and Technology in India edited by, New Delhi: Spectrum, ISBN 81-7930-294-6. Vrat, Prem (2006), "Indian Institutes of Technology", Encyclopedia of India (vol. 2) edited by Stanley Wolpert, 229-231, Thomson Gale: ISBN 0684-31351-0. Winzer, M., Altieri, E., & Larsson, V. (2008), Portfolios as a Tool for Attitude Change, Rural Special Education Quarterly, 19(3/4), p72.
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Chapter – 3 Saakshar Bharat Programme: Glimpses of Islands of Success Dr. P. Viswanadha Gupta Assistant Professor, Department of Adult, Continuing Education and Extension, University of Pune, Pune, Maharashtra – 411 007. E-mail:
[email protected],
[email protected] Prof. B.S. Vasudeva Rao Principal Investigator, UGC- Major Research Project, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Introduction Education is a social institution, which prepares a person for certain roles in the society. Literacy is basic tool for acquisition of education. Society has evolved different systems for transmission of education or knowledge (stored experiences) e.g. formal education system, non-formal education system and informal education system. Literacy programme comes under the umbrella of non-formal education system, wherein all those persons are covered who could not acquire formal education due to different reasons in their early age. This is a flexible system of education based on needs, interests and time available with the target population. In fact, acquisition of education or literacy enhances self-esteem, general well being, sustainable livelihood and empowerment of a person. Literacy, in particular, enables women to become aware of their societal and legal rights, acquire a decisive role in the family and society and be active partners in the process of development and social change. National Literacy Mission was launched in 5th May 1988 following the provisions made in National Education Policy 1986. The goal of mission is to impart functional literacy to all those persons who are
28
deprived of reading and writing skills particularly persons belonging to socially disadvantaged groups like SC/ST, women, minority group etc. Goals of Mission Achieving 80 percent literacy by 2012 and reducing, the gender gap in literacy by 10 percent during the same period has been set as National Literacy Goals (NLG) by the Planning Commission of India. The NLGs are in consonance with EFA Goals (Education For All), which require achieving a 50 percent improvement in levels of adult literacy by 2015, especially for women, and equitable access to the basic and continuing education for all adults. Achieving the NLGs would involve 88 million adult learners out of which 70 million will be women. In addition, the 126.64 million neoliterates and other literate persons are to be provided continued and lifelong learning opportunities. The challenge now is to devise a strategy that would meet specific learning needs of women and persons belonging to Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Other Backward Classes, Minorities and different disadvantaged groups especially in rural areas. Objectives of the Mission ¾ Impart functional literacy to illiterate and semi literate adults especially women. ¾ Create learning environment, which promotes use of literacy practices to prevent relapse into illiteracy. ¾ To provide opportunities for acquiring equivalency to formal educational system. ¾ Impart skill development training for sustainable livelihoods.
29
¾ To provide opportunities for continuing education and lifelong learning. Saakshar Bharat Saakshar Bharat Programme is one of the 18 Flagship Programmes of Government of India, which is launched by the Prime Minister of India on the International Literacy Day, 8th September, 2009. The main aim of Programme is to promote and strengthen Adult Education. The cliental of the programme is specially of women, extending educational options to those adults, who having lost the opportunity of access to formal education and crossed the standard age for receiving such education, now feel a need for learning of any type including literacy, basic education (equivalency to formal education), vocational education (skill development) physical and emotional development, practical arts, applied science, sports, and recreation. Saakshar Bharat covers all adults in the age group of 15 and above. The scheme has not only been relieved of the shortcomings noted in its preceding editions, but also, several new features added to it. Basic Literacy, Post literacy and Continuing Education programmes, will now form a continuum, rather than sequential segments. Besides, the volunteer based mass campaign approach, provision made for alternative approaches to adult education. Adult Education Centres are set up to coordinate and manage all programmes within their territorial jurisdiction. State Government, as against the districts in the earlier versions, and Panchyati Raj institutions along with communities, will be valued stakeholders. For the success implementation of the programme, islands of success has been created with following aspects.
30
Background of Islands of Success State resource centres (SRCs) have been setup by Central Government in different states. Presently there are 28 SRCs, which are covering all the States and Union Territories. SRCs are required to provide technical resource support to State Literacy Mission Authorities (State Literacy Mission Authority) in the implementation of Saakshar Bharat Programme. In addition to providing Technical Resource Support in the state / area allocated, State Resource Centres have been assigned the responsibility of adopting some Blocks (all GPs in the block) in different districts of the concerned state. SRCs are required to intensively monitor the
implementation
Blocks/Districts.
of
Saakshar
Bharat
Programme
in
those
The purpose is to provide support to SLMAs in
improving the functioning of the programme in those Blocks by resolving different problems / difficulties in the implementation of the programme through regular visits of their Resource Persons and Faculty. Make these adopted blocks / districts Islands of Success. Following function are
expected to be Islands of Success of
Saakshar Bharat. Achievement in respect of Targets ` Constitution of Management Committees ` Opening of Bank Accounts ` Authorization of Funds ` Survey ` Setting up of Adult Education Centres ` Engagement of Stakeholders ` Training of functionaries ` Starting of Basic Literacy Classes ` Vocational Training
31
` Equivalency Programme ` Short duration life skill courses ` Learner Assessment Test Coverage of Saakshar Bharat and Islands of Success Saakshar Bharat, the revised version of National Literacy Mission is being implemented in a phased manner, since 1st October, 2009. In the first phase (2009-10) 167 districts were covered.
Depending upon the
state of preparedness of various States / UT to implement Saakshar Bharat Programme, 115 additional districts were covered during 2010-11 and 90 districts have been covered during 2011-12. Thus, 372 out of 410 eligible districts falling in 25 States and one UT have been covered so far, under the programme. There is no coverage of remaining 38 districts. For the islands of success, 25 states and one Union Territory i.e. Dadar Nager and Haveli, which is covering 123 districts, 511 blocks and more than fifteen thousand Gram Panchyatis has been taken. Grouping of States For the islands of success, 25 states and one UP were classified into three groups based on their status on critical activities of the implementation of the Saakshar Bharat Programme. It shows that neither best nor forwarded states. Group A States
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Manipur, Uttarakhand
Group B States
West Bengal, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh, Sikkim, Nagaland, Himachal Pradesh.
Group C States
Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Haryana, Punjab, Maharashtra, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir 32
Chhattisgarh,
Constitution of Management Committees India is a democratic country. Democracy is governance of people by the representatives elected by them. Education is the foundation for the strength of democracy. Though a number of literacy campaigns were started, results are not satisfactory as per our expectations. The main reason is lack of people’s cooperation and participation. Whenever there is people’s participation, the programmes are successful and where people are not participating our efforts are becoming futile. To enable the peoples to participate in the matter of Saakshar Bharat Programme, the Government of India has enacted the People’s Participation (constitution of committees at Gram, Block, District Panchayat and State level). Table – 1: Target, Status and Percentage of Achievement of the Constitution of the Management Committees Group
Block
GP
% of Achievement
Target
Status
Target
Status
Block
GP
Group – A
194
188
4994
4833
96.9
96.8
Group – B
211
211
5788
5690
100.0
98.3
Group – C
106
102
4295
3667
96.2
85.4
Grand Total
511
501
15077
14190
98.0
94.1
The above Table – 1 reveals that 501(out of 511) block level committees and 14190 (out of 15077) Gram Panchayat level committees have been constituted and in case of Group – A state’s, 96.9 percent of block level 96.8 percent of GP level committees formation achieved. In case of Group – B state’s all block level committees have been constituted and 98 GP level committees are yet to be constituted. With regard to
33
Group – C states 3.8 percent of block level committees and 14.6 percent of GP level committees are yet to be constituted. Opening of Bank Accounts SLMA is the State implementing agency. Therefore, the entire funds are to be placed at its disposal. It shall be custodian of all the funds. SLMA is responsible for disbursement of funds to Programme Management Unit (PMU) of SLMA, district and sub-district implementing agency. SLMA is having one main account and district, block and GP level having subsidiary accounts. All subsidiary accounts are to be opened at the same branch where main account has been opened. The nodal bank will offer full support and cooperation to get the accounts opened. District Panchayat (DP), Block Panchayat (BP), Gram Panchayat (GP) will have a designated linked branch. Once the subsidiary accounts are opened and cheque drawing officers nominated, the bank will arrange to issue customised cheque books. Cheque books will be customised for SLMA, DP/BP/GP. Table – 2: Target, Status and Percentage of Achievement of the Opening of Bank Accounts Group
Block
GP
% of Achievement
Target
Status
Target
Status
Block
GP
Group – A
194
188
4994
4833
96.9
96.8
Group – B
211
184
5788
4373
87.2
75.6
Group – C
106
90
4295
2623
84.9
61.1
Grand Total
511
462
15077
11829
90.8
78.4
Table – 2 informed that 462 (90.8 %) block level bank accounts and 11829 (78.4%) Gram Panchayat level bank accounts have been opened and in case of Group – A state’s, 96.9 percent of block level, 96.8 percent of GP level bank accounts opened. In case of Group – B state’s 27 block 34
level and 1415 GP level bank accounts are yet to be opened. With regard to Group – C state’s 15.1 percent of block level bank accounts and 38.9 percent of GP level bank accounts are yet to be opened. Authorization of Funds For the utilization of the funds, NLMA will issue bank authorisation for SLMA. SLMA will issue for DP, BP and GP or decentralise it to Districts. Authorisations will be quarter / half yearly. Authorisations will not lapse. However, fresh authorisation will not be issued unless the previous authorisation has been used up to 75%. No application will be required to issue new authorization. SLMA will be duty bound to issue new authorisations based on expenditure. Table – 3: Target, Status and Percentage of Achievement of the Authorization of Funds Group
Block
GP
% of Achievement
Target
Status
Target
Status
Block
GP
Group – A
194
183
4994
3969
94.3
79.5
Group – B
211
162
5788
2879
76.8
49.7
Group – C
106
37
4295
781
34.9
18.2
Grand Total
511
382
15077
7629
74.8
50.6
Number of authorisations shows the Table – 3, 382 (74.8 %) block level and 7629 (50.6 %) GP level authorisations has been made. In case of Group – A state’s 94.3 percent of block level and 79.5 percent of GP level authorisations has been completed. With regard to the Group – B state’s 76.8 percent of block level and 49.7 percent of GP level authorisations has been completed. 39.4 percent of block level and 18.2 percent of GP level authorisations has been completed in case of Group – C states. Household Survey
35
Household Survey is an important activity to collect, compile and analyze data regarding learning needs of illiterates, semi -literates, neoliterates and the community. It is not a one-time activity but number of surveys may be conducted to assess the needs of learners/VTs. Surveys will be conducted to identify resources (human and material resources) of Gram Panchayat (in villages) and how these resources can be utilized in adult education programme also. Prerak should have complete information about status of each family living in the area, organizations, persons and other resources available which will be helpful in doing her/his job efficiently. For carrying out the activities and initiating programmes at Adult Education Centres it will be necessary for the Preraks to have essential and relevant information of the area of their jurisdiction. This can be done through a survey. It will not always be necessary to conduct survey in a formal manner, using a proforma. Usually formal surveys are conducted to collect information about population, educational level and resources available in the field.
Needs, problems and interest of
community may be identified by meeting and discussing with people informally, individually or in groups. After conducting the household survey, the Prerak should compile the data manually. The compilation means to calculate the total number of households, men, women, child, educated, youth and so on. All the survey data should upload into the Saakshar Bharat Web portal. Table – 4: Target, Status and Percentage of Achievement of the Conduction, Compilation and Uploading of Household Survey
Group Group – A
Target (No. of GPs) 4994
Conduction Compilation Uploading of of Household of Household Household Survey Survey Data Survey Data 4798 (96.1) 4798 (96.1) 3621 (72.5) 36
Group – B
5788
5175 (89.4)
4830 (83.4)
787 (13.6)
Group – C
4295
1252 (29.2)
1098 (25.6)
265 (06.2)
Grand Total
15077
11225 (74.5)
10726 (71.1)
4673 (31.0)
Figures in parentheses indicate Percentage of Achievement Above Table – 4 shows that the Target, Status and Percentage of Achievement of the Conduction, Compilation and Uploading of Household Survey, the survey completed in 11225 (74.5 %) GPs. Survey data compiled 10726 (71.1 %) GPs and uploading of data has uploaded in only 4673 (31.0 %). With regard to Group – A state’s the survey completed and complied in 4798 (96.1 %) GPs and uploading of data has uploaded in only 3621 (72.50 %). In case of Group – B state’s the survey completed in 5175 (89.4 %) GPs, survey data compiled 4830 (83.4 %) GPs and uploading of data has uploaded in 787 (13.60 %). For the Group – C state’s 1252 (29.2 %), 1098 (25.6 %) and 265 (6.2 %) of the GPs has conducted the survey, complied the data and uploaded the data respectively. Setting up of Adult Education Centres A Saksharta Kendra (Adult Education Centre) will be set up in each Gram Panchayat to implement all the programmes of the Mission. Two Preraks, engaged on contractual basis, will be responsible for the day-today functioning of the Adult Education Centre. The Preraks, together with the volunteer and resident instructors conducting literacy classes would form the resource team at the Adult Education Centre. Run from buildings assigned by the Panchayat Table – 5: Target, Status and Percentage of Achievement of the conversion of Old CECs into AECs, Setting up of New AECs and Operationalisation of AECs Group
Target
Conversion of Old CECs into AECs 37
Setting up of New AECs
Operationalis ation of AECs
Group – A Group – B Group – C Grand Total
4994 5788 4295 15077
3258 (65.2) 3773 (65.2) 1263 (29.4) 8294 (55.0)
1245 (25.2) 1409 (24.3) 1208 (28.1) 3862 (25.6)
4496 (90.0) 4058 (70.1) 993 (23.1) 9547 (63.3)
Figures in parentheses indicate Percentage of Achievement Above Table – 4 shows that the Target, Status and Percentage of Achievement of the conversion of Old CECs into AECs, Setting up of New AECs and Operationalisation of AECs, the conversation of old CECs into AECs completed in 8294 (55.0 %) GPs, setting new AECs compiled in 3862 (25.6 %) GPs and Operationalisation of AECs has in only 9547 (63.3 %). With regard to Group – A state’s the conversion completed in 3258 (65.2 %) , 1245 (25.2 %) GPs started new AECS and 4496 (90.0 %) of AECs are operationalisation..
In case of Group – B state’s the
conversation of old CECs has completed in 3773 (65.2 %) GPs, 1409 (24.3 %) GPs has started new AECs and operationalisation has in 4058 (70.1 %). For the Group – C state’s 1263 (29.4 %), 1208 (28.1 %) and 993 (23.1 %) of the GPs has completed in conversation of old CECs into AECS, Started new AECs and operationalisation of AECs in the GPs respectively. Engagement of Stakeholders The success or failure of any programme depends upon the personnel associated with the programme at different levels. As discussed earlier the Saakshar Bharat Programme personal include the categories of block coordinators at the block level, Preraks are at the AEC level volunteer teachers at grassroots level. The Saakshar Bharat Programme was conceived for the benefit of the learners and also for the educated of the community member to create aptitude for further education by creating required facilities and environment. In order to facilitate the functioning of the programme, block
coordinators were appointed by the Zilla
Saksharatha Samithi (ZSS) and monitoring the work of Nodal Preraks, 38
Preraks and Assistant Preraks. In other words, all the above i.e. block coordinators, Preraks and volunteer teachers should participate in the programme for attaining the objectives of the programme. Further, they are the right group to reveal the performance of the programme. Table – 6: Target, Status and Percentage of Achievement of the Engagement of Stakeholders Group
Group – A Group – B Group – C Grand Total
Block Coordinators Target Status 186 194 (95.9) 187 211 (88.6) 53 106 (50.0) 426 511 (83.4)
Preraks Target 9988 11576 8590 30154
Status 9630 (96.4) 9711 (83.9) 2709 (31.5) 22050 (73.1)
Volunteer Teachers Target Status 50804 99000 (51.3) 80258 171800 (46.7) 300 71600 (0.4) 123751 342400 (36.1)
Figures in parentheses indicate Percentage of Achievement The Table – 6 shows that the status of the engagement of stakeholders like block coordinators, Preraks and volunteer teachers, 426 (83.4 %) block coordinators, 22050 (73.1 %) Preraks and 123751 (36.1 %) volunteer teachers were appointed. With regard to Group – A state’s 186 (95.9 %) block coordinators, 9630 (96.4 %) Preraks and 50804 (51.3 %) volunteer teachers were engaged, in case of Group – B state’s 187 (88.6 %) block coordinators, 9711 (83.9 %) Preraks and 80258 (46.7 %) volunteer teachers were appointed and in the Group – C state’s 53 (50.0 %) block coordinators, 2709 (31.5 %) Preraks and only 300 (0.4 %) volunteer teachers were appointed Training of Master Trainers, Preraks and Voluntary Teachers Saakshar Bharat Programme states that Volunteers will be given high quality training in local language in Andragogy and pedagogy both in
39
pre-induction as well as during the course of the literacy programme. A cascade model of training will be adopted so that today’s trainees become tomorrow’s trainers. As the key focus of the programme is on women, and other disadvantaged groups, the VTs will be especially sensitized on gender, social and cultural issues. Capacities of Central DAE and SRCs will be developed to ensure high quality training, including in preparation of curriculum, training manuals, training strategies for training of trainers, etc. A network of district level institutes such as DIETs, DRUs and JSSs and professional bodies will be developed for undertaking training. Procurement and supply of training materials and Primers during training at each level – RPs, MTs and VTs training. Table – 7: Target, Status and Percentage of Achievement of the Training of Stakeholders Group Group – A Group – B Group – C Grand Total
Master Preraks Trainers Target Status Target Status 3300 1500 9988 8329 (45.5) (83.4) 5727 3933 11576 4636 (68.7) (40.0) 2387 332 8590 781 (13.9) (9.1) 11414 5765 30154 13746 (50.5) (45.6)
Voluntary Teachers Target Status 99000 43678 (44.1) 171800 21268 (12.4) 71600 1163 (1.6) 342400 58004 (16.9)
Figures in parentheses indicate Percentage of Achievement The Table – 7 shows that the status of the training of stakeholders like master trainers, Preraks and volunteer teachers, 5765 (50.5 %) master trainers, 13746 (45.6 %) Preraks and 58004 (16.9 %) volunteer teachers were trained. With regard to Group – A state’s 1500 (45.5 %) master trainers, 8329 (83.4 %) Preraks and 43678 (44.1 %) volunteer teachers were trained, in case of Group – B state’s 3933 (68.7 %) master trainers, 4636 (40.0 %) Preraks and 21268 (12.4 %) volunteer teachers were trained 40
and in the Group – C state’s 332 (13.9 %) master trainers, 781 (9.1 %) Preraks and only 1163 (1.6 %) volunteer teachers were trained. Teaching Learning Activity (Basic Literacy) Saakshar Bharat Programme is envisaged as a “people’s programme in the true sense, a programme of the people, for the people and by the people. All stakeholders, especially at the grassroots level should have a due say and role in the planning and implementation of the programme”. It has also been made clear that “the implementing agency at the operational level, will be responsible for distribution of literacy kits learners and volunteers ”.
The primer and other teaching-learning
materials for the literacy centre would be supplied by the Preraks. It is evident from the vision of Saakshar Bharat that the literacy centre at the GP level reflects the identity, in terms of stature and cultural ethos of the community. As the collective expression of the community, through the aegis of the implementing agency viz., the Gram Panchat and its GP Lok Shiskha Samiti, the literacy centres are located / identified at venues that are best suited in terms of access and safety, space, lighting, ventilation, etc. Table – 8: Target and Status of number of Basic Literacy Classes Started and Total Number of Learners Enrolled in the Basic Literacy Classes
Group
No. of Basic Literacy Classes Started Target
Group – A
99000
Group – B
171800
Group – C Grand Total
71600 342400
Total No. of learners enrolled in Basic Literacy
Status 55,283 (55.8) 31,787 (18.5) 382 (0.5) 82583 41
At AEC level 47413 (4.8) 178495 (10.4) 4971 (0.7) 230879
At Literacy Centre Level 372878 (37.7) 261448 (15.2) 560 (0.1) 586196
(24.1)
(6.7)
(17.1)
Figures in parentheses indicate Percentage of Achievement Table – 8 reveals that target and status of number of basic literacy classes started and total number of learners enrolled at adult education centre level and literacy centre level. Out of 342400, 82583 (24.1 %) of the literacy classes started and 230879 (6.7 %) of the learners are enrolled at adult education centre level, these learners taught by the paid Preraks and 586196 (17.1 %) of the learners are enrolled at literacy centre level, these learners taught by the VTs who are unpaid teachers. Learners Assessment Test in Islands of Success The programme framework for basic literacy involves instructorbased teaching of about 300 hours spread over 3 months or beyond. Successful completion of 300 hours of instructional learning would enable learners to read and comprehend unknown text (newspapers, hoardings, road signs, etc), apply skills of writing in day to day activities like writing application forms, etc., and compute simple problems involving multiplication and division. A certificate will be issued to every successful learner based on a professional evaluation of learning outcome. The learner assessment system will be worked out by SLMA in consultation with NLMA. Local schoolteachers may be engaged as evaluators. On successful completion and assessment, the learner will be issued a certificate jointly signed by Head of local primary school and the Panchayat President. Table – 9: Number of Blocks, Examination Centres, Registered and Appeared the Learners for the Assessment Test Group Group – A Group – B
Blocks 193 120
Exam Centres 6,534 4781 42
Registered
Appeared
1,52,218 1,76,503
1,27,258 1,54,530
Group – C Grand Total
78 391
3,269 14,584
89,801 10,29,941
72,591 8,78,825
Above Table – 9 reveals that for the assessment test, which is conducted by NIOS, New Delhi, 391 blocks covered throughout India and more than ten lakhs learners registered and nearly nine lakhs learners appeared for the assessment test. The group wise states shown in the table. The major issues of the Islands of Success ¾ Formal appropriate structure for adult literacy down to the GP level might be considered like currently existing for SSA. However, a viable and healthy convergence with other departments could be explored ¾ Motivation of the VTs to be linked with some incentive, albeit not necessarily monetary. It might be in consideration with providing useful knowledge and information instead. Performance of VTs might be linked to some incentive; monetary or otherwise. ¾ Feedback of success should be analyzed in the light of opportunities and constraints encountered. Learners in the age group of 26-55 years are more successful than even younger age- groups. ¾ Environment building activities should be organized to get more VTs and learners to the literacy classes. ¾ Basic education and vocational education programme have to be initiated at the AECs in order to attract more learners. ¾ Focus to be given to literacy for Tribes, Scheduled Castes and Minorities. ¾ AEC might also be developed in the mode of “Soochna Khidki” [information window], so that information could be disseminated as a value addition in the SBP.
43
¾ The local community should be oriented to harness their maximum meaningful support to the programme implementation. ¾ The validity of the NIOS branded literacy certificate might be established in the eyes of public. ¾ As Preraks are very crucial link in the programme, their effective training will be instrumental in sustaining the programme. Conclusion Role
of
SRCs
in
providing
the
Technical
Support
for
implementation of Saakshar Bharat Programme is successful. Participation of both SLMAs and SRCs is providing qualitative inputs to Saakshar Bharat programme on certain qualitative parameters, and not only quantitative data. Issue of programme ownership, role of SRCs as vital to use their influence in supporting SLMAs in encouraging the state government to take ownership of the programme and need for initiating other steps like vocational training, equivalency and continuing education so that a long-term agenda could be formulated for sustainability of the programme.
SLMA and SRCs were to be strengthened and
empowered. As SRCs being the academic agency to support the literacy programme, both should work together for successful implementation of the Adult Education Programme References http://saaksharbharat.nic.in http://www.education.nic.in http://www.india.gov.in http://www.nos.org Minutes of the Half-Yearly Review Meeting of Saakshar Bharat with representatives of SLMAs and SRCs held on 12 to 14 October, 2011 Monthly progress reports of all SRCs
44
Chapter – 4 Inclusive Education in India: Perspectives and Prospects Deepa Antony UGC-SRF, Dept of Applied Research, Gandhigram Rural Institute-Deemed University, Gandhigram M.A.Sudhir Professor and Head, Dept of Applied Research, Gandhigram Rural Institute-Deemed University, Gandhigram
Education is a basic human right and plays a vital role in reducing poverty and inequality, improving child and maternal health and strengthening democracy. Yet there are vast disparities in education based on wealth, gender, location and other markers of deprivation .This oppression and disparities undermine the efforts to achieve the Education For All and the Million Development Goals. The Education For All goals and eight Millennium Development goals are enunciated below. EFA goals 1. Expanding and improving comprehensive early childhood care and education, especially for the most vulnerable and disadvantaged children 2.Ensuring that by 2015 all children ,particularly girls ,children in difficult circumstances and those belonging to ethnic minorities ,have access to and complete, free and compulsory primary education of good quality 3. Ensuring that the learning needs of all young people and adults are met through equitable access to basic and continuing education to all adults. 4. Achieving a 50 percent improvement in levels of adult literacy by 2015 ,especially for women ,and equitable access to basic and continuing education for all adults. 45
5. Eliminating gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2005, and achieving gender equality in education by 2015, with a focus on ensuring girl’s full and equal access to achievement in basic education of good quality. 6. Improving all aspects of the quality of education and ensuring excellence of all so that recognized and measurable learning outcomes are achieved by all, especially in literacy ,numeracy and essential life skills. The Eight MDGS Goal 1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger Goal 2.Achieve universal primary education Goal 3.Promote gender equality and empower women Goal 4.Reduce child mortality rate Goal 5.Improve maternal health Goal 6.Combat HIV AIDS, Malaria and other diseases Goal.7.Ensure environmental sustainability Goal .8.Develop a global partnership for development World Conference on Special Needs Education: Access and Quality (1994) adopted the principle of ‘inclusive education’ and urged the nations to integrate children with disabilities in normal schools so that they can live and learn in the real world. At present the inclusive education is a wider phenomenon of school for all. It is intended to realize the right of all the people to a high quality education, focusing on those who, due to differing reasons, are excluded or at risk of being marginalized. These groups vary depending on the country but, in general, include the disabled, those belonging to an ethnic or linguistic minority, those from isolated or poor areas, children from migrant families , those affected by HIV and 46
AIDS and victims of armed conflict or violence . Inclusive schools can enable to achieve the Millennium Development Goals like Universal primary education and can promote gender parity in India . Inclusive Education: Concept and Principles Inclusive education is a process intended to respond to students’ diversity by increasing their participation and reducing exclusion. Inclusion should be a guiding principle for educational policies and programs so that qualitative education can be given for all. Inclusive schools are guided by the principles of
access, participation and
achievement. Access and continuation in school for all children is a necessary perquisite. Participation in the educational activities by
all
students and their opinions about educational decisions affecting their lives should be taken into account. Achievement makes reference to the need that all students learn, according to their abilities in congruence with the prescribed curriculum. Inclusive education is conceptualized more as an effort to build schools systems to attract all children rather than to force students at risk out of the system oppressing their opportunities for future life.
Inclusive practices in education should be linked learning
environments that cater for the educational needs of all the individuals of a community and respond to the diverse population regardless of social origin, culture or individual characteristics
.An essential element to
advance inclusive school is the education for all and oppression of none. The experience of inclusion can be possible if schools are socially representative and do not segregate the children . In an inclusive classroom all children are enriched by having the opportunity to learn from one another, and gain the knowledge attitudes and skills. This enables them to participate in society and hold government to account. When the poor and marginalized people are educated they are often more likely to participate 47
in meetings of village councils and local bodies that govern and manage education, health and other resources .The philosophy of inclusion hinges on helping students to become effective citizens. Inclusive education will ensure the learning needs of all children especially those
in difficult
circumstances and those belonging to ethnic minorities .Further it will help in improving the quality of education and also ensure the excellence of all so that recognized and measurable learning outcomes are achieved by all children. Education of the Excluded Exclusion takes place primarily due to lack of access to knowledge .It also happens even if
the acquired knowledge is not at all useful to
them. The present knowledge societies have made it essential to have long years of education to gain necessary skills to take part successfully in the development process. The marginalized and the disadvantaged groups may find that school practices completely alienate them. Thus they fall into a vicious circle leading to further exclusion from the development. The 86th Constitutional Amendment Act 2002 has made education in India
a
Fundamental Right for children in the age group of 6-14 years by specifying that “the State shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age of six to fourteen years in such manner as the State may, by law, determine”. The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act, 2009, reiterates that every child has a right to full time elementary education of satisfactory and equitable quality in a formal school which satisfies certain essential norms and standards .Yet millions of children in India are out of school or are drop out due to various reasons. Poverty, inaccessibility and lack of quality are some of the factors that is causing the children from gaining a meaningful education. Gender and socio cultural factors play a major role in exclusionary practices. The 48
poor and vulnerable sections can afford to the low quality education. The rich can avail private schools, tuitions and training. The disadvantaged groups often to join the state run schools. They do not have enough voice to bring changes to improve the quality .What they learn at school is not related to the real world and this often leads to rote learning plummeting the effectiveness of education. According to Paulo Freire to be inclusive, education should incorporate knowledge of the society that which it purports to serve. The ‘banking education’ would only bring a ‘culture of silence’. A complete overhaul of educational system from the ‘banking’ to ‘dialogical education’ will help in realizing the inclusiveness the great Freire envisages. Exclusion also takes place due to segregating the children rather than integrating. Those with special needs are segregated from the normal children. The pedagogic practices are designed for normal child and the children with special needs are neglected. Inclusive education on the other hand emphasizes on accommodating all children in the same school and providing pedagogical adaptation according to individual needs. In the long run this would be more economical than having separate institutions for those with special needs. To bring the excluded groups within the purview of education a three way approach as shown in Inclusive education triangle (figure 1) can be taken.
Learning Environment Allocating teachers equitably Orienting and training teachers from marginalized groups Providing additional support to disadvantaged schools 49
Developing a relevant curriculum
Accessibility and affordability
Entitlements and opportunities
Cutting direct and indirect costs
Developing poverty reduction strategies
Providing targeted financial
Denforcing anti-discrimination
incentives
legislation
Investing in school infrastructure
Special provisions for tribal education
Bringing classrooms closer to
Providing social protection
children Multiple entries and exit
Allocating public spending more equitably
Figure 1: The inclusive education triangle. Inclusion should be a continuous process and the participation of children, parents and community members should be ensured. Policies and practices in schools should be adjusted diverse needs of pupils within their 50
locality. Learning should be adapted to the needs, interests and expectations of all children and the objectives of artistic, technical and vocational education should be achieved .Multiple entries and exit as envisaged by Paulo Freire can allow the freedom for continuation or termination in education.Bringing schools closer to marginalized communities is also important, especially for gender equity and improving access for children with disabilities. Stipends can make school more affordable and provide incentives to keep children in school at both the primary and secondary level.Teachers need training to equip them to teach effectively in classrooms with children from diverse backgrounds. Ensuring that children with disabilities enjoy opportunities for learning in an inclusive environment requires changes in governmental attitude, backed by investments in teacher training, physical infrastructure and the provision of learning equipment. Legal provisions can play a role in overcoming discrimination. SSA and Inclusive Education Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan(SSA) is the flagship programme launched by Government of India to attain the goal Education for All.The key objective of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan is Universalization of Elementary Education(UEE)and its three important aspects are access ,enrolment and retention of all children in 6-14 years of age. Zero rejection policy A zero rejection policy has been adopted under SSA which ensures that every child with special need irrespective of the kind, category and degree of disability is provided with a meaningful and quality education. Barrier free schools
51
Making schools barrier free for children with special needs has been another intervention of SSA. SSA provides annual financial assistance up to Rs.1200/- per child for integration of disabled children. Household surveys and special surveys have been conducted by all states to identify children with special needs. The SSA framework incorporates the principle that all new schools should be barrier free in order to improve access for children with special needs. Existing schools are also required to be made more disabled friendly by incorporating barrier free features in their designs. As many as 4, 44,000 schools have been made barrier free and the work is expanding. Provision of aids and appliances Many children with special needs are not able to attend school due to lack of essential aids and appliances. Required aids and appliances are being provided to these children in convergence with the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment. Besides, charitable organisations, NGOs, and the corporate sector are providing assistance. 5, 75,000 children with special needs have been provided assistive devices. Retention of children The focus is now on improving quality, monitoring of services provided to and retaining children with special needs in school. Teacher orientation and Research support Teachers are said to be the corner stone’s of inclusive education. SSA also focuses on teacher orientation and resource support for inclusive education. During 2006-07, 2.55 million teachers have been provided training through a 2-3 day capsule on inclusive education. Further, 1.47 million teachers have been provided an additional 3-5 days training for enhanced orientation to inclusive education. The Rehabilitation Council of 52
India (RCI) has provided Resource Persons training to 39,816 teachers in 22 States.
53
Education of the girl child Educating a girl child is one of the best investments a society can make. An educated woman has skills, information and self-confidence. A girl child is considered a burden. This leads to her exclusion in education is often neglected. According to Sen (1999)women adapt to their second class citizenship and are not even aware of the facts that they have rights just as men to develop their capabilities. The enrolment of girls at the primary level increased from 43.7 (49.8 million) in 2000-01 to 46.6 (61.1 million) in 2005-06. In 2000 to 2001, 17.5 million girls (40.9%) were enrolled at the upper primary level. This figure rose to 22.7 million (representing 44.6 per cent of the total enrolment) in 2005-06. Enrolment of girls at the secondary stage (classes IX-X) is not too encouraging, although earnest steps are being taken to ameliorate the situation. As per the 2001 census, out of 85.5 million Population in the age-group 14-18, 39.6 million were girls (46.3%). Estimates for 2005–06 indicate that girl population in this age group has increased to 44.9 million. However, only 16.1 million girls were enrolled in classes IX to XII in 2005-06. Figures for 2005-06 indicate that girls up to 48.98 per cent drop till they reach class VIII. Further, till the girls reach class X, the drop-out rate is alarmingly high at 63.56 per cent. This means that over whelming majority of girls do not complete schooling. The reasons for high dropout are varying, but one of the reason could be the security. As the secondary schools are located at a considerable distance from their residence, parents normally do not allow their wards, particularly girls to continue schooling. The schools often lack facilities like toilets and water. The annual status of education report (2009) revealed that only fifty percent of government schools have toilets and that 4 out of 10 government schools did not have separate toilets for girls. Child labour also leads to the disappearance of girl child from the
54
classroom. In India the education of the female child is constrained by economic ,social-cultural and political factors .. There is a need for more resources and better effort to develop the education of the girl child. A number of national and state-level initiatives for improving the educational status of girls has been taken up in India. • The National Programme for Education of Girls at Elementary Level
(NPEGEL)
for
intense
community
mobilisation,
development of model schools in clusters, gender sensitisation of teachers, development of gender-sensitive learning materials, early childhood care and education facilities, and provision of needbased incentives including escorts, stationery material, work books and uniforms. The NPEGEL programme is implemented in educationally backward blocks. • Kasthurba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya (KGBV)-by sanctioning residential upper primary level schools for girls belonging predominantly to SC, ST, and Other Backward Castes (OBC) and minority communities in Educationally Backward Blocks (EBBs) characterised by low female literacy and high gender gaps in literacy. • Mahila Samakhya – provides education to older girls and young women who dropped out or were never enrolled through mahila shishak kendras.Mahila Samakhya in many areas undertake the supervision of NPEGEL and KGBV programmes Tribal Education When it comes to scheduled tribes their total enrolment at elementary level reveals no significant change between 2000-01 and 200506. A high rate of drop out of tribal children from schools is a cause for
55
worry in achieving the Universalisation of education .As a result of this program almost all children are now enrolled in one school or another, although many of them may have never attended it. However, many of those who go to school somehow do not find it attractive and decide to leave it prior to the completion of studies. Preventing “drop out” of incentives is being tried out with tribal children in schools but seems not to be working owing largely to a poor delivery system. A common assumption is that tribal groups served by such schools are almost homogenous and governed by common educational goals. Since the tribals share many economic and social characteristics, it is assumed that a common curriculum will be able to meet the educational requirements of all groups. Negative stereotypes of tribals among non-tribals are very strongly present in India. As most of the curriculum designers, text book writers and teachers are non-tribals, they share these stereotypes of tribals. The Eleventh Five Year Plan operations, aim at intensifying focus on blocks and districts programs with high population concentration of tribes. Tribal children are an important constituent of the Special Focus Group (SFG) under SSA. Opening of human development centres, seasonal hostels for migrating children in tribal areas with relaxed norms (with 10-15 children). Back to school camps, alternative schooling
bridge courses and other
facilities for children of migrant families,
dropout, older and never enrolled children Providing free textbooks special coaching/remedial classes for improving learning outcomes of children ST students. Recruitment of local tribal teachers in schools, deployment of tribal coordinators at the
State Level and tribal dominated districts to
monitor SSA activities. 56
Providing adequate representation for tribals in Village Education Committees School Management & Development Committee, State Education Committee Special drive in University and collegiate education for enrollment of tribal students. Conclusion The inclusive education is intended to give quality education for all and addresses the individual’s cognitive, emotional and creative development. Growth of inclusive education in India reflects two factors: one is the attempt to promote access to schooling and educational resources, and the other is to maintain the old system of learning and curriculum which reinforces dependency and what Paulo Freire calls “the culture of silence”. To realize inclusiveness in all aspects we need
to
make a twofold attempt .First make the education system as inclusive as possible. School is a microcosm of the society and the inequalities existing in the society should not be allowed to hamper the education of the children. Individuals have differing needs for resources if they are to come up to the same level of capability. Thus children with special needs, girls, and tribals need more scaffolding to reach their full potential. Inclusion does not necessitate denying differences amongst people; rather, strives to reduce inequalities through constructive and integrative approaches.
57
References Clough,P and Corbet ,J.Theories of inclusive education.London:Paul Chapman Publishing,2000. INDIA New Delhi:National University for Educational Planing and Administration, 2008 Ministry of Human Resources Development. Annual Report 2008-09.New Delhi:Ministry of Human resources Development,2009 NUEPA.Education Unreached
for
All
Mid-Decade
AssessmentReaching
the
Pradhan, K.C. Social Exclusion Identity and Issues .New Delhi:Sonali Publications, 2010 Puri,M and Abraham,G.Handbook of inclusive education for educators administrators and planners.New Delhi:Sage Publications, 2004 Sen, A. Development As Freedom. New Delhi:Oxford University Press,1999 Thripathy,S.N.Issues on Ethnicity Discrimination and Social Exclusion .New Delhi:Abijeeth Publications, 2010 UNESCO. Defining an Inclusive Education Agenda:Reflections around the 48th session of the International Conference on Education Geneva :UNESCO:IB,2009 UNESCO.Evaluation of UNESCO’s Programme for theInclusion of Children from Various MarginalisedGroups within Formal Education Programm Paris:UNESCO,. 2004 UNESCO.Reaching the marginalized.EFA Global Monitoring Report 2010.Paris:UNESCO,2010 UNESO. Overcoming inequality :Why governance matters.EFA Global Monitoring Report 2009.Paris:UNESCO,2009.
58
Chapter – 5 Vocational Skill Development Programmes in Saakshar Bharat-An Experience of Andhra Pradesh Dr B.Krishna Reddy Coordinator, SRC, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh Ms G.Srilatha Lecturer, L.B.College of Education, Warangal
Saakshar Bharat, One of the flagship programmes of the Govt of India has been launched on 8th September 2009 with an objective of imparting functional literacy to 7 crore non literate population of 15 and above years. An institutional arrangement in the form of Adult education center /Lok Shiksha Kendra has been created in Saakshar Bharat for promotion of skill development programmes besides basic literacy, basic education, and continuing education. NLMA, of the 7 crore target for basic literacy, has fixed 1.5 crore as a target for imparting vocational skills to the beneficiaries of AEC. Under skill development programmes, Vocational skill development programmes are being conducted for the benefit of neoliterates. Lok Shiksha Kendra has been established at each panchayat of Saakshar Bharat districts and 18,921 AECs/Lok shiksha kendras are in operation in all the 19 districts of Andhra Pradesh. The current capacity of the skill development programs is 3.1 million and India has set a target of skilling 500 million people by 2022.As the proportion of working age group of 15-59 years will be increasing steadily, India has the advantage of “demographic dividend”. Harnessing the demographic dividend through appropriate skill development efforts would provide an opportunity to achieve inclusion and productivity within the country and also a reduction in the global skill shortages. Large-scale
59
skill development is thus an imminent imperative. Although 24 departments are now imparting skill development programmes in our country, the agencies involved in Saakshar Bharat are doing yeoman service for the promotion of skills among the clients. Besides the efforts of the 19 Zilla Lok Shiksha Samithies (ZLSS), 11 Jana Shikshan Sansthans(JSSs) are also set up in 19 Saakshar Bharat districts to look after the component of Vocational Skill development. Skill development initiatives for the unorganized sector should include a definite component of literacy, basic education and soft skills. The JSSs cater to the needs of all sections of the society with special emphasis on women, illiterates, neo-literates, SC, ST and minorities. These institutions conduct a large number of courses based on the local needs. The number of vocational courses conducted by the JSSs comes to 160 which can be broadly categorized under the following-cutting, tailoring, dress making& designing, knitting and embroidery, beauty culture& health care, cottage industry courses, handicrafts, cookery, bakery, confectionery & food Processing, art, drawing and painting, agriculture, &allied technology, carpentry, furniture making, leather technology, building technology, printing technology, automobile, refrigeration &Air conditioning, health& Para medical, maintenance and repair of electronic goods, electrical, mechanical, textile technology, secretarial practice, teacher training, miscellaneous and computer courses. The NLMA has issued instructions to all the JSSs to follow the curriculum of NCVT (National curriculum for Vocational Training)(Modular employable skills), NIFT and Directorate of Adult education. Besides the vocational skill courses run by the respective Zilla Lok Shiksha Samithies, the JSSs also undertake progranmmes from its annual budgets for the benefit of neo-literates. In some cases both basic and 60
vocational programmes are integrated. The skill development programmes identified and executed by certain JSS are listed below: JSS, Ranga Reddy 1. Knitwear design-Zari, Zardozi and Ari Work 2. Beauty Culture &Health Care - Make – up 3. Textile Design - Saree Rolling, Polishing, Darning & Cleaning 4. Textile Design -Fabric Painting 5. Fruit and Vegetable Processing and Preservation - Fruit and Vegetable Processing and Preservation 6. Fashion Design - Dress Making 7. Knitwear Design - Hand Embroidery (State Specific) JSS, Mahaboobnagar 1. Plumbing & sanitary work 2. batik and Tie&Die 3. Leaf plate and cup making 4. fabric painting 5. Interior design and decoration 6. Electrical technician 7. Textile technology 8. Cutting tailoring & Dressmaking 9.zari, Zardosi &Ari work 10.Hand Embroidary 11.Rexine/leather/Jute home&office articles Vocational Skill development programmes of SRC, Hyderabad: The State Resource Centers in the changed concept has also been implementing the skill development programmes of short duration for the stakeholders of the AECs in the adopted areas for accelerating the implementation of Saakshar Bharat programme. The SRC, developed the study material on 9 items (liquid Soap.white phenyl,Cleaning powder, Agarbathis, Herbal Shampoo, Piece of chalk, Candles, Washing powder, 61
Vaselene preparation) and supplied to 2094 AECs in 108 mandals of 4 districts i.e Ranga Reddy, Mahaboobnagar, Kurnool and Kadapa. The SRCs are now translating the vocational curriculum for handing over the same to the JSS, which can use for imparting skills to the clientele. SRC, Hyderabad during the year 2011-2012(up to December 2011) has conducted 137 vocational programmes benefiting 3355 persons. The items executed were washing powder, cleaning powder, phenyl and Vaselene. The preraks and the facilitators appointed for the purpose of monitoring the programme were trained in demonstrating the items. Efforts are needed to make the persons entrepreneurs, as there is a lot of demand for the skill programmes. Under vocational skill component for each AEC, an amount of Rs 1000 per month is available from the respective ZLSS. The JSS and the NGOs are now given the assignment to implement the vocational programmes in the AECs. Entrepreneurship Development programmes: Besides the implementation of vocational skill programmes, there is a need for undertaking Entrepreneurship development programmes under which self-employment opportunities, development of self confidence, market survey, source of finance, project formulation, customer dealing, achievement motivation, developing competencies, costing and pricing, marketing, book keeping, banks and loans, project report preparation, work culture ethics, public relation and customer service can be taught to the beneficiaries. The business of imparting entrepreneurial skills has also been undertaken by the JSS. Impact of Vocational Skill devt programmes undertaken by the JSSs: There is a demand for dress making, Saree rolling, dying, hand embroidery, machine embroidery in Ranga Reddy district .An enquiry into the after training course developments, it is said that 40% of the 62
beneficiaries is in self employment and 26% is in employment in shops and firms. The report of the JSS Mahaboobnagar district disclosed that 9% of the beneficiaries have started self-employment, 3% got employment in firms/shops, 13% utilizing for their own purpose and 75% is idle. This needs to be studied carefully for motivating them towards self-employment or wage earning. Conclusion: Development is possible when the population of the given country is skilled and knowledgeable. In the context of global scenario, there is a dire need for imparting better levels of skills to face the challenges. Major challenge of skill development initiatives is to address the needs of huge population by providing skills in order to make them employable and help them secure “decent workெ. Skill development for persons working in the unorganized sector is a key strategy in that direction. This will also inculcate dignity of labour and enhances country’s economic growth. The efforts made by Saakshar Bhaart in the direction of skill development though appeared to be marginal, but would go a long way in changing the behaviors of the people and as a result, the present goods is knowledgeable one. On the basis of the above account, the following recommendations are made for promoting skill development programmes. a) The focus has to be laid on the entrepreneurship skill development for the unorganized sector. The Self –Help group members may be influenced to start one unit for each mandal that can manufacture and market its goods among its members at the first instance and later this may be extended to the whole community. Institutes for entrepreneurship development, technology incubation centres and other such institutional
63
arrangements will have to be utilized to support successful adoption of entrepreneurship of unorganized sector workers. b) Mechanisms will have to be developed for vocational counselling and career guidance. Information regarding employment trends and training opportunities have to be provided to motivate young people and workers to acquire and continuously upgrade their skills and knowledge. c) Suitable agencies have to be identified for promoting vocational skill development programmes in all the AECs. The local resources are to be utilized fully well and need to be designed the skill development programmes for greater returns. Upgrading the existing skills of the farmers, artisans, blacksmiths, goldsmiths, health workers etc., is another issue, which needs to be considered. d). The Preraks need to be imparted certain skills who can take up small short duration skill programmes at the AECs for the benefit of the stakeholders. Ex- washing powder preparation, cleaning powder making, leaflet making, Electrical work. The raw materials are to be supplied by the respective ZLSS. d). National Vocational Qualifications Framework should include opportunities for horizontal and vertical mobility between general and technical education, Recognition and certification of competencies irrespective of mode of learning. e). With fast changing skills in the labour market, focus would be on short, relevant and effective courses that would get candidates into the workplace. They will be welded through NVQF to maintain dynamism and open to feedback.
64
f) Competency standards and certification systems need to be developed for unorganized sector work and incorporated in the national testing and certification system.
65
References: Document on Saakshar Bharat brought out by MHRD, Govt of India, New Delhi Draft Document, Skill Development in India, The vocational Education and training System Half yearly and annual reports of JSS, Ranga Reddy and Mahaboobnagar districts Mohan kumar & Sanjay: Institutional Frame work for Vocational Education and Training. IJAE, October-December 2011 Monthly reports of SRC, Hyderabad Scheme of jan Shikshan Sansthan,Guidelines for management and Programming, MHRD,Govt of India
66
Chapter – 6 Lifelong Learning: Ideology and Challenges Dr. Satish Shirsath Associate Professor,Department of Adult, Continuing Education & Extension,University of Pune,Pune - 411 007
In the XIth five year plan, the UGC has accepted Lifelong Learning (LLL) as an important ideology and inculcated in the programmes of Adult, Continuing Education and Extension. Not only this, the UGC has asked the Departments of Adult, Continuing Education and Extension to come up with a new nomenclature as Department of Lifelong Learning. Acceptance of 'Extension' ideology by UGC : The UGC which is considered as the highest and apex body of higher education in India, has declared 'Extension' as its important dimension along with conventional two dimensions i.e. Teaching and Research. The need to community orientation became inevitable. It developed several programmes and activities, which were community oriented and useful to people. The universities and colleges which were involved in execution of these programmes undertook programmes mostly based on local needs and available resources. The methods were different. The grave issue of eradication of illiteracy was given priority.
Other programmes like,
population
education, continuing education, empowerment of women & other deprived social groups were also implemented with the help of university and college youth. Some government sponsored development programmes were also executed. UGC provided guidelines to the universities and colleges for these programmes. According to the guidelines, grant was given too. Modifications took place from time to time in priority areas,
67
nature of programmes and funding patterns. Besides community oriented and community useful activities, UGC
and government sponsored
programmes, some 'Extension' activities useful for the development of the Departments of Adult, Continuing Education and Extension were also implemented. Ideology of Lifelong Learning : The European Council Communication defines Lifelong Learning as "all learning activity undertaken throughout life, with the aim of improving knowledge, skills and competence, within a personal, civic, social and/or employment related perspective. This definition is elaborated further as follows LLL, means -
Acquisition
and updating of all kinds of abilities, interests,
knowledge and qualifications. Lifelong from preschool years to post retirement.
LLL promotes the development of
knowledge and
competencies that will enable each citizen to adapt to the knowledge-based society and actively participate in all spheres of social and economic life to take control of his/her future. -
Valuing all forms of life-wide learning, including formal learning such as a university course; non-formal learning such as vocational skills acquired at the workplace. and informal learning such as inter-generational learning, for example where parents learn to use ICT
through their children or learn how to play as instrument
together with friends". A definition accepted by the European Lifelong Learning Initiative and the American Council on Education includes following elements of LLL ideal 68
"
(a) A belief in the idea of lifetime human potential and the
possibility of its realization; (b) efforts to facilitate achievement of the skills, knowledge and aptitudes necessary for a successful life; (c ) recognition that learning takes place in many modes and places, including
formal
educational
institutions
and
non-formal
experiences such as employment, military service and civic participation and informal self-initiated activity and (d) the need to provide integrated supportive systems adapted to individual differences that encourage and facilitate individuals to achieve mastery and self-direction. " -
The Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia describes LLL as follows : "LLL is lifelong, life wide, voluntary and self-motivated pursuit of knowledge for either personal or professional reasons. As such, it not only enhances social inclusion, active citizenship and personal development, but also competitiveness and employability". We can see the roots of LLL in 1970s when the Council of Europe, the Organization for Economic Co-operation & Development and the
United
National
Educational,
Scientific
and
Cultural
Organization accepted this concept in one or another form or title . "European & American policy interest in Lifelong Learning waned after the early 1980s; however it got revived in the early 1990s in the same countries. It became part of national policy discussion, particularly as global competition and economic restructuring toward knowledge-based industries became more prevalent. In a full employment, corporations perceived a benefit from investment in human capital, while a new workforce of knowledge technologists expected their employers to 69
maintain their employability by investing in their education. The focus on learning thus shifted from personal growth to human resource development.
Meanwhile education and training approaches became
central to a transition away from unemployment and welfare dependency ". Adoption of LLL Ideology by UGC : Emergence and acceptance of LLL is due to the global trend in its regards along with national scenario; It is clearly mentioned in the XIth plan guidelines of UGC as follows : "This may be partly influenced by the global discourse on Lifelong Learning and partly due to the socio economic changes taking place within and outside the country". UGC has accepted LLL and gave maximum priority to it. UGC feels that an access and the adoption of new technology and improving the skills of the
labour force, are determinant factors so far
country's
economic performance is concerned. The UGC feels the importance of learning in a technology driven knowledge based competitive economy. Such socio economic factors and situation (at both places - locally & globally) has made the role and importance of LLL prominent. UGC has declared the same feeling in its guidelines - "with the beginning of the XIth five year plan the UGC would accord maximum priority to Lifelong Learning with a view to meeting the demands of emerging knowledge society and facilitate the process of developing a learning society". Importance of Learning : The changing social scenario is compelling the persons to obtain the information, knowledge, skills and resource rather than waiting for someone who will come to teach them. The time constraints, diversities in needs and requirements, availabilities in proper teachers, motivation to the
70
teachers etc. factors are responsible for elevating the importance of 'Learning' in place of education. Challenges before Institutions of Higher Education : The UGC, Universities and colleges have to face following challenges while executing LLL programmes.
Some of them are
mentioned by UGC in its guidelines -
LLL envisages providing opportunities for acquiring and updating
the knowledge and skills for the labour force in globally competitive situation. It must be realized that in India, more than 90% workforce is from unorganized sectors. The total population of such workers is more than 40 crores in number. They work in very adverse situation and live a miserable life. They along with their family members cannot fulfil basic and minimum needs. The literacy level of India is not so disappearing. However, such workers from unorganized sectors and their family members do not possess fair education.
To
equip them
for global
competitiveness can be an Utopia. -
Statistics reveal that, about 50% of Indian population if young
(below 25 years). However, the percentage of youth in higher education is just 10%. It is a great challenge before the higher education institutions to bring the youth in higher education to acquire new information and skills, get updated, enhance employability.
It can prepare the youth to get
developed and contribute in the development of the country too. Along with youth, some other social groups (women, agricultural labourers etc.) need to be brought in the stream of higher education. -
LLL is seen as a tool for meeting the demands of emerging
knowledge society, especially in the global competitive situation. It is expected
that LLL would prepare the work force to enhance own's
71
knowledge and skills.
In India about 60% of population follow the
regional/local languages (other than Hindi). Hence, there is no uniformity in it. It is a big challenge for provide learning opportunity to such diverse population. -
Through the 'Extension', dimension, UGC is continuously
emphasizing to reach to the community. For it, the UGC sponsored Adult Education,
imparting
literacy,
Continuing
Education,
Population
Education, Jana Shiksha Nilayam etc. programmes. The approach for it was
- 'Education'.
Accordingly methodologies were prepared.
The
finance patterns were constructed. The guidelines were structured on that basis. Along with field outreach activities, academic programmes were also shaped in that manner. In the XIth plan, UGC has moved the approach from 'education' to 'Learning'. It is must to prepare different learning modules and modus apparendi accordingly for different groups. There is a need to prepare learning modules for unemployed youth for obtaining career guidance. Counseling and placement programmes should be
chalked out
accordingly. The universities should develop specific learning modules for rural people to get information about health and nutrition. While developing such learning modules, conventional methods and modern techniques should be integrated and suitable modules should be developed.
Such modules should be innovative, attractive and easily
accessible. UGC's plea for 'Extension' of higher education is no doubt honest endeavour. The addition of LLL in it is an event of welcome. welcoming it, challenges before it should not be ignored.
72
While
Conclusion : UGC has declared 'Extension' as its important dimension. Repayment of social debt and personality development of students and teachers in higher education are primary objectives behind it. LLL, which lays stress on learning has been spread all over world. UGC has inculcated it in the programme of Adult, Continuing Education and Extension. While implementing this concept, some challenges should not be ignored such as - developing learning modules for the labourers from unorganized sectors, who constitute more than 90% of total work force in the country, - increasing the extent of youth (who are about 50% of Indian Population) in higher education. Besides youth, several social groups need to be brought in the stream of higher education. - preparing different learning modules in various languages. - Considering, the shift of approach from 'education' to 'learning', this task is challenging. References : http://www.answers.com/topic/lifelong-learning. http://www.answers.com/topic/lifelong-learning. http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lifelong_learning. http://www.lifelong learningmasters.org/site.aspx?p=57. Policy statement of UGC-1977. XIth plan guidelines of the UGC on Lifelong Learning and Extension XIth plan guidelines of the UGC on Lifelong Learning and Extension XIth plan guidelines of the UGC on Lifelong Learning and Extension
73
Chapter – 7 Attitude of School Teachers Towards Sex Education Dr. C. Sivamurugan Assistant Professor, Research Centre, Department of Economics Aditanar College of Arts and Science, Tiruchendur-628 216. Tamil Nadu. E-MAIL:
[email protected] D. Sivakumar Assistant Professor, Dr. Sivanthi Aditanar College Education Tiruchendur-628 216. Tamil Nadu. Introduction Sex education which is sometimes called as sexuality education or sex and relationships education of health education. It is the process of acquiring information and forming attitude s and beliefs about sex, sexual identity, relationships and intimacy. Sex – education is also about developing young people’s skills so that they make informed choices about their behaviour and feel confident and competent about acting on these choices. It is widely accepted that young people have a right to sexeducation partly because it is a means by which they are helped to protect themselves against abuse exploitation unintended pregnancies, sexually transmitted diseases and HIV/AIDS. Sex education that works starts early before young people reach puberty, and before they have developed established patterns of behaviour. The precise age at which information should be provided depends on the physical, emotional and intellectual development of the young people as well as their level of under standing what is covered and also how, depends on who is providing the sex education, when they are providing it and what context, as well as what the individual young person wants to know about. It is important not to delay providing information to young people but begin when they are young. Providing basic information can 74
provide the foundation on which the complex knowledge can be built up over time. This also means that sex-education has to be sustained for example when try are very young children can be informed about how people grow and change over time and how babies become children and then adults, and this provides the basis on which understand more detailed information about puberty provided in the pre teenage years. Need for Sex Education Young people need to have information about the physical and emotional changes associated with puberty and sexual reproduction including fertilization and conception are sexually transmitted diseases including HIV/AIDS. They also need to know about contraception and birth control including what contraceptives there are, how they work how people use them how they decide what to use not and how they can be obtained. In terms of information about relationships there are about love and commitment, marriage and partnership and the law relating to sexual behaviour and relationships as well as the range of religions and cultural views on sex and sexuality and sexual diversity. In addition, young people should be provided with information about abortion sexuality, and confidentiality as well as about the range of sources of advice and support that available in the community and nationally. Definition of Sex-Education Sex-education is a broad term used to describe education about human sexual anatomy, sexual reproductions, sexual inter course reproductive
health,
emotional
relations
reproductive
rights
and
responsibilities contraception, and other aspects of human sexual behaviour common avenues for sex education are parents or cares give as school programs, and public health campaigns.
75
Aims of Sex Education Sex-education seeks both to reduce the risks of potentially negative outcomes from sexual behaviour like unwanted or unplanned pregnancies and infection with sexually transmitted diseases, and to enhance the quality of relationship. It is also about developing young people’s ability to make decisions over their life time. Sex education that works, by which we mean that it is effective is sex-education that contributes to this over all aim. Sex-Education Develop Skills If sex-education is going to be effective it needs to include opportunities for young people to develop skills as it can be hard for them to act on the basis of only having information, The skills as it can be hard for them to act on the basis as parts of sex-education one linked to more general life-skills. Being able to communicate, listen negotiate, ask for and intently sources of help and advice, one useful life skills and be applied in terms of sexual relationship. Effective sex-education develops young people skills and can be applied in terms of sexual relationship. Sexeducation that works also helps to equip young people with the skills to be able to differentiate between accurate and inaccurate information, and to discuss arrange of moral are social issues and perspectives and sex and sexuality including different cultural attitude s and sensitive issues like sexuality, abortion and contraction. Sex-Education Information and Young People Young people get information about sex and sexuality from a wide range of sources including each other through the media including advertising television and magazines.
As well as leaflets, books and
websites which are intended to be sources of information about sex and sexuality. Some of this will be accurate and some inaccurate. Providing
76
information through sex-education is therefore about finding out what young people already know and adding to their existing knowledge and correcting any misinformation. Sex Education at Home and in School / Different Section 1. At Home Different settings provide different contexts and opportunities for sex education at home; young people can easily have one-to-one discussions with parents or careers which focus on specific issues, questions or concerns. They can have a dialogue about their attitude s and views. Sex education at home also tends to take place over a long time, and involve lots of short interactions between parents and children. There may be times when young people seem reluctant to talk, but it is important not to interpret any diffidence as meaning that there is nothing left to talk about. As young people get older advantage can be taken of opportunities provided by things seen on television for example, as an opportunity to initiate conversation. It is also important not to defer dealing with a question or issue for too long as it can suggest that you are unwilling to talk about it. 2. In School In school the interaction between the teachers and young people takes a different form and is often provided in organized blocks of lessons. It is not as well suited to advising the individual as it is to providing information from an impartial point of view. The most effective sex education acknowledges the different contributions each setting can make. School programmes which involve parents, notifying them what is being taught and when, can support the initiation of dialogue at home. Parents and schools both need to engage with young people about the messages
77
that they get from the media, and give them opportunities for discussion. In some countries, the involvement of young people themselves in developing and providing sex education has increased as a means of ensuring the relevance and accessibility of provision. Consultation with young people at the point when programmes are designed, help s ensure that they relevant and the involvement of young people in delivering programmes may reinforce messages as they model attitude s and behaviour to their peers. The Right Way of Teaching Children It is also important that parents give their children the chance to participate in the discussion. Education is two-way and listening is a skill every teacher has to master. As a parent and the teachers of your child, always assume nothing and encourage your children to ask questions as you go along. And make it a point that you answer each question they ask very truthfully regardless if it is related to sex or not. This could actually be a start of a more open relationship between you and your child. And while in the process of your child airing his questions and thinking out loud, he could get very mistaken and badly off the mark about his ideas regarding sex and sexuality. Being judgmental or demeaning about it is not going to help. Instead, carefully straighten his views and give him support. Scum and resentment should not be hinted to them at all, especially not with children past the age of puberty, as they tend to be more rebellious and stubbed during such stages. The main idea of introducing sex education to children is to make them aware of the changes their body will undergo, the relationships and emotions they are going to feel sooner or later, and the consequences of careless sexual actions that they could possibly indulge into. With these in mind, parents will be greatly guided as to which path to take to achieve 78
these goals. The method of teaching that parents should use could vary from one child to another. Any form of teaching can be adapted with full liberty; especially if that is the method the parents know their children would learn from the most. The bottom line is this: parents should set the groundwork of sex education in their children. The community and schools are always there to support them, but these two groups can only do so much than a pair of responsible parents. Effective School Based Sex Education School-based sex education can be an important and effective way of enhancing young people's knowledge, attitude s and behaviour. Evidence suggests that effective school programmes will include the following elements: • A focus on reducing specific risky behaviours; • A basis in theories which explain what influences people's sexual choices and behaviour; • A clear, and continuously reinforced message about sexual behaviour and risk reduction; • Providing accurate information about, the risks associated with sexual activity, about contraception and birth control, and about methods of avoiding or deferring intercourse; • Dealing with peer and other social pressures on young people; providing opportunities to practise communication, negotiation and assertion skills; • Uses a variety of approaches to teaching and learning that involve and engage young people and help them to personalise the information;
79
• Uses approaches to teaching and learning which are appropriate to young people's age, experience and cultural background; • Is provided by people who believe in what they are saying and have access to support in the form of training or consultation with other sex educators. Need for the Present Study After reading the literature, newspaper reports and other social and health problems, the investigator felt the strong need to study on sex education. Although, the parents are the best teachers for the sex education, the investigator felt that there is a need to study the attitude of school teachers towards sex education, which will help the administrators to be decide on introducing sex education at the school level. The teachers should have the favorable attitude towards sex education, then only the concept of sex education or health education can be transacted in its true spirit without developing any negative feeling among the students, parents and public at large. Therefore the investigator felt the need for studying the attitude of teachers towards sex education. Objectives of the Study 1. To find out attitude of schools teachers towards sex-education. 2. To find out the difference if any between the following teachers on the attitude towards sex-education. 1. Gender
: Male teachers and Female teachers
2. Nativity
: Rural teachers and Urban teachers
3. Experience: Below 5 years and Above 5 years. 4. Religion : Hindu, Muslim and Christian 80
Method of Research After reviewing the characteristics of the different methods of educational research, the investigator decided to use survey method for the present study. Population of the Study The population of this study is those who are working high and higher secondary school teachers of Thoothukudi districts in Tamilnadu. Sample The random sampling technique is followed in the selection of sample 200 teachers were selected as sample of the study. Tools Used In the Study Sex-education attitude scale prepared by investigators (Sivakumar.D and Dr. C. Sivamurugan 2009) Description of the Tool The tool consists of 30 items. For every item three responses one given namely agree, undecided and disagree. One can get the maximum of 90 marks as the responses agree gets 3 marks. All the 30 statements are to measure the attitude of the teachers towards sex-education. Scoring Procedure The scoring procedure of the present scale is very simple. The subjects were requested tick to mark the response. While scoring ‘Agree’ gets 3 marks ‘undecided’ gets 2 marks and ‘Disagree’ gets 1 mark for a statement. For getting the total score the response mark of each statement should be added together to form total score of an individual’s attitude towards sex-education.
81
Reliability of the Scale Both split – half and test – retest methods were followed for testing the reliability of the present scale. For the split – half reliability the statements were categorized in two set - odd and even number statements. The reliability co-efficient worked out between 2 sets. The co-efficient was 0.95 the scale was assumed to be reliable. For estimating the test-retest reliability of the scale, the scale was administered twice (with an interval of 15 Days) on a sample. The coefficient of reliability was found to be 0.90. Validity of the Scale The validity of the present scale was examined with the help of content validity. This was done by examining how well the contents of the scale represented the subject matter under study. The statements were given to so experts in the education field. Suggestions given by the experts modified certain items and made them appropriate. Thus, the content validity of the tool was established. Collection of Data The copies sex-education attitude scale (SEAS) have been given to 200 teachers in Tuticorin District. Clear instruction has been given to the respondents and their earnest cooperation was solicited. Statistical Techniques Used The following statistical techniques used in the present study. Mean, Standard deviation and “t” test. Hypothesis- 1 There is no significant difference between male teachers and female teachers on their attitude towards sex-education
82
Table – 1: Difference between male and female teachers on their attitude towards Sex-education
Gender
N
Mean
S.D
‘t’ value
Remarks at 5% level
Male teachers Female teachers
92 108
66.36 62.96
8.53 10.16
2.57
Significant
(At 5% level of significance, the table value‘t’ is 1.96) Since the calculated value of‘t’ is greater than the table value of 5% level, the null hypothesis is rejected. Therefore there is significant difference between male and female teachers in their attitude towards sexeducation. Hypothesis- 2 There is no significant difference between rural and urban teachers on their attitude towards sex-education Table – 2: Difference between rural and urban teachers on their attitude towards Sex-education Remarks Designation N Mean S.D ‘t’ value at 5% level Rural teachers 103 62.38 10.45 2.16 Significant Urban teachers 97 65.24 8.23 (At 5% level of significance, the table value ‘t’ is 1.96) Since the calculated value of‘t’ is greater than the table value of 5% level, the null hypothesis is rejected. Therefore there is significant difference between rural and urban teachers in their attitude towards sexeducation
83
Hypothesis- 3 There is no significant difference between the teachers with experience below 5 years and above 5 years on their sex-education. Table – 3: Difference between the teachers with experience below 5 years and above 5 years on their sex-education Experience Below 5 years Above 5 years
N
Mean
S.D
87
63.67
9.34
113
61.48
‘t’ value
Remarks at 5% level
1.58
Not Significant
10.20
(At 5% level of significance, the table value ‘t’ is 1.96) Since the calculated value of ‘t’ is less than the table value of 5% level, the null hypothesis is accepted. Therefore there is no significant difference between the teachers with experience below 5 years and above 5 years in their sex-education. Hypothesis- 4 4. There is no significant difference between teachers belonging to Hindu, Christian and Muslim religion on their attitude towards sex-education. Table – 4: Difference between teachers belonging to Hindu, Christian and Muslim religion on their attitude towards sex-education Religion
N
Mean
S.D
Hindu Muslim Muslim Christian Hindu Christian
130 31 31 39 130 39
64.55 61.65 61.65 59.24 64.55 59.24
9.57 11.75 11.75 9.54 9.57 9.54
‘t’ value
1.28 0.93 3.05
Remarks at 5% level Not Significant Not Significant Significant
(At 5% level of significance, the table value ‘t’ is 1.96) 84
Since the calculated value of ‘t’ is greater than the table value of 5% level, the null hypothesis is accepted. Except Hindu and Christian teachers. Therefore there is no significant difference between teachers belonging to (a) Hindu and Muslim, (b) Muslim and Christian religion on their attitude towards sex-education. Conclusions In general, the school teachers have a favourable attitude towards, sex education irrespective of their gender, nativity, years of experience, and religion. This shows that sex education is a very important one for the students. As the teachers have the favourable attitude towards sex education, the introduction and implementation of sex education in Tamil Nadu will not be a problem. The female teachers and rural teachers need orientation on sex education as the score is less then the male and urban teachers. Among the teachers belonging to different religion, the teachers belonging to Hindu religion got the highest mean value of 64.55 followed by Muslim, 61.65 and 59.24 for Christian. This finding reveals that there is a need for orienting teachers belonging to minority religion on sex education. Recommendations Based
on
the
findings
and
conclusions,
the
following
recommendation are arrived 1. The introduction of sex education in the school may be considered by the government of Tamil Nadu as the teachers have a favourable attitude towards sex education. 2. Before introduction, an orientation course may be arrange for teachers particularly women teachers, teachers belonging to minority religion and forward community. 85
3. The alternative names for sex education may be “health education” or “relationship education”. 4. Academician should deliberate and suggest curriculum for sex education. Suggestions for Further Research 1. A separate study can be undertaken by taking only women teachers as the sample. 2. A state level study can be undertaken to generalize the result for whole of Tamil Nadu. 3. A study can be undertaken to construct curriculum for sex education or health education. 4. A similar study can be undertaken to study the attitude of parents towards sex education. 5. A similar study can be undertaken by taking college students as the sample. References Alain (2009) “Boys ‘Lack of interest in time Arts in a coeducational setting: A Review of Sex-Related cognitive. Traits Studies” Arts & Design Education, V-28, P25-36. Diederik Floris (2009) “Sex as development curriculum, Pedagogy and critical Inquiry” Review of Education: Pedagogy cultural studies. V31, p228. Gabrielle Ivinson (2007) “Pedagogic discourse and sex-education: Myths science and subversion sex-education: sexuality society and learning v7 n2 p 201-216. Goncala Roi and Maria Holeona (2006) “Validity of a scale to measure teachers attitude s toward sex education” – sex education sexuality, societies are learning. V6 n2 p185-192. Hanover and Bettina (2008) “When Being a girl matters less: Accessibility of gender Related sect knowledge in single –sex and coeducational classes 86
and Its Impact on students physics – Related sect concept of Ability” British Journal educational psychology V 78, n2 p173-289. Jen Gilbert (2007) “Risking a relation sex education and adolescent development sex-education. This paper considers how issues of adolescent development might be brought into conversation with dilemmas in sex education. V7 n1 p47-62. Kelly, E and Terry. E (2008) “Single-sex-education in the 21st entry. Education policy Brief volume 6 number 9 Fall 2008” center for education and education policies, Indian University. Kerry Vincent (2007) “Teenage Pregnancy and sex and relationship education myths and (mis) conceptions – pastoral care in education: An international journal for pastoral care & personal social education. V25 n3 p16-23. Lester Colesman (2008) “Pretenonces towards sex education are information from a religiously diverse sample of young” Health Education. V108 nl p72-91. Lin helene. H (2006) “A study of the effectiveness on parental sexuality education. The purpose of this study was to understand the effectiveness of sexuality education. Education v127 n1 p16-30. Linda Rae (2007) “Zina” and the Erigma of sex-education for Indonesian Muslim Youth” sex-education sexuality societies and learning. V7 n4 p371-386. Lynn Blinn Pike (2008) “sex education in rural schools in the united states impact of rural educator’s community identifies” sex-education sexuality, society and learning. V8 nl p77-92. Lynne and Anne (2008) “It was as useful as a chocolate kettle” sex Education in the lives of same –sex-Attracted young people in Australia. Sex Education, V8 N2 P211-224. Margarita (2008) “Pushed to the margins-sex and Relationships in Greek primary Text books” Sex-education. V8 n3 P329-343.
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Chapter – 8 A Study of Literacy and Life Skills Building among Female Sex Workers in Delhi Dr. Rajesh Assistant Professor Dept. of Adult, Continuing Education & Extension, University of Delhi & Mr. Biresh Pachisia Research Scholar, University of Delhi & Consultant, Care Vision Introduction Literacy has traditionally been described as the ability to read and write. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) defines literacy as the "ability to identify, understand, interpret, create, communicate, compute and use printed and written materials associated with varying contexts. Literacy involves a continuum of learning in enabling individuals to achieve their goals, to develop their knowledge and potential, and to participate fully in their community and wider society." Life skills refers to a large group of psycho-social and interpersonal skills which can help people make informed decisions, communicate effectively, and develop coping and self-management skills that may help them lead a healthy and productive life. Life skills may be directed towards personal actions and actions toward others, as well as actions to change the surrounding environment to make it conducive to health. Life skills have been defined by World Health Organisation as “abilities for adaptive and positive behaviour that enable individuals to deal effectively with the demands and challenges of everyday life”. They represent the psychosocial skills that determine valued behaviour and include reflective skills such as problem-solving and critical thinking, to personal skills such as self-awareness, and to interpersonal skills. Practicing life skills leads to
88
qualities such as self-esteem, sociability and tolerance, to action competencies to take action and generate change, and to capabilities to have the freedom to decide what to do and who to be. Life skills-based education is now recognized as a methodology to address a variety of issues of child and youth development and thematic responses including as expressed in UNGASS (United Nations General Assembly Special Session) on HIV/AIDS (2001), UNGASS on Children (2002), World Youth Report (2003), World Program for Human Rights Education (2004), UN Decade on Education for Sustainable Development (2005), UN Secretary General’s Study on Violence Against Children (2006), 51st Commission on the Status of Women (2007), and the World Development Report (2007). Around the world, Life Skills-Based Education (LSBE) is being adopted as a means to empower young people in challenging situations. LSBE refers to an interactive process of teaching and learning which enables learners to acquire knowledge and to develop attitudes and skills which support the adoption of healthy behaviours. The present study explores the importance and role of literacy and education for building of life skills among female sex workers. And also the linkages between work of NACO and Saakshar Bharat 2012. Rationale of the study: The National Aids Control Organization, Government of India has Targeted Intervention Projects in all States of India to control HIV in Vulnerable and high risk population like Female Sex Workers (FSW), Male Sex with Male (MSM), Truckers and Injecting Drug Users (IDU’s). The Prime Minister launched Saakshar Bharat 2012, a centrally sponsored scheme of Department of School Education and Literacy 89
(DSEL),
Ministry
of
Human
Resource
Development
(MHRD),
Government of India (GOI), on the International Literacy Day, 8th September, 2009. It aims to further promote and strengthen Adult Education, specially of women, by extending educational options to those adults who having lost the opportunity of access to formal education and crossed the standard age for receiving such education, now feel a need for learning of any type, including, literacy, basic education (equivalency to formal education), vocational education (skill development), physical and emotional development, practical arts, applied science, sports, and recreation. The present study explores the importance and role of literacy and education among female sex workers in Delhi and linkages between the work initiatives of Saakshar Bharat 2012 and National Aids Control Organisation. Saakshar Bharat 2012 emphasized literacy skills among vulnerable population covering scheduled caste, scheduled tribes, women and the minorities. The present study covers most vulnerable population among women, ‘female sex workers’. Nearly 4 lakh populations are throughout the country and 86 thousand in Delhi as per NACO estimates. The study has examined their empowerment through literacy. Objectives of the Study: 1. To study the role of literacy for building of life skills of Female Sex Workers. 2. To explore the role of education and capacity building in socialization of Female Sex Workers. 3. To examine the role of vocational education in life style of Female Sex Workers.
90
4. To Study the linkages between National Aids Control Organisation and Saakshar Bharat 2012 for the life skills building and literacy of females.
Methodology: The study has been conducted in two districts of Delhi, North and West District receiving support from the apex body ‘National Aids Control Organization’ under the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India. The Investigators have taken a sample size of 100 in total covering 50 home based female sex workers in each district. Area
Sample Size
North District
50
West District
50 Total 100
The Investigators collected sample through primary sources like focus group discussions, in-depth interviews, case studies and secondary sources like review of documents, cases etc. The sample is collected through snow ball techniques. Two focus group discussions were also organised. Social consequences: Sex Work also brings social consequences with it. Consequences include family conflict, social isolation etc. Since sex work is illegal, female sex workers usually try to minimize contact with law enforcement agencies and officials. They are stigmatized in most societies, so there is a legitimate reason for them to hide from society. Female sex workers are isolated from the mainstream and usually do not come forward for help or information, even when that is available. Also, health services, treatment 91
and counseling services are often designed for them by NACO and implemented through State Aids Control Society and by Non Government Organizations at ground level,
92
Universe of the Study: The present study is undertaken in Delhi in two districts namely, north and west covering 50 samples in each district. The target group ranged between 18 to 50 years those who were in productive and reproductive age group. The investigators considered the following indicators. 1)
Literacy Level
2)
Awareness Level
3)
Training / Capacity building
4)
Participation in Self Help Groups
5)
Communication Skills
6)
Negotiation Skills
The investigators interviewed on the basis of above six indicators. The findings are analyzed on the basis of the above indicators. Data Analysis: The study is a descriptive in nature considering in-depth interviews, participatory observations and focus group discussions to examine the objectives envisaged. The first objective was the role of literacy for building life skills among sex workers. In two districts, their level was as follows. Sl. No.
District
Sample
Number of Literates
1.
North
50
18
2.
West
50
17
TOTAL
100
35
93
It is estimated as per above figure that in North district, out of 50, only 18 were literate and in the west district out of 50 only 17 were literate. In total 100 samples, 35 were literate. This shows that 35 percent had minimum capacity of reading and writing. The study also indicated that those who were literate desired more skills and vocation in comparison to those who were illiterate. Literate women argued more economic opportunities and their role in the family and the community, in the decision making process. The illiterate women nearly 82 percent in both the districts were eager to learn literacy skills. They accepted that literacy will help their capacity at the family, peer, community and the society level. Hardly 2 percent women at both the districts were aware about ‘Right to Information’. Even literate women had no access to information on the various social welfare schemes. Five percent women had information about ‘Samajik Suvidha Sangam’ of the National Capital Region of Delhi. The second objective was related to the socialization of female sex workers at the various levels. The vulnerable population were non-brothel based sex workers. National Aids Control Program that is Targeted Intervention provided them opportunities to visit the various centers such as Learning centers, Integrated Counselling and Testing Center (ICTC) and Day Care Center. Those women visiting to the various centers had more socialization in comparison to those who were not participating in any social activities sponsored by National Aids Control Organisation (NACO). Thus NACO intervention provided them opportunities for interaction and participation at the various levels. It also helped in changing their behaviour through behaviour change communication.
94
The third objective was the vocational education through the literacy initiative.
The
vulnerable
population
especially
women
started
participating in the various activities. Their levels of participation in various activities were as follows: Sl. No. Name of the activity 1. Behaviour Change Programs
No. of Participants 65/100
2.
Self Help Group
14/100
3.
Advocacy
72/100
4.
Awareness of HIV/AIDS and STD
83/100
Conclusion: The study revealed that literacy and education level has significant correlation with life skills. Those who have high level of literacy, their involvement and interaction in family and society is comparatively high. It was also found that many of them are ill-literate, unaware, uneducated and so are prone to harassment and also at health risk. In certain cases, literacy helped female sex workers for family and economic rehabilitation. This shows that education and literacy has an important impact on the life style of people. Those who are ill-literate or only primary level educated are the most vulnerable. Female Sex Workers are mostly from poor socio-economic background and have adopted the profession on part time as add-on income. Their educational level is directly linked with their awareness and skills building. It has also been concluded that vulnerable population are marginalized and there is lack of networking and partnership with the Saakshar Bharat and National Aids Control Organisation. The study also concluded that strong partnership is needed for their life skills building through the educational intervention. The government must take action in this direction. 95
It is also concluded that most of the Non Brothel Based
Sex
Workers are having family and Children. They visit drop in centre for Aids information. The opportunity can be utilized for Literacy education and awareness Recommendations Accommodating Female Sex Workers in the mainstream society is the only solution to end the numerous troubles faced by them. This can only be done by literacy, awareness and education. The initiatives of National Aids Control Organisation for the female sex workers must be linked with Saakshar Bharat program. Non-Formal education can play a crucial role in the empowerment of these workers. There should be a dual system of education where some vocational training can be given with non-formal conventional education system. Other measures must be initiated to empower them by education and training. This will increase their acceptability in family and society. The study strongly recommended networking and partnership building with formal and non formal sector. The NACO and the HRD Ministry should jointly involve the vulnerable population in the educational endeavour. It is also recommended that several awareness and life skills building programs need to be initiated to promote life skills building among vulnerable population in Delhi and other parts of the country. The study recommended national level research in this regard.
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References: Brewis, J., & Linstead, S. (2000) Sex, work and sex work: Eroticizing labor. New York: Routledge. Brock, D.R. (1998). Making work, making trouble: Prostitution as a social problem. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Census of India Literate population and literacy rate. New Delhi; 2001. Cleis. Carter, S. (1998). A Most Useful Tool. In (Ed.) Delacoste, B.F.,& Alexander, P., Sex work:Writings by women in the industry, 2 nd ed. New York: Cleis. Chapkis, W. (1997). Live sex acts: Women performing erotic labor. New York: Cleis. Dimen, M. (1989). Power, sexuality and intimacy.In (Ed.) Jaggar, A.M., & Bordo, S.R., Gender, body, knowledge: Feminist reconstruction of being and knowing.New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. Delacoste, F. & Alexander, P. (1998). COYOTE/National Task Force on Prostitution. In (Ed.) Delacoste, B.F.,& Alexander, P., Sex work:Writings by women in theindustry, 2 nd ed. New York: Department of Women and Child Development Convention of elimination of all forms of discrimination against women: India’s First Report. New Delhi; 2005 Indian Council of Medical Research, 1992–1995. Unit for Research on AIDS in NE States of India, Calcutta. Project Reports, 1992–1995 (unpublished reports). Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. Report on the High Risk Behaviour Study — Coordinator Trainings, National AIDS Control Organisation, Ministry of Health and amily Welfare. Delhi: Government of India, 1994. NACO Country Scenario 1997–98. National AIDS Control Organisation, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India, 1999.. National AIDS Control Organisation Partnerships and collaborations. New Delhi; 2005. National AIDS Prevention and Control Policy Document (Draft). Delhi: Government of India, 1999. Sahni, R., Shankar, V.K., & Apte, H., (2008), Prostitution and Beyond: An Analysis of Sex Work in India. Sage Publication
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Chapter – 9 Information Communication Technology (ICT) in Adult Literacy Programmes Dr. B. Krishna Reddy SRC, Hyderabad Introduction Literacy is an indispensable tool for the socio-economic development of any country. The UNESCO defined literacy as the ability to identify, understand, interpret, create, communicate and compute using printed and written materials associated with varying contexts. This involves a continuum of learning to enable an individual to achieve goals, to develop their knowledge and potential and participate fully in the wider society. Recognizing the importance of literacy, the UNO declared the decade of 2003-2012 as the decade of United Nations Literacy Decade to improve at least 50% of literacy in the member countries. The globalization brought enormous changes in the information explosion and is available to the people of nook and corner of the globe. Every nation is giving top priority to the utility of technology in various areas for accelerating the pace of development. World bank is also supporting countries for taking advantage of opportunities in information and communication technologies (ICTs) to contribute to educational goals and poverty alleviation strategies. In broad sense ICT refers to various technologies which are used to transmit, store, create, share or exchange information. It includes technologies such as Radio, Television, CD/DVD, telephone, satellite, computer networks, equipment and services associated with these technologies such as teleconferencing, virtual class roomsmails.
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The Govt. of India and state Govts have been implementing literacy programmes since 1978 in many forms-centre based approach, total Literacy campaigns, Akshara Sankranthi, Saakshar Bharat etc. As a result of these efforts the present literacy rate of India stands at 74.04%(2011 census). This effort is not adequate to reach the goals fixed by the UNO and NLM of achieving 85% of literacy by 2015 in India. This is possible only through the different strategies of which the technology play a vital role to reach the goal. It’s not wonder that the technology has gone into the different fields and the adult literacy programmes are not exceptional. There is an ample scope for technology initiatives in adult literacy programmes. Intervention of technology in adult literacy programmes will step up the literacy rate and it will be of great advantage to the volunteers in the teaching learning process and learners’ evaluation. However ICT may be used for adult literacy programmes in the following aspects: • For effective teaching and learning process • Creating conducive learning environment • Training of field functionaries • Increasing access through the distance mode • Providing knowledge network to the learners and field functionaries. • Computerisation of house-hold Survey details • Computerisation of accounts • Monitoring of literacy programmes • Testing of learners’ literacy skills. Advantages of ICTs: UNESCO initiatives highlight that ICTs have potential in Nonformal Education programmes which are as follows; 99
• ICTs can create local content and learning , including literacy • ICTs ensure access to information • ICTs can cultivate a literacy conducive environment • ICTs can be used to develop livelihood skills and thus contribute to poverty alleviation • ICTs are tools for capacity building • ICTs can facilitate documentation and information sharing • ICTs can be used to facilitate the process of networking among organizations engaged in the design and delivery of NFE programmes • ICT tools can improve the overall effectiveness of monitoring and evaluation • ICTs can be used for community empowering ICTs can be used, according to Wagner (2008) in two ways- firstly to support the acquisition of literacy skills, secondly to support the development of literacy skills at a distance when instruction and other resources might not be otherwise available .In India three pilot projects titled Khilti kalyan, PREAL and Chauraha attempted to use television and radio for teaching literacy to adults, particularly adult women. These initiatives addressed to highlight that media can be used to tackle the problem of adult illiteracy. Disadvantages: The fact remains that those factors such as political and administrative commitment, inadequate planning, managerial problems such as lack of concerted coordination at various levels thwart the initiatives. The ICTs applied projects are not cost effective and 100
comparatively costlier than the traditional approach of literating the people. It requires trained instructors at times which may not be possible to find them in time. In rural areas the ICT projects, which require power supply and Internet facility, may not be available. Managerial problems also stand as obstacle for initiating the ICT projects. This paper presents some of the initiatives tried out by the agencies in the adult literacy programmes and the brief description of the projects is given below: 1.Khilti kaliyan: This is the T.V 24-part serial aimed at women in the age group of 15-35 with an intention to ignite the need for literacy and the changes that would initiate in their lives.The serial was telecast by Delhi Doordarshan once a week over 24 weeks. The name of the serial was coined on the name of the primer itself. Although the serial contained all the ingredients such as social, economic and political deprivation and oppression faced by the women still it was withdrawn due to managerial problems of lack of coordination at various levels. Even the instructors were not trained in using the films in conjunction with the primer being taught in the class. 2.PREAL(Project in Radio education for Adult Literacy):This project was operational in 16 selected districts of Bihar, uttar pradesh, Madhya pradesh and rajasthan. Weekly programmes under the title nai pahal was broadcast from eight AIR stations that covered these districts. The objective of PREAL was to study the effectiveness of using radio lessons to enrich the learning experience of women learners in adult education centers and thereby sustaining their interest in attending the classes regularly and achieving the prescribed literacy norms. The instructional content was in standard Hindi but the spoken dialect of the particular region was also used to enrich programme content, vocabulary and cultural 101
specificity. In tribal districts, literacy was initiated in the local tribal language and vocabulary and then gradually built up to standard Hindi. 500 AECs in non-tribal districts and 300 AECs in tribal districts were identified for each AIR station, making a total of 3800 AECs. The PREAL encountered several problems of not functioning of centers regularly, sometimes the instructor was not present in the center and at other times the learners did not attend the center. The organization and the management of listening sessions at AEC were also poor and as a result the Peril in terms of reinforcing reading ability was limited. The Govt did not fully appreciate the scale of significance of the project. 3.Chauraha-An Instructional TV Serial: Chauraha was an ambitious project of the National Literacy mission. This serial attempted to teach reading and writing the Devnagiri (Hindi) script with in a short period. The serial is a set of 40 15 minute TV film episodes that, for the first time in India, used sophisticated computer animation technique to teach Hindi writing
within the overall framework of a narrative storyline. The
technique was to show an easily identifiable image from daily life and then superimpose a letter that could be associated with it. The story line of Chauraha followed the pattern of a TV serial filled with emotional content as the main characters went through their travails in life. Its theme woven around the value of education It combined direct instruction with awareness on various on various development issues and did so in an entertaining and enjoyable manner. The lesson from the Chauraha experience was that planning and developing good quality materials were not sufficient for cost effective application of communication technology using a sophisticated medium like TV.
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4. Commonwealth of Learning literacy (COLLIT):Commonwealth of learning(COL) received from British dept of international devet (DFID) to undertake a pilot project in India and Ghana to explore ways by which literacy programmes might be enhanced through the use of appropriate technologies. The three year pilot project which began in 1999 was implemented through the ‘technology-based community learning centre’ model. the concept of community based learning center, where various types of ICT equipment could be deployed, managed and accessed by the members of the community, where learning could be facilitated and where locally relevant learning materials could be developed, was a central ingredient in the COLLIT project. the impact of the project was most visible on the people involved in operating in the learning centers, most of had no prior exposure to computers and other ICTs. By the end of the project, the facilitators and staff at the learning center, in both countries, emerged as well respected ICT-trained literacy instructors with experience in using the equipment to develop locally relevant instructional materials. The COLLIT project also demonstrated that given the opportunity, learners are quite capable of using ICT in many ways that not only help them achieve educational goals, but that are remarkably motivating and applicable to other facets of their lives. 5.TARAAKSHAR-Angoothe Se Kalam Tak: TARA Akshar is a laptop based functional literacy programme including basic arithmetic, developed by the TARAhaat information and marketing Services Ltd-the ICT arm of development alternatives (DA) group which trains an illiterate person to read and write and do basic mathematical calculations in just 98 hours. This is done through 2 hour classes daily over approximately 49 days. The software uses a mix of 1. advanced memory techniques like memory hooks through animated movies 2. strong learning reinforcement mechanisms
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using rapid-fire video gaming concepts 3.a technique similar to that of ‘synthetic phonics’ in which the letter sounds are taught first and then sounds are blended together to achieve pronunciation of whole words. TARA Akshar uses the ‘Laubach method’ whereby learners are shown a drawing where the letter is in the shape of an object, the word for which begins with that letter. Since its inception and operations about three and a half years ago, it has addressed literacy needs of over 57000 women across seven of the severely affected northern states and more than 97% have become literate. It has got support from various national and international agencies. At present the programme is running in Bundelkhand region of Uttar Pradesh and M.P with the support from connect for change, UNDP and in Rajasthan with support from the State resource center, Jaipur. 6.ICTs-UNESCO Experience: In 2002, APPEAL launched the ICT-NFE Project with financial support from the Japanese Funds-in-trust to explore the use of ICT to help improve quality of life, alleviate poverty and achieve community development through community based mechanisms such as the community learning centers (CLCs).The project piloted the use of ICTs to foster the participation of disadvantaged communities in literacy, basic education and continuing education activities in some countries of the Asia-pacific region. 7.TCS (Tata Consultancy Services) Computer based Functional Literacy Programme (CBFL): The computer based functional literacy programme designed by TCS(Tata Consultancy services) uses animated graphics and a voiceover to explain how individual alphabets combine to give structure and meaning to various words. The programme was developed based on the material prescribed by National Literacy mission. The CBFL method employs puppets as the motif in the teaching process, the lessons tailored to fit different languages and even dialects, focus on 104
reading and on theories of cognition, language and communication. Emphasizing on words rather than alphabets, the project addresses thought processes with the objective of teaching these words in as short a time span as possible.
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The Learning Show: The settings for the lessons are visually stimulating and crafted in a manner that learners can easily relate to (the puppet show idiom). The accompanying voiceover reinforces the learners’ ability to grasp the lessons easily and repetition adds to the strengthening of what is learned. The method is implemented by using computers, which deliver the lessons (shows) in multimedia form to the learners. Supplementing computers in this process are reference textbooks of the National literacy mission. The initial experiment for the CBFL programme was conducted in Beeramguda village in Medak district of Andhra Pradesh in February 2000. This was followed by an extended trial run in 80 centres spread across the districts of Medak, Guntur, Vijayawada and Visakhapatnam. The initial experiment and the trial run highlighted the following advantages of the project: • Acceleration in the pace of ‘learning to read’ (it takes about onethird of the time that writing-oriented methods requires). • Flexibility in adjusting to individual learning speeds. • Lower dropout rates in comparison with other adult literacy programmes. • Does not require trained teachers or large-scale infrastructure. • Can be conducted on low-end computers (these are the kind of machines that many organizations can afford to give away). • Can effectively enhance existing adult-literacy programmes. The multimedia format ensures that the pronunciation of the words/letters is taught accurately through the system, rather than being left 106
to individual teachers. This is particularly useful for languages like Tamil, where the same letter can be pronounced differently (based on the context). From Learner to Instructor: Each center under the project has a computer and an instructor, or Prerak, as they are called, to conduct a class. A typical class has between 15 and 20 people and is held in the evening hours. In the early days of the programme, most of the instructors and retired teachers or people involved with the adult-literacy movement in the state. While the teachers and others continue to help out, many of the classes are now conducted by those made literate by the project. The software is currently available in 8 Indian Languages and is being used in Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu, West Bengal, Maharashtra, Gujrat and Uttarakhand. The TCS programme is one of the few Non-Government initiatives that have made some headway in addressing the India’s Illiteracy rates. In an effort to widen access, TCS is also experimenting to make the programme available on mobile phones. 8. H. P. Literacy Testing Solutions (2004): Literacy Testing Tool is in line with the Govt’s target of achieving 100% literacy. H. P. developed a functional literacy-testing module, which helps test Adult Literacy Skills at a much quicker pace. The Solution devised to test learners’ literacy skill, is a touch screen solution with a simplified interface in the local language (Telugu). Through this testing module, the Government can monitor the progress of various literacy programmes and further fine-tune its approach. The rise in literacy levels will empower citizens and add momentum to the economic growth.
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The adult learner who comes for taking the test will be helped to register his / her name the system and the system provides him with an identification number that can be used for future reference. H.P. Literacy Solutions Tools is a multimedia, Interactive device suitable to the use of the adult learners. The pilot test was conducted in Kuppam assembly constituency of Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh in coordination with the State Resource Centre, Hyderabad and ZSS, Chittoor. The data of the pilot test was analysed by the SRC, Hyderabad. The results of the pilot test are quite encouraging. It appears that this tool is useful to test the reading skills of the learners. 9. Computer Based Literacy Primer (Computer Akshara Vachakam (CBLP)(2007): The state Resource center, Hyderabad has developed computer Based Literacy primer as an interactive learning package with multimedia inputs with an objective to enable learners to learn the basic functional literacy skills of reading, writing, numeracy and general awareness through the computer with minimum assistance from the instructor. The content of the Akshara Vachakam (CAV) primer approved by the National literacy Mission was adopted in developing the CBLP. The Instructor can demonstrate the programme before a group of learners and display the frames one by one. While doing the exercises on the screen, he can demonstrate one or two frames and ask learners to sit before the computer and operate. Once familiar with the operation, the learners would be motivated to use it on their own. However instructors’ guidance is needed in writing the tests and exercises. This programme was tested in koyyalagudem and Jaikesaram villages located in Choutappal mandal of Nalgonda District.
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A longitudinal study undertaken for assessing the effectiveness of the Computer based literacy primer, disclosed that this is a far better approach for imparting literacy to the non-literates. Technicalities of Computer Based Literacy project (CBLP) The (Computer Akshara vachakam) CAV comprises of two parts. Part-I has 10 lessons and the part-II has 9 lessons. Each lesson is integrated with literacy, Numeracy and Awareness. All the lessons are followed by exercises. This has an inbuilt evaluation with tests after three lessons and evaluations after each part. The final evaluation at the end of part-II has the provision of instant display of marks procured by the learner. The Instructor can demonstrate the programme before a group of learners and display the frames one by one. While doing the exercises on the screen, he can demonstrate one or two frames and ask learners to sit before the computer and operate. Once familiar with the operation, the learners would be motivated to use it on their own. However instructors’ guidance is needed in writing the tests and exercises. This programme was tested in koyyalagudem and Jaikesaram villages located in Choutappal mandal of Nalgonda District. Operation of Computer Akshara Vachakam (CAV) The Akshara Vachakam is in C.D form.The details are as follows: • The first two screens show the logo of the National Literacy mission and the names of persons and the agencies involved in the production. • Audio track begins from the third screen, which shows the title Akshara Vachakam.The voice over explains the importance of literacy. One can move forward by clicking on the circle present in the lower right corner of the screen. If desired, this screen can be 109
skipped even before the completion of the audio introduction. Always one needs to use left click for clicking • The next screen appears with two phrases i.e., Akshara Vachakam part-I and Akshara vachakam part-II. One can open either one of the above. • When the primer is opened the index of the lessons will appear first. There are two index screens. The first screen includes titles of first five lessons. Clicking the triangle visible on lower right corner of the screen can open the other part of the index. •
From the index, one can choose to open any lesson by clicking on the particle lesson.
• Each lesson includes three units, lesson, numeracy and exercises. One can opt any of the units as desired. • Every screen is accompanied by a voice over which explains the teaching point. After the completion of the voice over, one can move to the next screen. • Touching
the
screen
accommodates
listening
to
the
letters/words/sentences as many a time as possible. • Clicking the letter for observing the writing shape of the letter is also accommodated. • On every screen ‘Suchana’ an indicator is present at the lower left corner. Clicking the ‘Suchana’ one can have access to the lesson index. • On the right lower side appear two arrows, left and right. Click on the left arrow takes us to the previous screen and the right arrow to
110
the next screen. The voice over has to be completed for moving backward or forward.
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Training of Instructors: The instructors were selected and training was given in operation of Computer based instruction. An intensive training was given, till the instructors got perfection.
Show casing of the skills acquired by the
instructors were also tested and after satisfied with the performance of the instructors, the teaching and learning process was initiated. The instruction was started in September 2006 with an initial enrollment of 20 female learners at Jaikesaram center and the koyyalagudem center during November 2006 with an enrolment of 31 learners. The instruction continued for six months. Every day attendance of the learners was recorded. Testing of Literacy skills & Results The paper-pencil test was conducted for assessing the literacy skills acquired by the learners before terminating the project. Besides administering the test, the opinions of the learners and the instructors were also collected on the project executed. The test was administered to 41 learners, who successfully completed the course. The percent of mean achievement scores obtained by the learners in reading, writing and numeracy are in the order 92.5%, 90% and 100%. The results indicated that the literacy transaction through the computer was effective. Further it proved that the learners, motivation was found to be very high and the learning the letters was very easy. Majority of the learners acquired the skill of operating the computer on their own and became almost instructors in the absence of the instructor. Some of the learners got job as Village Health Worker by appearing the reading test conducted by the department. The instructors felt that the computer support helped them to a largest extent and the instruction was very easy. The C.Ds of the Computer Akshara Vachakam(CAV) were supplied to all the ZSSs of Andhra 112
Pradesh for wide publicity and use in the literacy centers. The State Resource center, Hyderabad has dumped Computers in selected continuing education centers of Nalgonda, khammam and Ranga Reddy for further testing of CAV. 10.Day Literacy Camp at Anajipur(2010):
SRC, Hyderabad has
conducted ‘e’ literacy camp at Anajipur of Nalgonda district during June – August 2010. The CBFL programme designed by the Tata Institute was used for imparting functional literacy programme to the non-literate beneficiaries of NREGS.100 learners were enrolled and for each batch of 25 learners one computer was arranged and the instruction was impacted by trained instructors for a period of 30 days and the results are encouraging. 11. Residential Literacy camp for Adolescent girls at Mahaboobnagar (2010): The SRC, Hyderabad
has conducted
Residential Literacy
programme to the Adolescent girls at Mahaboobnagar during 2010. 50 non literate Adolescent girls were enrolled and they were imparted literacy using TCS software. Besides, some income generation skills are also imparted during the 30 days Residential Literacy camp. The results were encouraging. 12. Computer Based Literacy testing tool (CBLTT) (2008): The State resource Centre, Hyderabad developed a Computer Based Literacy Testing Tool (CBLTT) for evaluation of literacy skills. The testing tool is a userfriendly multimedia interactive device suitable for an adult neo-literate learner.
The testing tool is useful for both formative and summative
evaluation of literacy skills of adults. It is an on-line achievement test battery developed to assess the literacy skills attained by the learners in terms of the 3 skills viz., reading, writing and numeracy with the help of 10 items under each head. The 113
testing tool was developed keeping in mind the Evaluation Guidelines recommended by R.H. Dave Committee, NLM, Government of India. The Tool A question bank of 900 items covering different competencies is developed with 30 bunches containing 30 items in each bunch. When a learner takes the test, the computer selects 30 questions at random from out of the 30 bunches of the question bank. This kind of arrangement is made to avoid mere memory based answering by those learners who might copy from the learners who have already taken the test earlier. Testing the Tool The software developed was put to test in three centers of Singareni Colleries, Karimnagar district to establish validity and reliability. Preraks were trained in using the computer and weekly monitoring was conducted by the SRC, Hyderabad. The analysis of results is in progress. 13. Multimedia approach: The trainers have been using PowerPoint presentations using multimedia approach for imparting training to the field functionaries on different aspects of training content. Similar would be the case with the personnel connected with the training of field functionaries on Life skills. Power Point Presentations would be very effective for training programmes. Technology has become very dear to the trainers now- a –days using laptops, which are very handy. 14. Saakshar Bharat portal: All the data related to survey, committees and particulars of functionaries and the literacy centers of the districts have been uploaded. The online monitoring system was also introduced by the Saakshar Bharat.Further it has introduced on line accounting Procedure and the Nodal bank is the State bank of India. The accounts are of two types i.e. main account and subsidiary accounts. The main account is at the 114
APSLMA and the subsidiary accounts are with the ZLSS, MLSS and GPLSS. Authorizations are also given by the respective SLMAs for using the account. The Directorate of Adult Education, Govt. of Andhra Pradesh adopted teleconferencing / videoconferencing as a method for reviewing the adult literacy programmes every month. Summing-up: The world is changing very rapidly due to the technology. It would not be enough to acquire the traditional literacy skills of reading, writing and numeracy. As the use of the ICTs is growing, it would be essential for people especially women, to go beyond literacy to develop their skills that would be necessary to utilize the new technologies effectively and productively for their own empowerment. The technology is meant for accelerating the pace of the literacy programmes. It is the time for the planners to use the technology not only for achieving quick results but also as an aid in the teaching learning process, evaluation of learners’ outcome and monitoring of the literacy programmes, online accounting procedures, digitalization of documents besides training the functionaries of literacy programmes.
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References: Dighe, A (2010).Use of ICTs in literacy, Indian journal of Adult Education,October-December 2010,Vol 71. no.4,New Delhi Saakshar Bharat Document (2009)brought by the ministry of Human resource Devt, Got of India, Devt of Literacy and elementary education SRC, Hyderabad (2004) Pilot study of H.P. literacy testing solutions, an un published report. SRC, Hyderabad (2007), Computer Based Literacy testing Tool, Published by State resource Centre, Hyderabad SRC, Hyderabad (2007), Literacy through Computer Akshara Vachacam, Published by State Resource Centre, Hyderabad. SRC, Hyderabad (2008), Development through literacy, published by the SRC, Hyderabad TARAAkshar-Angoothe Se Kalam Tak,2010 Tata computer literacy programme, January25, 2010 UNESCO (2006) Using ICT to develop Literacy. UNESCO ICT in Education profgramme, Bagkok Wagner,D& Kozma,R (2005).New Technologies for Literacy and Adult Education: a Global Perspective. Paris: UNESCO wagner,D(2008)New technologies for Adult literacy and International Development Wagner,d(20080.New technologies for Adult Literacy and International development www.google.Co.in
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Chapter – 10 Continuing Education Programme in Visakhapatnam District: A Study of Differential Impact G. Srinivasa Rao Coordinator, SRC, Visakhapatnam Dr. P. Viswanadha Gupta Assistant Professor, Dept. of Adult, Continuing Education and Extension, University of Pune, Pune Introduction Literacy is a process which dispels and promotes rational thinking and moulds human beings into responsible citizens. The absence of literacy directly and indirectly retards the development of individuals, society, community and the country as a whole. For the success of any program, people
should
be
motivated
by
providing
necessary
congenial
environment, socio-economic conditions and committed efforts on the part of implementing bodies should be seen. In spite of number of efforts made by central and state governments in India, still illiteracy remains as challenging for a country. Literacy is one of the key aspects of human resource development. In order to quantify the human resources of the country, the State and Central Governments have launched a number of educational (both formal and non-formal) programs for the promotion of literacy. As a result, large pools of illiterates were made literates. However, a vast majority of the illiterates still exist, particularly among females. Eradication of illiteracy has been one of the major national concerns of the Government of India since independence. The need for literate population and universal education for all children in the age group 6 – 14 years was recognized as a crucial input for nation building and was given 117
due consideration in the constitution as well as in the successive five year plans. A number of significant programmes have been taken up since independence to eradicate illiteracy among adults viz. social education, Gram Shikshan Mohim, Farmers’ Functiona Literacy Programme, Nonformal Education, Polyvalent Adult Education Centers, Education Commission, Functional Literacy for Adult women, National Adult Education Programme, Rural Functional Literacy Project, State Adult Education Programme, Adult Education Through Voluntary Agencies, Review National Adult Education Programme, National Literacy Mission, Improved Pace and Content of Learning, Mass Campaign Approach, Total Literacy Campaigns, Post Literacy Campaigns and Continuing Education Programme. Relapse into illiteracy is a serious problem in adult education. This is due to lack of adequate usage of the limited literacy skills acquired by adult learners in their daily life. With the introduction of Total Literacy Campaigns in India millions of illiterates are acquiring basic literacy skills and joining the class of neo-literates each year. They require activities to strengthen literacy skills and to improve their living conditions. Without a meaningful scheme of Post-Literacy and Continuing Education the NeoLiterates may most likely relapse into illiteracy. Government of India has initiated a new scheme of continuing education for neo-literates from 1995 onwards keeping in view the past experiences in organizing adult and continuing education programmes. The main objectives of the scheme and the activities aimed under continuing education for neo-literates include the following:
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¾
Provision of facilities for retention of literacy skills and continuing education to enable the learners to continue their learning beyond basic literacy.
¾
Creating
scope
for
application
of
functional
literacy
for
improvement of living conditions and quality of life. ¾
Dissemination of information on development programmes and improving participation of traditionally deprived sections of the society.
¾
Creation of awareness about national concerns such as national integration, conservation and improvement of the environment, women’s equality, observance of small family norms, etc., and sharing of common problems of the community.
¾
Improvement of economic conditions and general wellbeing as well as improvement of productivity by organising short duration training programmes, orientation courses for providing vocational skills and by taking up linkage activities of establishing direct linkage between continuing education and development activities.
¾
Provision of facilities for library and reading rooms for creating an environment conducive for literacy efforts and a learning society.
¾
Organisation of cultural and recreational activities with effective community participation. Continuing education centres are started at the grass root level and
Preraks are appointed to carry out the activities of the centres. Neo-literates are the main beneficiaries of the programme. The State Resource Centre happens to be the main agency to prepare and supply the post-literacy and continuing education materials and to arrange for the training of Preraks to carry out the different activities like organisation of evening classes, library and reading room, Charcha Mandal, simple and short duration programmes, recreational activities etc., at the centres. 119
Methodology of the Study The study was undertaken with entitled as “Continuing Education Programme in Visakhapatnam District: A of Study Differential Impact” with the following objectives. Objectives of the Study 1. To study the socio economic and demographic profile of the sample respondents i.e. Preraks, Neo-literates and Community members in rural Mandals of Visakhapatnam District. 2. To compare the status of the neo-literates and community members on Literacy, Functionality and Awareness components. 3. To study the degree of difference on development / welfare programmes among neo-literates and community. 4. To find out the differential impact on Continuing Education Programme with reference to variations in the socio-economic and demographic variables of neo-literates. Tools Used The following tools were developed by the investigator for the study. 1. A scale to assess the attitude towards organisation of continuing education activities. 2. A schedule to identify the awareness and different development issues of development / welfare programmes. 3. A scale to estimate the benefits of continuing education centre to attending the centre. 120
With regard to attitude scale, since the study involved comparisons, the same tools were used for both Preraks and Neo-literates validity and reliability were established for the tool. In case of schedule is also used for both Neo-literates and community members. Comparison between the Neo-literates and Community Members towards Different Aspects The study has been made to assess the impact of the continuing education programme on the neo-literates and community members, and community members were used as control group to find the difference among them. In doing, so the impact is analyzed with responses viz. literacy, functionality, awareness of social beliefs and welfare programmes Literacy Particulars • Regarding the reading sign boards only 25 (6.3 %) of the sample respondents are able. Out of 25 members, 16 (7.3 %) are neoliterates and 9 (5.1 %) are community members; it shows that the impact of continuing education programme. • The sample respondents of 158 (40.0 %) are able to read the letter and, out of 158 sample members, 97 (44.3 %) are neo-literate and 61 (34.7 %) are community members • With regard to the 16 (7.3 %) of neo-literates and 9 (5.1 %) of community members are able to read the News paper. • Majority 162 (41.0 %) of the sample respondents are able to write the letter and words, out of 162 members, 97 (44.3 %) are neoliterates and 65 (36.9 %) are community members. • Only 116 (29.4 %) of the members are writing the names and sentences well, out of 116 members, 83 (37.9 %) are neo-literates
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and 33 (18.3 %) are community members, it shows that the impact of continuing education programme. • More than one fourth (27.3 %) of the sample respondents are fill the forms well, and only 65 (16.5 %) of the members are unable to fill the forms. • One fifth (22.8 %) of the members are reading and writing numbers, out of 90 members, 51 (23.3 %) are neo-literates and 39 (22.2 %) are community members. • More or less one fourth (24.1 %) of the members are doing the adding and subtracting the numbers, one fifth (20.8 %) of the sample respondents are doing the multiplication and divisions of the numbers. Functionality Particulars • Only 76 (19.2 %) of the sample respondents are aware about their occupation, information skills, out of 76 members, 51 (23.3 %) are beneficiaries and 25 (14.2 %) are community members. • A few of 51 (23.3 %) of the neo-literates and 27 (15.3 %) of the community members are aware the occupational information. • About 98 (24.8%) of the sample respondents are able to know the information in time. Out of 98 members 63 (28.8 %) of the neoliterates and 35 (19.9 %) of them were community members and 98 (24.8 %) of sample members do not know about the agriculture information. • With regard to the awareness on the functions of the bank, 88 (27.3 %) of the sample respondents knows the functions of banks. Out of 88 members 50 (22.8 %) of them are neo-literates and 38 (21.6 %) of them are community members and 59 (14.9 %) of sample members do not know the functions of the bank. 122
• Nearly 64 (16.2 %) of the sample members are unable to save the money. Social Awareness Particulars • Majority 153 (69.9 %) of the beneficiaries and 125 (71.0 %) of the community members (non-beneficiaries) are having a membership in youth clubs. • With regard to SHG membership 277 (70.1%) of the sample respondents are the members in any one of the self help groups. Out of 277 members 153 (69.9 %) of them are neo-literates and 124 (70.5 %) of them are community members. • More than half of the sample members, 255 (64.6%) of the members are associated with co-operative societies. Out of 255 members 145 (66.2 %) of them are neo-literates and 110 (62.5 %) of them are community members • Majority 274 (69.4%) of the sample respondents are having the membership in political bodies. Out of 274 members 154 (70.3%) of them are neo-literates and 120 (68.2 %) of them are community members • With regard to the encouragement of widow marriages, 83 (21.0%) of the sample members have agreed and 78 (19.7 %) of the members are disagreed • Regard to the abolition of dowry system, 70 (17.7 %) of the sample members have agreed out of 70 members, 29 (13.2 %) of them were neo-literates and 41 (23.3 %) of them are community members. • Majority 217 (54.9 %) of the sample respondents reported that they have no idea about inter caste marriages, out of 217 members, 123 (56.2 %) of them are neo-literates and 94 (53.4 %) of them are community. 123
• Sample respondents were exposed on child marriage aspects more than one fifth (22.3 %) of the sample members are agreed out of 88 members, 50 (22.8 %) of them are neo-literates and 38 (21.6 %) of them are community members • Only 64 (16.2 %) of the sample respondents informed that they have not acquired necessary information about bad habits. • Majority 247 (62.5 %) of the sample respondents informed that they are agree consuming of alcohol is a bad habit out of 247 members, 137 (62.6 %) of them are neo-literates and 110 (62.5 %) of them are community members • The provision of reservation to certain social groups, 108 (27.3%) of the sample respondents have agreed. Out of 108 members 59 (26.9 %) of the neo-literates and 49 (27.8 %) of the community members. • More than half of the 211 (53.4 %) sample respondents are agreed with regard to development of female literacy, out of 211, 120 (54.8 %) are neo-literates and 91 (51.7 %) are community member. Point of Views on Social Beliefs • Majority 216 (54.7 %) of the sample members have believes in the god to some extent, out of 216, 122 (55.7 %) of them are learners and 94 (53.4 %) of the community members. • Regard to belief in the evil spirits, 88 (22.3 %) of the sample respondents have belief. Out of 88 members 50 (22.8 %) of them are neo-literates and 38 (21.6 %) of the community members and 60 (15.2%) of sample members have disagreed. • Only 100 (25.3 %) of the sample respondents believed of religion, out of 100 members 55 (25.1 %) of the neo-literates and 45 (25.6 %) of the community members and 48 (12.2%) of sample members have disagreed. 124
• With regard to caste rigidity, 108 (27.3 %) of the sample respondents believed in the caste system. Out of 108 members 59 (26.9 %) of them are neo-literates and 49 (27.8 %) of the community members and 64 (16.2%) of sample members have disagreed. • 96 (24.3 %) of the sample respondents have shown response that they believed in which crafts. Medical Awareness Particulars • More than half 248 of the (62.8 %) sample respondents noticed that they are aware of the available medical facilities, out of 248 members, 140 (63.9 %) of them are neo-literates and 108 (61.4 %) of them are community members • Majority, 321 (81.3%) of the sample respondents are utilized. Out of 321 members 201 (91.8 %) of them are neo-literates and 120 (68.2 %) of the community members. • With regard to the vaccination, 263 (66.6 %) of the sample members are vaccinated, out of 263 members, 159 (72.6 %) are neo-literates and 104 (59.1 %) are community members. Awareness on Development / Welfare Programmes All the schemes analysed in the following lines are open to all people who are in the below poverty line. Whether the activity of the centre and preraks made any contribution in enhancing the knowledge on development / welfare programmes and as a facilitator in acquiring the scheme benefits, a comparison was made with the people who are not enrolled in the continuing education centre. With regard to Jalayagnam programme, majority percentage neoliterates (63.5 %) are well aware than the community members (55.7 %).
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INDERAMMA houses programme, a total of 62.8 % of respondents agreed that they are well aware about the scheme. The classification shows 63.9 % of neo-literates aware than 62.1 % of community members. The degree of difference of awareness is meagre. Rice for Rs. 2/- per KG programme, from the total sample 50.9% of the respondents have full knowledge about distribution of rice for Rs. 2/- K.G. by government. The neo-literates (55.7%) are well aware compared to community members (44.9%). This informs majority percentage (10.8%) neo-literates are well aware. Pension for need people, a total of 52.7 per cent of the sample have complete awareness on this scheme. Coming to group wise the community members (57.4%) are well aware than 48.9% of neo-literates. But a total of 92.7% of neo-literates have an idea either fully or some extents, in the case of community members only 61.9% have some degree of awareness With regard to Rajiv Arogya Sree, the degree difference awareness of Rajiv Aryoga Sree programme gives a notable picture. The neo-literates (76.3%) are aware about this programme, only 15.9% of community members positively responded. High percentage difference of 60.4 was recorded in this aspect. Coming to providing free electricity for farmers, majority (43.8%) of people who are attending the centre aware compare to their counter parts (5.1%). Indira Kranthi Pathakam programme, more percentage of community members (73.9%) are complete awareness about the scheme compare to neo-literates (51.6%). NREGP, about 88 per cent of neo-literates and 75.8% of community members has some kind of knowledge about this scheme, but in comparison neo-literates are well aware than the community members.
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On Debt waiver for farmer programme, the difference of awareness between neo-literates and community members is 6.9 percent which is marginal difference. With regard to Social welfare/Rural Development, the neo-literates (91.8%) and community members (85.8%) are have either complete or some extent knowledge on the schemes provided by the Government, which will help them to change their life pattern towards positive side. Table –1:
Awareness of Rural Development Programmes of NeoLiterates and Community Members Sl. No. Theme Group Percentage Neo-literates 63.5% 1. Jalayagnam Community 55.7% Neo-literates 63.9% INDERAMMA 2. Houses Community 61.4% 55.7% Rice for Rs. 2/- per Neo-literates 3. KG Community 44.9% 48.9% Pensions for needy Neo-literates 4. people Community 57.4% 76.3% Rajeev Arogya Neo-literates 5. Sree Community 15.9% 43.8% Free electricity for Neo-literates 6. BPL Community 5.1% 51.6% Indira Kranthi Neo-literates 7. Pathakam Community 73.9% Neo-literates 33.8% Employment 8. Grantee Scheme Community 13.1% 62.6% Debt recoveries for Neo-literates 9. farmers Community 55.7% 34.7% Social welfare / Neo-literates 10. development Community 25.0% Neo-literates 49.3% 11. Pasu Kranthi Community 27.8% 73.5% Debt recoveries for Neo-literates 12. socially deprived Community 60.8% Neo-literates 38.8% 13. Service of 104/108 Community 25.0% Neo-literates 75.3% 14. Family planning Community 69.9% 127
From the Pasu Kranthi programme, in village situation majority depend on raring milchi animals for additional income. Hence 94.3 per cent of neo-literates and 83.5% of community members well ware about this programme which initiated by the elected government. Debit waiver for Socially Deprived Sections, only 8.2 per cent of neo-literates and 14.2 per cent of community members have no idea about the scheme. The remaining respondents have an undertaking the scheme among them there is marginal difference. With regard to Services of 104 / 108, now-a-days people are more aware about health aspects and in many cases health personnel are out of their reach. Regarding the scheme individual only 38.8 per cent of neoliterates and 25.1 per cent community members well aware about the procedure and how to contact them, but in total around 95 per cent of rural people have some idea about the schemes. Among both groups neoliterates are better aware than community members. In case of family planning programme, respondents from neoliterates are marginal aware than community members. But only 5.3 per cent respondents have no idea because these are form young unmarried category. The general observation is people are well aware about small family norms. Benefits of Development / Welfare Programmes With regard to Jalayagnam, neo-literates (83.6 %) are benefited compare to community members (71.6 %), this shows neo-literates enjoyed maximum benefit than the counterparts.
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INDERAMM houses programme, more percentage of neo-literates (63.9 %) is benefited than community (52.3 %) which indicates the centre activity helps to neo-literates. Table – 2: Benefits of Rural Development Programmes of NeoLiterates and Community Members Sl. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
Theme Jalayagnam INDERAMMA Houses Rice for Rs. 2/- per KG Pensions for needy people Rajeev Arogya Sree Free electricity for BPL Indira Kranthi Pathakam Employment Grantee Scheme Debt recoveries for farmers Social welfare / development
11.
Pasu Kranthi
12.
Debt recoveries for socially deprived
13.
Service of 104/108
14.
Family planning
Group Neo-literates Community Neo-literates Community Neo-literates Community Neo-literates Community Neo-literates Community Neo-literates Community Neo-literates Community Neo-literates Community Neo-literates Community Neo-literates Community Neo-literates Community Neo-literates Community Neo-literates Community Neo-literates Community
Percentage 83.6% 71.6% 63.9% 52.3% 95.0% 84.7% 68.0% 52.8% 63.9% 61.4% 91.8% 68.2% 72.6% 59.1% 84.5% 61.9% 61.6% 56.3% 79.5% 61.9% 84.9% 63.6% 91.3% 62.5% 82.6% 68.8% 90.9% 53.4%
With regard to Rice for Rs. 2/- per KG programme, about 95 per cent of neo-literates are utilizing the facility compared to community 129
members (84.7%). Through both groups are enjoying maximum utilization of the scheme, the neo-literates are more benefited. Pension for need people programme, majority of the neo-literates (68%) are getting sanctioned (Individual or Family Members) than 52.8% of community members. The efforts of Preraks are fruitful. Coming to utilizing of Rajiv Arogya Sree programme the benefits difference of percentage is 12.5% only meagre. Neo-literates (63.9%) are to some extent are better than community members (61.4%). Health is very imparting for human life and the people are conscious about this. Hence, the difference is very meagre. Free electricity programme, from the analysis it is observed that the neo-literate about 91.8% have benefited than 68.2% of community members though the programme community propagated by peoples representatives and Governmental Officials, the community members are lagging in following the rules and norms to get the benefit. The neoliterates are utilizing more benefits due to exposure in the Continuing Education Centre. With regard to Indira Kranthi Pathakam, the benefit derived from the scheme, the result indicates that the neo-literates (72.6%) are in majority than their counter parts (59.1%) it is to be noted here, the majority of the community members well aware than neo-literates.
But in
utilization aspect more percentage of neo-literates (13.5%) got benefit there, which gives us an understanding that the centre has an impact on neo-literates. NREGP, the opinion regarding benefit derived form the NREGP scheme, only 22.6% of neo-literates are utilizing the facility than their counterparts (community members). 130
Debt waiver for farmer programme, Out of total benefited by the government welfare schemes more neo-literates 61.6% benefited then the community members their percentage is 56.3%.
Tax benefit and
awareness are inter-linked. Social welfare/Rural Development, higher percentages of neoliterates (79.5%) is benefited from the schemes than their control group (61.9%). Perhaps in explaining the norms and conditions to apply for the scheme, centre activity may be helped the neo-literates. For Pasu Kranthi programme, in this aspect of deriving benefit from Pasu Kranthi Programme higher degrees of neo-literates (84.9%) are benefited than their counterparts (63.6%) and the difference is 21.3 per cent.
The influence of continuing education programmes may be the
reason for more numbers of neo-literates utilizing the Pasu Kranthi Programme. Debit waiver for Socially Deprived Sections, there is a higher range of 28.8% benefit derived by neo-literates than their counter parts for applying and to receive the sanction of the scheme, most like may be the Preraks and are other officials actively helped and involved both in technical and general aspects. With regard to the services of 104 / 108, majority of the neo-literates (84.9%) are benefitted by the health schemes than community members (63.6%). The difference of benefit is high. Family Planning, the result shows that the neo-literates are adopting family planning practices in higher degree than only 50 per cent by the control group. There is a need to educate the community members in this aspect.
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Suggestions The researcher, while collecting the data observed the daily functioning of the centre, neo-literates participation and opinions of the community. The suggestions were derived by participatory observation and enlisted. i.
Provide importing of literacy should be placed in the context of the developmental needs of the adult and should be accompanied by wide range of measures relating of health, hygiene nutrition, housing and employment needs.
ii.
In view of the vital functions of the preraks, their minimum qualification should be raised to graduation.
iii.
For eradication of residual illiteracy, intensive literacy drives should be organized on mission based approach.
iv.
The district authority should instruct all development departments to utilize the continuing education centers as their platform for dissemination of information, selection of target to elicit the participation in the programme implementation.
v.
The centers should organize at least two vocational training programmes for every batch to increase the human resources and to create inspirations on new socio-economic developments.
vi.
The centers should discharge the function of media center as a single window for information at community level.
vii.
Special efforts should be initiated to organize the target specific programmes, equivalence, quality of life improvement, and
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individual interest promotion programmes, to attract all sections of the society. viii.
The training curriculum of the Preraks should be restricted to equip them to discharge their functions effectively.
ix.
The field functionaries should identify the local talents for organizing cultural and recreational programmes regularly.
x.
Organize the programme to create awareness on welfare / development Programme among the learners.
xi.
Steps should be taken to understand and create awareness to solve the problems among Preraks and Neo-literates.
xii.
The literacy centre had to be run in convenient times for the neoliterates with their consultation because they may be tired physically after work in their occupational field. The need for effective environment building and motivational strategies are to be created.
xiii.
Self-realization and self-acceptance greatly help to overcome various problems and contribute to better adjustment in society. Voluntary efforts will have higher impact in this respect. Factors relating to change of attitude are to be studied and identified and measures taken up accordingly.
xiv.
Occupational and skill development training programs for neoliterates in particular and community in general are aimed at improving income status to be organised.
xv.
Neo literates who regularly attend and successfully completed the three primers be given preference while sanctioning housing allotment. This will help permanent stay and reduce migration. 133
xvi.
Awareness process should be a continuous process, not time-bound, short-term or on and off.
xvii.
Information and communication for rural development programmes must be highlighted through village level functionaries. This will result in mass participation in learning activity.
xviii.
The investigator noted that efforts are being made to create environments through the Jathas, Street Plays etc., but the suggestion is that any one-off effort is not sufficient to sustain the interest of neo-literates. Therefore, with the assistance of local voluntary organisations, environment building should be a continuous process, so that the motivation of neo-literates is sustained through to the completion of an education activity. It further emphasises that local talent should be utilised to create a need-based environment.
xix.
There is an urgent need to prepare more and more success stories through the print and audio-visual media so that both the neoliterates and community can be inspired to participate in the national Endeavour.
xx.
The print and electronic media, particularly television, can be utilised in the most effective manner. This media should create a congenial learning environment so that the society and the neoliterates and community members join in and recognize the importance of education. This suggestion is very important because, from the observations, it was noted that the women are more interested in watching television serials.
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xxi.
Continuing Education Centre activity should not be introduced in isolation. It should go hand in hand with health, economic and social development, small savings, micro-finance and above all communal harmony. It should give people an immediate benefit, however small. The results from the analysis of the study shows that the continuing
education programme has a direct impact in creating awareness on the welfare / development on neo-literates is expressed their satisfaction in the case of centre activity.
Coming to benefits received from welfare /
development programmes. The neo-literates are having more access than community members. In a nut shell, the favourable environment of the centre has helped to enlighten the neo-literates in participation, receiving and achieving the objectives of the continuing education programme. References Adinarayana Reddy, P.A., & Uma Devi, D., (Ed.) (2006) Total Literacy Campaigns and Women Empowerment “Current trends in adult education” Sarup and sons, Ansari Road, New Delhi Anusuya Devi, K., (2009) “continuing Education – Trends, Issues and Future Perspectives”, (Ed. Vol.), Published by Dept. of Adult, Continuing Education Extension work and field outreach, Ahcarya Nagarjuna University, Guntur (A.P). Bhalba Vibhute (2006) “Essential Pre-conditions for Successful working of Adult Education Programme”, (Ed. Vol.) Sarup & Sons, New Delhi. Bordia Anil., (1973) “Literacy in India: An Analytical Study in Bordia” (ed.Vol), Adult Education in India, Nachiketa Publication, Bombay. Borg W.R., (1965) “Educational Research – An Introduction” New York; David Mc Kay Company, Inc. Chaudhury, Sahadat H (2008) Choices and voices of Adult illiterate: Exploring their literacy needs in rural Bangladesh, unpublished Ph.D dissertation, University of Massachuseetts Amherst
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Egbule, Patrick E., & Njoku, Edna-Mathews C., Mass Media Support for Adult Education in Agriculture in Southern Nigeria, Published by DVV, 56, 2001, 179-186 Jagannada Rao. D., (2002) “The Problems faced by Neo-Literates to attend Continuing Education Centres in Tirupati Rural Mandal of Chittoor District”. M.A. unpublished Dissertation, S.V. University, Tirupati. Mohanty and Jagannath (1987), “Adult Education and Development”, Himalaya Publishing Company, New Delhi. NAEP (1978), “An outline Directorate of Adult Education”, Ministry of HRD, Government of India, New Delhi. National Policy on Education – (1986) Ministry of HRD, Government of India, 1986. Patil., (1970) “A Critical Study of Social Education in the State of Gujarat, Ph.D. unpublished thesis, Sardal Patel University,. Reddeppa Reddy, M.C., (2003), “Continuing Education: Participation and performance of Continuing Education Committees in Tirupati (Rural) mandal, Chittor District. Published in Evaluation Studies (Ed. Vol), The Associated Publishers, Ambala cannt. Rodriguez, Liza M (2007) Adult learning for social action in a Latino Community: Integrating and sustaining skills development, community organizing and advocacy in a grassroots organization, unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Temple university Schweigert, Thomas F (2002) the effect of selected predictor variables upon adult learning style with in functional chaplaincy training, unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Touro University International Sivadasan Pillai, K., (1980) "Adult/Non-formal Education Programme in India - Legislative Connectional and Evaluation Analysis", Indian Journal of Adult Education, Vol.41, No.5, May 1980. Surapa Raju, S. (2002), “Akshara Sankranthi Programme and Evaluation” Indian Journal of Adult Education, Vol 63, No.4. Oct-Dec 2002. pp. 43-46. Vasudeva Rao B.S., (1988) “National Adult Education Programme in Visakhapatnam District”, Himalaya Publication House, Mumbai. Vasudeva Rao, B. S and Viswanadha Gupta, P (2008) Multi-Dimensional Approaches to Literacy Development, Associated Publishers, Ambala cannt. Viswanadha Gupta P (2008) “Literacy Attainment of Continuing Education Beneficiaries” Literacy and Development, Journal of Society for
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Promotion of Adult Continuing Education (SPACE), p.p. 42-54, Issue No. 1 Workshop Proceedings (1999) on integrated rural development through participatory approach Organized by Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Anantapur on 30th & 31st January, 1999
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Chapter – 11 Rural India: Gandhian Approach Dr. M.V.S.S. Prakasa Rao Teaching Associate, Department of Education, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam. Development implies a change that is desirable.
Since what is
desirable at a particular time, place and in a particular culture may not be desirable at other places, or at other times at the same place and in the same culture milieu, it is difficult to derive a universally acceptable definition of development. The term rural development connotes overall development of rural areas with a view to improve the quality of life of rural people. The new economic view of development considers reduction or elimination of Illiteracy, poverty, inequality and unemployment as an important index of development. Since time immemorial, India has been still continues to be and will remain in the foreseeable future, a land of village communities. As a matter of fact, the village was the basic unit of administration as far as the Vedic Age; there is a reference to Gramini (village) in the Rig Veda the predominantly rural character of India’s national economy is reflected in the very high proportion of its population living in rural areas. It was 89 per cent in 1901, 83 per cent in 1951, 80 per cent in 1971, seventy four percent in 1991and around 70 percent in 2001 census are living in rural and tribal areas, i.e. more than 700 million of its people living in rural areas, and with the rural sector contributing about 29 per cent of its Gross Domestic Product, no strategy of socio-economic development for India that neglects rural people and rural areas yet to be successful. The rural sector occupies an important place in India economy. About 74 per cent of India’s population live in its 5, 80,000 or so villages, 138
and about two-third of the country’s population is dependent on agriculture and allied activities for its livelihood. Agricultural and allied activates contributed about 29 per cent of India’s Gross Domestic Product at factor cost in 1994-95 at current prices. It is also an important source of foreign exchange and raw materials for India’s major agro-industries, and a large market for industrial products.
Thus the rural sector forms the basic
foundation of India’s economy. No programme of national development can ever succeed if it is not built on this foundation . Gandhiji advocated the ideals of truth, non-violence and moral values to achieve the ultimate truth of self-realization. He is a devotee of Naturalism, when he speaks about the development of the child according to his nature and he becomes a Pragmatist when he advocates learning by doing and learning by experience. All these lead to an integration, so essential to effective education and development of the total personality of an individual. Basic Education Gandhiji’s scheme of education is known as Basic Education. Its curriculum is activity-centred. Its aim is to prepare the child for practical work, conduct experiments and do research, so that he is able to develop himself physically, mentally and spiritually and become a useful member of society. In this activity centred curriculum, Gandhiji included Mothertongue, Basic Craft, Arithmetic, Sociology, General Science, Art Music and other like subjects. The Basic Education, as originally conceived, was to cover the education of children from seven to fourteen. On the basis of experience and further thinking, Gandhiji extended both the scope and content of Basic Education. Addressing Basic Education workers at Sevagram he said that we must participate in the homes of the children. We must 139
educate their parents. Basic Education must become literally education for life.
Gandhiji explained this new conception of Basic Education as
education for life and through life. He stated that the scope of Basic Education has to be extended.
It should include the education of
everybody at every stage of life. Development – Different Strategies Development is a complex process, which is affected by economic and non economic factors. The importance of non – economic factors in development was duly recognized by the classical school. John Stuart mill thought that non – economics factors, like beliefs, habits of thought, customs and institutions play an important role in economic development, and he attributed the backwardness of underdeveloped countries to the despotic and anti-progressive character of their customs, institutions, and beliefs. For example in India large part of the credit for bringing about the green revolution goes to the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) that helped India, both financially and technically, in setting up modern land – grant type state agricultural universities in the 1960s, and trained its agricultural scientists in American land-grant agricultural universities, Similarly, the operation flood programme that is credited with modernizing India’s dairy industry also benefited a lot from food aid in the form of skimmed milk powder and butter oil, first from the world food programme of FAO, and them from the European Economic Community (EEC). There is a need for the government to accord a very high priority, next only to defense, to rural development and to formulate a comprehensive national rural development policy, guaranteeing a reasonably satisfactory level of living to everyone in the sector, and 140
liberating them for their servitude to ignorance, the rich, the elite and nature. Both public and private investment in the sector needs to be stepped up in order to increase the factor productivity in the sector, and improve the quality of life of rural people. Public investment is needed for creating and strengthening basic infrastructure, and private investment for expanding income and employment generating activities. The non-agriculture sub sector of the rural sector has been increasing at a faster rate than the agricultural sub sector in the recent past, and has a vast potential to provide employment opportunities to rural people in the future. Looking towards the twenty-first century, we must slow the process of the urban spread, with its emphasis on labour – intensive and small-scale enterprises, widens income opportunities for the poor including small farmers, the landless and women enabling them to even out extreme fluctuations in their incomes. Consequences of development The whole structure of national societies and of international society is there fore relevant to the development of people.
There are few
societies, which can be said to serve this purpose; there are few, if any which both accept and are orgnaised to serve social justice, in what has been called the revolution of Rising Expectations. The greatest advances in technology and economic growth have been achieved under capitalism. But the decisions pertaining to what goods shall be produced, and how they shall be produced are made by a small number of people who have control over land and capital.
The
determining factor in their decision-making is whether the activity will yield profit, power, or prestige to them, as owners of land or capital. The needs of humankind are secondary, if they are considered at all.
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Challenges and Opportunities Achieving food security has so far been the overriding goal of agricultural policy in India. The introduction and rapid spread of high yielding varieties in the late sixties and early seventies resulted in a steady growth of output of food grains. The present crop yield in India is very low as compared to these undeveloped countries. The yield gap could be bridged only though a comprehensive integrated National Agricultural policy emphasizing, inter alias, increased public and private investment in agriculture, widespread use of appropriate new technologies, and produceroriented price policies and professionally- managed programmes. If the average cereal yield in India can be increased to the level of the world average, India can become the world’s number one nation in terms of food grain production. Therefore the biggest challenge before India is how to increase its crop yields to the world average level. Liberalization has opened up new opportunities for Indian farmers to benefit from higher world prices for their produce, and lower process for some of the inputs. Exports orientation has brought in its wake the need for high tech projects and for exploring international markets for exportable commodities. The assessment of credit demand, appraisal, and instruments of financing high tech sector requires concomitant institutional innovations for, which a beginning has been made with the establishment of agricultural development finance companies. Rural Economy – Indian Scenario India’s economy can be thought of as comprising two main sectors namely, the rural sector and the non –rural sector. the rural sector is in turn, composed of two main sub sectors, i.e., the agricultural sub sector
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comprises agriculture and allied economic activities such as crop husbandry, animal husbandry and dairying, fisheries, poultry and forestry. The non – agriculture sub sectors consists of economic activities relating to industry, business and services. Industry here refers to co -enterprises, trading to general goods, small shops, petty traders, etc., where as services refer to transport, communications, banking input supply, marketing of farm and non-farm produce, etc. The main stakeholders of the rural sector include farmers agricultural and non –agricultural laborers, artisans, traders, moneylenders, and those engaged in providing such services as transport communications processing, banking and education and extension Rural Poverty Rural poverty is the opposite of the term rural development. It implies lack of development, or underdevelopment, and therefore the knowledge of its measures also is as important as that of measures of rural development. Rural poverty is a worldwide problem; it exists in both developing and developed countries of the world. Over one billion people in the world are estimated to be living in poverty. The incidence of poverty is highly, uneven among the regions of the world, among countries within those regions as among localities within those countries. Nearly half of the world’s poor live in south Asia, a region that accounts for roughly 30 per cent of the world’s population.
Alleviation of poverty has been an
important objective of development, policies and programmes formulated all over the world, including India. Rural Development - Gandhian Model
143
Gandhiji’s approach to India’s rural development was holistic and people –centered. It was rooted in this conviction in the tenets of truth, non -violence and the goodness of human beings. Influenced as he was by Tolstoy, Ruskin and the teachings of the Gita, he placed more emphasis on moral and spiritual values than economic motives as a means of overall development. Values underlying the model Gandhian model of rural development is based on the following values and premises. 1.
Real India is found not in its cities, but in its villages.
2.
The revival of villages is possible only when the village is exploited no more. Exploitation of villagers by city dwellers was “violence”, in Gandhiji’s opinion.
3.
Simple living and high thinking , implying voluntary reduction of materialistic wants, and pursuit of moral and spiritual principles of life
4.
Dignity of labour: everyone must earn his bread by physical labour, and one who labours must necessarily get his subsistence.
5.
Preference to the use of indigenous (swadeshi)products, service and institutions
6.
Balance between the ends and the means: Gandhiji believed that non-violence the ends and the means was maintained.
Principal components of the model The principal components of the Gandhi model are as follows Self-sufficient village economy 144
Gandhiji’s concept of self – sufficiency was not a narrow one, nor was it that of selfishness or arrogance. He realized the need for villagers to get those things from outside the village, which they could not produce in the village. Decentralisation Gandhiji believed that human happiness with mental and moral development should be the supreme goal of
society, and that this goal
should be achieved through decentralisation of political and economic powers Khadi and village industries For Gandhi, Khadi was an instrument of decentralization of production and distribution of the basic necessities of life, and of ensuring ‘work to all’ .He also favoured the promotion of other village industries, such as hand grinding, hand pounding ,soap making, paper making, metal making, oilseed crushing, tanning etc. He advocated the use of manual labour, but he appreciated the role of new technologies, if they were appropriate, indigenous, and did not affect the level of employment and standard of living Implementing strategy Gandhiji prescribed the following institutional structure and instruments for implementing his strategy, namely Panchayatraj, cooperatives, trusteeship, and Nai Taleem (New Education). A brief description of each of these instruments follows. Panchayatraj Gandhiji envisaged that each village in India would be a republic, where the village panchayat would have the full power of managing its affairs, including defence. He expected the panchayat to perform the 145
legislative, executive and judicial functions necessary for smooth functioning of the village economy. Various development activities such as education, health and sanitation would also be taken up by the village panchayat. It is good and in conformity with Gandhi views, that India now has made panchayatraj institutions statutory bodies by passing the 73rd (constitution) Amendment act, 1992, it is hoped that Gandhiji dream of local self-governance through village panchayats would now be fulfilled. Co-operatives Gandhiji saw a great virtue in cooperation as an instrument of rural development. He assigned specific roles to cooperatives in the fields of agriculture, commending the promotion of cooperative farming and thereby preventing further fragmentation of landholding.
He also
advocated the establishment of other type of cooperatives, such as credit cooperatives, weavers and spinner’s cooperatives and dairy cooperatives up to the expectations of Gandhi.
India now has the world’s largest
network of cooperatives which occupy an important place in India’s rural economy. The Operation Flood Programme is a living example of what cooperatives can do to promote agricultural and rural development in India. Trusteeship Gandhiji considered trusteeship is an instrument of transforming the capitalist order of society into an egalitarian one. In his opinion, all the land belonged to god, that is the community, and therefore he advocated that land and other natural resources should be collectively owned by, and operated for, the welfare of the community. Landlords should merely be trustees of land other natural resources and capital assets. He saw in the principals of trusteeship a non – violent method of persuading landowners
146
to donate their land voluntarily for community welfare purposes, and of avoiding class conflicts. Nai taleem Gandhiji had no faith in modern education, which emphasized only literacy and acquisition of information. In his opinion , modern education was debauchery of the mind Hence he developed a
new system of
appropriate education and training, which he called Nai taleem, he believed that Nai taleem would help to develop the full potential of children and adults, through full development of their bodies, minds and spirits. He wanted to see Nai Taleem to be self-supporting and practice– oriented. Conclusions & Suggestions India is rich human resources. This has been amply demonstrated by what Indians have achieved in all fields of human endeavour, including science and technology what’s needed now is a long term policy for development of human resources through education training, health care, and empowerment and creation of a congenial socio-economic institutional (including legal), and political environment for the fullest possible utilization of the vast, untapped reservoirs of human power and ingenuity. Human resources are inexhaustible and renewable, and hence the only resources which can sustain development forever, our axiom in the twentyfirst century should be human beings are both the end and the means of development. Elementary education: Hundred percent enrolments in the age group up to 14 years by 1990 it would be supplemented with on formal education. 1. Hundred percent coverage of adults in the age group 15 to 35 by 2010 through Non-Formal education. 147
2. Provision of compulsory and free education at elementary stage. 3. Provision of adult education centers, CECS and rural library services. Rural Health: one community health volunteer for a population of 1000 or a village by 2010 establishment of one 3000 in tribal and hilly areas by 2000 AD Establishment of one community health centre for a population of one lakh or one CD Block by 2000AD. 1. Provision of sanitary (including drainage and disposal of wastes) and public health measures. 2. Provision for the control of Malaria and other diseases. 3. Provision of drinking water supplies. 4. Provision of medical aid for the ailing. 5. Antenatal core of expectant mothers and midwifery services. Rural water supply: Linking all remaining villages with a population of 1500 and above and 50 percent of the total number of village with population of 1000 to 1500 by 1990. Rural Electrification: At least 60 percent of the village in each state and union territory to be electrified by 1990. Housing to landless labour: provision of housing assistance to all landless labour households by 1990. Assistance includes house site, construction materials, drinking water facility for a cluster of houses and approach road. Encouragement of improved rural housing on a self-help basis. Rural Agriculture 1. Reclamation of available virgin and waste land. 2. Provision of water for agriculture through various channels.
148
3. Development of rural electrification. 4. Promotion of improved agricultural techniques and land utilization. 5. Provision of quality seeds. 6. Promotion of veterinary aid. 7. Promotion of marketing and credit facilities. 8. Promotion of home economics. 9. Encouragement of the use of natural and compost manures. 10.Provision of improved agricultural implements Communication Net Work • Provision of roads and transport services • Encouragement of employment through trade auxiliary and welfare services. Suggestions Hence keeping the view of the above Gandhian model towards the development of rural areas it is observed that the foremost is development of rural villages in building the nation economy and development. Even in the threshold of the 21st Century, Gandhian model is more appropriate for the developing country like India. The following suggestions are keeping in view, while preparing and planning a model for Gram Swaraj. 1.
Strengthening the impulses of modernization for the achievement of economic and technological self-reliance.
2.
There is a significant need of reduction in the incidence of poverty and unemployment.
149
3.
Improving the quality of the life of the people with special reference to the economically and socially challenged population through a Minimum Needs Programme.
4.
Promoting policies to control the growth of population through voluntary acceptance of the small family norm.
5.
Promoting the active involvement of all sections of the people in the process of development through appropriate education, communication and institutional strategies.
150
References Adelman, Irma and C.T.Morris. 1967. Society Politics and Economic Development. Baltimore: johns Hopkins University Press. Chand, Ramesh. 1997. ‘Important liberalization and Indian agriculture: the challenge and strategy’, New Delhi: national centre for agricultural Economics and Policy Research, Policy Paper 6. Dandekar, V.M. and Nilakanth Rath. 1971. Poverty in India. Pune: Indian school of Political Economy. Desai, D.K.1983. Management in Rural Development. New Delhi: oxford and IBH. Deshpande, D.V.M.K. Mudgal and K.K. Gupta. 1996. ‘Regional Rural Banks at Cross Roads’, Working Paper 9. Lucknow: Bankers Institute of Rural Development. Doornvos, Martin, Frank van Dorsten, Manoshi Mitra and Piet Terhal, 1990. Dairy Aid and Development: India’s separation Flood Indo-Dutch Studies on Development Alternatives, 3. New Delhi/ New Bury Park / London: Sage Publications. Guptha, S.P. 1995. ‘Economic Reform and its Impact on Poor’, in the Economic and political Weekly, 3 June, 1295 -1313. Katar Singh, Rural Development, Principles, Policies and Management, Sage Publications, New Delhi. Krishnaji, N. 1997. ‘Human Poverty Index: A Critique’, in the Economic and Political Weekly, 30, August: 2202 – 5. Kumar, Nalini. 1997. ‘Operation Flood: Literature Review and Reconciliation’, Occasional Publication, No – 13. Anand : Institute of Rural Management. N.R. Swaroop Saxena (2005), Principles of Education, Published by R. Lall Book Depot, Meerut – 250001. V.R. Taneja (1987), Educational Thought and Practice, Published by sterling Publishers Private Limited, New Delhi – 110020. World Bank. 1997. World Bank Development Report 1997. Delhi: Oxford University Press.
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Chapter – 12 Impact of Sustainable Agricultural Practices on Rural Development Dr. S. V. Lakshmana Rao Department of Education, AU, VSP, AP. E-mail:
[email protected] Mr. N. Appala Raju Department of Geography, AU,VSP,AP. Email:
[email protected]
“If the villages perish, India will perish too. It will be no more India. Her own mission in the world will get lost. Instead of villages subservicing cities, cities must sub-serve villages”- Gandhi. Introduction India is full of innumerable villages. Most of the population of the country lives in the villages. This makes obvious that any process of planning and development in India can hardly succeed without transforming its “Rural Society”. The destiny of great India reshaped through planned development. The villages are remaining backward due to poverty, illiteracy, repression, exploitation and negligence through ages. The rural development is not a negative as a remainder concept of reconstruction the rural society to fully develop its potentialities to be selfreliant in basic needs. The word ‘rural’ thus stands for a socio-cultural entity and is not merely a territorial or regional concept. The major profession of rural India is agriculture. Education is the master key for bringing awareness on socio-economic, cultural and political aspects. A vast country of sub continental size like India with marked regional diversities in agro-climatic environment, resource endowment and population density is likely to be characterized by uneven economic and 152
agricultural development among various regions. The regional differences in agricultural development arising out of varied physical resource endowments tend to get further accentuated because of varying levels of investment in rural infrastructure and in technological innovation. According to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), current mitigation efforts could result in a global average rise of 30C rather than 20C. In this scenario, the economic review of Climate Change suggests, 550 million more people would be at risk of hunger, and 170 million more would suffer severe coastal foods. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) says that Climate change may displace 150 million people by 2050. This conveys the importance of innovative research practices to sustain the agricultural production in order to keep the globe away from such a dangerous situation. Therefore, it is necessary to take up innovative agricultural practices to boost the productivity for rural development in India. Sustainable Agriculture Agriculture and rural development become sustainable when they are ecologically sound, economically viable, socially just, culturally appropriate, and humane and based on a holistic scientific approach. The major objective of Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development is to increase food production in a sustainable way and enhance food security. This will involve education initiatives, utilization of economic incentives and the development of appropriate and new technologies, thus ensuring stable supplies of nutritionally adequate food, access to those supplies by vulnerable groups, and production for markets; employment and income generation to alleviate poverty; and natural resource management and environmental protection.
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Agriculture needs to be intensified to meet future demands for commodities and to avoid further expansion onto marginal lands and encroachment on fragile ecosystems. Increased use of external inputs and development of specialized production and farming systems tend to increase vulnerability to environmental stresses and market fluctuations. There is a need to intensify agriculture by diversifying the production systems for maximum efficiency in the utilization of local resources, while minimizing environmental and economic risks. Where intensification of farming systems is not possible, other on-farm and off-farm employment opportunities should be identified and developed, such as cottage industries, wildlife utilization, aquaculture and fisheries, non-farm activities, such as light village-based manufacturing, farm commodity processing, agribusiness, recreation and tourism, etc. Sustainable agriculture is the use of farming systems and practices, which maintain or enhance the economic viability of agricultural production, the natural resource base, and other ecosystems, which are influenced by agricultural activities. This definition can be supplemented by some
fundamental principles
of sustainable
agriculture
like
enhancement in the farm productivity over the long term, adverse impacts on the natural resource base and associated ecosystems are improved or avoided, minimization of the agriculture residues resulting from the use of chemicals, the net social benefit is to be maximized and to look after that farming systems are sufficiently flexible to manage risks associated with the unpredictable actions of climate and markets. “SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT PROPOSED A NEW VISION: AN AGRICULTURE SECTOR THAT WOULD NOT ONLY ENSURE FOOD SECURITY THROUGH INCREASED OUTPUT, BUT HELP RURAL PEOPLE SATISFY THEIR SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND CULTURAL ASPIRATIONS, 154
AND PROTECT AND CONSERVE THE NATURAL RESOURCE BASE TO MEET FUTURE NEEDS” (“RENEWING SARD”, AGRICULTURE 21 MAGAZINE, MARCH 2001).
Government of Andhra Pradesh is providing loans for pavala vaddi to the farmers, schemes like Polam Badi, Adarsha Rhythu Padhakam were introduced and also National Food Security Mission to look after their welfare but these programmes does not meet the requirements unless the changes were incorporated in the method of agricultural practices in accordance with research results and providing awareness through agricultural extension services. Globalization, Competitiveness and Growth The agriculture sector continues to operate in a global business environment, where technological advancements, lower labour costs and rapidly changing consumer demands are creating new opportunities while at the same time increasing challenges to all market participants. Potential opportunities exist to gain a competitive advantage by identifying markets for verified, high quality goods. Challenges include increasing average age of producers, and increased demands relating to unprecedented growth in the country such as labour and resources. In addition, risk management tools and processes must continue to move the industry to a higher level of resiliency to climate change, weather variability, pests and disease, product pricing affected by market shifts, and technical and regulatory issues that either enhance or impede competitiveness. Research, development and commercialization are powerful tools for improving competitiveness, profitability and growth. Advances in science and innovation create opportunities for enhancing industry productivity and product off rings. As a result of these efforts, the 155
agriculture industry is now poised to meet consumer demand for conventional foods and new bio-products. In collaboration with leading research and development organizations, the Ministry is able to assist the agriculture industry to innovate and advance. Innovative Practices • Agricultural policy review, planning and integrated programming in the light of the multifunctional aspect of agriculture, particularly with regard to food security and sustainable development; • Ensuring people's participation and promoting human resource development for sustainable agriculture; • Improving
farm
production
and
farming
systems
through
diversification of farm and non-farm employment and infrastructure development; • Land-resource planning information and education for agriculture; • Land conservation and rehabilitation; • Water for sustainable food production and sustainable rural development; • Conservation and sustainable utilization of plant genetic resources for food and sustainable agriculture; • Conservation and sustainable utilization of animal genetic resources for sustainable agriculture; • Integrated pest management and control in agriculture; • Sustainable plant nutrition to increase food production; • Rural energy transition to enhance productivity;
156
• Evaluation of the effects of ultraviolet radiation on plants and animals caused by the depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer.
157
Conclusion In India, about 60% of the area remains rain fed. The aim of rural education is to make the village prosperous, interesting and culturally rich place with such range of opportunity and adventure that young people will find in them, more zest and interest, more cultural advantage, and more opportunity for pioneering there, than in the cities. Cities have drawn the cream of life and culture from the villages, returning almost nothing and thereby reducing the strength of the nation. Theory guides but experiment decides. What I mean to say here is there are various methods for increasing crop production. But they are not reaching the rural. They are useful only when they are put into practice. Rural people should be made aware of these practices. Government should come forward to bring awareness and make these innovative results into practice for the welfare of the rural in turn the nation. It will happen only when there is a proper give and take between the cities and the villages that both will be enriched. Effective policies, legislation and regulations are essential in enabling the growth of a globally competitive, sustainable agriculture and food industry while safeguarding the public interest. Challenges include continuing the liberalization of agricultural trade through policy direction and multilateral, regional and bilateral engagements; ensuring that legislative frameworks enable
innovation
and
growth;
and
facilitating
alignment
and
complimentary with policy and legislation held at different other levels of government. Additionally, sound and strong rural policy is needed to enhance rural capacity through effective organizations, improved resource utilization. Recommendations Governments at the appropriate level and with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations should 158
• Assist farming households and communities to apply technologies related to improved food production and security, including storage, monitoring of production and distribution. • Strengthen research on agricultural production systems in areas with different
endowments
and
agro-ecological
zones,
including
comparative analysis of the intensification, diversification and different levels of external and internal inputs. • Involve and train local economists, planners and analysts to initiate national and international policy reviews and develop frameworks for sustainable agriculture; • Establish legal measures to promote access of women to land and remove biases in their involvement in rural development. • Train professionals and planning groups at national, district and village levels through formal and informal instructional courses, travel and interaction; • Generate discussion at all levels on policy, development and environmental issues related to agricultural land use and management,
through
media
programmes,
conferences
and
seminars. • Strengthen ministries for agriculture, natural resources and planning. • Establish land-resource mapping and planning units at national, district and village levels to act as focal points and links between institutions and disciplines, and between Governments and people; • Establish or strengthen Governments and international institutions with responsibility for agricultural resource survey, management and development; rationalize and strengthen legal frameworks; and provide equipment and technical assistance. 159
• Establish village resource centers (VRC) with satellite connection at all the locations with the help of ISRO. • Establish with the help of Ministry of Health Sciences and the India Meteorological station at Research and Extension center to initiate ‘weather information for all’ programme. References Acharya S.S. et.al, (2002) “Sustainable Agriculture, Poverty and Food Security” Rawat Publications Jaipur, Vol.1. AGRICULTURE MAGAZINE, MARCH 2001, “RENEWING SARD” Ajit Kumar Bera and Sumana Basu (2000) “Natural Resources and Rural Development: A Block Level Study” Indian Journal of Landscape Systems and Ecological Studies, Vol.23, No.1, Pp.46-51. Lakshman Rao S.V., (2009) “Vocational and Apprenticeship training for Sustainable livelihood of Rural People” Book edited by Prof. Y.Bhaskaracharyulu Sarup book publishes Pvt. Ltd New Delhi, Pp 340345. Mohammad Shafi (2006) “Agricultural Geography” Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd. Licensees of Pearson Education in South Asia, New Delhi. Suresh Chandra Babu & G. Balachandran (2009) “Three programs that could effectively reduce poverty and malnutrition” The Hindu Survey of Indian Agriculture 2009 Magazine. Pp.111-115. SWAMINATHAN M.S., “COPENHAGEN, TSUNAMI HUNGER” ARTICLE IN THE HINDU 26 DEC 2009.
AND
UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs Division for Sustainable Development Vandana Shiva & Gitanjali Bedi (2002) “Sustainable Agriculture and Food Security the Impact of Globalization”
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Chapter – 13 Impact of Rural Credit Cooperative Societies on Upliftment of Weaker Sections – A Case Study of Hassan District Dr. K. Sivachithappa Asst. Professor of Economics University of Mysore Post Graduate Center, Mandya -571402, India Email:
[email protected] Introduction The rural cooperative credit societies form an integral part of the rural banking system in performing their activities on co-operative principles. Cooperative undertakings have long been accepted as an alternative to the private and public sector enterprises in India in organizing key economic activities, especially where people of small means are involved. The Primary agricultural credit societies form the basic edifice on which the entire short-term and medium term cooperative credit system is built. These societies have direct contact with the member agriculturists. It would not be an exaggeration to state that the success of the cooperative movement in general and credit structure in particular depends to a very large extent on the success of the primary agricultural credit societies. Cooperative banks have an important role to play in the process of economic development of India. But they have not been quite successful in accomplishing the objectives for which they have been established. The main problem encountered by primary agricultural credit societies for a long time is their non-viability due to the interplay of several factors. The cooperative banks under liquidation represent as high as 22 percent of the existing cooperative banks. Considering the commitment and interest of the state in the development of such institutions and the outlay on promoting such 161
institutions, it is very important to take all measures to avoid the occurrence of the inevitable act of closing down a cooperative bank. Though primary agricultural credit societies have made a substantial progress in providing credit towards agriculture and other allied activities, the doubts are raised about the efficient functioning of the primary agricultural credit societies. The most serious problems faced by primary agricultural credit societies are low rate recovery, high rate of liquidation. The available studies concentrate only on certain aspects of primary agricultural credit societies leaving unexplained the important aspects of economic viability and agricultural finance. The studies on primary agricultural credit societies are not only very few but also far between. Hence the present study is designed to fill the said research lacunae. More specifically, the study aims at studying the agricultural finance and other related problems of these cooperative banks. The study is also justified on the ground that there exists a wide gap between agricultural finance and recovery rate of these cooperative banks. The present study aims to evaluate the rural credit cooperative credit societies in the development of the rural community. Objectives of the Study The study is mainly based on the following objectives; 1. To examine the agricultural credit needs of farmers in Hassan district. 2. To assess the extent of availment of cooperative banks advances to farmers in rural areas. 3. To analyse the impact of cooperative banks credit on production level and standard of living of farmers in the study area i.e., Hassan district.
162
4. To offer suggestions for improving the performance of cooperative banks in financing different activities in rural development.
Research Methodology The study is based on both primary and secondary source of data. The primary data has been collected from Hassan District. We have interviewed 400 sample respondents on random sampling basis to collect the primary information. The data and information have been collected from various sources, which is already mentioned in the sources of data. Besides published material, study is also based on discussions with various people such as officials and non- officials of the Lead Bank Office and DCC Bank, Hassan District. Simple statistical techniques like averages, growth rates have been used to analyze the data wherever necessary. The study is confined to Hassan district, the period of the study covers from 1997-98 to 2008-09. Results and Discussion Age of the respondents is an important parameter to determine the involvement in the economy activity and the capability to under take activity. Here we have made an attempt to analyze the age group of the respondents. Taluk wise age of the farmers been presented in the table - 1. The Table - 1 gives the details of Taluk-wise age of the respondents. Total number of respondents was 400 out of this 5.1 percent respondents were in the age-group of 21 to 40 years. 86.4 percent were in the age group of 41 to 60 years and remaining 8 per cent were in the age-group of 61 to 80 years and above.
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The Table- 1 also indicates the age of sample respondents in the study area. Among 8 percent of the sample farmers in the age-group of between 21 to 40 years were found in Alur and Arakalgud taluks. But there are no farmers between the age-group of 21-40 years in Belur, C.R.Patna and Holenarasipura and Sakaleshpura. Where as, 100 percent sampled farmers in the age group between 41 to 60 years were identified in Belur, C.R.Patna and Alur taluks followed by Arakalgud and Hassan taluks with 96 per cent and 76 percent respectively. Table- 1:
Age wise distribution of Sample Respondents in Hassan district by taluks
Name of the Taluks Alur Arakalgud Arsikere Belur C.R.Patna Hassan H.N.Pura Sakaleshpura Total
21-40
41-60
61-80
Total
2 (4.0%) 4 (8.0%) 8 (16.0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 4 (8.0%) 4 (8.0%) 4 (8.0%) 26 (6.5%)
48 (96.0%) 38 (76.0%) 34 (68.0%) 50 (100.0%) 50 (100.0%) 34 (68.0%) 34 (68.0%) 34 (68.0%) 322 (80.5%)
0 (0)% 8 (16.0%) 8 (16.0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 12 (24.0%) 12 (24.0%) 12 (24.0%) 52 (13.0%)
50 (100.0%) 50 (100.0%) 50 (100.0%) 50 (100.0%) 50 (100.0%) 50 (100.0%) 50 (100.0%) 50 (100.0%) 400 (100.0%)
Source: Field Survey. Only 12 per cent of sampled farmers are in the age-group of 61 – 80 years in Hassan taluk, there were no farmers in the age group of 61 to 80 years in Alur, Belur, and C.R.Patna and Sakaleshapura taluks.
164
Caste Wise Classification of Sample Respondents It is widely recognized in the Indian setting that caste and occupation are positively related to the rural India. In Karnataka, the farmer community is dominated by two castes viz., Gowda community dominated in the south Karnataka. The Hassan district area is located in south Karnataka. The majority of sample respondents are belongs to Vokkaliga Community. The details of Caste-wise classification of sample respondents are presented in table - 2. It is observed from the table - 2 that, about 13.14 per cent belongs to OBC, 35.14 per cent belongs to Vokkaliga. 27.7 per cent respondent belongs to Lingayaths, 15.43 per cent sampled respondents were belongs to Scheduled Caste, 7.14 per cent of sampled farmers were Scheduled Tribes and 1.4 per cent belongs to other caste. Table – 2: Caste-Wise Classification of Sample Respondents Name of the Taluks Alur Arakalgu d Arasiker e Belur C.R.Patn a Hassan H.N.Pura Sakleshp ura Total
OBC
Vokkaliga Lingayitha
SC
ST
Others
4 (8.0%) 7 (14.0%) 4 (8.0%) 6 (12.0%) 6 (12.0%) 8 (16.0%) 7 (14.0%) 7 (14.0%)
16 (32.0%) 17 (34.0%) 24 (48%) 13 (26.0%) 14 (28.0%) 15 (30.%) 21 (42.0%) 21 (42.0%)
14 (28.0%) 11 (22.0%) 12 (24.0%) 15 (30.0%) 18 (36.0%) 10 (20.0%) 13 (26.0%) 13 (26.0%)
6 2 (12.0%) (4.0%) 3 2 (6.0%) (4.0%) 3 1 (6.0%) (2.0%) 4 0 (8.0%) (.0%) 4 0 (8.0%) (.0%) 3 0 (6.0%) (0%) 2 0 7 (14.0%) (4.0%) (.0%) 2 0 7 (14.0%) (4.0%) (.0%)
53 (13.25 %)
144 (36%)
110 (27.5%)
61 (15.25%)
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8 (16.0%) 6 (12.0%) 5 (10.0%) 12 (24.0%) 8 (16.0%) 4 (8.0%
5 27 (1.25% (6.75%) )
Source: Field Survey The Table also indicates that a respondent belongs to Vokkaliga Community in Arasikere taluk with 48 per cent followed by Holenarasipura and Alur has 46 per cent and 42 per cent respectively. 16 per cent of the respondents belongs to OBC in both Hassan and Arakalgud taluks. A sample farmer belongs to Lingayitha in the taluks of Channarayapatna, Belur, represents 36 per cent, 30 per cent, 28 per cent and 28 per cent respectively. 24 per cent of the sampled respondents belong to Scheduled Caste followed by Hunsur and H.D.Kote taluks an account nearly 20 per cent and 16 per cent respectively. 12 per cent of the respondents belong to Scheduled Tribe in Alur taluk, which has high compared to other taluks. Remaining 1.4 per cent respondents belongs to other community. Education Level The level of education has close relationship with the borrowing habit. The level of education impact on a farmers borrowing of credit and ability to make utilization of credit. Taluk-wise education status in Mysore district has been presented in the table - 3. The Table – 3 reveals that the educational status of the sample respondents in the study area. Out of 400 respondents 97 (27.72 per cent) are illiterate. The sample respondents to the extent of 169 (48.29) per cent, 6 (19.14) percent, 13 (3.7 per cent), only 4 (1.14 per cent) obtained education up to primary school, High School, College and under – graduate level respectively. The sample respondents to the extent of 34 per cent are illiterate in Arasikere Taluk, 10 (20 per cent) farmers are illiterate which is lower in Sakaleshapura taluk when compared to other taluks. In the sample agricultural beneficiaries to the extent of 36 and 42 per cent
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obtained education upto primary school level in Belur and Alur, they are low when compared to other taluks. The highest percentage was found in Belur taluk with 60 per cent of sample farmers obtained primary level education followed by Alur and Arasikere with 56 per cent and 50 percent respectively. Where as 24 per cent and 22 per cent farmers obtained education upto high school level in the taluks of Arakalgud and C.R.Patna respectively, which are higher then other taluks. Table -3: Name of the Taluks
Taluk-wise Education status of Sample Respondents
Under Colleg gradu e ate 14 23 10 2 1 Alur (28%) (46%) (20%) (4. %) (2. %) 16 18 12 3 1 Arakalgud (32%) (36%) (24%) (6. %) (2. %) 17 21 9 2 1 Arsikere (34%) (42%) (18%) (4. %) (2. %) 15 24 10 1 0 Belur (30%) (48%) (20%) (2. %) (0%) 13 25 11 1 0 C.R.Patna (26%) (50%) (22%) (2. %) (0%) 12 28 7 2 1 Hassan (24%) (56%) (14%) (4. %) (2. %) 16 18 12 3 1 H.N.Pura (32%) (36%) (24%) (6. %) (2. %) Sakleshpur 13 25 11 1 0 a (26%) (50%) (22%) (2. %) (0%) 97 169 67 13 4 (27.72% (48.29% (19.14% (3.71% (1.14 Total ) ) ) ) %) Illiterat Primary e level
High School
Total 50 (100.0%) 50 (100.0%) 50 (100.0%) 50 (100.0%) 50 (100.0%) 50 (100.0%) 50 (100.0%) 50 (100.0%) 400 (100.0%)
Source: Field Survey. Only 6 per cent of sample Respondents obtained college level education in Taluk of Arakalgud, 2 per cent respondents obtained under graduation in Alur, Arakalgud, Arasikere and Hassan taluks respectively. 167
Livelihood Opportunities The data on distribution of operational landholdings shows in Table - 4. The total number of landholdings increased from 2.09 lakhs in 197071 to 3.06 lakhs in 1990-91, and the growth was faster in the late 1980s. Interestingly, the proportion of marginal holdings increased, while the proportions of small, medium and large holdings declined. Though the proportion of the area held by the marginal holdings increased, the average landholding in their case has come down. The proportion of the area held by medium and large landholdings declined: but, not in the same rate at which the proportion of landholdings declined. The information suggests that the agrarian structure in the district has come to be characterized by larger proportion of marginal landholdings. This also suggests that the marginal holders were finding it difficult to obtain sufficient livelihood from agriculture and hence, they had to engage themselves in nonagricultural operations and wage labour to eke out their livelihood. Table – 4: Percentage distribution of land holdings in Hassan Size of holding
1980-81
1985-86
1990-91
2000-01
More than 1
48.34
50.39
53.27
60.61
1–2
25.47
25.97
25.82
23.72
2–4
16.91
15.5
14.38
11.25
4 – 10
8.05
6.98
5.88
3.93
More than 10
1.23
1.16
0.65
0.46
Total
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
(Hectare)
Source: Reports of Agricultural Census for the relevant years. Hassan District at a glance 2004-05. Members of Co-operative Societies
168
Farmers are getting membership in Co-operative societies in the farm of shares in different denominates in the study area. Taluk wise Membership of Cooperative Societies of been presented in table – 5.
169
Table – 5: Taluk wise Membership of Cooperative societies in the study area Name of the Taluks Alur Arakalgud Arsikere Belur C.R.Patna Hassan H.N.Pura Sakaleshapura Total
No 27 (54.0%) 40 (80.0%) 24 (48.0%) 20 (40.0%) 20 (80.0% 32 (64.0% 16 (32.0% 16 (32.0% 199 (56.8%
Yes 23 (46.0%) 10 (20%) 26 (52.0%) 30 (60.0%) 10 (20%) 18 (36.0% 34 (68.0%) 34 (68.0%) 151 (43.2%)
Total 50 (100.0%) 50 (100.0%) 50 (100.0%) 50 (100.0%) 50 (100.0%) 50 (100.0%) 50 (100.0%) 50 (100.0%) 400
Source: Field Survey. The Table -5 indicates that the members of Co-operative societies in the study. Out of 400 sample respondents to the extent of 80 per cent of respondent are not getting membership of Cooperative societies in both the taluks of Arakalgud and Arasikere followed by Belur and C.R.Patna in which 64 per cent of, highest per cent found in Holenarasipura and 68 per cent respondents are getting the membership of Co-operative societies. But only 20 per cent of sample respondents have got membership from Cooperative societies in
Alur and Belur taluks respectively. The same is
represented in the graph.
170
Bank Account Farmers are having Bank Account in various banks in the study area. Taluk wise bank account holders of the respondents are presented in Table – 6. Table – 6: Taluk-wise bank account holder of the respondents Name of the Taluks Alur Arakalgud Arsikere Belur C.R.Patna Hassan H.N.Pura Sakaleshapura Total
SBM
Co-operative society
29 (58%) 25 (50%) 15 (30%) 21 (42%) 18 (36%) 24 (48%) 10 (20%) 24 (48%) 166 (41.5%)
10 (20%) 7 (14%) 21 (42%) 11 (22%) 17 (3%) 18 (36%) 20 (40%) 18 (36%) 122 (30.5%)
Cauvery Grameena bank 11 (22%) 18 (36%) 14 (28%) 18 (36%) 15 (30%) 8 (16%) 20 (40%) 8 (16%) 112 (28%)
Total 50 (100%) 50 (100%) 50 (100%) 50 (100%) 50 (100%) 50 (100%) 50 (100%) 50 (100%) 400 (100%)
Source: Field Survey. In the Table - 6 it can be noticed that the bank account holder of sampled respondents in the district. Out of 400 respondents about 40.6 per cent respondents, are having their accounts in State Bank of Mysore, 29.7 per cent of respondents in cooperative societies and 29.7 per cent of the respondents in Cauvery Grameen Bank. And table also revealed that the 58 per cent of respondents have their accounts in State Bank of Mysore,
171
followed by Alur and Arakalgudu with 50 per cent and 48 per cent respectively. In Arasikere taluk, 42 per cent respondents have account in cooperative societies followed by H.N.Narasipura and Sakaleshapura taluks with 40 per cent and 46 per cent respectively. Nearly 40 per cent respondents have their account in Cauvery Grameena Bank, the least per cent of respondents are found in Sakaleshapura with 16 per cent. Utilization of Finance Most of the sampled farmers spent the borrowed money for other purposes. The taluk wise utilization of financial assistance by different purposes is presented in Table - 7. The Table - 7 indicates the utilization of financial assistance for various purposes in the study area. Out of 400 respondents around 43 per cent sample respondents utilized for purchase of fertilizers in Arakalgud taluk followed by Belur, and Sakaleshapura taluks with 42 per cent, 37 per cent & 37 per cent respectively. In Hole Narasipura taluk 24 per cent of the respondents utilized for purchase of fertilizers. This is low percentage in the taluk. Whereas buy of High yield verities of seeds in which 84 per cent in both the taluks of Belur & Hassan this is the highest per cent found in both the taluks. Very low per cent is identified in Hole Narasipura taluks with 1.6 per cent and 15.4 per cent of respondents utilized the finance for unproductive purpose such as celebrate ceremony and education of the children.
172
Table – 7: Taluk wise Utilization of Financial assistance for different purposes in the study area
Name of the Taluks
Fer tiliz er
Hyv
Alur Arakalgud Arasikere Belur C.R.Patna Hassan Holenarasipura Sakaleshapura Total
37 43 37 42 32 34 24 32 249
41 40 41 42 37 42 10 37 253
Cele brat e cere mon y 2 3 2 3 4 5 7 4 26
Edu to child ren
Pur Agrl imple
Agrl lab
Land Dev
Per Use
oth er
3 40 44 40 42 39 42 42 250
36 30 40 42 36 40 40 36 264
42 30 37 41 36 42 40 36 268
24 40 38 36 32 41 6 32 217
4 3 2 9 1 2 39 1 60
5 4 6 3 5 6 4 5 33
Source: Field Survey . In Belur taluk 84 per cent of the respondents utilized the finance for purchasing of agricultural implements followed by Arasikere, Hassan and Hole Narasipura with same per cent in which 80 per cent respectively. About 84 per cent of the respondents found in both Alur & Hassan taluks for Agriculture labour. In Hassan Taluk 80 per cent of the sample farmers utilized for land development followed by Arakalgud and Belur taluks with 80 per cent and 76 per cent respectively. Where as, 78 per cent of the respondents found in Hole Narasipura taluk for personal use which has highest compared to other taluks, and 2 per cent of the respondents used for other purposes in the study area. This table indicates the extent of diversion of maximum loan utilized to productive purposes only. Types of Loan by Cooperative Banks Crop loan and term loans disbursed to farmers by Cooperative Banks constitute the total agricultural loan in the district. These two banks played a significant role in the district to disburse the loans to farmers. These two banks have provided short term and medium term loans to 173
farmers. Here, we have presented the details of short term and medium term loans provided by the financial institution in the districts. Table – 8: Types of Loan provided by the Financial Institutions Name of the
Short-term
Medium term
Total
Alur
46 (92%)
4(8%)
50 (100%)
Arakalgud
40 (80%)
10 (20%)
50 (100%)
Arsikere
37 (74%)
13 (26%)
50 (100%)
Belur
48 (96%)
2 (4%)
50 (100%)
C.R.Patna
40 (80%)
10 (20.%)
50 (100%)
Hassan
45 (90. %)
5 (10%)
50 (100%)
H.N.Pura
46 (92%)
4 (8%)
50 (100%)
Sakleshpura
46 (92%)
4 (8%)
50 (100%)
Total
348 (87%)
52 (13.0%)
400 (100%)
Taluks
Source: Field Survey. The Table - 8 shows that the 87 per cent of the respondents’ availed short-term credit and 13 per cent borrowed medium-term loan in the study area. The 96 per cent of the respondents borrowed short-term loans in Belur taluk followed by H.N.Pura and Sakaleshpura with 92 per cent, next to Hassan with 90 per cent. Where as, 26 per cent in Arasikere taluk obtained medium term loans, compared to other taluks. The proportion of loans indicates that the preference should be given to the farmers in the form of short–term loans in the study area. Repayment of loan Amount Repayment of credit not only ensures re-cycling of money for economic development but also builds confidence among the farmers regarding their ability to making and development in agriculture sector. It 174
is observed from the field survey that, farmers have repaid the loan to the concerned financial institutions; the tendency is actually a healthy development among the farmers, who have borrowed loan from the institution. The main reason for the tendency is those who have repaid fully, they are eligible to take fresh loans. The opinion of respondents in this regard is presented in table - 9. Table - 9: Repayment of loan amount Name of the Taluks
No
Yes
Total
Alur
0 (0%)
50 (100%)
50 (100%)
Arakalgud
0 (0%)
50 (100%)
50 (100%)
Arsikere
0 (0%)
50 (100%)
50 (100%)
Belur
0 (0%)
50 (100%)
50 (100%)
C.R.Patna
0 (0%)
50 (100%)
50 (100%)
Hassan
1 (2%)
49 (98%)
50 (100%)
H.N.Pura
0 (0%)
50 (100%)
50 (100%)
Sakaleshpura
0 (0%)
50 (100%)
50 (100%)
Total
1 (0.3%)
399 (99.7%) 400 (100%)
Source: Field Survey. The table -9 reveals the repayments of loan amount to the banks. Out of 400 respondents around 99.7 per cent of the respondents repay their loan. Only 0.3 per cent of the respondents have not returned the loan amount. According to Banking Regulation Act one person could take loan from the Bank immediately after cleared their loans, otherwise they would not eligible to apply for fresh loans. However, the repayment is higher in case of non-payments farmers. There is a need to take appropriate measures by the financing institutions to improve the repayment performance.
175
Service provided by financial institutions Service rendered by the financial institutions to the farmers, while disbursing the loan in the districts, the details of opinion of the farmers in this regard is depicted in the Table - 10. Table – 10: Service provided by the Institutions Name of the Taluks Alur Arakalgud Arsikere Belur C.R.Patna Hassan H.N.Pura Sakaleshapur Total
Good 27 (54%) 27 (54%) 31 (62%) 29 (58%) 38 (76%) 28 (56%) 26 (52%) 26 (52%) 232 (58%)
Very good 23 (46%) 23 (46%) 19 (38%) 21 (42%) 12 (24%) 22 (44%) 24 (48%) 24 (48%) 168 (42%)
Total 50 (100%) 50 (100%) 50 (100%) 50) (100% 50 (100%) 50 (100%) 50 (100%) 50 (100%) 400 (100%)
Source: Field Survey. The Table - 10 reveals that the service provided by the Institutions in the study area. Out of 400 respondents the 58.9 per cent responds says that the service was good and the remaining 41.1 per cent responded that the service provided by Institutions has very good. Table shows that the highest per cent of respondents opined that the service provided by the Institutions has been satisfactory. Financial Assistance
176
The details of extent of financial assistance by the different financial institutions in Hassan district, taluk wise presented in table - 11. Table - 11: Extent of Financial Assistance Name of the Taluks
Negligible
Greater
Smaller
Total
0 (0%) 12 (24.0%) 4 (8.0%) 0 0%) 0 (0%) 14 (28.0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 30 (7.5%)
0 (0%) 4 (8.0%) 1 (2.0%) 12 (24.0%) 0 (0%) 4 (8.0%) 40 (80.0%) 40 (80%) 101 (25.25%)
50 (100.0%) 34 (68.0%) 45 (90.0%) 38 (76.0%) 50 (100.0%) 32 (64.0%) 10 (20.0%) 10 (20%) 269 (67.25%)
50 (100.0%) 50 (100.0%) 50 (100.0%) 50 (100.0%) 50 (100.0%) 50 (100.0%) 50 (100.0%) 50 (100%) 400 (100.0%)
Alur Arakalgud Arasikere Belur C.R.Patna Hassan Holenarasipura Sakaleshpura Total
Source: Field Survey. The table -11 indicates the financial assistance to the respondents in the study area. Out of 400 sample respondents, the 8.6 per cent of the respondents have opined that the financial assistance is neglected, about 17.4 per cent respondents response was greater and 74 per cent of the respondents have opined that the credit facilities were smaller. The table 11 also indicates that the 80 per cent of the respondents opined that in Holenarasipura and Sakaleshapura taluks financial assistance are greater which is high compared to other taluks. The 100 per cent respondents found in Alur and C.R.Patna taluks responded that the financial assistance was smaller followed by Arakalgudu and Arasikere with 90 per cent and 76 per cent respectively.
177
Impact of Rural Credit on Respondents The present study has collected data on different type productive assets purchased by the respondent’s households before they obtaining the loan from credit institutions and after obtained the loan. Purchase of productive assets has been used as the indicator to examine the impact of micro-finance benefits. Purchase of assets indicates that members were in an advantageous position to buy things after obtained the loan. Between 15 and 49 per cent of the households had acquired milch animals, poultry and sheep after they had become members in SHG. More importantly, majority of the households purchased land before they had become members. This land might have inherited by their husbands. It needs to be noted that not all members receive loans from rural credit institutions to purchase land. Obtaining loan became possible as they move from the situation of vulnerability to security. Because a significant proportion of the households acquired productive assets after they had become the members, the proportion of households not owning productive assets was very less among sample households. Table – 12. narrates the percentage distribution of respondents by productive assets in the sample districts.
178
Table – 12: Distribution of respondents by productive assets (%) Hassan Assets
Land
Acquired before Joining SHG
Belur Holenarasipura Acquire Acquired Acquired Acquired Acquired d after before after after before joining Joining joining joining Joining SHG SHG SHG SHG SHG
54
2
56
1
34
5
26
43
41
18
15
49
11
57
32
25
15
55
Poultry
5
26
33
14
20
22
Animals
7
36
11
11
14
31
2
0
6
5
6
13
MilchAn imals Sheep/go at
Equipme nt
Source: Field Survey. The present study indicates especially the income generating activity undertaken with financial assistance from micro-finance programmes help the households to take up some other activities, which become important in so far as the household income is concerned. Data shows that the livestock rearing and dairying activities undertaken by the households helped for well irrigation and purchase of land. Ultimately, it was income from agriculture, which was significant to the household. In so far as the acquisition of consumer durables such as television, radio, wall clock, cycle, iron box, gas stove, etc., is concerned, a few of the members acquired these assets after they became members. Some households had acquired cycle and gas stove after they obtained loan from rural credit institutions. Majority of households acquired radio, TV and iron box after they had become members.
179
In contrast, a significant
proportion of households had acquired TV, radio, before they had obtained loan from rural credit institutions. Interestingly, few households in the member group had acquired jewellery also. Impact of rural credit co-operative societies Impact of rural credit co-operative societies on socio-economic development of the borrower. The details of taluk wise institutional loan on socio economic development of farmers are presented in the Table 13. Table - 13: Impact of rural credit co-operative societies on the SocioEconomic Development of respondents Name of the
No
Yes
Total
Alur
0 (0%)
50 (100%)
50 (100%)
Arakalgud
0 (0%)
50 (100%)
50 (100%)
Arsikere
0 (0%)
50 (100%)
50 (100%)
Belur
0 (0%)
50 (100%)
50 (100%)
C.R.Patna
0 (0%)
50 (100%)
50 (100%)
Hassan
0 (0%)
50 (100%)
50 (100%)
H.N.Pura
23 (46 %)
27 (54%)
50 (100%)
Sakaleshpura
10 (20%)
40 (80%)
50 (100%)
Total
33 (6.6%)
Taluks
367 (93.4%)
400 (100%)
Source: Field Survey The table – 13 it can be noticed that impact of Institutional credit on the Socio-Economic Development of the small farmers in the study area. Out of 400 respondents, the 93.4 per cent of the respondents are opined as Yes. And 6.6 per cent of the respondents as No. It shows the favourable
180
impact of institutional finance on Socio – Economic Development of the small farmers in the study area.
181
Major Findings The most important findings of the present study may be briefly stated as follows; 1.
Education –wise classification of farmers reveal that the majority of the farmers (72.28 per cent) had completed primary, High School, college level education. Only a few of them (27.72 per cent) were purely illiterate.
2.
Caste-wise classification reveals that Vokkaliga Community is dominant in the study area. Agriculture is the major occupation in the district. Main source of irrigation in the district is Canal. The Paddy and Ragi are important crops and Sugarcane is the main commercial crops and coconut is the major Horticulture crop in the Hassan district.
3.
Majority of the growers own 1 to 2.5 acres of dry land and highest per cent of Wet land, owned by the growers is 2.5 to 5 acres.
4.
The average annual income was Rs. 50,000, among the 65.1 per cent selected respondents.
5.
The average annual household expenditure of selected respondents was more than Rs.20,000.
6.
The average annual households income about 46.8 per cent of the selected respondents was gained from Rs.15,000 to 20,000.
7.
Majority of the respondents (87.1 per cent) live in pucca houses.
8.
Nearly 40.6 per cent of the respondents had their account in State Bank of Mysore.
182
9.
From State Bank of Mysore (commercial Banks), 50 per cent of respondents had borrowed loan and 37.14 per cent borrowed from Cooperative Bank. Only 7.14 per cent borrowed from other sources.
10. For purchasing of basic inputs, 86.3 per cent respondents had borrowed short-term or crop loan and 13.7 per cent respondents had borrowed Medium-term loans. 11. Another notable finding is that 81per cent respondents have utilized the finance to productive purposes such as purchase of fertilizers, seeds, land development, purchase of agricultural implements etc.19 per cent of respondents spent on unproductive purposes such as, celebrate ceremony, marriage etc. 12. It is noticed that, 51.7 per cent of respondents had paid interest from 6 to 10 per cent charged by the Institutional Agencies. Suggestions In the light of our findings and observations some suggestions are made about effective functioning of rural credit cooperatives. The suggestions are listed as follows: • There should be proper motivation to the members, who are involved in the cooperative movement. The success of cooperative is depending upon the service mentality of the members. They should be honest, active, dynamic sacrifice nature mentality and they should have the broad heart of getting happiness through cooperative services. • Strengthening the cooperatives as a free condition to restructure and reconstruct the cooperative movement. 183
• Revitalize the genuine dormant cooperatives going deeply into the cause of their failure, dormancy and trying to correct those faults so that they do not get repeated in future. • Realistic plans, programmes and facilities be created to develop and expand cooperative education and training facilities in the country so that more and more people get exposed to education and training in the shortest possible time. • To make the cooperative banks financially viable and commercially sustainable some changes might be essential in the existing legal framework. These include operationalisation of existing provisions of the various Acts to improve the recycling ability of cooperatives, make them accountable to organizational strengthening mechanisms like compliance to inspection findings,
professionalisation
application of prudential norms.
184
of
management,
stringent
References Agarwal,R.D.,(1977), Cooperative Management, Principles Policies and Practice, (Pune,VMNICM) Ansari,A.A (1990), Cooperative publications, New Delhi.
Management
Patterns,
Anmal
Baken, Hendry,H., and Marvin Schars, (1937), The Economics of Cooperative Marketing, Newyork: Mc Graw Hill Benerjee, J., (1961) Cooperative Movement in India Navjeevan printing works Pvt., Ltd., Calcutta. Bhagavathi Prasad, Mohan Mishra and Sanjay Kumar Varma (2008), “ Power of Cooperative Networking”, The Cooperator, January, Vol.45, No7, Published by National Cooperative Union of India, Delhi. Chavan, Pallavi (2003): Moneylender’s Positive Image: Regression in Development Thought and Policy. Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 38, No 50, December 13, pp. 5301-5304. Desai, R.G.,(1968), Farmers societies and agricultural development: Chugh publications: Allahabad. George.P.T, Mohanan N and Rajgopal (1985) Status of Cooperative Movement in India, NIRD, Memio. Hajela .T.N, (1987) Principles Problem And Practice Of Cooperation, Agarwal And Indian Cooperative Review, Vol.13 (3):241-249. Nakkiran.S (1986) “Cooperative Banking in India”, Rainbow Publishing House, Coimbatore.
185
Chapter – 14 Awareness of Health and Sanitation Aspects Among Rural and Urban People in Tiruchirappalli District Dr. S. Alamelumangai Assistant Professor cum Assistant Director , Centre for Study of Social Exclusion and Inclusive Policy , Manonmaniam Sundaranar University , Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu - 627 012 Introduction Health can be achieved by keeping ourselves and surrounding clean. Sanitation fact is a branch of hygiene, which includes cleaning of streets and human surroundings. Hence “cleanliness is Godliness”. There are many ways we can give earth the chance to clean. In the past, sanitation was centered as the sanitary disposal of human excreta. Even now for many people sanitation still means the construction of latrines. In fact the term sanitation covers the whole field of controlling the environment with a view to prevent disease and to promote health. Man has already controlled a number of factors in his environment e.g., food water, housing, clothing and sanitation. The basic problems of safe water supply and sanitary disposal of human excreta are yet to be solved. Much of the ill health in the country is due to the defective environment. Since more than 80% of the population of India lives in rural areas, the problem is one of the rural sanitation. The first step in any health programme is the elimination through environmental control of those factors, which are harmful to health. Control and supply of clean water Supply of clean milk Preservation, handling and sale of raw foods as well as other foods. Food must be covered to protect it from the dusts and germs. Control of air pollution and attempt to ensure clean air supply. 186
Control of treatment and disposal of all wastes, such as garbage refuse and trash night soil or dead animal. Control of fluid waste and disposal of sewage drainage for rain or floodwater industrial and chemical wastes products etc. Control and cleaning of camps and supervision of camp grounds, hostels, factories, schools theatres and dwelling places. Pest- control of animals and insects such as found on domestic animals, dogs and others like flies, lice etc. Cut out or cut back the use of fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides etc. Do not smoke. Ride a bicycle or walk whenever possible Health is a common theme in most culture. In fact all communities have the concept of the health, as part of their culture. Among definitions still used, probably the health is the “absence of disease”. At the individual level it cannot be said that health occupies an important place; it is usually subjugated to other needs defined as more important, e.g., wealth, power, prestige, knowledge and security. Health is often taken for granted and its value is not fully understood until it is lost. Objective of the Study 9 To know the socio- economic conditions of the rural and urban people residing in the study area, 9 To find out the level of awareness of the respondents on the health and sanitation in the rural and urban people areas, 9 To suggests the methods to improve the awareness level in health and sanitation aspects among the respondents of the study area. 187
Table 1: The Current Situation in Water Supply and Sanitation
India
Population (in millions) 1,000
World
6,054
Percentages with Success Water Sanitation 88 31 82
60
Number Un served (in Millions) Water Sanitation 160 690 1,113
2,418
In recent years, we have acquired a new philosophy of health, which may have been stated as below. Health is a fundamental human right. Health is a essence of productive life and not the result of ever increasing expenditure on medical care. Health is inter -sect oral. Health is an integral part of development. Health is central to the concept of quality of life. Health involves individuals, state and inters national responsibilities. Health and maintenance is a major social environment. Health is a world- wide social goal. Health is the broad sense of the world does not mean the absence of the disease or provision of diagnostic, curative and preventive services. It also includes as embodied in the WHO definition, “a state of physical, mental and social well being”. Health Problems due to Industrialization The community health problems arising out of industrialization may be enumerated as follows. 188
Environmental Sanitation Problems Housing: A rise in the number of slums and unsanitary dwelling is one of the chief problems in all industrial areas due to migration of people from the country side for employment. Water Pollution: Water pollution is one of the traffic after myths of rapid industrialization due to discharge of industrial wastes without treatment into water courses. Air Pollution: Air pollution this is an important problems is industrial areas which may have an adverse effects on the health of the population. Air pollution is due to the discharge of toxic fumes, gases, smoke and dust in to the atmosphere. Sewage Disposal: There is bound to be pressure on the existing sanitation services if proper planning is not undertaken before locating industries. Lack of facilities for the disposal of sewage leads to pollution of water supply, contamination of soil with parasites and their ova. Communicable diseases: The main problems in industrial areas tuberculosis, venereal diseases and food and water borne infections. Food Sanitation: The standards of the food sanitations are bound to be lowered due to industrialization. If proper precautions are not taken food borne in factories such as typhoid fever and viral hepatitis are all too common India. Accidents: Accidents are public health problems in industrial areas due to conservation, vehicular traffic and increased tensed of life. Social Problems:
Alcoholism, drug addiction, gambling, prostitution,
increased divorces, breaking up of home juvenile delinquency inbreeded
189
include of crime are some of the social problems due to the industrialization.
Health and Sanitation at Global Level According to World Health Organization (WHO) about 80% of all sickness is due to lack of safe water and poor sanitation. The main victims are children. The UN decade (1981- 1990) of international Drinking water supply and sanitation (IDWSAS) had doubtlessly provided the much needed impetus to the programmes of water and sanitation worldwide. India initiated its National Drinking water mission (NDWM) in 1986 which came to be subsequently called the Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission. Simultaneously the Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme (ARWSP) was introduced. The state government’s and development agencies such as the CAPART among the NGO’s in the rural areas to reach safe drinking water problem villages in particular. While encouraging results have since appeared as a result, it has however, not free from human, material and management inadequacies. Health and Sanitation Issues in India In India 5% of the children die every year due to diarrhea by unsafe water and poor sanitation. The diseases caused by unsafe water and poor sanitation are as follows: Diarrhea, Cholera, Malaria, Polio, and Hepatitis and worm infestation. Diarrhea is the major killer. Every year more than one million children die because of this disease. Before Independence in India health was primarily a potential subject. The provinces in turn passed on this responsibility to local bodies and panchayats. The local bodies, with their meager resources, paid very little attention to methods designed to protect the health of the people. 190
Among aspects related to health, environmental health received the least attention because of heavy capital expenditure and maintenance costs involved in providing these facilities. Consequently at the time of the environmental health committee report, only 16% of the towns in India had some sort of protected water supply which served 6.15% of the total population. Rural water supply was mostly from the tanks, wells rivers streams which were largely unprotected. As regards community waste collection
and disposal, hardly 3% of the populations in urban areas are
provided with complete or partial sewerage systems. Over one third of the households used unsatisfactory service latrines; one third had no latrine and used open spaces, drain etc for defecation. The health problems if India will show a complex epidemiology in st
the 21 century. While we shall continue to have problems of poverty and social deprivation, poor hygiene, poor nutrition, poor sanitation and poor environment, we shall also increasingly experience the problems of development – i.e. affluence and modernization new disease related to behaviour and life style, popularly termed as diseases, will come up along with the resurfacing of order disease and problems with newer trends and patterns. Health and Sanitation Aspects in Tamil Nadu As far the demographic transition in the state the population in 1871 first census was 1.58 crores, in 1941 2.62 crores, in 1986 it doubled to 4.84 crores and in 1991 it reached 5.56 crores and is projected to be 6.39 crores in 2001. Access to safe sanitation facilities is an essential need to maintain public health and to improve quality of life. Effort has been made to bring more families under safe sanitation facilities through various government programmes. A comprehensive programme for rural sanitation was 191
launched in the year 1986. yet only 9.5 % of the rural families in this country had such facilities during 1991. Research Design The present study on the awareness of the health and sanitation aspects was based on survey method and is intended to describe certain aspects of the respondent’s knowledge. Table 2: Populations Details of Trichirappalli District: 2001 Census Population Details Population Literacy of Trichirappalli Male Female Male Female District Trichirappalli 1194133 1194698 1689780 District
Total
1315869
Periya Sooriyur
1772
1231
784
405
Sembattu ward
7766
7462
6422
5270
Sampling Techniques The present study was under taken in two areas namely suriyoor village sembattu urban area in Tiruchirappalli District. 80 respondents were randomly selected 80 respondents on the health and sanitation aspects was made and the sampling techniques used in this study simple random sampling method. Variable of the Study Both independent and dependents variable are selected for the study. Construction of Tools Since the present study is based on survey method it is indispensable to construct a tool for enquiry (interview schedule) for getting necessary data. The researcher had to undergo different stages primarily; the researcher went through related studies, research, reports and journals 192
books on health and sanitation aspects which gave an idea for the construction of tools. Statistical Techniques Used In the study simple statistical techniques like mean, percentage, have been used for data analysis. Data Collection Analysis and Interpretation Survey method is used, as this study is descriptive research design, the present study is based on both primary and secondary data, secondary data. Secondary data is collected from books, internet, article in journals, seminar/conference papers, news papers, magazines, reports etc., for the present study the primary data was collected by using structured interview schedule from the 80 respondents. Table-3: Distribution of Respondents to Personal Profile
20-30 years
No. of Respondents (Percentages) Rural Urban 25 (62.5) 9 (22.5)
30 – 40 years
7 (17.5)
14 (35)
40-50 years
8 (20)
17 (42.5)
Education
Illiterates
26 (65)
16 ( 40)
Qualification
literates
14 (35)
24 (60)
Male
26 (65)
23 (57.5)
Sex
Female
14 (35)
17 (42.5)
Religion
Hindu
39 (97.5
26 (65)
Christian
1 (2.5)
14 (35)
SC/ST
28 (70)
(57.5)
MBC
1 (2.5)
Variable Age group
Caste
Classification
BC
11 (27.5) 193
The above table- 3 shows the distribution of the respondent’s to age groups. In the majority of respondents, (62.5%) in the rural area belong to the age group 20-30 years followed by 20% in the Age Group 40-50 years. In urban areas the majority of the respondents (42.5%) belong to 40-50 years age group followed by 35% between 30-40 years. Most of the 65% of the Respondents are illiterates while in urban area 60% are literate. This shows that literacy level in urban area is higher than the rural area as urban area is having more facilities. Table 4: Distribution of Respondents to Personal Profile Variable Classification Type of family
Nuclear Family Joint Family Family Size 1-3 Members 4-6 Members 7 and Above Government Occupation of the Self- employed Respondents Own Agriculture Daily Wages Thatched House Type of House Tiled House Toilet Facility at Yes Home No 500-1000 Monthly Income 1001-2000 2001 and Above 500-1000 Monthly 1001-2000 Expenditure 2001 and Above 194
No. of Respondents ( Percentages) Urban Rural 22 (55) 11 (27.5) 18 (45) 29 (72.5) 7 (17.5) 12 (30 ) 24 (60) 22 (55) 9 (22.5) 6 (15) 4 (10) 6 (15) 5 (12.5) 5 (12.5) 19 (47.5) 12 (30) 3 (7.5) 36 (90) 33 (82.5) 4 (10) 7 (17.5) 3 (7.5) 39 (97.5) 37 (92.5) 1 (2.5) 23 (57.5) 15 (37.5) 8 (20) 17 (42.5) 9 (22.5) 6 (15) 30 (75) 14 (3.5) 8 (20) 18 (25) 2 (5) 6 (15)
Majority 65% of the respondents are females where as in urban area 57.5% are females. It shows that females cooperate normally the researchers. Majority (97.5%) of the respondents are belongs to Hindu religion
whereas only 65% of the respondents
belong to the Hindu
religion in urban areas. 70% of the respondents belongs to SC/ST caste. Where as it is only ( 57.5%) in urban areas. Shows table - 4 that joint family system (55%) is very much in practice in area, whereas it is only (45%) in nuclear family system. It shows that dominance (72.5%) of nuclear family in urban areas. It shows that almost equal number of families in rural and urban area belongs to 4-6 family member size. It is found that half of the respondents (47.5%) in rural area have agriculture as their occupation, where as it nil in urban areas. It is also shown that nearly two third (65%) of the respondents are non agriculturists. It is shown that absolute majority (90%) of the respondents live in thatched house irrespective of the area the respondents. The respondents living in tiled house are more (17.5%) in urban house. It is found that absolute majority (92.5%) of the rural people have no toilet facilities at their home, this shows that urban respondents are having toilet facilities. It is found that half of the (57.5 %) have the monthly income ranging from Rs.500- 1000, it shown that more than (42.5%) of the respondents earn monthly income ranging from Rs. 1001 – 2000 in urban areas. It is found that three fourth (75%) of the respondents in rural areas spend monthly ranging from Rs.500- 1000. It is clear that half of the respondents in urban area spend monthly Rs.1001 - 2000. This shows that the cost of living in urban area is high.
195
Table 5: Awareness of Health and Sanitation Conditions Awareness of the Respondents Sanitation Aspects
Rural
Urban
Yes
No
Yes
No
Non bathing leads to disease Using soap for bathing
31 (77.5%)
9 (22.5%)
2 (5%)
33 (82.5%)
7 (12.5%)
8 (20%) 38 (95%) 2 (5%)
Washing clothes daily
28 (70%)
12 (30%)
38 (95%) 2 (5%)
Washing clothes with soap Practices of cutting nails
29 (72.5%) 30 (75%)
10 (25%)
36 (90%) 2 (5%)
Non cutting of nails and hairs leads to disease In and around cleanliness helps for good health
29 (72.5%)
11 (27.5%) 8 (20%)
30 (75%) 10 (25%) 37 3 92.5%) (7.5%)
32 (80%)
11(27.5%) 38 (95%) 2 (5%)
It is inferred from the above table – 5 that 79.5 % of the respondents in the rural area know that disease will occur due to non - bathing. Most of the respondents (82.5%) in rural area use soap while bathing daily while bathing daily while almost all the respondents 95 % use soap for bathing in urban area.70 % of rural the respondents daily wash their clothes whereas while 95% of the urban respondents daily wash their clothes. 72.5% of the rural respondents use soap for washing clothes whereas almost 95% of the urban respondents use soap for washing clothes. About 75% of the rural respondents cut the nails for them and their children
regularly
whereas
it
is
90%
in
the
case
of
urban
respondents.72.5% of the rural respondents know that disease will occur due to non cutting nails and hairs for them and their children regularly, whereas it is almost the same in the case of urban respondents. About (80%) of the rural respondents know that personal hygiene will keep good 196
health and most of the urban respondents (92.5%) know that personal hygiene will keep good health. Table 6: Distribution of the Respondents Based on Sanitation Awareness Sanitation Aspects
Regular cleaning of drinking vessels Using lids for drinking vessels daily Taking water without hand wash will lead to pollution Use boiled water for drinking
Awareness of the Respondents Rural Urban Yes No Yes No 31 9 38 2 (77.5%) (22.5%) (95%) (5%) 27 13 32 8 (67.5%) (32.5%) (80%) (20%) 29 (72.5%)
11 (27.5%)
31 (77.5%)
9 (22.5%)
15 (37.5%)
25 (62.5%)
20 (50%)
20 (50%)
Table – 6 gives the following information on the knowledge of the rural respondents on the sanitation aspects of the drinking water. 77.5% of the rural respondents clean their drinking vessels regularly whereas almost all the (95%) of the respondents in urban areas regularly wash their drinking vessels. 67.5% of the rural respondents use lids for drinking vessels while 80% of the urban respondents use lids. Almost equal numbers of respondents in rural and urban areas know that taking water without hand wash will pollute water, 62.5% of the rural respondents do not drink boiled water while half of the urban (50%) respondents do not drink boiled water. Table 7: Distribution of Sources of Drinking Water of Respondents Sources of Drinking Water Hand pump Taps Wells / ponds
No. of Respondents Percentages Rural Urban 16 (70) 16 (70) 20 (50) 20 (50) 4 (10) 4 (10) 197
The above table -7 shows that three fourth (70%) of the rural respondents draw Drinking water from hand pumps whereas it is (75%) insignificant in the case of urban areas. whereas it is 50% of the rural respondents draw water from tap protected drinking water and it is also clear from the table that still the habit of taking of well / pond water as drinking water is prevalent in rural and urban areas. Table 8: Distribution of the Respondents Knowledge on Disposal of Excreta Knowledge on Disposal of Excreta Going for open defection Using foot wear while going for defecation Open defecation causes diseases Having community toilet in your area
Awareness of the Respondents Rural Urban Yes No Yes No 37 3 1 39 (92.5%) (7.5%) (2.5%) (97.5%) 31 9 39 1 (77.5%) (22.5%) (92.5%) (2.5%) 32 8 38 2 (80%) (20%) (95%) (5%) 40 4 (100%) (100%)
The above table-8 shows that absolute Majority of the rural and urban respondents know that open defecation causes. It is evident from the table that there is community toilet facility in the study area. In the rural area all the respondents use open defecation whereas it is not significant in urban areas. Table -9 gives the following on the awareness of the respondents on food sanitation 70% of the rural respondents knew that consuming spoilt foods and cause diseases and 75% of the urban respondents agree the same. Almost all the rural respondents (97.5%) as well as urban respondents wash the cooking utensils daily.
198
Table 9: Distribution of the Respondents Knowledge on Food Sanitation Food Sanitation Consuming spoilt foods cause disease Daily washing of cooking utensils Washing hands before cooking Washing vegetables before cooking
Awareness of the Respondents Rural Urban Yes No Yes No 28 12 30 10 (70%) (30%) (75%) (25%) 39 (92.5%)
1 (2.5%)
40 (100%)
24 (60%) 38 (95%)
16 (40%) 2 (5%)
37 (92.5%) 40 (100%)
3 (7.5%) -
Majority (92.5%) of the urban respondents wash the hands before cooking. Almost all the rural and urban respondents have the practice of washing vegetables before cooking. Conclusion The health status of the Indian population remaining poor, but there appears to be no equivalent convergence in voter pressure towards improvement of health services. With regard to Income, the respondents have more responsibilities to earn in the rural area. Similarly expenditure is higher in the rural area. Majority of the respondents in the study of the respondents in the study area belong to SC/ST caste. And no respondents is found is Muslim religion. As far knowledge on health and sanitation aspects are concerned is bathing, using soap, washing clothes, cutting nails, cleanliness, use of boiled drinking water, avoidance of open defection washing hands and vegetables the respondents in rural people have knowledge. Respondents suggest that implementation of awareness programmes on health and sanitation should be strengthened by using electronic media in the rural and urban areas. 199
References Devendrer Hakvar, (1997) , Research Methodology in social science Deep publications, New Delhi. Economic and Political Weekly, Decentralization, Preference Diversity and Public Spending: Health and Education in India Vol.XLV No.43 October 23-29, 2010. Environmental Sanitation, (1988), Training Modules, UNICEF. Gourishankar Ghosh (1995), Water Supply in Rural India, Ashish Publishing House, New Delhi. Kamble (1984), Rural Health, Ashish Publishing House, New Delhi. Paramasivan, (2001), A Humble Response to A Massive Demand, Published by Water Aid India, Tamilnadu Park. K, (1995) Parks Text Book of Preventive and Social Medicine, Banarsidas Bharat Publishers, New Delhi. Parmasivan, (2001), A Humble Response to a Massive Demand, Published by Water Aid India, Tamil Nadu. Ratna Reddy. V, (1996), Urban Water Crisis, Rawat Publications, New Delhi. Wishwakarma. R.K., (1996), Health Status of the under the Indian, Reliance Publishing House and the Indian Institute of Administration, New Delhi. Yojona, October2001, A Journal of Ministry of Rural Development
200
Chapter – 15 Literacy is the tool for changing the life-pattern women from Violence N. Kalpana Kumari ICPR-Junior Research Fellow, Dept of Education, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam
Literacy is a process which dispels and promotes rational thinking and moulds human being becomes a responsible citizen. The absence of literacy, directly and indirectly refers the development of individuals, society, community and the country. To achieve this objective, all the citizens need to be educated for desirable participation and reap the benefits of
welfare programmes and utilisation of legal rights provided
for them by the government. In other words, ‘Literacy is the tool for creating
awareness
among women to
avoid harassment,
discrimination and face the domestic violence from the family and society. In this paper the present status of women, the problems facing, Legal Protections and provision made and Literacy strategies by the State, and influence and importance of Literacy
to protect themselves are
discussed The Govt. of India made an attempt to rise the standard of living of women and provide them with some constitutional and Legal Provisions to protect themselves as some mentioned below. • 33% reservation • The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961 • The Commission of Sati (Prevention)Act, 1987 • Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005,
201
• India was one of the first countries of the world to give women the right to vote • The Indian constitution guarantees equal right to men and women. The National Mission for Empowerment of Women (NMEW) was launched on 8th, March, 2010 (Women’s Day) with the objectives such as • Ensure economic empowerment of women, •
violence against women is eliminated progressively,
• emphasis Health and Education and oversee gender mainstreaming of programmes. required, structures at district to village level with the involvement of Panchayats for their fulfillment. Significance of Literacy Literacy facilitates, better and more effective communication of new technology in agriculture; and extension agencies could work better in a climate of literate environment. Illiterate peasants rarely succeed in transforming co-operative and Panchayat institutions to their benefit. The linkages between adoption of family planning and literacy are known to be even stronger. Adoption rates are higher among literate females as compared to illiterate females. Knowledge on nutrition, childcare, importance of children education and health could be communicated better to literates as compared to illiterate people . Experiences of women in general and schooling • Inconvenience in their daily schooling • transportation for pursuing education, • in marriage, social gatherings, 202
• participation in student elections, extra curricular activities, cultural functions, occasional student violence, eve teasing, harassment by opposite sex and so on. General factors as perceived by women for their day to day situation Lack of educational facilities within nearby distance,. Economic factors, Dependence, Gender discrimination, Financial constrains, Disappearance of Joint Family system, Dowry system, Beliefs, customs, religious practices and so on. Government efforts to Literacy development The Government of India has formulated and implemented education and welfare programmes known as Right to Education Act, 2009, National Mission for Empowerment of Women, New Education Policy, 1986, Dr.Kothari Commission, Universalisation for Elementary Education in formal sector and in NonFormal sector literacy programmes like National Literacy Mission for imparting functional literacy Financial assistance by the government for women literacyPost-Graduate Indira Gandhi scholarship for single child , 203
*
Mulna Azad National scholarship for meritorious girl student scheme
belonging to Minorities, * AICTE scholarship for women, *
The Fair and Lovely scholarship for women ,
*
SOF – girl child scheme, besides this,
*
Banks and National Minority Development and Finance Corporation
are providing educational loans for students. Conclusion In spite of the above environment created by the government, still women are suffering from violence due to lack of societal awareness and society support and concern towards womenfolk. But by getting adequately educated women can rediscover, redefine and relocate their role in family and socio-cultural milieu. Education gifts them with a psychological advantage – which they never enjoyed . Literacy provides them economic, social, cultural independence and self-thinking. Literacy helps her in broadening her understanding of the society, gaining insights into human relations and sensitizing the community to relevant social issues. The hand that rocks the cradle Is the hand that rules the world !!! ____ Prof. K D Gangrade
204
References: A Study of Attitudes of Women students towards Political Aspects, unpublished Ph.D dissertation submitted to Andhra University,, 2006 – K. Janaki. Economic Empowerment of Women through schemes and programme, Journal of State Resource Centre for Adult Education, Indore, June, 2011 Education and Women Empowerment, (ed.vol), 2008, The Associated Publishers , Ambala Cantt- M.C.R.Reddy and P.A.Reddy Empowerment of Women through Distance Education, Yojana, Journal Vol.45, New Delhi, December 2001.- B.S.Vasudeva Rao & K.Sekhar Fifty Years of Higher Education in India, Sage Publications India Pvt Ltd, New Delhi, 2004- Amrika Singh. Multi-Dimensional Approaches to Literacy Development, The Associated Publishers, Ambala Cantt. 2007- B.S.Vasudeva Rao & P.Viswanatha Gupta NSS Manual for on Women’s Development and Gender Justice, 1998, Institute for Development and Communication, Chandhigar - Dagar, Rainuka. Women’s Education in Ancient and Muslim Period (ed.vol), Discovery publishing house, New Delhi, 1996
205
Chapter – 16 Saakshar Bharat-Life Long Learning Dr B. Krishna Reddy Coordinator SRC, Hyderabad Introduction Development is for man, of man, whole of man and what is concerned with the last man, said Julius Nyerere, president of Tanjania. Mr Nyerere believed that illiteracy is a barrier for the development and fought against illiteracy and achieved great success in his country. Studies have proved that basic literacy is correlated with the development. That’s the reason why Mahatma Gandhi also said that Illiteracy is sin and it should be wiped out immediately. Even after sixty-three years of independence to our country, the literacy of our country according 2011 census is 74 percent and in absolute number, 280 million persons are non-literates. Although efforts are made to liquidate illiteracy in the form of launching National Adult education programme in 1978 and later National literacy mission in 1988, we could not achieve total literacy for various reasons. Despite the national and international commitments to achieve a 50% reduction in illiteracy rate by 2015, India still has the largest population of illiterate adults (270 millions) according to EFA monitoring report and majority of them are poor. Though there is considerable improvement in literacy for all populations, still there are disparities in literacy attainment across region, gender, ethnicity, caste and linguist minorities. To address the problem of illiteracy, Saakshar Bharat, a flagship programme and a new variant of National Literacy Mission was launched on 8th September 2009 with a view to impart functional literacy to 7 crore
206
non -literate population who are 15 and above years by 31st march 2012. Functional literacy implies: “Achieving
self
reliance
in
Reading,
Writing,
Arithmetic
(Numeracy) and becoming aware of the causes of one’s deprivation and moving towards amelioration of their condition through organization and participation in the process of development; Acquiring skills to improve the economic status and general well being; Creating an aware and responsible citizenry (Imbibing values of national integration, communal harmony, conservation of the environment, women’s equality, and reproductive behaviour etc”. Objectives The Mission has four broad objectives, namely: I.
Impart functional literacy and numeracy to non-literate and nonnumerate adults
II.
Enable the neo-literate adults to continue their learning beyond basic literacy and acquire equivalency to formal educational system
III.
Impart non-and neo-literates relevant skill development programmes to improve their earning and living conditions
IV.
Promote a learning society by providing opportunities to neo literate adults for continuing education
Targets While the principal target of the mission is to impart functional literacy to 70 million adults in the age group of 15 years and beyond, the auxiliary target of the mission is to cover 1.5 million adults under basic education programme and equal number under vocational (skill development) programme. Within these targets, the Mission will primarily focus on, but not limited to, women. Schedules Castes (SCs), Scheduled 207
Tribes (STs) Minorities, other disadvantaged groups and adolescents in rural areas in low literacy States will be other focused groups. For each focused group and area, there will be a specific target and for each target, an explicit approach and strategy. Category Wise Targets Under Literacy Programme (MILLIONS) Male
Female
Total
SC
4
10
14
ST
2
6
8
MUSLIMS
2
10
12
OTHERS
2
34
36
TOTAL
10
60
70
Category
Women’s being the prime focus and predominant participants, the entire programme is given gender treatment. The gender, social and cultural barriers that women face were taken into consideration while designing teaching learning programmes. Gender will not be seen in isolation but in conjunction with other social categories like caste, ethnicity, religion, disability, etc. Gender perspective will permeate all components of the programme, including the approach, strategies, planning,
management
structures,
teaching-learning
materials
and
monitoring and evaluation. Special priority is given to women belonging to SC, ST, Minority and other disadvantaged groups in rural areas.The SCs (15%), STs (8%) and Minorities (20%) together constitute more than 40% of Indiaெs population. In terms of illiterate population, SCs constitute 20.5% and STs 12%. Minorities, especially Muslims, constitute another large block of illiterate population. Targets have been fixed taking into
208
account not only the share of their total population, but also their share of the non-literate population and commensurate resources should be invested for raising their literacy level. Approaches: The following approaches are suggested in the document: Volunteer based, Residential instructor, Residential literacy camps, part residential and part volunteer. At present the basic literacy programme tackled through volunteers. Here and there Residential Literacy camps are also tried out. The Saakshar Bharat programme is in operation in 375 districts across the nation and Life long learning centers in the shape of Lok Shiksha kendras(Adult Education Centers) are established in every panchayat not only for promotion of literacy but also beyond literacy programmes. Lok Shikha Kendras (Adult Education Centres) as Life Long Learning Centres Well equipped multiple functional Lok Shikha Kendras (Adult Education Centres[AEC]) are set up at Gram Panchayat level to provide institutional, managerial and resource support to literacy and life long education at grass root level. One AEC for each Gram Panchayat having a population of 5000 is set up. An additional AEC will be set up if the population of Gram Panchayat is more than 5000. Two coordinators would handle the Adult Education Centre (AEC) engaged on contractual basis. AECs are functioning from buildings provided by Gram Panchayat. Preraks are preferably from marginalized groups (SCs/STs/ Minorities) and one of them is a woman. Minimum qualification of the prerak is matriculation. Programmes of lok Shiksha kendras:
209
1. Basic Literacy for non- literate adults 2, Basic education for those who wish to acquire higher qualifications 3. Skill development programmes for non- literates and neo-literates 4. Continuing Education programmes. A Lok Shiksha Kendra will act as a center for registration of learners for all teaching learning activities in their jurisdiction; Nerve center for literacy campaign including identification of the learners and volunteers, batching and matching of the learners with suitable Volunteers as well as their training, providing literacy kits to learners and volunteers, keeping track of the progress made by each learner-volunteer group; Nodal centre for mass mobilization activities; Technology center; Center for thematic courses on behalf of other departments such as Agriculture, Animal Husbandry and Veterinary, Fisheries, Horticulture, Sericulture, Handloom, Handicrafts, Health, Education, Rural Development, Urban Development, Women and Child Development, SCs, STs,OBC welfare, Panchayatiraj, Science & Technology etc. or based on local demand; Library and reading room; Venue for group discussion; Vocational and Skill development and extension facility for other departments; Center for Promoting sports and adventure and recreational and cultural activities; A Composite information window and Data center for Adult education besides any other activity related to the mission. Present Status of AECs in AP The Saakshar Bharat programme was launched in Andhra pradesh th
on 8 September 2010 and the programme is in operation in 19 districts. The 1st phase of basic literacy was completed on 31st march 2011 and the second programme was launched on 8th September 2011. 18921 AECs were established in all the 19 districts .The material such as almirahs,
210
tables, chairs, carpet, sports material were supplied to the AECs. Two daily newspapers are also subscribed for each AEC.
Contribution of SRCs, Hyderabad for Life Long Learning The SRC, Hyderabad has imparted training programme to the field functionaries on Saakshar Bharat and under acceleration of the programme it has supplied flexies containing information on Saakshar Bharat, programmes of AECs, Functions of Preraks, and alphabet charts. Under the acceleration of the saakshar Bharat programme 4 districts viz.,Ranga Reddy, Mahaboobnagar, kurnool and Kadapa are adopted. Of the four districts, 108 mandals are selected. Of the 108 mandals, 2094 Gram panchayats are selected for the promotion of basic literacy and lifelong learning programmes.50 AECs are converted into Model AECs and these are supplied with flexes containing information on Saakshar Bharat programmes, posters and neo-literate books. A good number of Health camps, vocational programmes, reading sessions and environment building programmes are conducted in model and non-model AECs for the benefit of stakeholders for creating islands of success. Besides the efforts of State Resource Centers, Hyderabad the ZLSS has also organizing vocational programmes and supplying neo-literate materials and newspapers to each AEC for the creation of library and reading room. Out of the experiences the following steps are needed to consider the whole scheme of Saakshar Bharat/Adult Education as lifelong learning programme. Strategies needed for adult continuing and lifelong learning Programme
211
• The Govt. of India may consider to re-conceptualize the present adult education and convert it into a lifelong learning programme by including the scheme of Saakshar Bharat under non- plan programmes with a provision for running the AECs as permanent centers in each Gram panchayat. This approach has implications on the management structure, Curriculum, Instructional methodology and institutional support. • The adult learner may be provided with a multiplicity of options that relate to the interests and needs with respect to their profile and work environment. • A basket of short-term and diploma courses as decided by the UNESCO classification of Continuing education programmes viz., Income generation, Individual Interest promotion, future oriented, quality of life improvement programmes need to be designed and implemented especially for the neo-literates. • Training for Life Long Learning perspective, the mechanism of professional institutions need to be roped in on convergence basis at AEC level and the present Prerak may be considered as a facilitator and the SRCs should be strengthened by creating branches at district and mandal levels so as to reach the un reached and to bring greater social transformation and empowerment. References: A Document (2009) on Education For All-Mid decade Assessment, Adult Literacy and Life Long Learning in India brought out by Ila Patel, National University of Educational Planning and Administration, New Delhi. A document of Saakshar Bharat, Govt of India, Ministry of Human Resource development A document on National Curriculam Framework for Adult educationReport of the expert committee, March 2011, New Delhi 212
213
Chapter – 17 Role of Saakshar Bharat 2012 under Lifelong Learning & Extension of the University System: A study Dr. Rajesh Assistant Professor University of Delhi The University-Grants-Commission accepted Extension as the Third Dimension to the University-System. Extension is an umbrella term which includes adult education, continuing education, population education and community education through field outreach activities. The third dimension aims to promote a meaningful and sustained rapport between the university and the community, Community Education as a programme and approach is intended to help sustain linkages with all sectors of the community-consisting of all age groups. The present descriptive research is undertaken to explore the possible linkages between Saakshar Bharat 2012 and Lifelong Learning and Extension adopted by the University-Grants-Commission under XI Plan in the University-System. Rationale of Lifelong Learning and Extension: The importance of Lifelong Learning and Extension are repeatedly stressed in several Educational Policy Documents and discourses of India. While the report of Education Commission (1964-66) observed that education does not end with schooling but is a lifelong process. They considered lifelong learning as a cherished goal of the educational process which presupposes universal literacy, provision of opportunities for youth, housewives, agricultural and industrial workers and professionals to continue the education of their choice at the pace suited to them. It observers that the critical development issue is the continuous upgradation
214
of skills so as to produce manpower resources of the kind and number required by the Society. Lifelong Learning programmes are implemented by the university professionals and voluntary organizations in spite of bulk of the programs continued to focus on adult literacy and continuing education due to massive number of illiterates and neo-literates as estimated by the National Literacy Mission. The Government of India forwarded the idea of Lifelong Education and Awareness Program (LEAP). This program was partly influenced by the global discourse and partially due to socio-economic changes taking place within and outside the country. In a technology based knowledge driven competitive economy, the landscape of learning is fast changing. The role and importance of lifelong learning in India have increased in recent times due to socio-economic factor. The countries economic performance depends critically on access to and the adoption of new technology and improving the skills of the labour force since 92.4% of India’s workforce is in unorganized sector, they need regular upgradation of skills to compete in the globalize economy, Equipping the labour force with relevant skills implies the need for creating a variety of earning and training opportunities. In this process, the University-System will play an important role. This paper critically analyses the role and responsibilities of the university system under’ Lifelong Learning & Extension to promote the activities and programmes of ‘Saakshar Bharat 2012. The UniversityGrants-Commission under XI Plan converted Centre/Department of Adult, continuing Education & Extension as the Department of Lifelong Learning and Extension. The idea of the UGC is to give more dynamic role and move from periphery to the centre stage of the university system. It has to 215
play major role in the development of human resources especially providing professional manpower in the area of Lifelong Learning. All the different programme initiated earlier under various terminologies viz. Adult, Continuing Education, Extension, Population Education, Student Counselling & Placement Services to be reformulated as Lifelong Learning Programme so as to bring them in new scenario. Lifelong Learning is being supported by the UGC under XI plan to achieve national socio-economic development and a tail for promoting knowledge based society. Objectives: 1. To Review the role of the University System under Saakshar Bharat 2. To explore the future role of the University-System. 3. To explore public private partnership Rationale: The present study is intended to examine the role of the University System since 1978 to till date in the filed of adult education. It covers all the three dimensions-teaching, research & extension. The study explores the changing role of the University-Grants-Commission from literacy to empowerment. The vast human resources and the highly competent teachers at the university/college levels are helpful to promote the government of India’s focused role in Saakshar Bharat 2012. Role of the University system under Saakshar Bharat 2012 The University-System accepted the concept of extension and community outreach and started acting since 1980. The Higher Education linked its activities under National Adult Education Programme (1988). Although the programme made the beginning with Literacy, its scope was
216
gradually widened over the next three decades to include post Literacy, Continuing Education Population Education, Refresher Courses and a variety of Extension and Community Outreach Programmes. The UGC encouraged and funded the universities to institutionalize the programme by setting up separate Departments with Core Faculties to undertake teaching and research. With the beginning of the XI Plan the UGC accorded maximum priority to Lifelong Learning with a view to meet the demands of Learning Society. The Government of India providing maximum focus to literacy and its related activities, initiated ‘Saakshar Bharat 2012. The National programme is designed to cover women, scheduled caste, scheduled tribes and the minorities in terms of literacy and through literacy making Learning Environment. Saakshar Bharat focused on the priority areas and districts having low literacy rates among women and the marginalized communities. The University-System through the Department of Lifelong Learning and Extension can collaborate with the government on the following areas: 1. Research & Evaluation. 2. Curriculum Designing 3. Learning Materials Development 4. Networking and Partnership Building 5. Monitoring the programmes at the various Regional and National Level 6. Training and Capacity Building 7. Process Documentation and Dissemination 8. Student Volunteer Support 9. Designing target specific Continuing Education 10.Skill enhancement and vocational programmes 217
Methodology The present study is a qualitative descriptive study based on the existing review of literature and interviews with the university stakeholders. The teachers and the students of three central universities are considered namely Delhi University, JNU and Jamea Milia Islamia. In total 10 teachers and 100 students are interviewed on 110 Samples S. No.
Target Group
No. of Samples
Teachers
10
Students
PG - UG 50 - 50 Total = 110
Gender Distribution S. No.
No. of Samples
Target Population
M
F
1
Teachers
5
5
2
Students
50
50
Total=
110
Research and Evaluation Saakshar Bharat and Lifelong Learning & Extension Department strongly collaborate in the field of Research & Evaluation. The present study analyzed that so far few Department/Cerntres are changed in evaluation and in some cases some faculty members represented in undertaking evaluation and Evaluation Committees of the Government. It was strongly felt that systematic collaborative efforts are required for promoting interdisciplinary research on the various areas of Saakshar 218
Bharat. In this regard, university of Delhi has initiated researches on Promoting Reading habits among neo-literates, role of technology and monitor mechanism among the civil society organizations. The systematic efforts are required from the Government and the University-GrantCommission to utilize university resources for promoting research & evaluation. Curriculum- Designing: Curriculum-Design for the neo-literates, short-term and long term courses need to undertaken professionally in Jan Shikshan Santhans, State Council of Education Technology and District Institute of Educational Technology. The University-System has expertise especially in the Departments of
Lifelong
Learning and
Extension. The various
Departments have initiated number of short duration professional courses which could be useful to make learner a lifelong learner so far, the university expertise are under utilized in this area. Learning Materials Development The university through this department developed materials for the various stakeholders ranging from the students to the community level. The units of the University-System and Resource Centres can be jointly involved in learning materials development. Networking and Partnership building The university system feel that at the international and national level several new emerging issues are covered through United Nation Literary Decade (2003-2012) Literacy for Empowerment (2005- 2015) and the National level Saakshar Bharat 2012. UNESCO has also started series of international Adult Education conferences since 1949. Recently in 2009, Confintea VI held in Belam, 219
Brazil to Discuss International issues and concerns of Lifelong Learning and making world a literate society. Universe of the study: The Investigator selected Delhi University, JNU and Jumia Milia Islamia as the universe of the study. Nearly 50 students and 2 faculty members are interview on the basis of random sampling. The present study is descriptive qualitative study and evaluator in nature. The Belen Framework of Action (2009) focused adult learning and education as a significant component of the Lifelong Learning process which embraces a learning continuum ranging from formal to non-formal and informal education. Adult learning and education caters the needs of young people, adults and older people. Adult Leaning and Education cover a broad range of content-related issues, Vocational matters, family literacy and family education, citizenship and many other areas are covered. It is also imperative inclusion for alleviating and for building equitable, tolerant sustainable and knowledge based societies. In the recommendations of Belen conference, literacy became inherent part of the right to Education. It is pre-requisite for the development of personal, social, economic and political empowerment. Literacy is an essential means of building people’s capabilities to cope with the evolving challenges and complexities of like, culture, economy and the society The Department of Lifelong Learning and extension can involve undergraduate students as volunteers in Sakshara Bharat 2012. The University may provide them additional points and credits as a volunteer. They will also help in implementing continuing education, training and 220
skills development beyond the basic literacy skills supported by an enriched literate environment. National AIDS Control Organization under the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of India covers vulnerable population such as sex workers, injecting drug users, men sex with men and truckers. Gender Resource Centres under Convergence Mission under the Department of Social Welfare deals with women below poverty line. The study shows that vulnerable populations are mostly illiterate and marginalized. The research investigator has undertaken several studies on sex workers and injecting drug users are nearly 65% illiterate and comparative possess less skill. Future Strategies: The University-Grants-Commission renamed University based Adult, Continuing Education & Extension on the Department of Lifelong Learning and Extension Lifelong Learning & Extension are expected to cover formal, non-formal and informal sector. Students and teachers of the university system will be involved in learning material development innovation and experiments. The focus may be on undertakeing researches, evaluation, training and capacity building. The last human resources may also be utilized as the volunteers by providing then academic preferences. Conclusion and recommendation: The present study recommended strong linkages and partnership building with the university-system and Sakshara Bharat 2012. The goals of United Nation Literacy Decade (2003-2013) and ConfentiaVI should be considered to be achieved. The goal should to make an adult a lifelong learner. The Department of Lifelong Learning & Extension be should play 221
vital role in developing partnership with Sakshara Bharat 2012 the university-system and with the University Grants –Commission. Some of the focus areas that are recommended incorporated Interdisciplinary Researches Evaluation, Training and Capacity Building and Developing Learning Materials. The ultimate objective is to prove an adult a lifelong learner. Since the number of students are gradually increasing in the higher education sector under XI Plan. References: Chadha, NK (2009) Ed. Readings in Lifelong Learning, DACEE, University of Delhi. DACEE (2007) Report for XI Plan of the Department of Adult, Continuing Education & Extension, University of Delhi. Rajesh (2009) from Campus to the Community, DACEE, University of Delhi New Delhi. UGC (1999) IX Plan Guidelines for department of Adult, Continuing Education & Extension, UGC, New Delhi. UGC (2007) XI Plan Guidelines for Department of Lifelong Learning & Extension UGC, New Delhi.
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Chapter – 18 Livelihood Security and Socio-Economic Empowerment of Women Through Micro Finance – A Case Study in Tumkur District T. Venkatachalaiah Dept. of Economics, Government First Grade College, Gubbi - 572216 Tumkur District. Introduction In most of the developing countries today, more and more emphasis is laid on the need for development of women and their active participation in the main stream of development process. It is also widely recognized that apart from managing household, bearing children, rural women bring income with productive activities ranging from traditional work in the fields to working in factories or running small and petty businesses. They have also proven that the can be better entrepreneurs and development managers in any kind of human development activities. Therefore, it is important and utmost necessary to make rural women empowered in taking decisions to enable them to be in the central part of any human development process. The empowerment of women also considered as an active process enabling women to realize their full identity and power in all spheres of life. Micro finance is a significant factor and accessible to small and Micro enterprises, Socio, economic, cultural progress of poor women. Education and training also plays a major role in changing the life of poor women. So the future of SHG’s partly lies in the overall growth of mainstream rural finance, on one hand and the increases in self and group entrepreneurship activities on the other hand of this, the second factor depends on the high growth potential of the Indian economy in future. The Indian poor definitely deserve the enlarging opportunities in social banking. The Government of India should not view microfinance as a 223
close substitute for programmes of rural development and/ or poverty alleviation schemes in future. In sustaining the development of the rural area, credit is playing a key role. Primary sector will continue to play an important role in the national economy to meet the increasing demand of a growing population and the industrial sector. Rural development thus depends on the amount of credit available in rural areas. Before we pass on to discuss how rural credit structure played an important role in the socio-economic development of weaker sections in general and women in particular. In the Indian banking system rural banking has become an important segment. After nationalization of banks in 1969, they forced to move towards rural India and open their branches to meet the credit requirements of rural mass. 1 As a result about 50 percent of the bank branches are located in wide spread rural area. The concept of class banking ha changed its dimension and now the concept is mass banking. In the context of rural banking so many steps have been initiated by the Government of India, such as bank nationalization, lead bank scheme, setting up of regional rural banks, creation of NABARD, implementation of service area approach etc. As we know that, in unorganized sector indigenous bankers, money lender are still playing their own role. They provide timely and quick loan facility, but charge high rate of interest varies between 24 percent to 60 percent per annum and even more. In organized sector commercial banks, regional rural banks and cooperatives are meeting the credit needs of the people in rural areas, where nearly 643 million people living in 5.76 lakh villages out of the total 1027 million people residing in India. Though these institutions are functioning in good number, large number of ruralites is not exposed to and accessed the services offered by them. They are deprived of these services and left behind. The main reasons for this are 224
illiteracy, ignorance, security problem, cumbersome and lengthy procedures followed by the banking institutions etc. In the emergence of micro finance or micro credit system the inability of credit institutions to deal with the credit requirements of the poor effectively has led an important role. Credit is a crucial input in the process of development. Micro finance provides credit access to poor with no collateral obligations. It encourages savings and promotes incomegenerating activities. Loans are provided at the market driven rates of interest and peer pressure is used in repayment. Micro finance is carried out through self help groups where poor come together in the range of 1020 by weekly, fortnightly and monthly meetings through their savings and loaning. It is hoped that through such interventions hitherto uncovered groups are covered with credit and in the process get empowered. In spite of the massive scale of government intervention towards rural development in India, rural India continues to be reeling under poverty and related problems. Notwithstanding the phenomenal progress seen in the rural credit structure in terms of volume of credit extended, concessionality, coverage of weaker sections including scheduled castes and tribes, almost all institutions constituting the formal part of the rural credit system, suffer from several shortcomings like; (a) Gap between the concern of the policy makers and the quality of the effort (b) Defects in policy design (c) Infirmities in implementation (d) Loans to the poor were considered as a part of social sector lending and not commercial (e) It was felt that poor were not borrowers but beneficiaries (f) An attitude of ‘carefully disguised cynicism towards the poor’ and (g) An attitude of ‘poor are not bankable’.
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This possibly has been due to the absence of the people’s participation in the development programmes and also due to the gap in mutual understanding about perspectives of the supply side (the government, planners. and the bureaucracy) on the one hand and the demand side (the rural poor) on the other. This gap is felt to be filled by the microfinance activity through the Self Help Group approach for sustainable rural development. The significant feature of the Self Help Groups [SHGs] is that they provide credit to the poor at unsubsidized interest rates besides having relatively low default rates on these loans. SHGs reduce transaction costs of financial institutions that do business with the poor and that of the SHGs themselves. They reduce the cost of financial institutions by acting as intermediary organizations or by providing social collateral that substitute for costly loan appraisals and supervisions. SHG approach has made considerable impact on the development of rural economy in terms of increasing savings of the poor, providing access to credit for the poor at reasonable rates of interest by establishing linkages with the formal financial institutions, improving the production levels and income levels, increasing food security and standard of living, improving asset creation and enhancing income generation activities, augmenting environment sustainability and contributing for the much needed women empowerment. With the enthusiastic roles played by the NGOs, the banks, the public and the governments, over a period of one and a half decade, the SHG approach has transformed into a movement in the rural areas. Self Help Groups have been receiving greater attention by all the concerned like the Government, NABARD, RBI, Commercial Banks, and RRBs. This innovative form of credit delivery is catching up in a big way in rural areas. SHG movement is leveraging the strength of the formal 226
banking system and flexibility of informal SHGs in providing adequate financial services to the rural poor. The programme has turned in to a social movement with high expansion rates in recent years. Fuelled by competence and enthusiasm at all stakeholder levels, it is expanding rapidly throughout India, including tribal areas. It is probably the world’s largest and most successful micro finance programme for the rural pooroutstanding in its emphasis on self-reliance and local autonomy of the very poor. It is widely felt that there have been perceptible changes in the living conditions of the rural poor mainly on economic side and relatively on social side. It is with this perceptional background that a detailed study has to be undertaken to find out the economic impact of the Self-Help Groups on the development of rural economy. In this context, it is desirable to generate information and analyse to what extent these Self Help Groups have been able to reduce poverty and vulnerability by; increasing capital / asset formation at the household level, improving household and enterprise incomes, enhancing the capacity of individuals and households to manage risk, increasing enterprise activity within households, expanding employment opportunities for the poor in non-farm enterprises, empowering women and improving the accessibility of other financial services at the community level. Micro-finance aims at providing the rural and urban poor, especially women, with savings, credit and insurance facilities to set up or expand income-generating activities, and to improve household income security. The micro-finance programmes, as we shall discuss below, are expected to alleviate poverty and empower women. Women in India had a respectable in the family and the society during pre-Vedic and Vedic age. Sucheta Kripalani states, “That in RigVedic Age, the women of India enjoyed and exceptionally high status. At 227
that time women were not only their husband’s life-long partner and companion in weal and woe, but also the mistress of their household and real partner in all their activities, including religious sacrifices. 9 Women’s entry into their husband house was regarded as an auspicious event bringing blessings to the entire household.
Her high education was
regarded as a necessary accomplishment for being well placed in life. In this backdrop, exploring the rationale behind the evolution of micro finance institutions as an alternative source to meet the financial requirements of the poor and studying institutional objectives, structure and approaches in meeting their financial demands, needs immediate attention as well as further research. 2. Objectives of the Study The main focus of the study is to examine the role of micro finance and its impact on socio-economic development of beneficiaries from Self-help Groups and Non Government Organizations. The specific objectives of the study are as follows; 1. To evaluate the extent of influence and support of micro finance institutions
in
implementing
microfinance
programmes
for
upliftment of women. 2. To examine the employment activities of Self-Help Groups under micro credit programmes in the study area. 3. To study the role of Self-Help Groups in socio-economic empowerment of women in Tumkur district. 4. To evaluate the problems being faced by the SHGs in implementing the micro-credit programmes
228
5. To suggest appropriate policy measures based on the findings, which emerge from the proposed study. 3. Methodology of the Study The present study is an empirical investigation based on sample beneficiaries of microfinance institutions in Tumkur district of Karnataka. The present study is based on both secondary and primary data and a systematic random sampling method has been adopted for survey. The primary data has been collected from Tumkur district. The sample size comprised of 186 beneficiaries from microfinance activities in the Tumkur district of Karnataka State. The present study has selected two taluks in the district for the purpose of primary data collection. 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Micro finance in general is a practice of providing the poor with credit, savings and insurance facilities to set up or to expand Income Generating Activities relating to agriculture and its allied activities and non-farm sector, and thereby is poverty reducing mechanism. Micro finance is needed a very traditional and familiar form of business. Microfinance has turned out to be useful development assistance product. It reached millions of poor people and emerged as a revolution. It is a viable alternative that reached the hitherto unreached for their social and economic empowerment through financial and social intermediation. In microfinance the practice of group-lending contracts with joint liability is widely accepted as a potential innovation or a noble solution for imperfections in rural credit markets to minimize risks in the credit markets. The joint liability between the group members provides incentives or compels the group to undertake the tasks of selection, 229
monitoring and enforcement of repayment in a cost effective manner. This leads to reduced transaction costs, increased volume of transactions and improved accessibility of credit to the poor. Table – 1 gives the group-wise age composition of the selected members. It is seen that 62 percent of the selected members were in the age group of 30-45 years, which is considered to be the most productive period in a person’s life. The proportions of members in the age group of less than 30years and those than 45 years were 19 each. Table – 1: Agency-wise distribution of members by age group Age
MRD
CDS
BAIF
All class
Loss than 30 years
6(17)
12(23)
17(17)
35(19)
35-45 years
22(63)
33(62)
61(63)
116(62)
Above 45 years
35(100)
53(100)
98(100)
186(100)
Total
35(100)
53(100)
98(100)
186(100)
Source: Field survey. Figures in brackets as percentages. As per the Census Report 2001, the average family size to the district is 6.49. During the field survey we have observed that majority of the Muslim families were having more than three children. Table - 2: Agency-wise distribution of members by family size All class
Family size
MRD
CDS
Less than 3
7(20)
19(19)
18 (19)
35(19)
3 to 5
23(66)
32(60)
60(61)
115(62)
Above 5
5(14)
11(21)
20(20)
36(19)
Total
35(100)
53(100)
98(100)
186(100)
BAIF
Source: Field survey, Figures in brackets are percentages.
230
Table - 3 shows that the members of BAIF groups were more educated than the members of other groups.
Forty-four percent of them had
qualifications of SSLC or above. In CDS and MRD, the majority of the selected members (47 percent and 35 percent respectively) were found to have only primary education.
Illiterates formed time percent of the
membership in the CDS groups. Interestingly. In almost all the groups, women were found to be better educated than their husbands. Table – 3: Distribution of members by social status Caste
MRD
CDS
BAIF
All class
SC/ST
-
6(11)
2(2)
8(4)
General
16(46)
19(36)
59(60)
94(51)
OBC
19(54)
28(53)
37(38)
84(45)
Total
35(100)
53(100)
98(100)
186(100)
Source: Field survey figures is brackets are percentages. The major source of income of those households came from the work of the male members, husband, father or others. Table - 4 shown that 62 percent of the members feature of the members of the CDS groups is that for 16 percent among them, spouses had either deceased of were nonworking. Table – 4: Activity Status Activity status
MRD
CDS
BAIF
All class
Laborer Mason/others
22(63)
16(600)
58(50)
116(62)
Petty shop
3(9)
1(2)
8(8)
12(6)
Gulf employee
1(3)
-
7(7)
8(4)
Self employee,
3(9)
2(4)
15(16)
20(11)
6(17)
14(26)
10(10)
30(16)
Govt. employee No employment widow
231
Total
35(100)
53(100)
98(100)
186(100)
Source: Field survey Figures in brackets are percentages. The share of the employment and the employed together in BAIF formed 23 percent) which shows that these members had not come inevitably from the ‘poor’ families, as per the accepted definition of poverty. A family with monthly income of above Rs.1500 is treated as a family belonging in the above poverty line (APL) We could find that only a very few members come under this category. Table – 5 shows that in CDS. 26 percent of the selected sample members reported their monthly family income as below Rs.2000. In the other two, the corresponding proportions were much lower. Thus the CDS groups catered to the seeds of the poor to a larger extent then the other groups. Table - 5: Distribution of members by monthly family income
Monthly Income
MRD
CDS
BAIF
All class
Less than Rs.2000 3(9)
14(26)
10(10)
27(15)
Rs.2000-4000
23(66)
20(38)
46(47)
89(49)
Rs.4000-6000
8(23)
18(34)
26(27)
52(28)
Above 6000
1(3)
1(2)
16(16)
18(10)
Total
35(100)
53(100)
98(100)
186(100)
Source: Field survey Figures in brackets are percentages. In BAIF 43 percent of the members were having more than Rs.4000 as family income of them. 16 percent reported incomes more than Rs.6000. These higher income families had their numbers engaged in several occupation -compactors, auto-drivers, teachers, clerks at tenders in government offices newspaper agents and LIC gents. The sons of a few old members were reportedly working to Gulf countries or were well232
employed in India. Only 15 percent of the total members in the sample reported their family income as less than Rs.2000. Thus it may be inferred that the SHGs have either improved of the economic conditions of a fairly good number of BPL families of that the members of SHGs were drawn also from families belonging to the APL category. Factors behind group success and failure Several studies have reported that there are certain elements factors, which are crucial for the successful functioning of SHGs. The major factors may be categorized into external and internal. The external factors usually include the agency ( Mahila Samaja a voluntary agency, a Grama Panchayat a banker or even a Government organization) that promotes and motivates the members. The Bangladesh and the MYRADAs experiences show that in the initial years the role of the external promoting agency in vital for motivation, nurturing and equipping the group to reach the stage of self-reliance. Deliberate external intervention of the promoting agency (in the initial stage) has helped in laying a strong foundation in the MYRADA group. However whether it is the government or the voluntary organization, the role of the promoting agency is not confined to mere mobilization of rural women folk. The agency is also expected to inculcate in them a spirit of self-help and mutual help and a profound understanding of the mission and goals of the SHG. Groups cannot be built overnight. Group formation is a slow, timeconsuming process. Once the members get the crux of the mission and realize the benefits, they would remain loyal throughout and never leave the group. When the group becomes stabilized in its functioning, internal factors like good leadership, unity and mutual understanding among the members determine the pace of growth and development. The internal factors contributing to group success include (i) presence of an educated, 233
sincere, and dynamic leader (ii)stability in leadership (iii) homogeneity in membership (members belonging to same income or social strata) (iv) democracy and transparency and (v) co-operation, unity and mutual understanding Based on these coteries, We have identified a few internal and external factors which have influenced the functioning of the selected groups under the three agencies. The details given in Table - 6 give the members perceptions on factors behind group success. It comes out that the role of the promoting agency and the co-coordinator are the most important external factors contributing to the success of the group. Forty-six percent of the members interviewed felt that the promoting agency and the co-co-ordinators had crucial role in the initial years till the groups reach the stage of selfsufficiency. However a MRD, the role of the bank and the promoting agency was highlighted by 54 percent of the members. In CDS, 25 percent gave multiple responses and 23 percent did not respond or were neutral. While considering the internal factors contributing to group’s success group wise variations were not observed-69 percent of the members, interceptive of groups, remarked that good leadership, co-operation among members and transparency in decision making are essential for the smooth functioning and sustainability of the group. However member felt that the role of the group leader is one among the foremost factors responsible for a group’ success or failure. In some of the defunct groups, absence of a strong secretary to in calculate in the members the real spirit of group dynamics had led to its failure. Table – 6: Members perception about factors contributing to groups success Contributing factors external factors Promoting agency
MRD
CDS
BAIF
All class
5(14)
9(17)
4(4)
18(10)
234
Contributing factors external factors Co-Ordinators
MRD
CDS
BAIF
All class
-
6 (11)
1(1)
7(3)
Promoting agency &
-
9(7)
76(78)
85(46)
5(14)
-
-
5(3)
Promoting agency bank 19(54)
4(8)
-
23(12)
Multiple response
6(17)
13(25)
9(9)
28(15)
Nil
-
12(23)
8(8)
20(11)
Total
35(100)
53(100)
98(100)
186(100)
Good leadership
1(3)
-
4(4)
5(3)
Co-operation
-
3(6)
2(2)
5(3)
Transparency
-
-
4(5)
4(2)
Multiple response
7(20)
15(28)
21(21)
43(23)
All the above factors
27(27)
35(66)
67(68)
129(69)
Total
35(100)
53(100)
98(100)
186(100)
Co-ordinators Bank
Internal factors
Source: Field survey Figures in brackets are percentages. Table – 7: Members’ perception on factors preventing groups further growth Factors
MRD
CDS
BAIF
All class
Poor leadership
1(3)
-
4(4)
5(3)
Low educational
6(17)
9(17)
9(9)
24(13)
8(23)
9(17)
13(13)
30(16)
6(17)
5(9)
13(13)
24(15)
7(20)
9(17)
29(30)
45(24)
Back ground Lack of training/ Awareness/guidance More financial assistance Others
235
Total
35(100)
53(100)
98(100)
186(100)
Source: Field survey Figures in brackets are percentages. In order to find out the factors, which hinder the groups growth and functioning the opinions of the members were collected. Table – 7 show that about one-third of the members. Irrespective of the groups, felt that farther progress is not possible because of poor infrastructure facilities. Even in some of the excellent groups, members expressed the need for better roads, bus and ferry services, brings across the Cauvery River and electrification of then ward.
Absence of bituminized made and bus
services force them to depend of private service operators (of jeeps and auto rickshaws) They felt that they could start small-scale industries or cottage industries, but the cost of transporting raw materials from KR market and taking back the finished products to the market is prohibitively expensive making their efforts un remunerative
However 16 percent
reported that absence of training and guidance prevented further growth of their groups.
In MRD an equal preventive of members (23 percent)
complained about poor infrastructure and lack of training and lack of training and guidance as factors standing in their way of progress 13 percent of the members of all the groups taken together remarked that they require more financial assistance for their groups further growth. A few members especially in BAIF (30 percent) did not respond may be because they belonged to inactive groups or were dormant members not interested in the group’s functioning and growth. Findings of the Study 1. SHGs have potentiality to tackle the poverty and they can be an important weapon for poverty alleviation in Tumkur district.
236
2. The study shows that there is an increase in the level of income and assets of the rural women of SHGs and reduction in the level of poverty as a result of intervention of micro finance by SHGs. 3. The net impact of borrowing on income is positive not only in case of all the borrowers but also in case of the poorest borrowers, showing the better outreach of the bank linkage programme. However, certain short comings are observed. Though there is positive impact on poverty, the process of empowerment is poor. Since these SHGs are women groups, the lower empowerment can lead to the failure of the programme in the long run. 4. It was observed that majority of women loaners belonging to economically weaker sections of society, did not know the terms and conditions of bank loan including rate of interest, schedule of repayment and magnitude of instalments. But it is very interesting to note that majority of the women of SHGs know about the opening up of savings bank account. 5. The main finding of the study is that Women Empowerment Programmes have made on outstanding impact on the women beneficiaries to undertake economic activities in Tumkur District. The spread of bank offices has been spectacular and Women Empowerment Programmes have shown phenomenal growth during the reference period. Suggestions In order to cover more and more weaker sections under this useful and effective rural development approach, it is required on the part of the government to implement as many development programmes as possible through the SHGs so that twin objectives like better utilization of the scheme and coverage of weaker sections can be achieved. Also, 237
Government could earmark a part of the funds spent on providing subsidies under government-sponsored programmes for the formation of Self-Help Groups and providing useful incentives to SHG activity. There is a need to introduce incentives for increasing the thrift activity among the poor. While some of the selected few groups among the government promoted groups get incentives in the form of revolving fund assistance, a large number of groups promoted by NGOs and banks need to get incentives. In view of this, incentives to these groups also may be provided through the banks where the accounts of the groups are maintained in order to increase their savings propensity. This also increases the proportionate credit dispensation to the rural poor through these groups. In order to increase production levels of the SHGs significantly, the relevant production techniques and know-how need to be preserved and spread / shared among the production groups in order to standardize the production as well as packaging process that is suitable for storage and marketing. In this regard, the rural technology mission can be formed by the government with the involvement of the scientists involved in rural technology research, rural economists, rural bankers and NGOs involved in such activities. The problem of promoting livelihood among SHG member is becoming increasingly important because of the need to create livelihood and employment opportunities for higher incomes in the rural areas. We believe that the problem of rural migration, which is a cause of concern, could among others be addressed through this intervention.
238
References Anitha Arya (2000) Indian Women, Vol.2, Gyan Publishing House New Delhi. Anjana Maithra Sinha (1993) Women in a changing society, Ashish Publishing House, New Delhi. Karmakar K.G(1999) Rural Credit and Self-Help Groups; Micro Finance needs and concepts in India, Sage Publication, New Delhi. Lalitha N. and B.S Nagarajan (2002) “Self-Help Groups in Rural Development”, Dominate Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi. Pillai J.K (1995), Women and Empowerment, Gyan Publishing House, New Delhi. Reka Wagir (2000) “The gender GOP in Education-NGO as changing agents”, Sage Publications, New Delhi.
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Chapter – 19 Panchayati Raj Institutions and Saakshar Bharat – An Appraisal in the Context of Empowering Rural India Navdeep Kumar Gandotra Assistant Professor, PG Department of Commerce and Business Adminisatration, Lyallpur Khalsa College, Jalandhar (Punjab). Rama Head, Department of Sociology, Pt. M.L.S.D. College for Women, Gurdaspur (Punjab); Principal Investigator, UGC Sponsored Research Project.
Abstract The present paper is an endeavour to highlight the role of Panchyati Raj Institutions in the effective implementation of Saakshar Bharat Mission in India. I. INTRODUCTION Literacy, education and training are essential ingredients of human resource development, which is considered as an important aspect of economic and social development of the country. Despite significant accomplishments, illiteracy continues to be an area of grave concern in India. According to 2001 Census, there were still 100.73 million nonliterates in the country in 15 to 35 years age group. The Government has, therefore decided to bolster Adult Education and Skill Development during the 11th Plan for the accomplishment of this objective, has launched a programme, Saakshar Bharat, besides the Scheme of Support to Voluntary Agencies for Adult Education and Skill Development. Saakshar Bharat Mission programme strives to achieve equitable access to basic and continuing education for all adults in the country. The strategy laid down in this programme is to reduce the gender, social and regional disparities in
240
providing basic and continuing education to the adults in the target groups. This program has been sanctioned in 167 districts in 19 states covering over 81,000 Gram Panchayats with a budgetary outlay of Rs. 2524 crores up to 31st March, 2012. To minimize regional disparities during the 11th Plan period the programme confines to districts with adult female literacy rate of 50% or less. Effort is to respond to the needs of rural areas first where 84% of India’s non-literates live before expanding to non-rural area. The Saakshar Bharat programme covers all people belonging to different occupations andspeaking different languages. However, separate targets for different occupations andlanguages have not been fixed. The Saakshar Bharat programme seeks to contribute to the achievement of inclusive growthby interlinking it with literacy in general and with literacy of women and adolescents in particular, especially of the socio economically deprived sections like the SCs, STs,Minorities and other deprived groups, mainly from the rural areas. The programme has been implemented in Mission mode. Institutional framework, right from the national up to the state, district, block and gram panchyat, has been set up involving the state government, district
administration
and
Panchyati
Raj
institutions.
Adequate
representations of women in these structures, especially in decisionmaking roles have been ensured. Responsible bodies in the form of Zila Lok Shiksha Samiti, Block Lok Shiksha Samiti and Panchayat Lok Shiksha Samiti have been formed and the support of Panchayati Raj bodies is being sought. The challenge before the National literacy Mission Authority is to provide the facility of basic education; vocational training and need based short term adult education to the large neo-literate population who will complete the basic literacy programme.
241
Scope and Objectives of the Paper Against this backdrop, the present paper is an endeavour to appraise the role of Panchyati Raj Institutions in the mission Saakshar Bharat in the light of issues of concerns and suggestive measures. The paper is mainly based on the secondary sources of data. Besides Introduction in Section I, an overview of the Scheme of Saakshar Bharat has been described in Section-II. Section III deals with the key Issues of concern regarding implementation and performance of the mission through Panchyati Raj Institutions in India. Section IV incorporates the conclusion and policy recommendations. II. SAAKSHAR BHARAT MISSION- ENSURING LITERACY FOR INCLUSIVE GROWTH The Government of India has started a number of progressive programmes and legislations for the empowerment and welfare of the common person. The National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme, the Right to Information Act, the Rural Health Mission, the Sarva Siksha Abhiyan and the National Mid-day Meal Programme are all efforts in that direction. Literacy is central to the success of all these programmes and initiatives. The campaign for total literacy, which began in 1988 with the launch of National Literacy Mission, completed nearly two decades by the end of the 10th Five Year Plan. During this period, literacy rates had moved up from 43.57% in 1981 to 64.84% in 2001. A new Census is to take in 2011, when the current status of literacy would be known. The figures of 2001 show male literacy as over 75.3% while female literacy remains at an unacceptable level of 54%. Census of 2001 also showed that gender and regional disparities in literacy continue to persist. The government has, therefore, set a goal of raising the literacy rate to 80% by 2012 and reducing the gender gap to half by the same period. Saakshar Bharat 242
Mission is a National Literacy Mission launched on 8th September, 2009 by the Government of India. It covers, in a phased manner, all such districts in the country that have adult female literacy rate 50 per cent or less. The principal target of the mission is to impart functional literacy to 70 million adults in the age group of 15 years and beyond. Auxiliary target of the mission is to cover 1.5 million adults under basic education program and equal number under vocational (skill development) program. Government of India’s share of Rs. 306 crores has been sanctioned as the first instalment to all the 19 states for the period up to 31.3.2010 for covering 167 districts: 3.82 crores non-literate adults will be benefited in these districts. While the earlier literacy programmes concentrated on adult illiterates, the new scheme strives to impart functional literacy to illiterate of over 15 years of age. This mission has four broad objectives: 1. Impart functional literacy and numeracy to non-literate and nonnumerate adults. 2. Enable the neo-literate adults to continue this learning beyond basic literacy and reach levels equivalent to formal education system. 3. Impart
non-
and
neo-literates
relevant
skill
development
programmes to improve their earning and living conditions. 4. Promote a learning society by providing opportunities to neo-literate adults for continuing education. Within these targets, women will be the focal point, though men are not
excluded.
Economically and
educationally backward
groups
categorized as Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), Minorities, other disadvantaged groups and adolescents in rural areas in low literacy States are the other focused groups. The SCs (16%), STs (8%) 243
and Minorities (20%) together constitute more than 40% of India’s population. In terms of illiterate population, SCs constitute 20.5% and STs 12%. Minorities, especially Muslims, constitute another large block of illiterate population. Targets have been fixed taking into account not only the share of their total population, but also their share of the non-literate population. Literacy is provided in all State languages and standard dialects used in different parts of the country. Focus of the programme is to provide the learners literacy skills, basic education (equivalent to formal education system), vocational skills and short-term adult education courses relevant to the life situations of the rural people. Functional literacy, awareness relating to social and economic aspects including health and education of the people for improving their economic status and well-being are the main focus areas of this programme. Education helps nations to march forward, helps them to progress socially and economically. Education is a very valuable instrument and literacy is the first step in imparting education. One-third of India’s population still continues to be illiterate. About half of Indian women cannot still read or write. The number of illiterates in India is probably the highest among all nations of the world. Persistent illiteracy, particularly among women, Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Minorities and other disadvantaged groups, is a challenge. Saakshar Bharat programme seeks to promote and strengthen adult education especially of women in the lifelong education perspective by striving to provide learning opportunities not only for basic literacy, but also for equivalency to formal education system and for skills related to their life and livelihood concerns and needs. It provides basic education and vocational training to provide individuals with knowledge, skills and attitude needed for their economic self244
sufficiency and to enable its beneficiaries to improve their economic status. The programme also provides knowledge and information for forest protection and better development. The Saakshar Bharat programme seeks to contribute to the achievement of inclusive growth by interlinking it with literacy in general and with literacy of women and adolescents in particular, especially of the socio economically deprived sections like the SCs, STs, Minorities and other deprived groups, mainly from the rural areas. Public awareness in respect of development aspects and their deprivation of the benefits is being created. Support for literacy activities as a means to ameliorate their condition is being sought. All forms of media including print, electronic and folk are being harnessed to create positive perceptions about literacy and to simultaneously motivate and spur to action both potential literacy volunteers and learners. Information, education and communication materials are being used extensively to create conducive environment for literacy learning and for seeking the support for literacy. III. Panchyati Raj Institutions and Implementation of Saakshar Bharat Mission Panchayati Raj Institutions at village, block and district levels and the village community are associated in the implementation and supervision of this programme. The Saakshar Bharat Mission fully involves the local community in its implementation, and utilize the potential and promise of the Panchayati Raj Institutions and the women’s Self Help Groups. The implementation of this programme has been entrusted to the Gram Panchayats. Panchayati Raj institutions are the fulcrum of the adult literacy programme. The programme activities are planned and implemented by the community and Panchayats at the grassroots level and all management and supervisory structures, right from the national up to the village level is 245
instituted accordingly. In compliance with 73rd Constitutional amendment, Panhchayti Raj institutions are the fulcrum of adult literacy programme. A delivery mechanism, based on the principles of decentralization and bottom up approach with Gram Panchayats as the hub will be set up. The programme activities are planned and implemented by the community and Panchayats at the grassroots level. The national and state governments will only play the role of facilitator and resource provider. All management and supervisory structures, right from the national up to the village level will be instituted accordingly. Adequate representation of women in these structures, especially in decision-making roles will be ensured. Saakshar Bharat Programme envisages 300 hours of learning comprising of 200 hours through the literacy primer and another 100 hours through bridge primer. E-learning material has also been developed by participating institutions for use in some parts of the country. ICT is to be used for creating learning environment and also for teaching/learning. The most common teaching/learning methodology used in India for this programme is eclectic method. This method facilitates reading skills, comprehension and largely supports learning through interpretations of contents in the context of life. A robust web-based real monitoring system has been designed for this programme. Objective performance parameters have been prescribed for each agency involved in implementation of this programme. Feed back on what is happening on the ground is an important aspect of this system for effecting timely corrections. High quality evaluation will be carried out to facilitate detailed analysis, including cost benefit analysis and future planning. Unit cost per learner made literate is around US$5. Government of India provides three fourth of the cost and state governments share one-fourth except in case of North-Eastern States where central government provides 90%. Total cost of the programme
246
during the last three years of Eleventh Five Year Plan is about US$ 1.2 billion. Activities and responsibilities have been delineated up to the Panchyat Gram level. Panchayats are responsible for Micro-planning in respect of preparation of action plan. Micro Planning will include survey, data collection, mass mobilization, training schedules of different levels of functionaries, procurement and distribution of teaching learning materials, evaluation of learning outcome of the learners, budgetary requirements, etc. This will have to be formulated taking into account all programmes and activities of the Mission. Blocks will aggregate all the gram panchayts in the block and add their own activity budget to it. The District Implementing Agency will ensemble all the block plans and add their own activity budget and submit it to higher authorities. Key Issues of Concern:The functioning of the Saakshar Bharat Mission at the grassroot level is to be performed by the Gram Panchayats. The following are certain key issues of concern in this context which requires due attention to achieve the objectives of mission: Lack of administrative capabilities of Panchayat members. More interference of higher authorities in the functioning of Panchyats. Lack of awareness regarding the scheme. Lack of knowledge of technology for evaluation and review process. More emphasis on the quantitative aspects. Reliability and creditability of reported data. Lack of effective supervision and feedback. 247
Non trained staff. Lack of field research.
248
IV. Conclusion and Recommendations For achieving the goal of universal literacy, it is essential that all are provided the opportunity of participating in formal or non-formal education system. Literacy programme is now linked to wider national development frameworks of reducing poverty, providing vocational training, creating awareness and organising them to participate in the development process. In order to achieve the targets of the mission through Panchyati Raj Institutions, autonomy in real senses is required to be provided. Effective identification of the target groups is also pre-requisite for the success of the mission. Awareness at mass level among the society through viable media is also an essential ingredient. Education providers must be selected on merit basis and their performance appraisal after regular intervals should be ensured. NGOs should be actively involved in this inclusive growth process through literacy. The programme should be extended to the other states in order to ensure wider coverage. The Panchayats must be adequately trained to understand and implement the scheme for the effective functioning. More research initiatives are needed to make optimum out of the amiable resources within the stipulated time period.
249
References: Alagh, Y.K. (1995), “Panchayati Raj And Planning in India: Participatory Institutes And Rural Boards”, New Delhi, Asian Institute of Transport Development. Desai, Vasant (1980), Panchayati Raj power to the people, Bombay, Himalaya Publishing Company. Govt. of India, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Department of School Education & Literacy, Department of Higher Education,– Annual Report 2009-10. Gupta, D.N. (2004), Decentralization need for reforms, Delhi, Concept Publishing Co. National Literacy Mission Authority, Ministry of Human Resource Development – Department of School Education and Literacy – Saakshar Bharat – Centrally Sponsored Scheme – 2009. Planning Commission, Government of India – Eleventh Five Year Plan, 2007-12 – Volume I, Inclusive Growth, June, 2008. Shah, G. (2004), Social Movements in India: A Review of Literature, Sage Publications, New Delhi. Swamy, R. N. ( 2010), Saakshar Bharat and Literacy among Tribes: The Road ahead, Experiments in Education, Vol. XXXVIII, No.1.
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Chapter – 20 Relationship between Multiple Intelligence and Achievement in Science Among High School Students Dr. D. Sivakumar Assistant professor, Dr. Sivanthi Aditanar College of Education, Tiruchendur Dr. N. Arunachalam Director cum Associate professor, Department of lifelong learning, Alagappa University, Karaikudi ABSTRACT The paper reports on the multiple intelligence and achievement of high school students. The sample consisted of 200 high school students. A scale on multiple intelligence was used to get the data from the students. Percentage analysis, Pearson-Product moment correlation co-efficient, ttest, F-test were used for analyzing the data. The result shows that there is a correlation between multiple intelligence and achievement in science among high school students. Introduction Howard Earl Gardner was born in Scranton, Pennsylvania in 1943. Howard Gardner proposed a new theory and definition of intelligence in his book (1983) entitled “Frames of Mind: The theory of multiple intelligences”. The basic question he sought to answer was: Is intelligence a single thing or various independent intellectual faculties? Gardner set about studying intelligence in a systematic, multi-disciplinary and scientific manner, drawing from psychology, biology, neurology, sociology, anthropology and the arts and humanities. This resulted in the emergence of his theory of Multiple Intelligences (MI) theory as presented in Frames of Mind (1983).
251
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES Howard Earl Gardner proposed eight different intelligences to account for a broader range of human potentials in children and adults. These intelligences are: (i) Linguistic Intelligence (word smart)-sensitivity to the meaning and order of words. (ii) Logical-mathematical Intelligence (number/ reasoning smart)-ability in Mathematics and other complex logical systems. (iii) Musical Intelligence (music smart)-ability to understand and create music. Musicians, composers and dancers show heightened musical intelligence. (iv) Spatial Intelligence (picture smart)-ability to think in pictures, to perceive the visual world accurately and recreate or alter it in the mind or on paper. Spatial intelligence is highly developed in artists, architects, designers and sculptors. (v) Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence (body smart)-ability to use one's body in a skilled way, for self-expression or toward a goal. Mimes, dancers, basketball players, and actors are among those who display bodilykinesthetic intelligence. (vi) Interpersonal Intelligence (people smart)-ability to perceive and understand other individuals-their moods, desires, and motivations. Political and religious leaders, skilled parents and teachers, and therapists use this intelligence.
252
(vii) Intrapersonal Intelligence (self smart)-an understanding of one's own emotions. Some novelists and or counselors use their own experience to guide others. (viii) Naturalist Intelligence (nature smart)-ability to recognize and classify plants, minerals, and animals, including rocks and grass and all variety of flora and fauna. The ability to recognize cultural artifacts like cars or sneakers may also depend on the naturalist intelligence. Some people from an early age are extremely good at recognizing and classifying artifacts. For example, some children of age 3 or 4, are good at recognizing dinosaurs than most adults. Gardner identified Charles Darwin as a prime example of this type of intelligence. The criteria to consider ‘Multiple Intelligence’ (Gardner, 1999, p. 36) are The potential for brain isolation by brain damage, Its place in evolutionary history The presence of core operations Susceptibility to encoding Support from experimental psychology and Support from psychometric findings. Need for the study All students can learn and succeed but not all on the same day in the same way. Intelligence in the ability to see a problem, then solve a problem or make something that is useful to a group of people. Howard Gardner’s theory of Multiple Intelligence identifies that there are many forms of intelligence and that people have varying strengths and combination of these. We can all improve each of the intelligence area then in others. With 253
an understanding of Gardner’s theory of Multiple Intelligence, teachers, school administrators and parents can better understand the learners in their midst. They can allow the students to safely explore and learn in many ways and they can help students direct their own learning. Adults can help students understand and appreciate their strengths, and identify the real-world activities that will stimulate more learning. Today
in
this
world
technological
advancement
Multiple
Intelligence plays a vital role. Application of Multiple Intelligence theory helps students begin to understand how they are intelligent. Thus it was thought prudential by the investigator to search into the relationship between Multiple Intelligence and achievement in science. Statement of the Problem The entitle on “Relationship between Multiple Intelligence and Achievement in Science among High School Students’’ Multiple Intelligence By the term ‘Multiple Intelligence’ the investigator means a set of skills such as Verbal-linguistic intelligence, Logical-mathematical intelligence, Visual-spatial intelligence, Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, Musical-rhythmic intelligence, Interpersonal intelligence and Intrapersonal intelligence. Objectives ¾ To find out the level of multiple Intelligences of High school students in terms of sex. ¾ To find out the significances difference between a) boys and girls b)rural and urban c) Tamil medium and English medium d) government, aided and self financing school students in their multiple intelligences. 254
¾ To find out the level of achievement in science among high school students in terms of sex. ¾ To find out the significance difference between a) boys and girls b)rural and urban c) Tamil medium and English medium d) government, aided and self financing school students in their achievement ¾ To find out the significant relationship between Multiple Intelligence and achievement in science among the high school students. Hypotheses ¾ There is no significant difference between male and female students in their multiple Intelligences. ¾ There is no significant difference between rural and urban students in their multiple Intelligences. ¾ There is no significant difference between Tamil medium and English medium students in their multiple Intelligences. ¾ There is no any significant difference among government, aided and self financing school students in their multiple Intelligences. ¾ There is no significant difference between male and female students in their achievement. ¾ There is no significant difference between rural and urban students in their achievement. ¾ There is no significant difference between Tamil medium and English medium students in their achievement. ¾ There is no any significant difference among government, aided and self financing school students in their achievement. 255
¾ There is no significant relationship between Multiple Intelligences and achievement in science among the high school students. Methodology The investigator has adopted the survey method of research to study the relationship between Multiple Intelligence and the achievement in science among the high school students. Survey research is a procedure in which information is systematically collected from a population through some form of direct solicitation such as face-to-face interview, administering questionnaire or schedule. A worthwhile survey study can collect three types of information. • Of what exists by studying and analyzing important aspects of the present situation. • Of what we want by clarifying goals and objectives possibly through a study of the conditions existing elsewhere or what exports consider being desirable. • Of how to get these through discovery the possible means of achieving the goals or the basis of the experience and opinions of exports. Sample The investigator has used stratified random sampling technique for selecting the sample from the population. In the present study the investigator has selected the sample in a small portion of a population selected for observation and analysis. The sample consists of 200 high school students from 8 schools. Among them 125 are male and 75 are female.
256
Tools Used Multiple Intelligence Inventory For the study of the Multiple Intelligence of the high school students, ‘Multiple Intelligence Inventory’ developed by Dr. Terry Armstrong and modified by the investigator with consultation of guide and experts was used. Source of Achievement in Science No separate tool was prepared by the investigator to measure the achievement score in science. The marks in science subjects in their half yearly exams conducted by the school as recorded in the respective school register were taken as the achievement score in science. Data Analysis TABLE- 1: THE LEVEL OF MALE AND FEMALE STUDENTS IN THEIR MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE
Dimensions
Category
Multiple
Boys Girls
Intelligence
Low
Average
High
N
%
N
%
N
%
22 15
17.6 20.0
87 42
69.6 66.0
16 18
12.8 14.0
It is inferred from the above table that 17.6% of the boys have low, 69.6 % average and 12.8% high levels of multiple intelligence. Among the girls 20.0 % of students have low, 66.0 % average and 14.0 % high levels of multiple intelligence.
257
TABLE- 2: DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MALE AND FEMALE STUDENTS IN THEIR MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE
Category Mean
SD
Count Calculated N
Boys
77.82 16.73
125
Girls
75.41 15.21
75
value ‘t’ 0.69
Remarks
NS
(At 5% level of significance, the table value‘t’ is 1.96) It is inferred from the above table that there is no significant difference between male and female students in their Multiple Intelligence and hence the null hypothesis is accepted.
TABLE- 3: DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RURAL AND URBAN STUDENTS IN THEIR MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE
Category Mean
SD
Count Calculated N
Rural
65.12 15.53
115
Urban
72.41 16.21
85
value ‘t’ 3.20
Remarks
S
(At 5% level of significance, the table value‘t’ is 1.96) It is inferred from the above table that there is a significant difference between rural and urban students in their Multiple Intelligence and hence the null hypothesis is rejected.
258
TABLE- 4: DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TAMIL MEDIUM AND ENGLISH MEDIUM STUDENTS IN THEIR MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE
Category Mean
Tamil Medium
SD
69.83 14.73
Count Calculated N
value ‘t’
105 1.86
English Medium
66.41 11.21
Remarks
NS
95
(At 5% level of significance, the table value‘t’ is 1.96) It is inferred from the above table that there is no significant difference between Tamil medium and English medium students in their Multiple Intelligence and hence the null hypothesis is accepted. TABLE -5 DIFFERENCE AMONG GOVERNMENT, AIDED AND SELF FINANCING SCHOOL STUDENTS IN THEIR MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE Variable
Multiple intelligence
Source of variation
Sum of squares
Between 568.08 Within 29990.0
Degrees of freedom
Mean square value
Calcu lated ‘F’ value
Remark s at 5% level
2 198
281.54 98.78
2.85
NS
(At 5% level of significance for 2,198 df, the table value of ‘F’ is 3.00) It is inferred from the above table that there is no significant difference among government, aided and self financing school students in their Multiple Intelligence and hence the null hypothesis is accepted.
259
TABLE- 6: THE LEVEL OF MALE AND FEMALE STUDENTS IN THEIR ACHIEVEMENT Sex
Low %
N
Average N %
N
High %
Boys
20
16.00
78
62.40 27
21.60
Girls
11
14.67
48
64.0
21.33
16
It is inferred from the above table that 16% of the boys have low, 62.4% average and 21.60% high levels of achievement. Among the girls 14.67% of students have low, 64% average and 21.33% high levels of achievement. TABLE- 7: DIFFERENCE BETWEEN boys and girls students in THEIR ACHIEVEMENT IN SCIENCE Category Mean
SD
Count Calculated N
Boys
55.18 12.05
125
Girls
60.15 14.82
75
value ‘t’ 2.46
Remarks
S
(At 5% level of significance, the table value‘t’ is 1.96) Since the calculated value of ‘t’ is greater than the table value for 198 degrees of freedom of 5% level, the hypothesis is rejected. Therefore there is significant difference between boys and girls students in their achievement in science. TABLE – 8: DIFFERENCE BETWEEN rural and urban students in their ACHIEVEMENT IN SCIENCE Count Calculated Remarks N value ‘t’ 56.86 11.32 115 2.37 S 61.15 13.53 85
Category Mean Rural Urban
SD
(At 5% level of significance, the table value‘t’ is 1.96)
260
Since the calculated value of ‘t’ is greater than the table value for 198 degrees of freedom of 5% level, the hypothesis is rejected. Therefore there is significant difference between rural and urban students in their achievement in science. TABLE- 9: DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TAMIL MEDIUM AND ENGLISH MEDIUM STUDENTS IN THEIR ACHIEVEMENT Category Mean Tamil Medium English Medium
SD
59.83 12.73
Count Calculated N
value ‘t’
105 0.84
58.41 11.21
Remarks
NS
95
(At 5% level of significance, the table value‘t’ is 1.96) It is inferred from the above table that there is no significant difference between Tamil medium and English medium students in their achievement in science and hence the null hypothesis is accepted. TABLE- 10: DIFFERENCE AMONG GOVERNMENT, AIDED AND SELF FINANCING SCHOOL STUDENTS IN THEIR ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT Rema Degrees Mean Calcula Source rks at Sum of of square ted ‘F’ Variable of 5% squares freedom value value variation level Between 230.65 2 115.33 Achievement 1.15 NS Within 29669.35 198 99.90 (At 5% level of significance for 2,922 df, the table value of ‘F’ is 3.00)
261
It is inferred from the above table that there is significant difference among government, aided and self financing school students in their achievement in science. TABLE -11: THE CORRELATION VALUE BETWEEN MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE AND ACHIEVEMENT IN SCIENCE AMONG HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS Catego ry
Σx
Σy
Male
6203
46350
Calcula Rem ted γ arks value 362439 17706074 2380849 0.480 S
Female
4161
28681
258935 11132953 1628868 0.553
Σx 2
Σy 2
Σxy
S
(For 198 df, at 5% level of significance, the table value is 0.138). It is inferred from the above table that there is significant relationship between Multiple Intelligence and male, female students of high school in their achievement in science. FINDINGS 1. The level of multiple intelligence of high school students with reference to sex is average 2. There is no significant difference between boys and girls students in their multiple intelligence 3. There is significant difference between rural and urban students in their multiple intelligence 4. There is no significant difference between Tamil and English medium students in their multiple intelligence. 5. There is no significant difference among government, aided and self financing school students in their multiple intelligence. 6. The level of achievement in science of high school students with reference to sex is average. 262
7. There is significant difference in achievement of high school students with reference to sex. 8. There is significant difference in achievement of high school students with reference to nativity of the student. 9. There is no significant difference between Tamil and English medium students in their achievement. 10.There is no significant difference among government, aided and self financing school students in their achievement 11.There is significant relationship between Multiple Intelligence and achievement with reference to sex. Discussion There is no significant difference between male and female students in their Multiple Intelligence. This may be due to the fact that today the boys and girls have proper education and widows their ability to do things on their way and to be self-sufficient. Particularly, in Tamil Nadu the boys and girls are well educated and they are aware of the importance advancement taking place in the society. Now girls also have sample opportunity to interact with the external world and hence they are at par with boys in intelligences. There is significant difference between rural and urban students in their Multiple Intelligence. Urban students were better than rural students. This may be due to the fact that the facilities and opportunities provided in urban students. There is significant difference among boys and girls students in their academic achievement. Girls were better than boys this may due their hardworking nature towards the achievement without any distraction. There is significant difference between rural and urban high school students in their achievement urban students have high. This may be due to 263
the fact that urban students have complete infrastructural facilities for their studies. Even in their home too, the parents are ready to offer separate study room with necessary facilities like study table with chair, lightings, reference books etc. The study reveals that there is significant positive correlation between Multiple Intelligence and achievement in science of high school students. The level of Multiple Intelligence highly influences or affects the achievement high school students. In total the investigator has comes out with a conclusion that Multiple Intelligence has significant impact on the academic achievement of high school students. References Armstrong, T. (1993). 7 Kinds of Smart: Identifying and Developing Your Many Intelligences, New York: Plume. Dash Devendra Nath & Behera Narayan Prashad.(2004) “Teacher Effectiveness in Relation to their Emotional Intelligence”, Journal of Indian Education, November 2004. NCERT, New Delhi. Dass Surendra,(2004) “Emotional Supremacy” Edutracks-April-2004. Neelkamal Publications Pvt. Ltd, Hyderabad. Dhull Indira,(2005) “Emotional Intelligence its Significance for SchoolTeachers”, Edutracks-July-2005. Neelkamal Publications Pvt. Ltd, Hyderabad. New York: Basic. Gardner, Howard. (1983). Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. New York: Basic. Gardner, Howard. (1993). Multiple Intelligences: The Theory in Practice. New York: Basic. Gardner, Howard. (2000). Intelligence Reframed: Multiple Intelligences for the 21st Century. Gopinath. L. (2004) “Emotional Intelligence in Children”, New Frontiers in Education Vol. XXXIV(I), New Delhi.
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Kumar K.B.S. (2005). Emotional Intelligence Research Insights. Hyderabad, ICFAI University Press. Mayer.D.John, Salovey Peter, Caruso.R David, Sitarenios Gill, (2001) “Emotional Intelligence as a standard Intelligence”, Emotion, vol.1, No.3.232-242, American Psychological Association. Panda, B.N. & Mohanty, R.C. (2003). How to Become a Competent/Successful Teacher. New Delhi, Discovery Publishing House. Patil Ajaykumar Bhimrao,(2006) “Emotional Intelligence among Students Teachers in relation to sex, faculty and academic achievement,” Edutracks-March-2006. Neelkamal Publications Pvt. Ltd, Hyderabad. Patra, Swati. (2004) “Role of Emotional Intelligence in Educational Management”, Journal of Indian Education, May 2004. NCERT, New Delhi. Pradhan Ravindra Kumar, Bansal Dolly & Biswal.R.K.(2005) “Emotional Intelligence and Personal Effectiveness”, Journal of Community Guidance and & Research, November-2005. NCERT, New Delhi.
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Chapter – 21 Class Room Practices at High School Level Equivalency Classes in Kerala: A Qualitative Analysis Based on Adult Educators Views Dr Amruth G. Kumar Asst. Professor School of Education Pondicherry Central University Puducherry Phone: 09488083095 E-mail:
[email protected] INTRODUCTION Adult educators live complex lives in India. Their entry into the learning environment, in many instances, requires a profound leap of courage, and yet their success is integral to the health of our communities and our economy. The learners in adult education programme are the parents of the children in our public schools. The adult educators receive no professional training other than the short term courses organized by the State literacy mission and State Resource center. In the concerned state. Most of the adult educators are young adults who want to contribute but need to find a way back into their own professions. Often, they are social workers and educated unemployed. While the quality of adult education programes varies widely across the country the initiative from the part of the government to make adult education more accessible is on progressing. There is a need for greater recognition and a "home" for adult educators. The links between programs should be stronger so that learners can more clearly see their way into the system and the path forward, whether this is to employment, higher classes, or greater independence and participation in the community. Solid funding and accountability and encouragement of innovation at the local
266
level are critical for the effective functioning of adult and continuing education programmes. Adult educators are situated differently than other teachers in our society. Except for isolated cases, adult educators have no organized voice to support their interests. "Education" in the mind of the public tends to mean either elementary, secondary, or postsecondary institutions and so adults' educational needs remain largely outside of the public consciousness. Despite this, these programs provide opportunities for adults to follow their educational, career, and personal goals. If we are to support adults educators, many of whom make some great sacrifices to continue their education and who are among the most motivated teachers; we need to support them relentlessly. The notion that ‘adult education is a critical piece of a strong public education system’ must receive wide public acceptance. In our changing and evolving society the explicit and latent demands for all kinds of adult education have increased and will continue to increase. Adults, in their own right, have claims for the provision of a comprehensive service which
can
satisfy these
demands in
appropriately adult ways; all areas of education will be enriched if demands for the education of adults are met. Within the community there exists an enormous reservoir of human and material resources; a relatively modest investment in adult education - in staff, buildings, training and organisation - could release these resources to adult education for the benefit of individuals and the good of society. If it is to promote adaptability and creativity in the adult population continuing education cannot be related solely to work. While economic success depends on the technical knowledge and skills of the working population,
the
success
of
specific 267
job
training
depends
on
the general educational attainments of those being trained. Adaptability at work is also reflected in the ability to work co-operatively with others and to contribute to the shaping and taking of decisions. These abilities are most readily formed through the cultural and social aspects of general education. Just as good training for employment develops skills beyond the needs of specific jobs, so general education develops skills relevant to all the demands of everyday working life. Continuing education must
therefore
be comprehensively planned to include all the forms
of education and training available to adults beyond their initial education. Aim of Adult and Continuing Education There is an on-going debate in educational circles about the aims of Adult education. Should it be seen as a life-long activity made more necessary by the need to keep abreast of ever faster technological changes and to further a career? Or should it be regarded as an activity that develops the full potential of an individual? Many educationalists are devoted to the classical ideal of developing an individual's potential in as many ways as possible. Russell (1973) point out that, in emphasising the special needs of adults in that there should be more provision made for a variety of courses at different levels. Thus Sheats (1975) in his book ‘Education and the School’ described a concept of lifelong education as being able to take place: "Anywhere, anytime and anyhow". Flude and Parrott (1979) in ‘Education and the Challenge of Change’ says that "recurring education", that is courses of different length, depth and aims designed to meet both the needs of vocational training to keep up to-date with the increasing rate of technological changes as well as developing the potential of an individual to the utmost. This notion of the growth of "continuing" adult education is highlighted by Flude and Parrot when they comment that: 268
“Nowadays teachers can only resist pressures from employers for more strictly relevant educational experience because they believe that they have only a relatively short period in which to transmit their version of our accumulated wisdom and civilisation. Equally it is only possible for employers to resist the demand for paid educational leave because they too, have been conditioned to think of education as a childhood activity. The answer to many problems in British education lies in some form of recurrent education system which would enable all individuals to build throughout life on the foundations laid in a childhood period of compulsory education”. Here the differences between the education of adults and that of the s/l going straight into Higher education become clearer. The demand for more Adult education may be forcing changes in attitudes towards education both in colleges and also among employers in India. There is an increasing awareness that some change is necessary in the area of higher education to take the needs of adults into consideration. There is also a growing opinion, in India, that more adult education is a "good thing" and deserves to be expanded. ‘Sakshar Bharath’ which was declared by the president of India is a national programme that aims to school the illiterates. The program aims to educate 365 selected districts of our country having female illiteracy rate of more than 50 per cent by considering each district as a unit. Kerala state which had accomplished the target of complete literacy will not be benefited by this programme. Kerala has much advanced in satisfying the educational needs of the adult learners. Equivalency programme organized the state caters to educational needs of thousands of adult learners. Equivalency Programme in Kerala
269
In April 1991, Kerala was declared as a complete literacy state as a result of the intensive efforts of the people’s literacy movement. At that juncture 12, 21,695 persons were declared as literate. Such a dream of complete literacy has materialised because of the relentless efforts and voluntary services of almost 3.5 lakhs of activists. The continuing of this education programme for neo literates later started in 1998. Equivalency Programme has been designed by Kerala State Literacy Mission to facilitate the neo literates to qualify themselves at par with those who finish formal education and has accordingly been introduced in 2000 and hence 1,32,000 neo literates passed the fourth standard equivalency examination in 2009. As a result of this mission, about 23,000 and 62,854 literate people have passed the seventh standard and tenth standard equivalency examinations respectively. Even the prisoners from the jails of Kerala have benefited by this continuing education opportunity and they have scored good marks in the examinations. This task for neo literates to pursue their education could help Kerala to improve and develop its human resources. Presently, nearly three thousand literacy promoters (preraks) are working in Kerala. Presently there are nearly 70,000, 27,000 and 30,000 neo literates studying in the fourth, seventh and tenth grade equivalency examinations respectively. The efforts and support extended by the local self governing bodies to strengthen the education programme are commendable. Permanent building and infrastructure facilities for continuing the education centres are provided by these local self governing bodies. Kerala after attaining total literacy is now developing such a remarkable achievement by strengthening the continuing education programme for the neo literates.
270
How well the High School Equivalency programme in Kerala is organized? For answering to this question the meticulous analysis of the class room practices of the programme must be analysed with special reference to its usefulness to the learners. This qualitative study is an attempt in this regard. Methodology The following key query guided the research study: What are the ways in which teachers working in adult education actually engage in teaching practices within the high school equivalency programme? This section will outline the research participants, materials, and the research design for this study. Participants In total, 10 adult educators participated in this study. Of those 10 people, eight were male and two were female. The age range between the educators was not that wide. Seven teachers belong to the age group of 25 to 45 and three above 45. All the participants were on contract basis. Eight of them were married. All of them engage in some other jobs, including teaching, either government or private. Participants were made aware of the nature of this study, their role in it, provisions for confidentiality, and their option to withdraw from the study at any point. Participants’ names were changed for the purposes of anonymity and pseudonyms are used within the Results section of this paper. Materials I conducted phone interviews with the 10 participants between November and December 2010. The length of each interview varied only slightly, each one lasting approximately 10 to 15 minutes. The interviews were semistandardized (Berg, 2004). The value of this form of “less 271
structured” interview was that it allowed for opportunities for exploration of areas that I had not previously considered (Reinharz, 1992). As previously mentioned, the specific purpose of this paper is to present some of the key findings related to examples of effective adult education classroom practices that arose from a larger qualitative research study which explored the ways in which 10 educators actually engage in adult education practices within the equivalency classroom. The initial interview queries included questions about aims and purposes of adult education. Although this paper will not present all of the results related to those responses, they will be briefly mentioned next in order to highlight some of the diversity within the group as it related to self-identification. Five study participants mentioned that their teaching focused on self-dependence, social justice, social consciousness and activism, and social change. Three participants responded to the interview queries related to central aims of adult education using terms that suggested a more healthy society, educated manpower, healthy family structure and financially self-reliant individuals. Two participants used terminologies like ‘student-centred or constructivist orientation, employing terms such as critical thinking, profound learning experiences, and student-centredness. Because this paper focuses on classroom practices, the list of guiding questions specifically related to that aspect of the study consisted of a small set of queries lifted from a larger set of interview questions from the study as a whole. The questions were: Do you believe that you engage in classroom practices that reflect the real needs of the learner? What are some examples of your classroom practices that reflect the ways in which you employ pedagogy? Design
272
The
study
employed
Appreciative
Inquiry
(AI)
as
the
methodological framework. AI involves the art and practice of asking questions that strengthen either a system’s or a person’s capacity to apprehend, anticipate, and heighten positive potential (Cooperrider, Whitney & Stavros, 2003). It seeks to build upon achievements, unexplored potential, innovations, strengths, competencies, stories, lived values, traditions, and visions. Taking all of these together, AI seeks to link these positive insights directly to a change agenda (Cooperrider, Whitney & Stavros, 2003). Data Analysis All 10 interviews were transcribed by a transcribers. I repeated the answers to interview participant for his or her review. The process of data analysis was guided by the main objective of the study and by the review of related literature. I thus began data analysis by establishing some initial categories and themes related to the objectives and the literature. I next read through all of the transcriptions in the spirit that Berg (2004) suggests—“as a passport to listening to the words of the text and understanding better the perspective(s) of the producer of these words” (p. 269). I read through the transcriptions with a view to identify other categories and themes that emerged out of participants’ responses to the interview questions. Results and Discussion The classroom practices organized in adult education class rooms will be explored in this next section. The conclusions drawn here are those that emerged out of an analysis of participant responses. This next section therefore includes select quotes and paraphrases with relevant literature integrated.
273
The following classroom practices emerged as central themes: classroom community and group work; dialogue; curriculum negotiation, and assessment and evaluation; experiential activities; and “traditional” classroom practices. Surprisingly, there were few results that could be attributed to some of the differences in participant demographics. In other words, differences in age and gender, among others, did not factor into the results in any significant way and are thus not discussed in this next section. Classroom Community and Group Work Many interview participants responded that building a classroom community was one of the central features of their efforts in their classroom. For example, Raghavan commented on how he tries to “create a really safe and comfortable space for students to talk and to process their own stuff. I also do a ton of sharing of my own stories.” Raghavan said that: [I] try to create a safe space where students will feel comfortable, expressingwhere they’re at and moving from there. I just ask that they be open to other ways as well and wespend a lot of time every semester engaged in basically community building” Participants additionally reported about the importance and value of group work, and this classroom practice was often closely linked with the practice of Discussion. Rajesh said that he asks students to complete news paper reading and discuss their opinions in groups. He said that students then, “discuss the readings in small groups during class time. They then come back into a large group and see what the consensus was around the reading and the topic.” Rema said that she ask students to suggest some solutions to some of the burning issues in their contemporary society. Then she will write the answers on the board, “which make them more reinforced”. 274
The concept of building a classroom community and employing collaborative learning techniques, including small group work and activities similar to “think-pair-share” (Lyman, 1981) have been widely researched and advocated throughout educational literature (Bruner, 1996; Gokhale, 1995; McKeachie, Pintrich, Lin, Smith, & Sharma, 2000). For example, Anurhadha Gokhale (1995) examined the effectiveness of individual learning versus collaborative learning in enhancing the critical thinking skills of 48 university students using a pretest/posttest questionnaire and found that students who participated in collaborative learning performed significantly better on the critical-thinking test than students who studied individually. According to Felder and Brent (1996), student-centred instruction involving active learning, student involvement, experiential activities, and cooperative learning led to increased motivation to learn. Even with students in large classes (Between 50 to 100), using techniques such as group work and peer assessment resulted in students having a more positive response to class, attending class more often, and developing effective learning strategies (Scott, Buchanan, & Haigh, 1997). It’s found that through group oriented techniques there had been attempts from the part of the subjects to maintain a democratic atmosphere in the classroom. This to a great extent justifies the aspect of developing a positive attitude to democratic way of interaction in their future life. But does it satisfy to their basic need of furthering their career competencies and improvement of their potential? The answer may be no. However, the value in this form of praxis cannot be too quickly discounted. Creating a democratic space in the classroom through student-centred and constructivist-oriented classroom practices can be an act of social justice itself (Dewey, 1938), particularly in schools and classrooms where these practices are counter hegemonic and anti-oppressive (Shor & Pari, 2000).
275
In this way it helps the adult learners to empower themselves by viewing one’s own environment critically and act for their own freedom and understand their right to free from exploitation.
276
Discussion method Discussion was another central theme that arose as a result of participants’ reports about their class room practices in adult education. Ajith talked about the importance of group work and group discussion within the classroom, but he also highlighted the value of what he referred to as ‘discussion note book’ prepared by the students. For Ajith, the use of such a discussion note book provides students with an opportunity to reflect on their learning throughout the course. Thara Sebastian talked about the ways in which she use available technological devices (Mainly black board and chart papers) in class room with dialogue. She said: I will write a topic –related to the subject which I am teaching- on the black board Students have to sit together and respond to my posting on the board in groups. They may sometime challenge my postings and hot discussions happen quite
often in the class room. I have witnessed
emotional out bursting in the classroom in one of the issue related to waste management; where many of our students were true victims of the unsystematic waste management system of the local government. There exist several evidences that using dialogue to engage student voices can enhance learning (Jarvis, 1996) and impel students to reconceptualize “traditional” power relations (Lather, 1991; Shor, 1996). Dialogue thus conceived may attend to the justice orientation of a adult education class room practice but the results from my study did not reveal the justice-oriented nature of this practice; rather, participants focused on the value of this practice as a form of student-centred learning and teaching. Assessment and Evaluation practices
277
The interviews conducted with the subjects revealed that they conduct formative and summative assessment of the student’s progress. Formative assessment is done in the form of questions asked by the teacher in the class room. Usually they did not document the formative assessment practices. Sakeer said that: Immediately after the class I will ask questions to my students which is a Feed back for myself too. Being a teacher from the regular stream I am much excited to notice that they are enthusiastic in answering to questions. I am sure that would benefit to them even though it is never documented. Rajgopal is of the view that: Assignments and home works will not be effective means of assessment, as the learners may not get time to do it in the midst of their busy professional and personal life. So whatever assessment we have to do, we will finish it within the time period given to me. Rajashekharan and Sunny were of the opinion that adult educators must start giving home works and other projects which may help the learners to be inquisitive. Rajashekharan said: Students have never shown reluctance to home works and assignments. Excuses may be there, but genuine. Many learners treat it as a challenge and are thrilled to work on it. It ives them an opportunity to talk about their studies to their friends and family members. Seven subjects said that they will conduct unit tests, invariably, after completing each unit. Gopakumar and Rajesh are of the view that this helps them to identify the weaknesses of the students. Again both of them agreed that the time puts hurdle before them for conducting remedial coaching to poor students.
278
Assessment is integral to course design, therefore learning outcomes should be clearly linked to assessment activities (Bostock, 2002; Devlin, 2001; Phillips, 2005; Ramsden, 2003). Keesing-Styles (2000) and Tilemma (2003) affirm that assessment can serve as a powerful contributor to the learning process if students are empowered to participate in establishing the assessment criteria. Since assessment and evaluation have traditionally been the purview of the teacher and one means for teachers to maintain authority and power within the classroom (Shor, 1996), participants’ reports related to their classroom practices provide some noteworthy insights. The above findings thus represent solid evidence of assessment practices in adult education class rooms. One thing to be noticed is that no innovative assessment practices are used in adult education classrooms. Assessment entirely depends on the unit tests and formative assessment questions asked by the teachers in the class room. How far these traditional techniques may be useful to a adult learner in his life will be a troubling question for the adult educators. The blame for the absence of modern assessment practices can’t be assigned to the adult educators only. None of the adult educators working at equivalency level (except for class 9th and 10th) have received any professional training. Almost all of them are social workers and volunteers working with out any remuneration. Of course this is not a justification for poor assessment practices in adult education institution centers in kerala. Conclusion The conclusions of the study are:
279
1. Group oriented methods are used extensively in equivalency classrooms in Kerala. It helps the learners to be critical about one self and towards ones own environment, according to teachers. 2. Discussion method is the most frequently used method in the equivalency class rooms in Kerala. Teachers use different varieties of discussions and they believe that students enjoy it. 3. Assessment and evaluation mainly hovers around written tests. New methods of assessments are yet to be practiced in the equivalency classrooms. Major reason for this is the absence of training received to the teachers. Suggestions for Implementation Adult educators are voluntary workers and activists working for a social cause. Most of them are educated but not trained teachers. In equivalency classes they have to handle the same syllabus followed by the regular stream. While teachers in the regular stream are getting extensive in-service training adult educators working for equivalency programme are deprived of it. Still, it is hopeful that even without any kind of serious training, the adult educators use interactive methods for teaching. Discussion method is the most frequently used method. It should be noted that discussion methods does not ensure effective teaching always. Continuous usage of the same method may cause boredom among learners as well as teachers. The study also shows that the assessment techniques used by the teachers were not innovative. This situation demands imperative need for providing professional training to adult educators in Kerala. This may help them to implement not only many new methods but also new evaluation techniques in the class room. As a whole the study shed light in to the need for providing extensive training to the adult educators to make them in par with the teachers working in regular stream. The only suggestion the investigator would like to, make on the basis of 280
this study is the suggestion for bringing professionalism in in training adult educators and thereby giving a professional out look to adult education as a whole. References A.C.A.C.E., Continuing Education: From Policies to Practice. Report. 1982 Bruner, J. (1996). The culture of education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York, NY: Macmillan. Felder, R. M., & Brent, R. (1996). Navigating the bumpy road to studentcentered instruction. College Teaching, 44, 43-47. Flude,R.& Parrot,A. Education and the Challenge of Change. O.U.1979 Gokhale, A. A. (1995). Collaborative learning enhances critical thinking. Journal of Technology Education, 7(1), 22-30. http: //coe.west.asu.edu/students/bjarvis/96-598/4cs.htm Jarvis, R. (1996). Practicing at praxis: Doing critical, feminist pedagogy. Retrieved from Keesing-Styles, L. (2000). An ecological approach to practicum assessment. International Journal of Early Childhood Education, 5, 71-81. Knowles, M. The Adult Learner .Gulf Publishing Co. 1984. Lather, P. (1991). Getting smart: Feminist research and pedagogy within the postmodern. New York, NY: Routledge. Lyman, F. (1981). The responsive classroom discussion: The inclusion of all students. Mainstreaming Digest. College Park, MD: University of Maryland College of Education. McKeachie, W. J., Pintrich, P. R., Lin, Y. G., Smith, D. A., & Sharma, R. (2000). Teaching and learning in the college classroom: A review of the research literature (2nd ed.). Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan. Russell,Sir L. Adult Education: a Plan for Development.DES.HMSO. 1973. Scott, J., Buchanan, J., & Haigh, N. (1997). Reflections on studentcentered learning in a large class setting. British Journal of Educational Technology, 28(1), 19-30. Sheats,P. Reflections on Lifelong Education and theSchool. Dave,K.(Ed.) UNESCO Institute for Education. 1975. Shor, I. (1996). When students have power: Negotiating authority in a critical pedagogy. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press. Shor, I., & Pari, C. (2000). Education is politics: Critical teaching across differences, postsecondary. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook. Snyder, B. The Hidden Curriculum . M.I.T. Boston. 1970. 281
Tilemma, H. H. (2003). Integrating developmental assessment with student-directed instruction: A case in vocational education in the Netherlands. Journal of Vocational Education and Training, 55(1), 113127.
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Chapter – 22 Environmental Imbalance - A Global Problem DR. Rakesh A. Joshi Associate Professor, Department of Economics, Saurashtra University, RAJKOT & Prof. Falguni Vyas Lecturer, J.J.K. Com. College, RAJKOT Introduction: The natural resources like earth, wind, water, trees are the basis of human-life. For the bright future of human beings, it is essential to use these resources with a great care. ‘Environment’ means the physical, chemical and biological surroundings in which an organism exists. Thus, environment is the gift of nature. Prior to 20th century, there was no major evidence of human influence on environment. Environmental degradation up to this period was mainly due to natural disasters, like cyclone, earthquake etc. Up to that period; natural resources were not used beyond their regenerative capacities. So, what was used, was regenerated. But, after the population explosion in the world, the situation started changing. Gradually, this led to serious environmental degradation behind which, the need and greed of human kind is responsible. Ever increasing pollution, demolition of forests and bio-diversity, increase in global temperature, etc. have alarmed us for awareness of environmental protection. Worldwide environmental awareness was started during the 1960s. The main impetus came from the publication of a book ‘Silent Spring’ by Rachel Carson in 1962. This book revealed the risk of using some pesticides and their bad effects on human life and thereby showed the necessity for the protection
283
of earth. The world summit held at Rio-de-Janero in 1992, had focused the attention towards environmental problems. The economists also started looking afresh to the central economic problem of resource scarcity in relation to their possible uses. After 1970, many economists started arguing that development can be made sustainable only with efficient and judicious use of natural resources. During the last few decades the world has witnessed the increase in the growth of Greenhouse problem, which threatens to change climate in bad manner. The main greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydro fluorocarbons, sulfur hexafluoride etc. Production and consumption activities have grown at exponential rate and all these has created environmental imbalance. In this paper, we have described various factors responsible for environmental imbalance and we have also suggested our duties regarding the protection of the earth. Environmental Hazards: The world had to accept two very serious problems as unwanted gifts in the 20th century; first is population – explosion and another is environmental – imbalance. The problem of population explosion is limited up to Asia, Africa and Latin America; while the problem of pollution or environmental hazards has spread over the whole world. In this context, necessity to protect the earth should be the first priority. The proper combination and balance between the natural resources and humanpopulation is called environment, and environment is a part of the earth. When excessive use of natural resources due to unlimited human-wants takes place; the earth becomes unsafe, i.e. it creates imbalance of environment. Before two generations, the human-wants of our elders were very limited, so, the earth was safe and protected. But ever increasing population and ever-increasing demand for the materialistic consumption; 284
it is very difficult for human beings to live on this earth. Since the inception of 20th century, there has been a fast industrial development in various countries of the world. The production of necessities and prodigal goods has increased a lot. In the 2nd world war, atom bombs were dropped on Japan, and thereafter so many countries have been experimenting atomic energy privately or publicly., for the destructive purpose. The problem of pollution has increased seriously with the process of national economic development. In India at least 86,400-ton insecticides are used annually, which creates air pollution as well as soil-degradation. In urban areas, heavy industrialization and increasing number of vehicles are the major responsible factors in generating pollution of air, water and sound. 8.5% of the total vehicles in our country are in Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata. So, 470 T.P.D. (Ton Per Day) in Mumbai, 810 T.P.D. in Delhi and 1887 T.P.D. in Kolkata, Carbon Monoxide mixed in the air, in 2001. But, due to use of CNG, this volume has decreased a little now. Carter Brandun and Christan Homan have written that every year at least 40,000 people die in India due to pollution. Industries like aluminum, cement, chemical, colour, plastic, rubber, pharmaceutical ,pesticides, fertilizers, thermal power etc. pollute the atmosphere leaving carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide and hydrocarbons. The temperature has been rising due to pollution. Undue changes are coming in the climate. The rivers, ponds, lakes and oceans have become means to dispose the industrial waste. These increase problems regarding human and animal health. T.B.,Cancer, Skin diseases ,Bronchitis etc. are the outcome of pollution. The polluted water gets absorbed in the cultivation land and it creates serious problems regarding the fertility. Though forests are very useful for environment, in our country only 23% land is forest land and in Gujarat only 8% land is forest land. Every year 13 lakhs hectare land under forests decreased due to cutting of trees and land encroachments. Floods, 285
land erosion, construction of dams etc. are also responsible for deforestation. Considering the whole narration, we can say that there is a serious crisis of environmental and ecological degradation in this century. It is certain that, the time has come to think some plans and actions regarding the protection of earth. It is not certain that India would be super power of the world, but it is certain that India is and would be one of the most polluted countries in the world. We are not able to breathe pure air, not able to eat pure food and not able to drink pure water. How Polluted Water is dangerous for Life? We know that clean water is essential for healthy living. Fresh and clean drinking water is a primary need for all human beings on the earth., but it is seen that millions of the people in this world are deprived of this. Ground water and surface water are contaminated with heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants, and nutrients that have a severe effect on health. Water borne- diseases and water-caused diseases are mostly due to improper management of water resources. Water-borne diseases are infectious diseases spread mainly through contaminated water. Typhoid, Cholera, Paratyphoid, Dysentery are the outcome of
polluted water.
Higher level of Fluoride creates yellowing of the teeth and damage to the spinal code and other crippling diseases. Water contaminated with lead can harm the central nervous system. Where pesticides are used on a largescale, groundwater gets contaminated and this lead to the chemical contamination of drinking water. Exposure to polluted water can cause diarrhea, skin irritation, respiratory problems and other diseases. Our Duties to protect the Earth:
286
For the protection of the earth economists, scientists, engineers, environmentalists, government and the people should think some concrete policies. (i)
Environmental policy is essential for solving environmental hazards. It may be defined as a set of legal, administrative, governmental and social plans and policies to control pollution and to protect the earth. In India, we have also formulated such policy, but the implementation part is somewhat weak. Such type of policy must be implemented strictly by the administration.
(ii)
Government alone can not solve the environmental problems. There should be co-ordination of government’s action with N.G.Os., pollution affected people and the polluters. Peoples’ participation is essential in all stages of environmental protection. In our Indian culture, we worship natural resources or environment, so, without peoples’ involvement, this great task cannot be done. People with some social movement can protect the earth. The ‘Chipko Movement’,
Narmada
River
movement,
Samaj
Parivartan
Samuday’s movement, Silent Valley and Dun Valley movement are the good examples. (iii)
Various industries should manage to control pollution. The industries like textiles, cement, chemicals, drugs, plastic, petrochemicals should be established at least 15 km. away from the residential areas of cities and villages.
(iv)
Tree plantation is the best way to protect the earth. Trees absorb polluted air and provides clean air. After the tree plantation, it is our duty to maintain them in proper way. Students can accelerate this work with the help of N.S.S., N.C.C. and Scout-Guide activities.
287
(v)
Gandhiji wanted ruralisation instead of urbanization, as he knew the dangerous outcome of urbanization and industrialization. In this context, cottage, rural and small-scale industries should be motivated by the government. These industries create a little pollution. Prof. Schumacher also agrees about the usefulness of Gandhian thoughts for solving environmental problems.
(vi)
The new buzzword in the international industrial circle is clean technology. The ultimate aim of clean technology or technology to ensure clean production is to reduce the generation of wastes and toxic emissions. It is a creative way of thinking about products and processes that help in reducing pollution at source and enhance profitability. Organic farming is also useful for the protection of earth, as it does not require chemical fertilizers and pesticides.
(vii) We should increase the use of various natural energies like solar energy, wind energy, water energy, ocean energy, bio-gas energy etc. The use of CNG in automobiles is also useful to reduce the pollution. Some proportion of ethanol must be mixed in Petrol / Diesel. It reduces the pollution of air. (viii) Our Indian culture has the respected place for festival and celebrations. We should celebrate the following days, so that the work of earth protection can become speedy: (a) February 2 – World Wetland Day (b) February 28 – National Science Day (c) March 21 – World Forestry Day (d) March 22 – World Water Day (e) March 23 – World Meteorological Day
288
(f) April 7 – World Health Day (g) April 18 – World Heritage Day (h) April 22 – Earth Day (i) May 31- Anti Tobacco Day (j) June 5 – World Environment Day (k) July 11 – World Population Day (l) September 16 – World Ozone Day (m)
September 28 – Green Consumer Day
(n) October 3 – World Habitat Day (o) October 1-7 – World Wildlife Week (p) October 13 – International Day for Natural Disaster Reduction (q) November 14 – Children’s Day in India (r) December
2 – Bhopal Tragedy Day
We humbly hope, that by above mentioned efforts we can make our earth clean and green. It is after all a planet, we borrowed from our children and when we leave behind this property let it not feel like a burning cauldron of waste, all in the name of convenience. References : Baumol, W. J. and W.E.Oates ‘The Theory of Environmental Policy’, Cambridge University Press, 1998. Joshi M. V. ‘Environmental Disasters : Causes, Impact and Remedies’, Adhyayan Publishers, New Delhi, 2004. Joshi M. V. ‘Theories and Approaches of Environmental Economics’, Atlantic Publishers, New Delhi, 2001. Kolstad, C. D. ‘Environmental Economics’, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 1999. Odum, E. P. ‘Fundamentals of Ecology’, Philadelphia, 1971. 289
Sarkhel Jaydeb ‘Economic Development : Institutions, Theory and Policy’, Book Syndicate (P) Ltd., Kolkata, 2005. Sen Amartya ‘Resources, Values and Development’, 1974.
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Chapter – 23 Impact of the Adult Education Programmes on Cretin Aspects of the Functionality Particulars G. Srinivasa Rao Coordinate, SRC, Visakhapatnam Literacy is a process which dispels and promotes rational thinking and moulds human beings into responsible citizens. The absence of literacy directly and indirectly retards the development of individuals, society, community and the country as a whole. For the success of any program, people
should
be
motivated
by
providing
necessary
congenial
environment, socio-economic conditions and committed efforts on the part of implementing bodies should be seen. In spite of number of efforts made by central and state governments in India, still illiteracy remains as challenging for a country. Government of India has initiated a new scheme of continuing education for neo-literates from 1995 onwards keeping in view the past experiences in organizing adult and continuing education programmes. The main objectives of the scheme and the activities aimed under continuing education for neo-literates. Continuing education centres are started at the grass root level and Preraks are appointed to carry out the activities of the centres. Neo-literates are the main beneficiaries of the programme. The State Resource Centre happens to be the main agency to prepare and supply the post-literacy and continuing education materials and to arrange for the training of Preraks to carry out the different activities like organisation of evening classes, library and reading room, charcha mandal, simple and short duration programmes, recreational activities etc., at the centres.
291
Need and Significant of the Study Recognizing the need for the education of the masses in the country, the Government has introduced many number of adult education programmes like Social Education Programme (1949), Farmers Functional Literacy Programme (1966-67), Non-Formal Education for Women (1975), National Adult Education Programme (1978), Point No. 16 of the New 20 Point Programme (1982), Mass Programme for Functional Literacy (1986), National Literacy Mission (1988). The objectives of these programmes basically are : (1) to extend educational opportunities to illiterates in terms of reading, writing and numeracy, (2) to create awareness among the beneficiaries of the programmes about social concerns, social problems, development initiatives and about various facilities and opportunities available to the masses, (3) to provide scope for the neo-literates to strengthen and further the basic literacy skills acquired by them through the post-literacy and continuing education centres and (4) to pave the way for enhancing the quality of life of the beneficiaries of the continuing education centres in social, economic and cultural aspects through different types of programmes. Objectives of the Study To compare the status of the neo-literates and community members on Literacy, Functionality and Awareness components Scope of the Study This study is an attempt to measure the impact of the continuing education programme on the set goals in Visakhapatnam district, measuring the impact of the programme on the neo-literates, Literacy, Functionality,
Awareness,
Benefits
programmes
292
received
from
developmental
Tools Used A schedule to identify the awareness and different development issues of development / welfare programmes. Major findings of the Study In order to find out the awareness of functionality aspects both target and control group were enquired in the following aspects.
Occupation Table - 1: Information regard to your occupation of neo-literates and community members Group
Neo- literates
Community
Total
Yes
Some extent
No
Total
51
140
28
219
23.3%
63.9%
12.8%
100.0%
25
99
52
176
14.2%
56.3%
29.5%
100.0%
76
239
80
395
19.2%
60.5%
20.3%
100.0%
Chi-square value = 18.668 Significant at 0.01 level From the table it was noticed that the neo-literates and community members, only 76 (19.2 %) are aware about their occupations, information skills, out of 76 members, 51 (23.3%) of beneficiaries and 25 (14.2 %) of the non-beneficiaries, 140 (63.9 %) neo-literates and 99 (56.3 %) community members are to some extent are unaware. Only 28 (12.8 %) of the beneficiaries and 52 (29.5 %) of non-beneficiaries are unable to know their occupational information. The chi-square value is 18.668 which is significant at 0.01 level.
293
Occupational Information Table - 2: Occupational information of neo-literates and community members Some No extent 51 140 28 Neo- literates 23.3% 63.9% 12.8% 27 99 50 Community 15.3% 56.3% 28.4% 78 239 78 Total 19.7% 60.5% 19.7% Chi-square value = 16.133 Significant at 0.01 level Group
Yes
Total 219 100.0% 176 100.0% 395 100.0%
Only 51 (23.3 %) of the neo-literates and 27 (15.3 %) of the community members are aware the occupational information, 239 (60.5%) of the sample respondents have to know their occupational information to some extent, out of 239 members, 140 (63.9 %) of neo-literates and 99 (56.3 %) of community members have to know their occupational information to some extent, and chi-square value is 16.133 which is significant at 0.01 level. Agricultural Information Table - 3: Awareness of Agriculture Information of neo-literates and community Group Neo- literates
Community
Total
Yes
Some extent
No
Total
63
122
34
219
28.8%
55.7%
15.5%
100.0%
35
77
64
176
19.9%
43.8%
36.4%
100.0%
98
199
98
395
24.8%
50.4%
24.8%
100.0%
Chi-square value = 22.951 Significant at 0.01 level 294
With regard to the knowledge on agriculture information, 98 (24.8%) of the sample respondents are able to know the information in time. Out of 98 members, 63 (28.8 %) of the neo-literates and 35 (19.9 %) of them were community members and 98 (24.8 %) of sample members do not know the agriculture information.
199 (50.4 %) of the sample
members know the agriculture information to some extent, out of 199, 122 (55.7 %) of them are learners and 77 (43.8 %) of the community members and chi-square value is 22.951 which is significant at 0.01 level. Awareness on Functions of the Bank Table - 4: Awareness of Functions of the bank Group
Neo- literates
Community
Total
Yes
Some extent
No
Total
50
137
32
219
22.8 %
62.6 %
14.6 %
100.0%
38
111
27
176
21.6 %
63.1 %
15.3 %
100.0%
88
248
59
395
22.3 %
62.8 %
14.9 %
100.0 %
Chi-square value = 0.106 Not Significant With regard to knowing the functions of the bank, 88 (27.3 %) of the sample respondents are knows the functions of banks. Out of 88 members 50 (22.8 %) of them are neo-literates and 38 (21.6 %) of them are community members and 59 (14.9 %) of sample members do not know the functions of the bank. 248 (62.8 %) of the sample members have know ledge to some extent, out of 248, 137 (62.6 %) of the learners and 111 (63.1 %) of them are community members and chi-square value is 0.106 which is not significant.
295
Habit of Savings Table - 5: Savings of neo-literates and community
Some extent 61 123 Neo- literates 27.9% 56.2% 53 94 Community 30.1% 53.4% 114 217 Total 28.9% 54.9% Chi-square value = 0.322 Not Significant Group
Yes
No
Total
35 16.0% 29 16.5% 64 16.2%
219 100.0% 176 100.0% 395 100.0%
With regard to the habit of savings, 114 (28.9%) of the sample respondents are having the habit of saving. Out of 114 members, 61 (27.9 %) of them are neo-literates and 53 (30.1 %) of them are community members and 64 (16.2 %) of the sample members are unable to save the money. And chi-square value is 0.322 which is not significant even at 0.05 level. Conclusion The study shows that the impact of continuing education programme in some extent gives the result as per the expectations, while from Total Literacy Campaigns and other Adult Education Programmes many members gained and became literates.
But present rate of female
enrollment is low. Drives to motivate semi-literates and women to reenroll in Continuing Education Programme.
Some of the centres are
facing problems created by improper lighting, lack of required learning materials. The socio-demographic background of the respondents from the study shows that they are from male sex, between 15-35 years of age, rural nativity, belong backward casts and from agricultural family background.
296
Irregular payment of honorarium to the Preraks more work load and lack of transportation, on the part of MLOs as per learners. As per the learners expression centres are not provided minimum facilities and also not organizing awareness camps in community peoples responses it was observed that centres are not effectively organizing effectively recreational and health awareness camps are not organizing effectively in recreational and health awareness camps.
These are the some of the bottlenecks
expressed by the respondents. There is a need to reconsider the job conditions of the functionaries, feeling of community and body of the curriculum supplied by the agency and
content
of
teaching
learning
providing
information
about
developmental and welfare activities for successful realization of the objectives and goals set and envisaged by the National Literacy Mission and Continuing Education Programme. References Adinarayana Reddy, P, and Uma Devi, D., (2006) “Current trends in Adult Education” (ed), Published by Sarup and sons, Ansari Road, New Delhi Anusuya Devi, K., (2009) “continuing Education – Trends, Issues and Future Perspectives”, (Ed. Vol.), Published by Dept. of Adult, Continuing Education Extension work and field outreach, Ahcarya Nagarjuna University, Guntur (A.P). Bordia Anil, (1973) Adult Education during the British and after Independence in Bordia et al (ed), Adult Education in India, Nachikata Publications, Bombay,. Buch, M.B. (Ed), A Survey of Research in Education, (Baroda: centre of Advance Study in Education, M.S. University of Baroda, 1974) Chaudhury, Sahadat H (2008) Choices and voices of Adult illiterate: Exploring their literacy needs in rural Bangladesh, unpublished Ph.D dissertation, University of Massachuseetts Amherst
297
Dixit P.S., Vasudeva Rao B.S., and Joga Rao SDA., (2000), “Development and People’s participation – Role of Literacy”, (Ed) Atlantic Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi. pp. 212 Dubey, J.P., (2006) “Continuing Education: Need of a wider perspective”, Published in Current trends in Adult Education, (Ed) Sarup & Sons, New Delhi. pp.276. Gopinath Reddy M., (2000) “Rural Development Administration and the Poor: Some Emerging Issues” (Ed.) Atlantic Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi. pp. 31. Kumarswamy, T., (2005) “Total Literacy Campaigns Problems and issues”, Sonali Publications, New Delhi. Mohanty and Jagannath (1987), “Adult Education and Development”, Himalaya Publishing Company, New Delhi. National Literacy Mission - Challenges and Achievements. NIPEA, (1990) Development of Education, 1988-89, National Report of India, NIPEA, Government of India, New Delhi. Prasad, H., (1971) “Literacy and Development”, Gandhian Institute of Studies, Varanasi. Reddy, P.A, Umadevi, D., & Mahadev Reddy., (2007) “Rural Development through Continuing Education Programmes”, published in Rural Development & empowerment of Weaker Sections (Ed. Vol.), The Associated Publishers, Ambala Cannt, New Delhi. Rodriguez, Liza M (2007) Adult learning for social action in a Latino Community: Integrating and sustaining skills development, community organizing and advocacy in a grassroots organization, unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Temple university Saini, RK., (1962) “National Literacy Mission – Present Status and Strategies – from the turning point – some thoughts on Adult Education”, Directorate of Adult Education, MHRD, Government of India. Selltiz Claire., (1959) “Research Methods in Social Relations” Methuen & Co. Ltd., New York. Subba Rao D., ( 1978), “New Dimension to Adult Literacy”, Social Welfare 25 (9), December.
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Sudha Rani, K., & Vasantha Kumari P., (2006) “ Teaching/ Learning Materials for Adult Learners Neo-Literates” Published in Current trends in Adult Education, (Ed) Sarup & Sons, New Delhi. pp.220. Tataji, U., (2004) “Five decades of development experience in India” published by Director, Andhra University Press, Visakhapatnam. Vasudeva Rao BS and Viswanadha Gupta P (2006) “Low Female Literacy: Factors and Strategies”, Australian Journal of Adult Learning, Australia, Volume No. 46, No. 1, p.p.84-95, Viswanadha Gupta, P, (2006) “Functioning of Continuing Education Committees: A Case Study” (Ed) published in Current trends in Adult Education, Sarup & Sons, New Delhi. pp.313.
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