|
|
Received: 6 September 2017 Revised: 3 April 2018 Accepted: 17 April 2018 DOI: 10.1111/jar.12471
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Published for the British Institute of Learning Disabilities
Parenting stress and depressive symptoms in Taiwanese mothers of young children with autism spectrum disorder: Association with children’s behavioural problems Yuh-Ming Hou1 | Lydia Stewart2 | Lai-Sang Iao3 1 Department of Psychiatry, Ditmanson Medical Foundation Chia-Yi Christian Hospital, Chai-Yi, Taiwan 2
| Chin-Chin Wu4,5
Background: This study examined the severity of parenting stress and depressive symptoms in Taiwanese mothers of young children with autism spectrum disorder
Department of Mental Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore
(ASD) compared to mothers of young children with developmental delay (DD). The
3
ioural problems were also tested.
Department of Psychology, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, UK 4
Department of Psychology, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan 5
Department of Medical Research, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan Correspondence Chin-Chin Wu, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan. Email:
[email protected] Funding information Ministry of Science and Technology, Grant/ Award Number: MOST-103-2628-H-037001-MY2; Chia-Yi Christian Hospital, Grant/ Award Number: R104-024
associations between parenting stress, depressive symptoms, and children’s behavMethods: The study sample included 51 young children with ASD (mean age = 31 months), 51 young children with DD (mean age = 30 months) and their mothers. Results: The results confirmed that mothers of young children with ASD experienced higher levels of parenting stress and depressive symptoms than mothers of young children with DD. In addition, children’s behavioural problems were robust predictors of parenting stress and depressive symptoms in mothers of young children with ASD, but not in mothers of young children with DD. Conclusion: The findings indicated that one of the critical goals in early intervention for young children with ASD and their families is to reduce children’s behavioural problems. KEYWORDS
autism spectrum disorder, behavioural problems, depressive symptoms, parenting stress
1 | I NTRO D U C TI O N
stressors are the strains and hardships that come directly from the activities of caregiving for a child with ASD. These include disturbed
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder
sleep patterns and physical as well as mental exertion. Secondary
characterized by impairments in social interaction/communication
stressors occur outside of the direct activities of caregiving, such
as well as repetitive interests and stereotyped behaviours (American
as potential social isolation and the emotional burden of dimin-
Psychiatric Association, APA, 2013). Previous studies suggested that
ished self and family-concepts (Pearlin et al., 1990). These stress-
parents, particularly mothers, of children with ASD reported elevated
ors compound existing demands from employment and household
parenting stress (Estes et al., 2009, 2013; Giovagnoli et al., 2015).
management tasks. This exposes parent caregivers to a higher level
Higher level of parenting stress among parents of children with ASD
of stressors that may overwhelm parental coping mechanisms and
has negative effects on interventions (Osborne, McHugh, Saunders,
may interact with existing vulnerabilities to increase the risk of de-
& Reed, 2008; Shine & Perry, 2010), marital relationships (Benson &
veloping mental health problems. Previous studies have shown that
Kersh, 2011; Sim, Cordier, Vaz, & Falkmer, 2016) and quality of life
the association between parental stress and mental health issues
(Dardas & Ahmad, 2015; Reed, Sejunaite, & Osborne, 2016). Thus, it
is influenced by factors including formal and informal social sup-
is important to examine parenting stress and their correlates in order
ports, parental coping style, socioeconomic status, resources and
to provide better services to children with ASD and their parents.
stigma, as well as children’s internalizing and externalizing prob-
Parenting stressors can be classified into primary and second-
lems (Azeem et al., 2013; Cramm & Nieboer, 2011; Pearlin et al.,
ary stressors (Pearlin, Mullan, Semple, & Skaff, 1990). Primary
1990). Internalizing problems are problems within the self, such as
J Appl Res Intellect Disabil. 2018;1–9.
wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/jar © 2018 John Wiley & Sons Ltd | 1
|
HOU et al.
2 Published for the British Institute of Learning Disabilities
emotional reactivity, anxiousness/depressed, somatic complaints
this inconsistency, there was a need to further investigate parent-
and withdrawn, whereas externalizing problems encompass more
ing stress and depression in mothers of young children with ASD,
acting-out behaviours such as hyperactivity, impulsivity, aggressive-
DD and typical development as well as their relationships with chil-
ness and temper tantrums (Achenbach & Rescorla, 2000). Hence, it
dren’s behavioural problems.
is important to examine that behavioural problems in children with
Due to Taiwan’s patrilineal culture and social norms, mothers
ASD contribute to parenting stress and depressive symptoms of
of children with developmental disability or ASD may receive more
their mothers.
criticism and experience increased negative social stressors com-
There has been evidence suggesting that parents of children
pared to fathers. Moreover, Taiwanese culture’s emphasis on the
with ASD report more mental health problems, such as depressive
importance of family over individual (Gau et al., 2010), may contrib-
symptoms, than parents of children without ASD (Benson, 2006;
ute to self and social stigma for mothers whose children experience
Gau et al., 2012; Lai, Goh, Oei, & Sung, 2015). Compared to fathers,
a developmental or behavioural problem. Gau et al.’s study (2012)
mothers of children with ASD generally experience higher levels of
showed that Taiwanese mothers of children with ASD experienced
depression (Davis & Carter, 2008; Gau et al., 2012). Moreover, ma-
greater parenting stress and mental health problems than Taiwanese
ternal depression is associated with a range of deficits in social, psy-
mothers of typically developing children. However, there was no
chological and cognitive development in children (Goodman et al.,
study in Taiwan examining parenting stress and depression in moth-
2011). Depressive symptoms may also reduce parents’ coping ca-
ers of young children with ASD before age 4 and their relationships
pacity when facing caregiving challenges and life stressors. Hence,
with children’s behavioural problems. Therefore, the present authors
mental health problems in parents of children with ASD may have
aimed to fill this research gap especially that children with ASD are
wide-ranging impacts on the quality of life of the child, the parents
now reliably diagnosed at younger ages (Guthrie, Swineford, Nottke,
and the family as a whole.
& Wetherby, 2013; Johnson & Myers, 2007; Malhi & Singhi, 2011),
Characteristics of children with ASD, such as temperament,
and both parenting stress and maternal depression affect child de-
adaptive functioning, autistic symptoms and behavioural problems,
velopment and intervention effectiveness (Goodman et al., 2011;
were also examined in relation to parenting stress and parental de-
Osborne et al., 2008; Shaw, Connell, Dishion, Wilson, & Gardner,
pression. For example, Peters-Scheffer, Didden, and Korzilius (2012)
2009).
suggested that children’s behavioural problems were robust predic-
This study used standardized measures to assess the severity of
tors of parenting stress and parental depression while both adaptive
parenting stress and depressive symptoms in Taiwanese mothers of
functioning and autistic symptoms showed inconsistent findings.
young children with ASD and with DD between 16 and 47 months
Children with ASD often exhibited co-occurring behavioural prob-
of age. The present authors also investigated whether children’s
lems, including internalizing and externalizing problems (Bauminger,
behavioural problems would be associated with their mothers’
Solomon, & Rogers, 2010; Gau et al., 2010; Narzisi et al., 2013).
parenting stress and depressive symptoms. The present authors
Thus, managing children’s behavioural problems is a major challenge
hypothesized that parenting stress and depressive symptoms in
for parents of children with ASD.
mothers of young children with ASD would be higher than moth-
Many studies have examined the relationships among chil-
ers of young children with DD. And children’s behavioural problems
dren’s behavioural problems, parenting stress and depression.
would be correlated with maternal parenting stress and depressive
For example, behavioural problems in school-age children with
symptoms. Ethics approval was obtained from the Research Ethics
ASD are associated with parenting stress (Falk, Norris, & Quinn,
Committee of Chia-Yi Christian Hospital in Taiwan.
2014; Hastings, 2003; Lecavalier, Leone, & Wiltz, 2006; Lovell & Wetherell, 2016; Peters-S cheffer et al., 2012) and depression (Falk et al., 2014; Hastings, 2003; Kim, Ekas, & Hock, 2016). Similar findings were also found in preschoolers with ASD aged 5 years (Weitlauf, Vehorn, Taylor, & Warren, 2014) and even before age
2 | M E TH O D 2.1 | Participants
4 (Carter, Martínez-Pedraza, & Gray, 2009; Davis & Carter, 2008;
This study recruited 51 young children with ASD (mean
Estes et al., 2009, 2013; Zaidman-Z ait et al., 2017). Zaidman-Z ait
age = 31.81 months) and 51 young children with DD (mean
et al. (2017) further suggested that externalizing problems could
age = 30.16 months) and their mothers from a teaching hospital in
be the only predictor of parenting stress. In addition, Estes et al.
the Southwest area of Taiwan. Social workers or physician explained
(2009, 2013) reported that mothers of young children with ASD
the study to caregivers, who suspected that their children had a
showed higher parenting stress compared to mothers of young
developmental problem. If the caregivers agreed to participate in
children with developmental delay (DD) and typical development.
the study, they were referred to the researchers. The researchers
Depressive symptoms were also higher in mothers of young chil-
then contacted the caregivers to arrange for an assessment. Some
dren with ASD when compared to mothers of young children with
of the children received early intervention (i.e., occupation therapy)
DD (Estes et al., 2009). However, Estes et al. (2013) did not find a
at the time of recruitment. Young children with ASD were assessed
significant difference on depressive symptoms between mothers
and diagnosed according to DSM-5 and with reference to devel-
of young children with ASD, DD and typical development. Given
opmental history, parental concerns, children’s daily activities and
|
3
HOU et al. Published for the British Institute of Learning Disabilities
performance, clinical observation, and the results of the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS; Lord, Rutter, DiLavore,
2.2 | Procedure
& Risi, 1999) by a multidisciplinary team. The team included sen-
Each child was individually assessed using the MSEL and the ADOS.
ior child psychologists with Ph.D. degree and child psychiatrists.
The MSEL was administered by a postgraduate student studying for
According to the DSM-5, children would meet the criteria for an ASD
a MSc course in clinical psychology under the supervision of a li-
diagnosis if they manifest three deficits in social communication/in-
censed clinical psychologist with Ph.D. degree whereas ADOS was
teraction and two restricted/repetitive behaviours. However, pre-
administered by a licensed clinical psychologists with Ph.D. degree.
vious studies (e.g., Frazier et al., 2012) indicated that these criteria
While children were being assessed, mothers were asked to com-
in DSM-5 showed lower sensitivity when compared to DSM-IV-TR
plete questionnaires on parenting stress and depressive symptoms
(American Psychiatric Association, APA, 2000). The strict criteria
and child’s behavioural problems.
in DSM-5 would impede early intervention for children with ASD. Thus, the present authors relaxed the DSM-5 criteria by requiring one less symptom in either social communication/interaction or re-
2.3 | Measures
stricted/repetitive behaviours as suggested by Frazier et al. (2012)
The Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment: Child
and Young and Rodi (2014) to increase the sensitivity of the DSM-5
Behaviour Checklist for Ages 1½ - 5 (CBCL/1½- 5; Achenbach &
for ASD. It would be helpful for maximizing intervention resources
Rescorla, 2000) is a widely used questionnaire for measuring child
and decreasing family burdens if the present authors recruited chil-
behavioural and emotional problems. CBCL/1½-5 contains 99 items
dren with ASD based on relaxed criteria. For example, only 40 of 51
and can be divided into three main scales, which are internaliz-
(76%) children with ASD in our study met strict criteria for an ASD
ing scale, externalizing scale and total problem scale. For summary
diagnosis of DSM-5; that is nearly 25% these children might not re-
scales, the cut-off for normal range is a T score
