ICA UPIMap2004, Tokyo
Using the web for focussed geographical storytelling via gameplay William Cartwright School of Mathematical and Geospatial Science, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
[email protected] Abstract. Looking at how the geospatial sciences might utilise the use of games technology and gaming, Kuhn (1992) noted that, for mapping and Geographical Information Systems (GIS), including ‘play’ would allow developers to emphasise creativity and encourage ‘trying-out’, and that video games ideas that included strong spatial components could be useful. He stated (Kuhn, 1992, p. 98) that: “… it seems tempting to further explore this kind of paradigm for GIS applications. In some sense, a GIS is like a toy world - a model of reality simplified to the point where users can play with it”. Gaming computers are now as powerful as their office/industry counterparts, and, in some cases, more powerful. Gaming strategies and games could provide an innovative means for accessing geographical information, including geographical information accessed via the Web. This paper reports on research undertaken to ascertain the usefulness of implementing a ‘games’ interface for accessing geographical information. A number of simple prototype packages were built and subsequently tested to see if access to information via a different interface would enhance information provided to users from a selected user group profile – the ‘Nintendo’ group of users, so-called by Ormeling (1993) as that group of users who had been exposed to computer games and thus perhaps preferred access to computer-delivered information via this type of interface. The prototypes were tested against the use of a conventional paper map for the same area and the evaluations were completed to ascertain whether: •Different metaphor approaches were preferred to traditional map interfaces; •The general operability of the products; and •Whether 3D graphic interfaces are preferable to 2D interfaces. Generally users preferred interactive multimedia to using conventional maps. They found it easier to use a game-like control for users who were not competent computer users. And, it was found that the cognitive load effort was generally easy with a 3D interface, when compared to a 2D interface. The following paper provides background to the research, information about how the research was conducted, results from the evaluations and proposes further research needed. Keywords: Geographical Knowledge, Geographical Storytelling, Information Access
Introduction Many methods can be used to deliver spatial information. Some of those available are the use of the Internet, and more particularly, the World Wide Web. An area of interest is using the Games strategies for providing systems that provide the means for geographical discovery. The author argues that geographical information can be delivered more efficiently to a new generation of geographical information users through the use of a games tool. A new generation of user, and even other
'undersupported' groups (in terms of the provision of skills now needed to 'get at' information in today's electronic communications world) like senior citizens, can be made more 'geographically aware' if they are provided access to and through the use of cartographic artifacts that are designed to accord with a general public that can be mostly unskilled in geographical information access and artifact / tool usage.
New users Once maps were the realm of experienced users who knew the type of map needed for their particular use, where to get it and how to use it. Typical of these users were, and are, bushwalkers/ramblers who have 'learned the rules' needed for deciphering. The intrepid group of bushwalkers shown in the photograph below (figure 1) show a group from the Bogong area, in Victoria, Australia: keen bushwalkers with honed map reading skills. For map publishers, this made ‘life’ easy: produce the maps, force the users to become competent in using your products, and then just continue on. Now popular devices like CD-ROM Atlases, and the myriad of Web-accessible on-line map collections and atlases provide ‘maps for all’ and this has meant that even naïve or inexperienced users need to be catered-for.
Figure 1. Group of Bogong bushalkers: experienced outdoors persons with map reading ability. Accessing geographical information, and maps via the Web is now commonplace. Maps, delivered via the Web, can be placed into a general 'digital bucket' of New Media information resources provided via this medium. This includes television, movies, radio, video, electronic publications and CD-ROM. As shown in figure 2, the Web sits inside the collection of New Media artifacts. And, for the inexpert or naive user, they are considered to be no different from any other digital medium: made for consumption, with disregard as to the 'proper' usage. Perhaps lack of knowledge about "How Maps Work" (with due apologies to MacEachren (see his excellent book, How Maps Work (MacEachren, 1995) for an expert analysis about how cartographic artifacts, maps, 'work')) means that these new users approach cartographic artefacts in different ways and use them differently from traditional paper products or screen displays with no interactivity or multimedia components?
Figure 2. The Web, and maps delivered via the Web, are now considered to be part of consumer New Media. The Web changed map publishing forever. More maps were made available for free or at modest costs. And, collections of valuable maps, once only accessible by a visit to a library or map collection, were now made available to researchers and general map users. It is argued that map use, and access to maps via the Web now means that the map user is generally unknown to the map producer / publisher and their map reading skills are also unknown. A new group of users, in many cases unknown to the designer, access maps via the Web, but we don't know who they are or if they can read and understand maps at all, or if they in fact care if they can’t read or understand map products. In the early days of the Internet access to this information resource was generally only available to universities and research establishments. The general public, or non-elite users, now use the Internet, and more particularly the World Wide Web, to retrieve information and to communicate. Access strategies need to be developed to enable geographical information to be readily accessible (and usable) via the Web for this group of consumers. Users now abound with different skills. This group of new users, not aware of or attuned to the heritage of maps and mapping (and perhaps not caring about their ignorance) are buying/using maps and map-related services. There is a need to consider this group along with the ‘older’ generation of mapping product consumers. The ‘Nintendo Generation’ is typical a generation of users, described by Ormeling (1993) as a new group of young map users. This new genre of user approach map use with a different set of skills than their parents. (Their parents might possibly have been taught to read maps in formal map reading programmes, like those offered in Australia by the Jacaranda Press, and their Jacaranda Atlas Programme. More likely, they have perhaps first used maps as part of computer games, like the Apple II-delivered "Where in the world is Carmen Santiago?" (figure 3), a simple "Whodunnit?" game that is played by moving from country to country by properly naming the capital cities of each country in turn. Children play a game, but they need to know about geographical facts to win.
Figure 3. Where in the World is CarmenSandiego? The way in which they use information delivery devices like computers (including computers that provide geographical information) needs to be appreciated. Also, different ways of access to documentation and package descriptions that support information use in different ways, but still complements established techniques and use, need to be developed, evaluated and tested. Consider the way in which children now have access to inexpensive digital devices and their power of computing and display. These users have different skills that need to be considered for general computer information access design and, from a cartographic perspective, how they might prefer to use maps differently. This has imposed new demands for media use, but it has also offered cartography new opportunities to informate.
Games McLuhan (1994) made these comments about the use of games: • For games to be welcome they must convey an echo of workaday life; • Art and games enable us to stand aside from the material pressures of routine and convention, observing and questioning; • Art and games need rules, conventions and spectators; • Games are a translator of experiences; • Games shift familiar experiences into new forms, giving the bleak and the bleak side of things sudden luminosity; • Games are contrived and controlled situations, extensions of group awareness that permit a respite from customary patterns; and • Games are situations contrived to permit simultaneous participation of many people in some significant pattern of their own corporate lives. Multimedia, gameplay and geographical information need not be based on the typical puzzle solving / shoot-em up type games, but should instead consider the human part of the interpretation of “the game”. If gameplay is to be used as a means of allowing the user/viewer/participant to discover patterns of phenomena that are meaningful for each individual user then the gameplay needs to consider not just the way things appear on the surface, but also what is happening to the human part of the interaction. Games need to be designed and produced with human interaction in mind and multimedia gameplaying, in its various forms, can assist greatly. A Geo video arcade game might be constructed, where an educational package could be constructed to discover more about the ‘stuff’ that geography is made of. Even simple photograph-matching and information retrieval games could be used in order to approach the gathering of geographical information in different ways, where they would be used to mirror problem-solving processes.
Gameplaying and the exploration of geography Katz (1997) contended that games like Myst, Civilization and SimCity are extraordinarily educational and they require complex planning and rewards patience and strategic thinking. For mapping applications, the skills learned using games like SimCity, where players think little of moving from an aerial view, to a map, or a subterranean view, could be applied to seeing multiple views of the city (Ormeling, 1993). Aerial views could be replaced by aeronautical charts, users could then move to topographic maps, move 'down' through various scales to planimetric maps, down further to maps of the urban utilities infrastructure, further down to soil maps and finally to geological maps. The new generation of games players are attuned to the use of these types of interfaces. Geographical information packages that could be built around Chesher and McCarthy’s (1994) three genres of game might be: • • •
Action – moving through a simulated landscape, avoiding environmental pitfalls; Puzzle/path – navigating through a virtual world where clues to navigation were uncovered by solving puzzles; and Entertainment – where the user would be provided with multimedia tools for building a comprehensive report on a particular geographic location or region. Here, the multimedia resource would used to build another multimedia resource. If used in the context of an educational programme, this type of approach would enable a bigger and bigger resource to be constructed and developed by students themselves.
Cartographers have always strived to produce artifacts that have both technical integrity and graphical quality. This process has been carried-out under the 'umbrella' of the historical conventions and procedures that have guided designs to successful outcomes. But, with other approaches to information provision, like gameplaying, perhaps we should consider other strategies other than what has usually been applied. The diagram in figure 4 illustrates this point. We have a need to produce artifacts that provide the stimulus for humans to create a mental map or a 'synthetic world'. Using the 'traditional' approach this would mean developing strategies for artifact design and production (based on the underlying theory). Here, maps can be produced for general consumption as paper maps or maps delivered via the Internet and viewed through browsers. We develop strategies to satisfy the need to depict space using maps or map-like objects. If this process were to be guided by the theory of gameplaying, a synthetic world would still be produced, but the strategies for development would be influenced by both the needs for accurate representations of the world, but also by the theory of games. Games theory has historical underpinnings, but contemporary products are delivered with interactive multimedia, games consoles, using television screens, via the Web, and using the Internet for multiplayer games (which involves strategies and methodologies for collaboration as well). If we do employ different, non-traditional methodologies like gameplaying we need to understand the basic 'rules' and theories behind 'play'. Playing games is what humans 'do' in order to comprehend and understand life. To properly employ such alternative information delivery and consumption strategies we need to appreciate how games 'work' and how games, and interactive multimedia gameplaying might be employed to provide different images of reality. Similarly, we need to consider the underlying theories and practical implementation realities if we were to use other non-traditional approaches to geographical information provision. We need to develop strategies for using innovative methods and tools (Cartwright, 2002).
Figure 4. Comparison between traditional geospatial information-artifact processing to games approaches. (Source: Cartwright, 2002) Once cartographers knew their users. They knew what thew wanted and how they intended to use the cartographic artifact produced. With conventional paper maps, it could be argued that these products were not considered to be ‘mainstream’ information documents, but specialist artefacts to be used by expert users, or users who were willing to ‘learn the rules’ of map use. Now, with almost instant access to geographical data and graphic products via the Web, it is argued that the general public now considers Web-delivered maps to be just part of what New Media delivers. Geographical information delivered through the use of New Media is seen as part of popular media, rather than scientific documents. As the Web can be considered as an accepted part of popular media users could consider its use to be done in similar ways as they use television, video, movies, books, newspapers, journals, radio and CD-ROM (figure 2). The delivery of cartographic artefacts via the Web to naive or inexpert users involves different strategies to traditional map delivery and use. Use strategies need to be developed, tested and implemented. Hence the interest in conducting this research
Testing the concept 'Building' Ideas The overall schema illustrating how the package would work can be seen in Figure 5. It shows how GeoExploratorium concepts have been applied to the evaluation prototype. The project realisation was aimed at a number of users from different age groups and their 'reality (shown to the right of figure 5) the Nintendo generation, the Computer generation, the video generation and the Print/audio generation. However, final testing was done with the Nintendo generation of users. User environments were developed for each user group, but final testing focussed on the Nintendo generation of users and access via a games interface. The 'Nintendo Generation' (initially described by Ormeling, 1993) - that group of
children who have grown up with computer games and are quite comfortable with using games interfaces for accessing information, as well as playing games.
Figure 5. Translation of GeoExploratorium concepts into the evaluation product. (Source: Cartwright, forthcoming)
Background of games interface explorations An initial prototype for testing was built to provide a simple interface that had a games-like interface. Macromedia Director was used to develop a GeoCube, a rotating cube that 'invited users to explore the information provided in the package. Once completed, the interface package was exported as a Director 'projector', an executable file that runs independently of the 'parent' software. The initial interface is shown in figures 6a and 6b.
Figures 6a and 6b. Cube interface. Once a plane on the GeoCube was clicked it leads to six options for further information: • • • • • •
Plans; Maps; Videos; Photographs; Air photographs; and General information
As this application was somewhat dependent upon development of an entire games engine from scratch, using Director. Because of the enormous amount of work required to do this, and the associated budget required this particular option was not further developed. A further prototype was developed to evaluate the effectiveness of developing an interactive multimedia package for the Nintendo generation that used the gaming genre. As games controllers were thought to be the best way to provide access to this age group the use of two approaches were investigated: Using the Doom game engine was investigated as a way in which the 'walls' in the game could be 'rendered' with map images and the 'rooms' used in the various stages of the game would provide thematic rooms to view different areas of topics under consideration. This application used different 'spaces' or rooms to present the users with different presentations of geographical information. Using the Doom engine can allow for this popular gaming format to be used. One of the essential answers to get from the evaluation phase is to uncover whether better results can be achieved by implementing a known game or by developing a completely new game from scratch. The advantage of games engines like Doom is that the engine and development software is what is called 'abandonware', whereby the owners of the software have 'abandoned support and developers may use the engine as a foundation for new product development. One of the disadvantages of using such engines is that products developed have a perception 'shoot-em-up' overhead and users, familiar with package use and the incorporation of 'combat tools', even when changed into 'inspection' or 'exploration' tools may reject the product as a credible geographical prospecting tool. A simple game was built using the Doom engine, and populated with simple maps and other images. Basically, the 'walls' used in the Doom game were replaced with alternative images. These were scanned
photographs, maps and simple house plans. Also, a number of simple graphics were produced. All images needed to be simple, as the construction of 'wads', which the software reads when constructing the game environment, have a maximum pixel size of 50 x 50 - hence the blocky images and crude maps and images. Attempts were made to improve image quality by building walls of either 2 or 3 50 x 50 pixel images, but these too were really sub-standard when compared to other games products available. Because of the limitations of wad development with the Doom engine, and the resultant crude game images that resulted, it was decided not to continue with this strategy. The crude images were a real problem, as the product might be rejected just because it did not compare well to contemporary games with superior imagery, and also 3D imagery. Also, it was thought that the link to a combat game would be a negative aspect when trying to present scientific information.
Evaluation of games theories - interfaces for different users developed for Web delivery As noted previously, four user 'profiles' were used to guide the design further development of user-access interfaces for prototype. These have been defined previously and are the 'Nintendo Generation' (Ormeling, 1993), the Computer Generation, the 'Video Generation' and the 'Print/Audio Generation' (Cartwright, 1997) Interfaces allow the 'Nintendo Generation' to access information using a games metaphor, the Computer Generation via a pseudo computer interface, the 'Video Generation' through a video-controller and the 'Print/Audio Generation' through an interactive newspaper. Figure 7 illustrates the age groups.
Figure 7. User profile and the appropriate information access metaphor. The Nintendo Generation could use games and navigation strategies to explore, the Computer Generation would access information from data stores and use computer-driven tools to measure, gauge and compare, (say, using an information kiosk/pseudo ATM machine to interrogate databases), the Video Generation could tune a television, watch videos, read TV guides and browse (electronic facsimile) popular magazines to read information, and the Print/Audio generation would listen to the radio, read newspapers (with accounts of events), read books and consult atlases and facts books. For example, a games arcade could be constructed for children, kiosks for the Computer Generation, a video store/newsagent for the Video Generation and a library reading room for the Print/Audio Generation (all containing artefacts that changed how they appeared according to the age/time being investigated/explored). Using a combination of straight HTML coding and Macromedia Dreamweaver prototype interfaces were built for each of the age groups for evaluation. Figure 8 shows the gameplaying interface for the Nintendo Generation’.
Figure 8. Gameplaying for the Nintendo Generation’.
Interface to atlas information prototype As noted in the previous section, once the user groups were identified, they were used to develop different interfaces for the prototype product. But, in initial discussions with educational designer McNaught (2001) the whole interface was re-designed so that its simplicity would not bias the user comments due to the simple nature of the interface. The later interfaces are shown in figures 9 - 12. As the product was being developed for this generation of user it was thought that the simple nature of the interfaces shown above, whilst acceptable for prototype evaluation, may not match the ‘glitz’ of consumer games that this generation of user would be au-fait with. Therefore it was decided to develop another interface using VRML. For this product, a simple atlas interface for the State of Victoria, Australia, was developed. A Digital Terrain Model (DTM) was used as the foundation for building this VRML ‘world’. A remotely sensed image was overlaid on the main page (figures 9 and 10) and other maps (climate (figure 11) and transport (figure 12)) purpose-built.
Figure 9. Initial interface for the VRML atlas product.
Figure 10. Users are able to view the map information in 3D.
Figure 11. Climate map.
Figure 12. Transport map.
This initial development interface was previously shown in figure 8, with a linking page illustrated in the right of that figure. Evaluation A questionnaire was developed to obtain feedback from the Nintendo Generation user group. Candidates were first asked to complete a simple profile information section and then to answer questions specific to their use of the product. Section 1-candidate details and their experience in using computers. The initial section of the evaluation questionnaire asked information about their user profile. Candidates were asked to provide the following information: 1. Age 2. Gender 3. Frequency of making enquiries about geographical information. 4. Do they use maps? 5. If they do use these products, how do they use them? 6. Self-rating of expertise as a map user. 7. How do they generally use geographical information? 8. If they produce mapping products, how do they produce them? The Table below summarises these answers. Candidate Age
Male/Female Enquiries Use maps? re GeoInfo
How?
Expertise as a map user. Expert
Types of products used.
How candidate produces maps.
Paper maps – printed Paper maps – plot Maps – monitor from CDROM Maps – monitor from Web Air photos Drawings Paper maps – printed Maps – monitor Maps – monitor from Web Air photos Drawings
Computer graphics packages
1
18 – 25 Female
Frequently
Yes
Study Research Wayfinding Personal interest.
2
18 – 25 Male
Often
Yes
Wayfinding Efficient Public information enquiry. Personal interest.
3
18 – 25 Female
For special occasions.
Yes
4
26 – 35 Female
Often
Yes
5
18 – 25 Male
Never
Yes
6
18 – 25 Male
Occasionally Yes
Studying Competent Paper maps – printed Research Maps – monitor Maps – Personal interest. monitor from CD-ROM Maps – monitor from Web Study Eficient Paper maps – printed Profession Paper maps – plotter Research Maps – monitor Maps – History interest monitor from Web Wayfinding Air photos Leisure Plans Public Photos information Video provision. Animation Personal interest. Studying Efficient Paper maps – printed History interest Paper maps – plotter Wayfinding Maps – monitor from CDPersonal interest ROM Maps – monitor from Web Remotely-Sensed images Studying Efficient Paper maps – printed Profession Paper maps – plotter Research Maps – monitor Wayfinding Maps –
Digital mapping package Multimedia authoring HTML authoring Programming Digital mapping package
Digital mapping package
Digital mapping package Multimedia authoring
Computer graphics package
Personal interest
7
26 – 35 Female
For special occasions
Yes
8
26 – 35 Male
Often
Yes
Maps – monitor from CDROM monitor from Web Air photos Remotely-Sensed images Paper maps – printed Computer graphics Maps – monitor package Maps – television Maps – monitor from CDROM monitor from Web Air photos Remotely-Sensed images
Studying Efficient Profession Wayfinding Leisure Public information enquiry Personal interest Studying Efficient History interest Wayfinding Leisure Public information enquiry Personal interest
Paper maps – printed Paper maps – plotter Maps – monitor Maps – television Maps – monitor from CDROM monitor from Web Air photos Plans Drawings Photographs Video Animation
Computer graphics package Multimedia authoring Programming
Table 1. Candidate details and experience in using computers From the summary in Table 1, all candidates used maps and they considered themselves to be mostly efficient or expert map users. They used a number of maps and map-like artefacts and they had experience in producing products with numerous electronic devices. Section 2 metaphor used in the interface design Part 2 of the questionnaire asked candidates whether they agreed with statements about metaphor use in interfaces, particularly the games interface provided. A scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) was used. The results from this section are tabulated below. Candidate 1. Using different access metaphors help users of geographical information better understand the information being depicted 2. Maps alone are the best communication devices for geographical information 3. The metaphor set uses is a useful adjunct to maps 4. The demonstration product adequately illustrates how the Metaphor would work 5. The demonstration product worked with little or no problems 6. The demonstration product required little experience with using computers 7. Using a pseudo game interface makes it intuitive to use 8. I was able to use the interface with no instruction 9. It was immediately obvious how to use the Demonstration Product
1 4
2 3
3 2
4 4
5 4
6 4
7 5
8 4
1
1
2
2
1
2
2
2
4
4
4
4
4
3
3
4
5
4
4
4
NA
4
4
4
3
1
4
4
2
3
2
2
4
4
4
5
2
5
5
4
4
4
5
5
3
3
3
4
4
5
4
2
4
5
5
5
5
4
5
3
3
5
5
5
10. I feel more confident using a product like this to explore geographical information 11. I would choose this type of user interface rather than a conventional mapping system if I had a choice 12. I think that a computer game-like interface makes the product easier to use for a first-time user
4
3
5
2
4
3
2
4
3
4
4
2
4
3
2
4
4
3
5
5
3
4
4
5
Table 2. Metaphor use in interfaces Candidates thought that metaphors helped to better understand the information depicted. They did not think that maps alone are best to gain geographical information, and that the metaphor set illustrated is a useful adjunct to simply using maps. The product did show how the metaphor concept would work. (Question 5 related to the actual function of the demonstration product, and had no impact on the results. It was added to make the questions less focussed on just the metaphor set.) They thought that the product could be used with little prior experience and that the games-like interface was easier to use. Satisfying results were the facts that the interface could be used with little instruction and it was immediately obvious how to use the product. They generally felt confident using the product. They would choose this type of interface over a conventional one. Finally, they saw this type of interface as being appropriate for a first-time user. In general terms, this focus group of expert user/producers supported the concept of using a different metaphor (in this case a games metaphor) for delivering geographical information. Section 3 General comments. Candidates were asked to comment on four areas, and also to make some general operability comments. Table 3. summarises the comments regarding the use of a games-like product. Candidate 1 1. In your It is easy to opinion, what use. would motivate users to use something like the demonstration product to complement maps for the ‘discovery’ of geographical information? 2. Where would For final you see a product discovery. Fun to go like this best through used? topics, and there are lots of them. 3. How might this More relation product be between improved? geography and the information presented.
2 Easy and ٛ omfortable 11.to get information. Useful for someone who likes to travel.
3 Overview about the different information about a country. It’s easy. Get fast information.
4 5 Game-like control More data. for users who are More details. not competent Easy to copy. with computers. Game control seen as being easy for understanding.
6 Up-to-date info.
7 Teachers Up-to-date info for school projects
In tourism.
In schools, universities and the household.
Internet cafes Official infostations for general acce
Schools
Schools Internet beginners’ course (eg senior citizens)
Maybe a better Better when Include a rollover map. several text annotation to pictures are on describe how that the same page. function operates. Initial view of the world should show the hemisphere that Australia is in.
Government Tourism Education
Add maps – Links to next Is ‘Go’ button climate, satellite map necessary? images, Add zoom Make classical facility arrangement of thematic maps. Remove the link-topics need to press more the ‘Go’ button ‘interactive’ after selecting (intuitive? a topic WEC) ‘Joystick’ Add a buttons ‘readable’ map unnecessary if a mouse is
8
Information centre Schools Tourist information systems Add textfield beside buttons to provide additional feedback during ‘rollover’.
4. Should this type of product try to mimic current computer games, or is this basic interface, without the glitz of commercial products, adequate for the task?
Should look Unnecessary to like look like a commercial computer products. But, game. should be reliable, and not like a game.
Package should look like a computer game. Easier for children and people with no computer skills to use (eg older users).
used. Needs a better map. Basic interface is Basic interface Interface good should be enough – for Nintendo enough. Average Generation. otherwise noncomputer literate user would not A better be from the people might interface for become confused. Nintendo beginners.
OK for children, but inadequate for other age groups.
Best for those who are used to playing computer games.
generation.
Makes sense as an interface for pupils.
Table 3. Comments regarding the use of a games-like interface. They generally found the package easy to use and the game-like control was thought to be good for users who are not competent computer users. The product could be used for tourism, education (in schools) and in general information centres. Some suggestions about how to improve the product were also made. Lastly, one of the concerns of the author was that the game-like interface would need to be similar to commercial games products, which have budgets of millions of dollars to complete, and, nowadays, they are usually ‘built’ on the back of a block buster movie. This was confirmed by the focus group, and some said that, whilst the concept and the interface might be “ok for children”, it would be inadequate for other age groups. Therefore to be most useful this interface will have to be further developed along the lines of a commercial product, with a similar ‘look and feel’.
Testing whether 3D graphic interpretations of geography are referable to 2D Interfaces for different user groups The focus on this stage of the evaluation process was to compare both methods of information access for this particular user group. Results from the evaluation would indicate whether this particular user group deemed that an interface that appeared more like a computer game, one that required navigation through a 3D information display, was in fact the preferred interface. As both interfaces were designed to ‘link’ to exactly the same information resources, the test would focus on interfaces, rather than the amount of information access facilitated by each interface. The Reeves and Harmon (1993) User Interface Rating Tool for Interactive Multimedia was used as a ‘model’ for constructing the questionnaire. It asked candidates to rate the product according to 10 criteria: •
•
•
•
Ease of use; For this questionnaire, ease of use relates to how easy you found the product to use, compared to the 2D variation of the program. Users were asked to consider the general use of the Cosmo VRML interface as well as the use of the mapping package. Navigation; Navigation refers to the ease with which users can move through the product. Candidates were asked to consider the general navigation through the product, especially the 3D interface, and how they navigated to other parts of the product. They were also asked to consider whether this type of 3D interface either assists or hampers their comprehension about where they were in the package. Cognitive load; Candidates were asked to consider how much harder, or easier, the product is to use compared to the 2D version. And, whether they had to work harder mentally, or whether it is easier, or more intuitive when using the 3D product compared to the 2D version. Mapping; Mapping relates to how the program tracks a user as they use the program, and how it provides feedback. This can be graphically, or through the use of some other medium. When considering this section candidates were asked to reflect upon whether this 3D version of the product assists in mapping their location in the program more. They were also asked to
• •
•
•
•
•
consider whether the ‘built-in’ navigation and ‘world’-finding tools that are part of the general interface also assists by providing ‘location in the product’ feedback. Screen design; Screen design refers to the actual design components, colours, text, symbols etc. Candidates were instructed not to focus on the overall ‘look’ of the product. Knowledge space compatibility; Knowledge Space Compatibility focusses on the type of information provided in the product. This prototype ‘test’ product has been designed as an Atlas of Victoria and the content types relate to those used in another test atlas, the Dorling Kindesley World Reference Atlas. All themes were not fully developed, as this was beyond the scope of this research programme. Candidates were asked to ignored this in the evaluation of the product, and to assume that all thematic maps COULD be accessed. Information presentation; Comments here considered whether the information presented is in an understandable form. Have users understood the information contained in the product, and did they learn something about the themes illustrated in the map ‘pages’? Media integration; Media integration relates to the ‘putting together’ of the different media types. Usually, when multimedia products are evaluated they will contain many media types, thus presenting a ‘Rich Media’ product. As this product provides a combination of VRML pages and map information, candidates were asked to consider just these elements. Aesthetics; Cartography has been defined in a number of ways. But, it is generally considered to be an amalgam of ART, SCIENCE and TECHNOLOGY. This part of the questionnaire looks at the ART element in cartography and the provision of geographical information. Consider here the ‘look’ of the product, and its form. Does a 3D product look better (generally) than the 2D counterpart? And, generally, does the 3D product enhance how the information is presented? And Overall functionality. This relates to the perceived utility of the product. As this product aims at providing geographical information in an atlas format, this was the main criterion that candidates were asked to consider.
Reeves and Harmon (op cit.) recommend that novice users are generally not good candidates for using this type of form. They consider experienced users of the type of program being rated, or experienced designers of interactive products to be the best candidates for providing feedback. Therefore only experienced users or producer/designers were asked to undertake the evaluation.
Results from the questionnaire: Section 1 asked for some brief details of the candidate and their experience in using computers. Section 2 focussed on the metaphor used in the interface design. Section 1 General information Candidates were asked to provide the following information: 1. 2. 3.
Expertise as a computer mapping product user If they design and produce interactive products, or multimedia mapping products If they produce mapping products, how do they produce them? 4. Self-rating of expertise as a product designer/developer This evaluation focussed on expert users and designers/producers. If they did not rate themselves as ‘COMPETENT’, ‘Efficient’ or ‘EXPERT’ it was planned that they were not required to undertake further evaluation.
Candidate
Expertise as a computer mapping product user
1 2
Expert Competent
3 4 5 6 7
Competent Efficient Efficient Efficient Efficient
8
Efficient
Do you design and How do you produce mapping products? produce interactive products, or multimedia mapping products Yes Computer graphics package Yes Digital mapping package Multimedia authoring HTML authoring Programming Yes Digital mapping package Yes Digital mapping package Yes Computer graphics package Yes Computer graphics package Yes Computer graphics package Multimedia authoring Programming Yes Digital mapping package Multimedia authoring
Self-rating of expertise as a product designer/developer
Competent Efficient
Novice Reasonable Efficient Competent Competent
Reasonable
Table 4. General information. The initial ‘filtering’ of candidates, whereby only expert user/producers were required to complete the assessment, did not remove any of the expert group members, as all were expert user/producers, even though some self-rated themselves as not being expert. The author’s observations of the candidates using products rated them above their self-rating, and hence their answers have been included in the data used. Candidates were asked to use the 3D interface and then to rate it on a scale of 1 (Difficult) to 10 (Easy) on a bar scale based on the Reeves and Harmon (op cit.) system (see figure 18, below).
Figure 13. Evaluation proforma, after Reeves and Harmon, 1993. Candidates were also asked to make some general comments on each of the ten evaluation areas that may help to clarify or explain their rating. Table 5 summarises the results of this stage of the evaluation process. Table 6 summarises the comments from the focus group. Candidates found that the cognitive load effort was generally easy with the 3D version. They liked the 3D screen design and found that the knowledge space capacity was generally good. Information presentation was well valued, as was the aesthetics. Overall functionality was considered to be easy. Areas where the product did not score well were Ease of use, Navigation, Map content and Media integration. These areas will require further product development, map product enhancement and better integration of more media types.
Candidate
1 1. Ease of use – 4 Rating and Some confusion comments about how to use the VRML navigation buttons
2 9 Easy for an expert user. Difficult for user with no experience using VRML.
3 4 10 6 Easy to use, as Easier to use. every ‘control’ is described.
2. Navigation – 3 Rating and Easy to navigate comments through the good overview screen
5
8
7
5
6
7
3
5
4
2
1
2
Not so difficult to Difficult to use use. Has a good cursor. description and good navigation performance.
8 7 Buttons in VRML interface are not selfexplanatory. Map could be easier to use, and with less content. 9 Need to get used to speed of movements.
3. Cognitive load – Rating and comments
More flexible and 10 8 intuitive. Therefore Better 3D product looks easier to use. understanding of better. Not so different themes. difficult to use.
8
8
7
8
8
4. Mapping – Rating and comments
9
4 5 ‘Breakdown’ when different maps are loaded. 9 7 Labels should be larger. Good colours. Background hard to read. 9 7 Maps enable good comparisons to be made.
5
3
-
9
8
8 Some text on the map is not readable.
6
5
-
10
7
6
5
7 Colours can give the wrong image of land covered (refers to false-colour remotelysensed image ‘draped’ over Digital Terrain Model (DTM) ‘underlay’).
9 5 3D effect with map information is a very informative demonstration. 9 10 10 9 8 It looks better The colours of 3D looks better Overall look of because it looks more the interface are than 2D. the screen is well real. It enhances the very Better placed. presentation of “comfortable” information with Some map labels information in the 3D product. are too small.
5
4
-
7
5
6
9 7 Better Good feedback. understanding of different themes. 5. Screen design 8 10 6 – Rating and Overall, very good, Didn’t like black comments but maybe scale (or colour behind distance/size of map. map) have to be Generally ok. considered more 6. Knowledge 8 8 space compatability – Rating and comments 7. Information 9 10 8 presentation – It is This method is Good overview. understandable. Easy best for Rating and Good to learn about comments understanding the understanding. connections. information, as the user knows “where what is”.
8. Media integration – Rating and comments
9. Aesthetics – Rating and comments
-
way that it allows different points of view and it allows to correlate information with geography more easily.
9
-
10. Overall functionality – Rating and comments
9
9
9 8 This product Good would have a functionality. good utility in an atlas.
5
4
3
8
General comments
-
-
-
-
-
-
3D product is closer to reality. Risk that 3D image looks more like a fantasy game. 3D image may be more appealing to users, because it is 3D, over 2D products, even though they do not provide more information.
-
Table 5. General comments on evaluation areas. From the general comments related to each of the 10 topics there were both positive and negative comments. Positive and negative comments are tabulated below. Positive comments Easy for expert user. Easy to navigate. More intuitive to use. 3D maps make for easier comparisons to be made. Easy to learn about connections. Better because it looks more real. 3D product is closer to reality.
Negative comments Confusion about use of VRML. Difficult for novice user. Scale/distance from viewer/size of map content needs to be considered. Risk that 3D image looks more like a fantasy game. 3D image more appealing to users, but it may not provide more information.
Table 6. Summary of comments on product. Further development of the product for 3D use needs to address the problems related to using VRML, especially for the novice user. Also, as the 3D product does look more game-like, strategies need to be developed to ensure that users acknowledge that they are in fact using a scientific product.
Summary of findings Evaluation stages 1 and 2 compared paper products and interactive multimedia. This section asked: Do they like interactive multimedia? And, the answer was yes. The evaluations in stages 3 - 5 were subjective. In Stage 3 it was found that it was easier to use a game-like control for users who are not competent computer users. Stage 4 found that the cognitive load effort was generally easy with a 3D interface, when compared to a 2D interface. Further development of the 3D interface needs to address the problems related to using VRML, especially for the novice user. And, strategies need to be developed to ensure that users acknowledge that they are using a scientific product when it has the same 'look-and-feel' as a computer game.
Deliberations related to choosing a gaming approach Using a games approach provided a ‘focussed’ interface to test on the Nintendo generation. It is argued that it is worth continuing with experiments related to the effectiveness of such interfaces if the true value
of different interfaces for particular generations of map users is to be judged. Perhaps a ‘route’ that could be followed when developing such interfaces is that illustrated in figure 14. Firstly, user preferences are ascertained, so as to choose a particular interface path. Then, once an investigation into the hardware and communications devices available to the user the decision about whether a games approach is useful can be made. If the answer is ‘yes’, the games interface can be built and the actual game (of geographical exploration’ built around a particular games strategy that accords with the user, the information being provided and the actual delivery mechanism to be employed. Once in use the user can choose from first person, second or third person viewpoints. They can game play in collaboration with other players or work through an avatar. The game can be provided via discrete or distributed media and be used synchronously or asynchronously. Obviously, if a gaming strategy is not chosen, then the product can be built using contemporary New Media tools.
Figure 14. Decisions regarding the utilisation of gaming strategies and tools.
Conclusion This chapter has outlined the direction that research into the provision of a 'different' interactive multimedia package for the exploration of geographical space. It has outlined the main evaluation procedures followed for the general project and provided the results from the various stages of evaluation. As a multimedia installation of this type changes the way in which users access and use geographical information, an evaluation of this information provision genre now seems appropriate. As well as gauging the success of the use of the product, how such a product changes the user's viewpoint of geographical reality, and thus a particular view of space, needs to be assessed. It is hoped that by using an interactive multimedia installation that encourages exploration in ways that individual consumers feel most comfortable, a better (if not different) perception of what the world is composed of should occur. Therefore the evaluation was completed to assess whether the package and its use provided better tools for exploration and if it provided different perceptions of geography.
Acknowledgements Development of Information Cube was supported through a small ARC research grant obtained by the author. Concept and design by the author, Director programming by Steve Darmody. Development of Doom wad was supported through a small ARC research grant obtained by the author. Concept and design by the author, wad programming by Todd Walker. Graphics development, HTML programming and Dreamweaver development for the Web interfaces for different age groups, from the author's designs and layouts, was completed by Susanne Liebschen, exchange student from the University of Applied Sciences, Dresden, Germany. Development of VRML component was supported through a small research grant obtained by the author. Concept and design by the author, VRML programming by Tim Germanchis. This final component of the research was supported through a research grant from the Department of Defence, Australia, and particularly the Command and Control Division, Defence Science and Technology Organisation, Edinburgh, South Australia. It was entitled the TOWNSVILLE GEOKNOWLEDGE PROJECT. Concept and design by the author. Data collection, HTML programming, Dreamweaver, Flash and Swish by Susanne Sittig and Andrea Lidl exchange students from the University of Applied Sciences, Munich, Germany. Extra HTML programming Jess Ngo. Photoshop, Dreamweaver and PixAround work by Susanne Liebschen.
References Cartwright, W. E., 1997, "The Application of a New Metaphor Set to Depict Geographic Information and Associations", proceedings of the 18th International Cartographic Conference, Stockholm, Sweden: International Cartographic Association, June, pp. 654 - 662. Cartwright, W. E., 2002, “Web Cartography – Historical perspective and Future Opportunities”, proceedings of the Web.Mapping.2002 Symposium, Karlsruhe, Germany, September, Asche, H. (ed), pp. 1.1 – 1.33. Cartwright, W. E., forthcoming, “Linking geographical facts with cartographic artifacts”, Cybercartography, Taylor, D. R. F. (ed.). Chesher, C. and McCarthy, P., 1994, “When a floppy disk holds more than a CD-ROM”, proceedings of the Multimedia and Design Conference, Maher, M.L., Coyne, R. and Newton, S. Eds, Sydney: University of Sydney, pp. 191 - 200. Katz, J.,(1997, “Old Media, New Media and a Middle Way”, New York Times, January 19, pp. 2/1 and 43. Kuhn, W., 1992, “Let metaphors overcome their wimp image”, Research Initiative 13, Technical Report 92-3, D. M. Mark and A. U. Frank Eds., NCGIA, pp. 87 - 92. MacEachren, A. M., 1995b, How Maps Work, New York: The Guildford Press. McNaught, C., 2001, personal correspondence. Ormeling, F., 1993, “Ariadne’s thread - structure in Multimedia atlases.”, Proceedings of the 16th International Cartographic Association Conference, Köln, Germany, 3 - 6 May, International Cartographic Association, pp 1093-1100. Reeves, T. C. and Harmon, S. W., 1993, User Interface Rating Tool for Interactive Multimedia.
Biography William Cartwright is an Associate Professor of Cartography and Geographical Visualization in the School of Mathematical and Geospatial Sciences at RMIT, where he specialises in the application of New Media technologies to Cartography. He joined the University after spending a number of years in both the government and private sectors of the mapping industry. He is a Vice-President of the International Cartographic Association and a National Councillor of the Mapping Sciences Institute, Australia. He is a member of the International Cartographic Association's Commission on Visualization and Virtual Environments and the Commission on Maps and the Internet. He holds eight university qualifications – in the disciplines of Cartography, Education, Media Studies, Information and Communications Technology and Graphic Art. His major research interest is the application of New Media to cartography and the exploration of different metaphorical approaches to the depiction of geographical information.
