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Anal Bioanal Chem (2010) 396:273–296 DOI 10.1007/s00216-009-3244-4

REVIEW

Passive sampling as a tool for obtaining reliable analytical information in environmental quality monitoring Bożena Zabiegała & Agata Kot-Wasik & Magdalena Urbanowicz & Jacek Namieśnik

Received: 10 July 2009 / Revised: 24 September 2009 / Accepted: 15 October 2009 / Published online: 19 November 2009 # Springer-Verlag 2009

Abstract Passive sampling technology has been developing very quickly for the past 20 years, and is widely used for monitoring pollutants in different environments, for example air, water, and soil. It has many significant advantages, including simplicity, low cost, no need for expensive and complicated equipment, no power requirements, unattended operation, and the ability to produce accurate results. The present generation of passive samplers enables detection and analysis of bioavailable pollutants at low and very low concentrations and investigation of the environmental concentration of organic and inorganic pollutants not only on the local scale but also on continental and global scales. This review describes the current application of passive sampling techniques in environmental analysis and monitoring, under both equilibrium and non-equilibrium conditions. Keywords Passive sampling . Monitoring . Environmental quality studies . Water quality control . Air quality control

Introduction A wide range of methods and instruments can be used for sampling and analysis of pollutants present in any compartment of the environment. Nowadays, the techniques used to monitor environmental pollutants should enable not only direct monitoring of the fate and concentration of chemical pollutants but also allow evaluation of their effects and assessment of the potential hazard for human B. Zabiegała (*) : A. Kot-Wasik : M. Urbanowicz : J. Namieśnik Department of Analytical Chemistry Chemical Faculty, Gdansk University of Technology, 11/12 G. Narutowicza Str., 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland e-mail: [email protected]

health. Estimation of human exposure to toxic and genotoxic environmental pollutants is a fundamental aspect of human hazard assessment [1, 2]. Generally, assessment of the risk of pollutants is based on the concentrations determined by analytical chemistry and on toxicity and genotoxicity data of the pollutants [3]. Protection against the harmful effects of environmental pollutants requires their levels to be carefully defined. This means that in order to establish the quality of the different compartments of our environment (atmosphere, water bodies, and soil), a large number of samples have to be taken to determine daily, monthly, or/and annual time-weighted average concentrations of the pollutants of interest. Based on those results further conclusions can be drawn and, moreover, prevention and improvement can be performed. As a result, long-term and large-scale environment quality monitoring can be prohibitively expensive. Passive sampling offers much potential as a low-tech and cost-effective monitoring tool, avoiding almost every disadvantage of active sampling and/or sample preparation techniques. It is especially important for multipoint sampling over large and remote areas. In most cases, passive sampling vastly simplifies sample collection and preparation by elimination of power (electricity) requirements, significant reduction of analysis costs (only a few analyses are necessary over the monitoring period), and protection of analytes against decomposition during transport, storage, and enrichment. Passive sampling is based on the free flow of analyte molecules from the sample matrix to the receiving phase. The different concentration, pressure, temperature, and electromotive force gradients, which can be reduced to fundamental chemical potential gradients, of the analytes between the two media results in enrichment and isolation of the analytes into the receiving phase [4–6]. For these reasons passive sampling is becoming an increasingly popular alternative to active methods. However, we would like to

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emphasise that this technique cannot replace conventional analytical procedures. Despite its relatively long history (over 20 years), passive sampling is still developing and in the last few years remarkable progress has been made in passive device design, calibration methods, and quality assurance. A growing number of publications devoted to this technique proves its large potential and testifies to its utilization for environment monitoring. As presented in Fig. 1, the number of publications on passive sampling and extraction published during recent years, particularly in the period 1999 to mid-2009, proves interest in passive technology is still growing. (The search was done using the Science Citation Index with the key words: passive sampling, passive dosimetry, water monitoring, air monitoring.) The application of passive samplers/passive sampling techniques in different research areas in years between 1999 and mid-2009 is illustrated in Fig. 2 (expressed as the number of articles published annually). Unquestionably, predominating areas of the passive sampling application are environmental sciences, however, a few new applications of passive samplers can be observed. Among these the use of passive sampling in combination with biological tests (to measure standard toxicity and genotoxicity assays) seems to be the most prominent [3, 7–12]. Passive samplers design and their application in environmental analysis have already been described in several previous reviews [13–19] and also by the authors of this review [20–23]. This paper complements information on environmental quality monitoring presented earlier by these authors and highlights the range of application.

Passive sampling in field (environmental) analysis Environment quality studies of last decade show that passive sampling techniques have been applied in different areas, including workplace exposure and monitoring,

& &

screening studies and source identification—determination of occurrence or identification (qualitative or semiquantitative) of pollutants in a given part of the environment; determination of the pollutant concentrations in the environment (quantitative)—integration of ambient concentrations of pollutants over time scales: short time-scales (hours/days) and long time-scales (weeks/ months/years). The shorter time-scales facilitate studies of pollutant dispersal, fluxes, and transport processes and can provide data for dispersion/transport modelling. Longer time-scales would allow the identification of

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Number of publish papers

Fig. 1 Number of articles on applications of passive sampling published between 1999 and mid-2009

indoor and outdoor air-quality determination, aquatic sampling for ground and surface water pollution, and sediment and soil pollution monitoring. However, the most recent studies indicate that the most dynamic development and greatest interest in the application of passive sampling are in water compartment monitoring [24–29]. Approximately 51% of the total number of publications in the last ten years (from 1999 to 2008) describe the use of passive samplers to monitor water environmental quality conditions. This can be seen in Fig. 3. The next 32% of publications concern use of passive samplers to monitor air quality (including indoor and outdoor air, and working place atmospheres). Nevertheless, it should be stressed that the use of passive dosimetry/sampling for measurement of the quality of work-place atmospheres (e.g. passive samplers: Orsa 5, National Dräger, Radiello FS Maugeri, OVM 3500 3M) is already routine practice [30]. There are also official procedures (e.g., ASTM, EPA, NIOSH, CEN, and ISO) based on passive sampling/extraction of pollutants from the gaseous phase, including EN 13528-1 [31] (general requirements for quantifying gases and vapours), EN 13528-2 (specific requirements and test methods) [32], and EN 13528-3 (guide to passive sampler selection, use, and maintenance) [33]. In general, within the last ten years passive sampling has been mostly applied for [3, 29, 34–37]:

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Passive sampling as a tool for obtaining reliable analytical information in environmental quality monitoring Fig. 2 Division of passive sampling applications among different subject areas in the years 1999–2008

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Subject area ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES CHEMISTRY, ANALYTICAL ENGINEERING, ENVIRONMENTAL ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCES ENVIRONMENTAL & OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH TOXICOLOGY MARINE & FRESHWATER BIOLOGY ECOLOGY BIOCHEMICAL RESEARCH METHODS WATER RESOURCES OCEANOGRAPHY 0

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source/sink regions and underlying trends in ambient levels [38–41]; mapping the ambient distribution of pollutants (mapping concentrations) to support national/international air monitoring networks, and to yield input data for regional distribution models—visualization of the spatial distribution of pollution levels in the form of maps enables sophisticated mathematical analysis and proper decisionmaking concerning the environment; studying changes in atmospheric pollutant concentrations and composition along environmental gradients— checking transport models and the environmental fate of pollutants [39–41]; human exposure assessment-personal monitoring with passive sampling is considered the most accurate estimate of a personal “true” exposure [42, 43]; determination of concentrations of environmental pollutants by equilibrium sampling; water quality monitoring; the (bio)availability of contaminants in sediment, and providing information on both available amounts in sediment samples and also equivalent available aqueous concentrations of pollutants [44, 45]; bioanalytical assessment—evaluation of the relationship between the pollutants sampled by passive samplers and the biological risk effects, determination of bioaccumulation/biomagnification levels of pollutants in biological samples, comparison of accumulation in passive sampling devices to that in biota and/or sediments [44]; and ecotoxicology testing—collection of material for toxicity tests [46].

In addition to dynamically developing industries related to the use of passive dosimetry/sampling to assess the quality of the environment, research is continuously being conducted to enable better understanding of kinetic uptake and sampling rates of passive samplers and better under-

standing of sampler performance (e.g. reproducibility, robustness, ability to operate under different environmental conditions, and calibration against active samplers) [15–17, 47–49]. This enables better description of the effect of environmental factors on the behaviour of passive dosimeters and, thus, the effect on the quality of the results obtained. All these aspects are measured during the validation procedure. This problem is discussed later in this review. The other approach used to assess the quality of the results obtained by use of passive sampling/samplers is to compare results with those obtained by an alternative method of environmental monitoring. Several studies have been focused on validation of passive samplers/passive sampling techniques by comparison with biomonitoring or with active sampling systems [21, 27, 50, 51]. Table 1 presents a comparison of passive samplers with biosamplers and active sampling systems considering only

Fig. 3 Main application areas of passive sampling used to monitor the quality of different environment compartments between 1999 and mid-2009

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the most important passive sampling advantages and drawbacks.

A passive sampling device, in general, is designed to operate in two different accumulation regimes (Fig. 4): &

Non equilibrium/equilibrium passive sampling The type of analytical information obtained as a result of the use of passive sampling technology depends, to a large extent, on the accumulation regimes in which passive samplers operate during field exposure.

in the kinetic and time-integrative uptake phase (rate of mass transfer to the receiving phase is linearly proportional to the difference in chemical potential of the contaminant in the receiving phase and sample). These kinds of passive samplers are called linear uptake passive samplers and/or non-equilibrium passive samplers; or

Table 1 The comparison of passive samplers with biosamplers and active sampling systems considering only the most important passive sampling advantages and drawbacks

Biomonitoring Water: -Mussels: e.g., Mytilus edulis, Perna viridis, Mytilus Trossulus, Anodonta piscinalis - oysters - fish: trout, carp Air: Pine needles Active sampling Water: - LLE, liquid-liquid extraction, - SPE solid-phase extraction, Air: - Sorption tubes filled with solid sorbents, - evacuated canisters - Tedlar bags

Passive sampling Advantages Drawbacks Are not consumed Changes in the uptake rates induced by and do not die environmental factors (water flow) Can be used in all Only estimate the water-soluble fraction environments Easier sample Ionic compounds are not sampled procedure Estimation of water Biofouling can make passive sampling less concentration effective Mimics bioconcentration POPs are not metabolized Low-cost sampling Do not need power supply Good correlation between both (passive and active method) Allows ultra-trace determinations of POPs No maintenance required Low-volume procedure Possibility of determination of TWA concentration based only upon exposure time, without knowledge of sample volume “Historical” nature of results- when assessing human exposure

Unsuitable for monitoring short-term variations in contaminant concentrations Lower enrichment efficiency compared with active techniques Intensive sample processing especially for SPMD Complicated mathematical models – analyte sampling rate must be previously calculated/determined The number of compounds for which passive sampling can be used is limited - ionic compounds are not sampled Indirect measurement

Photodegradation (in cases of SPMD)

“Historical” nature of results – do not provide direct or real-time data Usually impossible to automate

Passive sampling as a tool for obtaining reliable analytical information in environmental quality monitoring

Fig. 4 Analyte mass uptake profile in passive sampling devices. Two different accumulation regimes of passive sampling devices can be distinguished

&

the at-equilibrium regime, described by a partition coefficient between the receiving phase and the sample matrix—called equilibrium passive samplers

Linear uptake passive samplers and/or non-equilibrium samplers are those that do not reach equilibrium with the surrounding environment within the sampling period. For this type of passive sampling it is assumed that the rate of mass transfer or sampling rate remains constant throughout the duration of sampling, and the relationship between the concentration of target analytes in the sample matrix, and the amount of analytes extracted is linear. These samplers are characterized by high capacity for collecting the contaminants of interest. The high capacity ensures that contaminants can be enriched continuously throughout the sampling period. On the basis of application of this type of passive sampler, average contaminant concentrations present in the monitored part of environment over the entire sampling period can be obtained. Linear uptake passive samplers and/or non-equilibrium samplers therefore provide time-weighted average (TWA) concentrations of target analytes in the sample matrix averaged over a known period of time. An important aspect is that when linear uptake passive samplers and/or non-equilibrium samplers are used for field sampling, the sampling rate should previously be determined in the laboratory, during a calibration step, or predicted by use of empirical equations [16, 18, 23]. Calibration of this type of passive sampler is based on a constant sampling rate during sampler exposure and requires that the receiving medium should act as a “zero-sink” for the target analytes [18, 21, 23]. When equilibrium passive sampling is used for sample collection the sampler should be deployed long enough to ensure that the thermodynamic equilibrium is reached between the environmental media and the receiving phase [15, 29, 37]. The basic requirements for the equilibrium

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sampling approach are that stable concentrations are reached after a known response time (Fig. 4) The equilibrium passive sampler capacity is kept well below that of the sample to avoid depletion during extraction and the passive device response time must be shorter than fluctuations in the concentration of the pollutant being measured. Equilibrium samplers are also characterized by a rapid achievement of equilibrium between contaminants in the sampled medium and contaminants inside the passive sampler. One consequence of achieving an equilibrium rapidly is that contaminants are also capable of diffusing back into the surrounding environment, should environmental concentrations of the contaminants decline. The equilibration times of different passive samplers range from seconds to months. The results obtained by equilibrium sampling/extraction are comparable with those obtained by grab sampling, and, therefore, this type of device is unsuitable for determination of TWA concentrations of pollutants in the environment [18, 23]. Equilibrium passive sampling does not provide quantitative information on the concentrations of the pollutants in the environmental media but indicates the level of contamination in the monitored compartment of the environment. The behaviour of equilibrium passive samplers is similar to that of biological “dosimeters” (e.g. mussels, fish, pine needles). An equilibrium passive sampler mimics the part of the animal on which bioconcentration occurs. It is nothing more than a device containing a sorption medium, which contaminants can pass through. The contaminants are trapped in the receiving medium, inside the sampler, much as they do in a living organism. Passive devices/samplers can be deployed in any compartment of the environment for weeks or even months, and they will gather hydrophobic contaminants much like a biological body [18, 23, 34]. At the end of the exposure the passive sampler is ready for further analysis (after quite a simple analytical procedure) whereas living organisms have to undergo complicated sample preparation before final analysis. Of course, no existing passive sampler is a perfect model of a biological organism. However, passive samplers can still be used to model biomagnification and also to indicate the presence of contaminants which can be biomagnified. Passive sampling devices are designed for 1 to 4 weeks field deployment, where uptake rate is governed by linear first-order kinetics providing a time-weighted average (TWA) concentration of collected contaminants. The equilibrium passive samplers most often used in environmental quality control are: & & & &

solid-phase microextraction (SPME); Empore disks; passive diffusion bag samplers (PDS); water-filled polyethylene bags (PE);

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diffusive multi-layer sampler (DMLS); semipermeable membrane device (SPMD); and polar organic chemical integrative sampler (POCIS)

The most frequently used linear uptake passive samplers/ non-equilibrium passive samplers are: & & & & & & & & &

solid-phase microextraction (SPME); semipermeable membrane device (SPMD); passive in-situ concentration/extraction sampler (PISCES); polar organic chemical integrative sampler (POCIS) membrane-enclosed sorptive coating sampler (MESCO); passive samplers filled with sorbent or resin-based passive air sampler (diffusive passive samplers: Orsa 5, National Dräger, Radiello FS Maugeri, OVM 3500 3M); ceramic dosimeter; Chemcatcher; and polyurethane foam disk (PUF);

Whether a passive sampler behaves as an equilibrium or non-equilibrium sampler also depends on: & & & &

the the the the

partitioning properties of the chemicals; concentration of the chemicals; exposure time of the passive samplers; and type of information that is be obtained.

Samplers may be in equilibrium for some environmental pollutants during field sampling while still being in nonequilibrium for other compounds [52].

Validation of passive samplers Passive sampling has been widely accepted throughout the world for environmental sampling, as evidenced by many regulatory guidelines, manuals, and protocols published by various environmental and standards introducing authorities throughout the world. The contributing organizations and official procedures based on passive sampling/extraction of pollutants have already been discussed in this paper. Typically, the calibration methods for passive sampling are limited to either the equilibrium regime or the linear regime. Recently, two kinetic calibration methods that could be used for the entire sampling period were proposed. These are referred to as the kinetic calibration method or the infibre standardization technique [53, 54] and the standard-free kinetic calibration method [18]. A further challenge is to improve robustness by reducing or controlling the effects of environmental conditions and biofouling on sampler performance. Internal and external reference compounds are being tested for improving the accuracy of TWA concentrations of contaminants. The development of efficient quality assurance

(QA), quality control (QC), and method validation schemes for passive sampling techniques is essential to gain broader acceptance for the technology in regulatory programs. The act of sampling introduces uncertainty into the reported measurement. The sources of errors are quite numerous and they appear even before performing field sampling, because of inadequate design of the sampling plan. Even when procedures are nominally correct, they will vary slightly because of ambiguity in measurement protocols and because of minor adaptations made to the protocols in real-world sampling. Whether high levels of uncertainty lead to unacceptable levels of reliability in the decisions based upon them depends upon rigorous evaluation of fitness for purpose. The potential sources of errors during sampling and the issues to be taken into consideration when performing sampling are: & & & & & &

heterogeneity of the sample, spatial and/or temporal change of pollutants, seasonal changes during time of sampling (climatic conditions); no representative statistics, skew distribution; few replicates when large number of samples is taken into account (absence of representativeness); absence of representativeness in term of sample mass; matrix effects during sampling (irreproducible deposits); and contamination or losses during storage (volatilization, chemical reactions, change of species).

Because the field environment is very different from laboratory conditions, the performance of passive samplers should be validated in situ. To understand the differences, different samplers were deployed in the field to determine sampling rates in situ, where target compounds were measured simultaneously in water and in a passive device [55]. Generally, field-derived sampling rates for organic contaminants are significantly greater than those from laboratory experiments, which may be because significantly higher water flow and associated water turbulence in the field increases the mass transfer of contaminants from water to the passive dosimeter. During laboratory-based experiments, relatively small flow rates are used with no mixing, which explains the lower sampling rates than those in the field, where factors such as fluctuations in water temperature and, in particular, water turbulence would have increased the uptake kinetics of the compounds in the passive sampler [28, 55]. The results therefore suggest the need for appropriate field validation of the sampling device. Field validation is often done for passive samplers used for air monitoring. In such cases the passive sampler is usually exposed side by side with a conventional sampling device. A square regression analysis of the results for the passive sampler versus the concentrations measured by

Passive sampling as a tool for obtaining reliable analytical information in environmental quality monitoring

dynamic technique gives an intercept and a slope (with a specific value of R2). The accuracy of the method compared with the analyzer, expressed as a relative error percentage (%), can be calculated. Statistical analysis of differences between the passive sampler and the reference method should be performed in order to estimate the relative standard deviation (RSD). The accuracy of the method is usually expressed as percentage relative error compared with a reference method.

Air monitoring with passive sampling As has already been mentioned, passive technology is nowadays routinely used for monitoring air quality. There are numerous potential applications of validated passive sampling techniques for measurement of pollutants such as inorganic compounds (IC), volatile organic compounds (VOC), and persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as PAHs, PCBs, PBDEs, and pesticides in ambient and indoor environments to obtain information on the relative amounts (concentrations) or patterns which can highlight spatial patterns and trends [20–23, 35, 57, 58]. The possibilities of application of passive sampling in order to obtain analytical information in air monitoring are summarized in Fig. 5. Fig. 5 Practical application of passive sampling to air quality monitoring

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Passive sampling in liquid media quality monitoring The success of passive samplers in determining TWA concentrations of organic vapours in occupational environments and ambient atmospheres has contributed to the application of the same principle to dissolved organic contaminants in aquatic environments [27]. The first passive sampling methods for liquid media were used to monitor the concentrations of dissolved inorganic compounds in surface water by measuring equilibrium concentrations in water enclosed in dialysis membranes in 1974 [34, 59]. In 1990, Huckins et al. [60] reported one of the first studies on passive water sampling of organic pollutants using semi-permeable membrane devices (SPMDs). Since then, many passive sampling devices for liquid media monitoring have been developed and described [4, 15–17, 21–23, 25]. Today, they are used to monitor levels of industrial pollutants and their derivatives, for example PAHs [61–64], organochlorine pollutants, polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin, polychlorinated dibenzo-p-furan [65], chlorinated and alkylated phenols [27, 66] and PCBs [67, 68], and persistent non-polar pesticides such as the cyclodienes and DDT [69]. However, while gaining significant acceptance by industry and regulators in the field of air monitoring, the

Organic compounds Inorganic compounds

- Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) - Semivolatile organic compounds (SVOCs) - Organic aerosols (OA)

- Volatile inorganic - Inorganic aerosols (IA)

Anaytical information

Passive sampling

Monitoring activities

Occupational atmosphere

Indoor air

Outdoor air Urban background

Personal/human exposure Epidemiological studies

“Hot spot” measurements

Imission measurements Biomonitoring

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application of passive samplers to water sampling is still limited to research use. In 2007, the European Union (EU) introduced new legislation that aims to manage all anthropogenic chemicals (manufactured in Europe or imported) that are emitted in significant quantities in order to protect human health and the environment. The legislation is called Registration, Evaluation, Authorization, and Restriction of Chemical Substances (REACH—regulation (EC) no. 1907/2006). Growing concern among the public and researchers together with implementation of REACH in the European Union will increase the future demand for monitoring frequency, geographical distribution of the measurements, the number of sites included in monitoring programs, and routine measurements [24, 29]. The cost of obtaining this information is potentially high, and any methods that can reduce this will be helpful to a wide range of industries. Thus, the need for simple, low-cost strategies for monitoring and risk assessment of contaminants in aquatic environments will probably be high in the future. Passive sampling could provide reliable information to support other techniques used to determine the quality of the environment (to predict environmental concentration of pollutants, their toxicological properties, exposure of aquatic organisms, and the bioavailability of the pollutants). Several designs of passive devices used for water monitoring are available either as experimental prototypes or as commercial products. Passive samplers, both experimental prototypes and commercial products, have been used in a variety of aqueous matrices (Fig. 6). However, the majority of the reported deployments of passive samplers have been in surface waters, both limnic and marine.

Passive sampling in liquid media

Freshwater

Aquifer, well water

Groundwater

Wastewater and storm water

Surface water (marine waters, lake, rivers and streams waters)

Fig. 6 Use of passive sampling in the aquatic environment (water/ liquid matrices in which passive samplers methods have been applied)

Table 2 summarizes the application of passive samplers developed within the last ten years for quality monitoring of different environment compartments and the kind of information obtained.

Conclusions Passive sampling is currently one of main development areas of analysis, particularly in the monitoring of environmental pollutants. The main advantage of passive sample collection/enrichment technology results from considerable simplification of sample collection in situ, which is particularly important in the case of long-term measurements. This is also why passive sampling seems to be an interesting alternative to generally applicable dynamic methods. So, use of passive samplers eliminates the need to use of other auxiliary devices, such as pumps, aspirators, and gas-meters. In consequence this leads to simplification of the whole procedure of sample collection, and its miniaturization. The enormous diversity of pollutants present at different levels means that monitoring of the environment by application of dynamic methods at the sample-collection step would be expensive and time and labour-consuming. Effective monitoring of the environment requires relatively non-intrusive monitoring strategies. These strategies should enable cost-effective monitoring over multiple locations and offer time-integrated assessment of mixture toxicity and identify potential effects due to unknown or not routinely monitored compounds to predict long-term health impacts. Passive sampling technology addresses many of the requirements and also has the potential to become a reliable, robust, and cost-effective tool that could be used in many monitoring programs throughout the world. However, there are numerous variables which have to be considered when passive sampling is used in any monitoring program. While deployment of the passive samplers is fairly simple, the sampling strategy involved in choosing the number and type of passive samplers for deployment, their exact locations, time, and duration of exposure, and quantification in the laboratory, require careful consideration. One should remember there are still some serious limitations to the application of passive sampling that may sometimes be difficult to overcome; probably the most important of these is the possible effect of environmental conditions (such as temperature, air humidity, air and water movement) on analyte uptake. Despite such concerns, many users find passive sampling an attractive option for more recognized sampling procedures. Knowledge of the source of pollution, quantity and potential fate in the environment, and the analytical

Medium analyzed

Sampling site

River water

Sea water Polar passive samplers: 3M Empore extraction disks (C18)

Chemcatcher

The Great Barrier Reef, Australia

Almaden, Spain

Water and sediments monitoring SPMDs Lake water Lake Chelan, Washington

Type of sampler

Herbicides (diuron, simazine, atrazine, hexazinone, ametryn flumeturon, atrazine tebuthiuron, desethyl

Hg (inorganic ions and weak complexes able to diffuse across the water boundary layer and PS membrane)

4,4′-DDT, 4,4′-DDE, 4,4′-DDD

Target compounds

Measurement of concentrations of herbicides, PAHs and chlorpyrifos (land-based organic pollutants) in the Wet Tropics region of the GBR.

Comparison of the results with those from spot water samples taken during the trial in order to assess the utility of the device.

Comparison of SPMDs and large-volume solid-phase extraction techniques to measure the dissolved concentrations of analytes.

Monitoring objective

Concentration (ng L−1)

Concentration equilibrium concentration (ng per disk)

Concentration (ng L−1 water), equilibrium concentration (ng g−1 SPMD)

Information obtained

Ref.

Studies which have examined [70] SPMD estimates and other independent measures of water concentrations generally show reasonably good agreement. This study found that SPMD estimates and Infiltrex measures of water concentrations of dissolved RDDT are consistent with earlier studies. The passive sampler developed [71] and evaluated in this work for measurement of Hg in surface waters increases the range of applications of the Chemcatcher technology. The TWA concentration range estimated by use of this sampler in the field trial was about an order of magnitude less than estimates derived from spot samples. This reflects a difference between the two methods where the passive sampler measures only the inorganic ions and the weak complexes of Hg, whereas spot sampling measures the total Hg content of the water. Despite these differences passive samplers provide useful data that give information about concentrations of pollutants in the water between infrequent spot sampling events. Applicability of passive samplers [72] as a tool for routine monitoring -for measuring waterborne organic pollutants. Long term monitoring capable of detecting

Remarks and practical use of information obtained from the data

Table 2 An overview of the latest applications of passive sampling/extraction for monitoring pollutants with emphasis on the type of information obtained in environmental analysis

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River water, sewage effluent

Water

River water

POCIS

SPMDs

SPMDs

River Aire, UK,

Böse Sieben Creek, Saxony-Anhalt, Germany,

West Sussex, UK

Ground water Southern Germany

Ceramic dosimeter

Sampling site

Medium analyzed

Type of sampler

Table 2 (continued)

Triclosan

PAHs

EDCs, pharmaceuticals

atrazine, prometryn, deisopropyl) PAHs

Target compounds

Information obtained

Concentration (μg L−1)

Investigation of contamination of Concentration river water by PAHs; study of (ng per SPMD) pollutant distribution in different environmental compartments, identification of PAH composition and identification of potential pollution sources Better understanding of the fate Mass concentration of Triclosan in the aquatic (μg L−1) environment, generating data for exposure assessments. Measuring environmental loadings, concentrations and removal of Triclosan during wastewater treatment and in river water under North European conditions. Modelling

Comparison between spot and passive sampling.

Monitoring of PAH Concentration concentrations as an alternative (μg L−1), accumulated mass to active sampling; (μg per sampler) investigation on the performance of the dosimeter under field conditions with regard to sampling of PAHs

Monitoring objective

Ref.

The SPMD-based instream re[75] moval rate was somewhat higher than the rate based on grab water samples. Triclosan was extensively removed (~95%) and concentrations declined rapidly in the river. Triclosan is not a persistent chemical.

Passive samplers shown as [73] devices which can be used without calibration for PAH monitoring in groundwater (comparison with snap-shot water sampling: very well matched, the same range of PAHs detected) As demonstrated in this study, [56] passive sampling device should be assessed both in the laboratory and in the field, as its performance can differ between the two environments. There is good agreement between pharmaceutical concentrations obtained using spot sampling and those from passive sampling which has been validated in situ, highlighting the potential benefits of using passive sampling for water quality monitoring. SPMDs and sediment samples [74] provide complementary information about contamination by PAHs

changes in water chemistry.

Remarks and practical use of information obtained from the data

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SPMDs

Blue mussels

Stream water Bitterfeld, Saxony-Anhalt, Germany

Near Stenungsund, Sweden

Sea water

SPMDs

Information obtained

the concentration distribution (GREAT-ER model) Evaluation of the effect of Biofouling amounts biofouling on the water (g dry weight per sampling rates of SPMDs in the sampler) field, using the PRC method. Attempts were made to manipulate the amount of biofouling by adding antifouling agents to some of the SPMDs..

Monitoring objective

OCPs, PCBs, PAHs

Concentration (μg L−1)

Equilibrium concentration (μg kg−1 dry weight), (μg kg−1 lipid weight) To characterize spatial variations Concentration of concentrations of the (ng L−1) pollutants. To provide data on the bioavailability fraction of the investigated pollutants

Organochlorine pollutants Assessment of the short-term (HCB, chlorophenols, trend of marine pollution. PCBs, chlorobenzenes, HCP)

UV filters (EHMC, OC, Determination of concentration Concentration MBC, BM-DBM, BP3) of UV filters in surface waters. (ng L−1)

Zurich, Switzerland,

Lake water

Target compounds

SPMDs

Sampling site

Southern coastline of the island PRCs (performance of Texel, The Netherlands reference compounds): acenaphthene-D10, phenanthrene-D10, fluoranthene-D10, chrysene-D12, PCB4 PCB29, PCB155, PCB204

Medium analyzed

SPMDs Water (shielded and unshielded: SS mesh screens)

Type of sampler

Table 2 (continued) Ref.

The fraction of individual [79] compounds found in the freely dissolved form can be attributed to the range of their hydrophobicity. The SPMD method is more suitable for assessment of the background

The results imply that extreme [76] biofouling does not always result in reduced sampling rates; that extreme biofouling does not preclude the existence of flow effects on the sampling rates, and that differences in uptake rates are quantitatively reflected by the dissipation rates of PRCs. Treatment of the SPMDs with Irgarol or capsaicin (antifouling agents) does not seem to have an effect on retained PRC amounts, but increasing flow rates result in larger PRC dissipation. The presence of UV filters in [77] exposed SPMDs confirms the lipophilic nature of these compounds and indicates a potential for bioaccumulation. Although metabolism in aquatic biota may reduce concentrations substantially compared with those in SPMDs, further investigations on the occurrence of UV filters in fish, seem needed. It is concluded that partitioning [78] calculations applied on analytical data from mussels and superficial sediment, when combined with SPMD data, make possible the detection of short-term changes of environmental loads of hydrophobic pollutants.

Remarks and practical use of information obtained from the data Passive sampling as a tool for obtaining reliable analytical information in environmental quality monitoring 283

River water

SPMDs

Low density Methanolpolyethylene water (LDPE) and mixtures silicone polymer tubing MESCO River water

SPMDs

Fish (white fish, Lake water roach, and lake trout)

Medium analyzed

Type of sampler

Table 2 (continued)

Bitterfeld, Saxony-Anhalt, Germany

Netherlands

Switzerland

Lobith, Eijsden Netherlands

Sampling site

Monitoring objective

PRCs ( CB4, CB29, CB155, CB204, acenaphthene-D10, phenanthrene-D10, and chrysene-D12) POPs (PAHs, PCBs)

Methyl triclosan

Equilibrium concentrations: SPMD (ng g−1 fat), SPE (ng L−1 or μg L−1) Equilibrium concentration (ng g−1 on a wet weight basis), (ng g−1 on a lipid basis)

Information obtained

Ref.

SPMDs found to be reliable for [81] monitoring low concentration of methyl triclosan in surface water. (which appeared to be a suitable marker for WWTPderived lipophilic contaminants). The lipid-based concentrations of methyl triclosan observed in fish were higher than those in lake water (SPMDs showed lower values).

concentrations of hydrophobic organic contaminants because of substantially lower method quantification limits. Moreover, contaminant residues sequestered by the SPMDs are an estimate of the dissolved or readily bioavailable concentration of hydrophobic contaminants in water, which is not provided by most analytical approaches. Screening of large numbers of [80] organic micropollutants

Remarks and practical use of information obtained from the data

Testing the performance of the MESCO in the field

TWA concentrations (ng L−1)

Sampling rates for the new [83] MESCO should be generate configurations in flow-through calibration test: PRC should be used throughout future tests and field trails to enable adjustment of sampling rates to different field conditions

Concentration (ng L−1) Investigation of absorption of Partition coefficients Equilibrating sampling. Study of [82] PRCs from aqueous-methanolic between membranes uptake kinetics solutions by LDPE and silicone and methanol-water tubing mixtures (mL g−1)

Finding out the extent to which methyl triclosan was accumulated in fish and evaluation whether it is a suitable marker for WWTPderived lipophilic contaminants

Microcontaminants Determination the identity and (pesticides, fragrances, concentrations range of many PAHs, plasticizers, organic micropollutants phenols, anilines)

Target compounds

284 B. Zabiegała et al.

Sea water

River water

Aqueous/ sediment pore water

Water

Water

SPMDs

SPMDs

SPMDs

C18 Empore disks

MESCO

Monitoring objective

Information obtained

15 PAHs

PBDE congeners

Organotin compounds (MBT, DBT, TBT)

The resulting patterns and total Equilibrium PBDE levels were investigated concentration and compared between sample (ng g−1 lipid) for biota and SPMD types and sites, providing an samples overview of environmental levels and profiles of PBDE in Western Canada

To assess the applicability of Concentration passive sampling for organotin (ng L−1) compounds in seawater and comparison of levels in SPMDs and seawater.

UV filters (BP-3, 4MBC, Investigation on the occurrence of Concentration EHMC, OC) UV filter compounds in water (ng L−1) from various Swiss lakes, comparison with methyl triclosan data.

Target compounds

Examination the enrichment Equilibrium techniques and the analytical concentration methodologies used in isolation, (ng per SPMD) characterization and quantification of investigated PAHs in different matrices. Exposure tank, laboratory Hydrophobic Characterization of the effect of Amounts of analytes micropollutants (PAHs, temperature and hydrodynamics accumulated organochlorine on kinetic and thermodynamic (ng per disk) pesticides) data characterizing the exchange of analytes between the sampler and water in order to calibrate the passive sampler for the measurement of TWA concentrations of non-polar organic compounds. Bitterfeld, Saxony-Anhalt, Ger- POPs Exchange kinetics of chemicals Concentrations many between water and MESCO (ng L−1) were studied at different flow rates of water, in order to characterize the effect of variable environmental conditions on the sampler

Columbia Environmental Research Center (Columbia, MO, USA)

Fraser River, Western Canada

Oslofjord, southern Norway

Wastewater, Switzerland lake water, river water

SPMDs

Sampling site

Medium analyzed

Type of sampler

Table 2 (continued)

[87]

[86]

[85]

[84]

Ref.

It was found that desorption of [89] chemicals from MESCO into water is isotropic to absorption of the analytes on to the sampler under the same exposure conditions. This enables in-situ calibration of the uptake of pol-

Adsorption of test analytes from [88] water by the sampler is related to their desorption to water which enables in-situ calibration of the uptake of pollutants using offload kinetics of performance reference compounds; the sampling kinetics depend on temperature and flow velocity.

Data from passive sampling supported the presence of these UV filters in the lakes and the river and suggested some potential for accumulation of these compounds in biota. The results show that SPMDs do accumulate organotin compounds from the water phase. As the membranes are able to accumulate the organotins from the water it will be possible to detect lower concentrations than with direct analyses of water samples. No positive correlations were seen between PBDE and the cooccurring contaminants including individual sums of DDT and its metabolites. Because the uptake characteristics of SPMDs are well defined, these sampling devices can be used to estimate time-integrated averages of dissolved contaminants. SPMD technology has additional applications beyond determining contaminants in aqueous/sediment pore matrices.

Remarks and practical use of information obtained from the data Passive sampling as a tool for obtaining reliable analytical information in environmental quality monitoring 285

River water

Water

POCIS passive sampler

POCIS sampler

Velke Splavisko, Brno, Czech Republic

Guyancourt, France

North Sea Water

Water

SPMDs

Sampling site

Germany

Medium analyzed

MESCO with Water silicone elastomer as a membrane

Type of sampler

Table 2 (continued)

Cyanobacterial toxins

Herbicide

PAHs:

Polar pharmaceuticals

Target compounds

The general capability of a commercial passive sampler to accumulate microcystins was evaluated in a natural reservoir

Comparison of the polar organic chemical integrative sampler and SPE for estimating herbicide time-weighted average concentrations.

Comparison of passive sampling technique with biomonitors (mussels)

Investigation the microextraction of pharmaceuticals from water by use of a silicone rod (SR).

performance, and to identify a method for in-situ correction of the laboratory-derived calibration data.

Monitoring objective

Remarks and practical use of information obtained from the data

lutants using elimination kinetics of performance reference compounds and more accurate estimation of target analyte concentrations. Accumulation of all target Concentration compounds by silicone (mg L−1) elastomer. Investigations of SR pieces for use as passive samplers for time-integrative water monitoring by detailed analysis of the uptake and elimination kinetics of the pharmaceuticals in the SR combined with field trials. The in situ large-volume water Equilibrium sampling SPMDs technique is concentration useful for measuring higher (ng g−1 SPMDs) molecular weight PAHs in the (ng g−1 dry weight) water, but this technique is limited by high break-though of the low-molecular-weight compounds, for example naphthalenes. Particular attention should be given to controlling field contamination of SPMDs. The POCIS may be a really Concentration useful tool for detecting (μg L−1) episodic and short-term events which may be missed if classical and low-frequency grab sampling is used. The average amount A pilot experiment with the of total microcystins commercial sampler exposed to found in the microcystins under natural samplers equilibrium conditions revealed the amount (ng) suitability of POCIS samplers for accumulation of microcystins. The use of passive samplers in monitoring programs and surveillance studies offers a good capability to reflect seasonal, temporal and

Information obtained

[93]

[92]

[91]

[90]

Ref.

286 B. Zabiegała et al.

Medium analyzed

TrioleinSoil embedded cellulose acetate membrane (TECAM) SPMDs Mussels Coastal waters

(POM-55) Sediments, equilibrium water passive samplers consisting of 55 μm thin polyoxymethylene

Passive sampling Water disks

Type of sampler

Table 2 (continued) Monitoring objective

Naphthalene, phenanthrene, pyrene, benzo[a]pyrene

Chlorinated pesticides, PCBs

Hong Kong

POPs ( PAHs, PCB)

Concentration (pg L−1)

Equilibrium concentration (ng per disk)

Information obtained

Sampling the bioavailable Equilibrium fraction of hydrophobic organic concentration contaminants (HOCs) in soils to (μg per TECAM) predict their bioavailability and assess their risk to living organisms. The objective was comparison of Equilibrium the use of SPMDs and local concentration mussels as indicators of (ng g−1 lipid) chlorinated organic contaminants.

Studying the release of freely dissolved and thus bioavailable PAHs and PCBs

Lipophilic biotoxins Field studies to monitor in situ (azaspiracids, okadaic toxin dynamics during mixed acid analogues, algal blooms pectenotoxins, yessotoxins, spirolides)

Target compounds

Tianjin, northern China

Harbour of Oslo, Norway.

Flødevigen, Norway

Sampling site

Ref.

The mussels and the SPMDs [97] provide different information, however they should be used separately. The detection of such analytes by the SPMDs could provide further possibilities for identification of their presence in the water column and could lead to ecotoxicological investigation of the analytes. SPMDs may be

spatial variations in microcystin distribution without the need for expensive large-scale active samplings. Passive samplers could be used to monitor microcystin removal in drinking water treatment plants and the quality of the drinking water produced. Results obtained showed that [94] passive sampling disks correlate with the toxin profiles in shellfish. The passive sampling disks were convenient to use and, when combined with HPLC-MS or enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) analysis, provided detailed time-averaged information about the profile of lipophilic toxins in the water. Equilibrium passive sampling [95] Assessing PAH and PCB emissions from relocation of harbour sediments. The POM55 equilibrium passive samplers are here shown to be useful tools for measuring and understanding the dynamics involved in the release of dissolved contaminants during sediment relocation. These results demonstrate that [96] TECAM can be a useful tool for predicting the bioavailability of PAHs and other OCs in field contaminated soils.

Remarks and practical use of information obtained from the data Passive sampling as a tool for obtaining reliable analytical information in environmental quality monitoring 287

Sea water

Water

Novel passive sampling system

PIMS (passive integrative mercury sampler)

Perkin-Elmer sample tube with Tenax GR Perkin-Elmer sample tube with Carbopack B

Air quality monitoring Perkin-Elmer Ambient air sample tube with Tenax TA

Medium analyzed

Type of sampler

Table 2 (continued)

Vesprém, northwestern Hungary,

Columbia, Missouri, USA

Portsmouth Harbour, UK

Sampling site

BTEX

Hg

Polar biocides

Target compounds

Information obtained

Study on the reliability of TWA concentration diffusive sampling and the (ppm) applicability of its simplified uptake model; comparison with standard reference method. Calculated: ratios of masses; mass ratios as a function of exposure dose

Screening assessments of Hg Hg0 (ng), (μg) contamination and exposure in the environment, the laboratory, and the workplace.

Investigation of the accumulation Concentration rates of six organic pollutants; (ng mL−1) the physicochemical properties of the investigated analytes were studied

Monitoring objective

Ref.

Carbopack was found to be the [99] best adsorbent, the second was Tenax TA, the least good was Tenax GR. Diffusive sampling with Perkin-Elmer sample tube (with simplified uptake model) classified as a fairly reliable environmental monitoring method above a critical exposure dose.

valuable in providing an indication of potentially bioavaliable lipophilic pollutants. Determination of the [56] concentrations of the polar biocides illustrates the wide scope of new passive sampling device compared with earlier system and its adaptation for a wide range of applications. The method of choice for environmental monitoring mainly depends on the nature of pollutants and their expected concentrations. PIMS was effective for sampling [98] and preconcentration of Hg0 from water samples . PIMS approach may be particularly useful for applications requiring unattended sampling for extended periods of time at remote locations.

Remarks and practical use of information obtained from the data

288 B. Zabiegała et al.

50 sites around the world on all OCPs seven continents under the Global Atmospheric Passive

Ambient air

PUF passive sampler

VOCs

Minneapolis/St Paul metropolitan area, USA

VOCs

C6H6, C7H8

OVMs: Ambient air charcoal-based organic vapour monitors

Stockholm, Sweden

Paris, France

Ambient air

Radiello Perkin- Ambient air Elmer axial diffusive tubes filled with Carbotrap-B

Spruce needles as passive samplers Perkin-Elmer diffusive samplers with Tenax TA and Carbopack B

Waste flue gas Institute for Ecological PCDD/Fs, PCBs Chemistry, GSF-National Research Centre for Environment and Health, Germany

Target compounds

SPMDs

Sampling site

Medium analyzed

Type of sampler

Table 2 (continued) Information obtained

The purpose of the study was to Concentration test logistical issues and other (pg m−3) practical requirements for

A comparison of passive Concentration monitors and SS canisters for (μg m−3) VOCs measurements (part of a larger study of personal, indoor, and outdoor VOCs and particulate matter)

Comparing different monitoring Concentration and modelling techniques, (ppm, ppb) comparison with values from two different dispersion models. Revealing the spatial variability of traffic pollution within the streets and in relation to urban background levels.

Comparison of diffusive and Mass concentration active sampling for measuring (μg m−3) benzene and toluene; quantification of the accuracy and the agreement between passive and active sampling on the sorbent Tenax TA and an automatic BTX-instrument (GC-FID).

Simultaneous monitoring of Equilibrium pollutants with SPMDs and concentration fresh unpolluted spruce needles (pg per sample) and comparison of concentrations between them.

Monitoring objective

A high correlation was found between the concentrations measured using the two sorbents. Tenax TA is found to be equal to Carbopack B for measuring benzene and toluene in this concentration range, although it is not optimum for benzene. Systematically higher benzene levels are obtained by using diffusion samplers rather than the BTX monitor. For toluene the two methods seems to agree fairly well, especially for the urban background. The combination of monitoring and modelling techniques proposed in this study can be seen as a reliable and costeffective method for assessing air quality in urban microenvironments. These findings may have important implications in designing monitoring studies to support investigation of the health effects of traffic-related air pollution.. Differences between two methods seem to be independent of sites, seasons, and meteorological variables. Methods agreement depends also on concentration range. The result is that the two methods are in agreement only for some compounds, but not all. The results for the PUF disk show great promise for use of these samplers to assess POPs trends in

Triolein-containing SPMDs can absorb much more PCDD/Fs and PCBs than spruce needles when they were exposed in contaminated air at the same time. SPMDs and spruce needles can complement each other in passive air sampling.

Remarks and practical use of information obtained from the data

[104]

[103]

[102]

[101]

[100]

Ref.

Passive sampling as a tool for obtaining reliable analytical information in environmental quality monitoring 289

VOCs

SO2, O3, NH3

Target compounds

[106] Estimation of the Concentration Statistical analysis made for estimating effects of location, effects of (μg m−3) community and season on the location, concentrations of VOCs. community, Spatial (visible) and seasonal and season on (not significant) distributions the described. Comparison of concentration obtained data with of VOCs. Benchmarks for Acceptable Lifetime Cancer Risk—risk limits investigated (exceeded for some compounds, e.g. benzene). Radiello Ambient air, Athens, Greece C6H6 diffusive indoor air sampler

Minneapolis/St Paul, USA

OVM 3500 3 M Ambient air, Company indoor air

Sampling programme

Sampling site

Asia, Africa, South America, Europe

Medium analyzed

IVL passive Ambient air sampler (badgetype passive sampler)

Type of sampler

Table 2 (continued)

Evaluation of the Athens inhabitants’ exposure to benzene, (five occupational groups)

Measurement of exposure of healthy, non-smoking adults to VOCs and comparison of the results with indoor and outdoor concentrations.

Measurements of gaseous SO2, NH3, and O3 using passive sampler. The purpose of the project was to extend the capacity to monitor more pollutants in rural and urban air.

conducting a global sampling campaign.

Monitoring objective

Concentration (μg m−3)

Concentration (ppb)

Information obtained

Ref.

Exposure and home levels were [107] significantly affected by wind speeds, location, seasonal and climate variations. Exposure also depended on home levels,

the atmosphere on a global scale. Such data are useful for several purposes including: identifying emissions regions for POPs; investigating the occurrence and long-range transport of POPs at the local, regional and global scales; testing global transport models for POPs; and perhaps most importantly for investigating temporal changes in air concentrations of POPs. Results help to demonstrate that [105] diffusive samplers are ideal for measurements at remote sites, for checking transport models, screening studies, mapping concentrations in cities, siting of more advanced stations, personal monitoring, etc.

Remarks and practical use of information obtained from the data

290 B. Zabiegała et al.

Prepared air France mixtures of different concentrations

Radiello—radial diffusive sampler (different adsorbents)

VOCs

Stainless steel Ambient air tubes filled with adsorbents.

Michigan, USA

VOCs (TCE as a representative)

To compare active and passive sampling for thermal desorption techniques.

To test in the laboratory the performance of MLS “for obtaining detailed profiles of gas-phase VOCs in unsaturated sediments” in porous media; to test the accuracy of the obtained VOC profile inside a monitoring well—a site contaminated with chlorinated solvents.

Assessment of dependence of the sampler on concentration and exposure time

The objective of this paper was preliminary assessment of major air pollutants in a significant Chinese urban environment in order to infer source contributions and frequency distributions.

NO, SO2, BTX

BTEX

Monitoring objective

Target compounds

MLS: multilayer Interphases; Tel Aviv, Israel sampler gas-phase in the unsaturated zone, gasgroundwater

Suzhou, China

Ambient air

Analyst

Sampling site

Medium analyzed

Type of sampler

Table 2 (continued) Remarks and practical use of information obtained from the data

total time spent outdoors and means of transport—strong relationship between occupation and personal exposure revealed. Personal exposure was lower than environmental concentrations. Annual concentrations of benzene exceeded European Union guidelines’ limit. Seasonal variability found Statistical analysis revealed the Concentration major sources of some (μg m−3) pollutants (e.g. hot spots for benzene located in proximity to traffic) and correlation between emission sources and pollutants concentration. Seasonal variability and concentration dependence on meteorological conditions also described. For all the compounds, the Concentration increase of the concentration (μg m−3) involves a weak decrease of the sampling rates. Significant decrease of sampling rate with long-term exposure was observed for benzene. TCE concentrations obtained by Concentration the MLS deployed inside a well (mg L−1 - water), screen corresponded very well (mg L−1 - air) to the profile obtained by use of dialysis cells buried in the sediment. MLS found to be suitable for measuring with great detail VOCs in the saturated and unsaturated zones simultaneously in one borehole and was classified as an especially useful tool for exploring vapour transport behaviour during water table fluctuations and under the extremely variable water content conditions. Advantages of passive samplers Concentration stressed: simplicity, cost(mg m−3), (μg m−3) effectiveness, and possibility of

Information obtained

[111]

[110]

[109]

[108]

Ref.

Passive sampling as a tool for obtaining reliable analytical information in environmental quality monitoring 291

Air

Gabie type diffusive samplers

Ambient air, indoor air

PUF passive sampler Organic films Indoor air, used as timeambient air integrated passive samplers for gas-phase air concentrations

SPMDs

Perkin-Elmer Tenax TA Radiello diffusive samplers OVM 3500 3 M Company SPMDs Ambient air, sea-air boundary layer

Medium analyzed

Type of sampler

Table 2 (continued) Target compounds

Toronto, Ontario, Canada,

Toronto, Canada

Western Wadden Sea, Netherlands

PBDEs

POPs

PCBs, HCB

The atmosphere produced VOCs in a pollutant controlled atmosphere generation system,

Sampling site

Concentration (ppb)

Information obtained

Ref.

measuring unknown concentrations or concentrations in a large range by use of a few passive samplers. 3 M 3500 and Gabie types of [112] diffusive samplers can be the most appropriate diffusive sampling technique for longterm exposure and for lightest organic compounds.

Remarks and practical use of information obtained from the data

The organic carbon reservoir in window films as a timeintegrated passive sampler for SOCs and PBDEs

Amount (ng m−2) recalculated to equilibrium concentration (pg m−3)

To assess spatial variability/ [115] distribution of PBDEs within the urban core. Possibility of using organic films as convenient passive samplers of ambient air and estimation of gas-phase air concentrations assuming that compounds in film and the gas-phase in air are at equilibrium. Confirmation that organic films on windows can be used as a simple tool to

Assessment the state of Ratio of amounts Appropriate tool for studying the [113] equilibrium of PCBs and HCB adsorbed by SPMDs state of contaminant between seawater and the exposed in the SSM equilibrium between various atmosphere; to obtain and deeper water water masses and between information about the layers and in the atmosphere and water toxicological relevance of the atmosphere and the SSM from the standpoint of water column physicochemical distribution processes Samplers can be used to study [114] The accumulation of persistent Concentrations transport and exchange processes organic pollutants was (pg m−3) of POPs in the environment. investigated.

Testing and comparison of four diffusive samplers

Monitoring objective

292 B. Zabiegała et al.

Ambient air

Radiello diffusive samplers

Leipzig, Germany

Ambient air

Indoor air, ambient air

Charcoal-based passive diffusion monitors

PUF passive sampler

Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.

Glasgow, UK

Ioannina, Greece,

Pamplona, Northern Spain

Sampling site

Molecular sieve Gas in soil cartridges

Perkin-Elmer stainless steel tubes filled with Tenax TA Passive sampling Ambient air tubes

Medium analyzed

Type of sampler

Table 2 (continued) Information obtained

The main aims of the study Mean concentrations were to explore possible spatial (μg m−3) differences in the concentrations of the targeted pollutants and, at the same time, to try to identify emission sources. The temporal distribution of pollution levels and its relation to meteorological conditions were also considered.

Monitoring objective

Ref.

[120]

[119]

[118]

[117]

assess atmospheric concentrations of SOCs such as PBDEs The results demonstrate that unique [116] sampling point measurements can sometimes not be adequate for the representation of larger urban areas or for exposure assessment. Therefore, careful consideration must be given to how representative these single measurements are in large areas, when estimating urban air pollution.

Remarks and practical use of information obtained from the data

To examine the contribution of Mean concentrations Methodology was proposed for estimation of the effect of petrol stations to ambient (μg m−3) petrol stations on benzene benzene concentrations and concentrations in their attempts to estimate possible surroundings; estimation of the health risks for the people living possible cancer risk for the in the vicinity of such inhabitants. installations. The objective of this study was Radiocarbon Te results showed that the CO2 to develop a method to sample concentration of molecular sieve traps a passively the CO2 released by respired CO2 from a sufficiently large and soil in the field, allowing it to be soil. representative sample of CO2 for C isotope analysis. Passive recovered later in the laboratory sampling of soil respiration using for measurement of the stable molecular sieve offers a reliable and radiocarbon concentration. method to collecting soilrespired CO2 for 14C analysis. Suitability of passive sampling Microbial volatile organic The objective of this paper was Concentrations of compounds (MVOC) to explore which MVOCs are MVOCs in (μg m−3) on to charcoal adsorbents for analysis of MVOCs. Application emitted by mould quantifiable using passive in epidemiological studies with a cultures diffusion monitors under large number of participants. laboratory conditions of mould growth and in mould-exposed dwellings. PAHs, PCBs Estrogenic and aryl hydrocarbon Sampler based Assessment of the estrogenicity receptor activity were assessed equivalent of passive air samples indicates for samples collected from each concentrations that indoor air may potentially location. (ng per PUF), be a source of estrogenic equivalent activity. Exposure to indoor air accumulation rates in office buildings is a more (pg per PUF significant source of these per day) potential effects than indoor suburban homes. C6H6

NO2, BTEX, monoaromatic compounds

Target compounds

Passive sampling as a tool for obtaining reliable analytical information in environmental quality monitoring 293

Concentration (μg m−3) Description of the spatial and seasonal variability of indoor and outdoor BTEX; exposure assessments. VOCs (BTEX) Erfurt, Hamburg, Germany Passive sampling Indoor air, badges type ambient air OVM 3500

To investigate short-term spatial Amount (pg/sample) variability of POPs. POPs ( PCBs, PBDEs, PCNs, PAHs, selected pesticides, lindane, HCB) 38 sites across 19 European countries Polymer-coated glass passive air sampler (POGs)

Ambient air

Concentration (ng m−3) PAHs, PCBs, OCPs Ambient air PUF passive sampler

methods used for quantification, are some of the important factors required for proper data interpretation. As a consequence, an analyst who is involved in passive sampling monitoring has a very difficult task—estimation of the quality of the studied environment on the basis of a few samples. And so determination of the strategy of proper sample collection seems to be of the highest importance if results are to represent real environment conditions and final conclusion and data interpretation are to be correct. Passive devices are now being considered as part of an emerging strategy for monitoring a wide spectrum of priority pollutants in any environment compartment. The present generation of passive samplers enables analysis of the environmental concentration of organic and inorganic pollutants not only on the local scale but also on continental and global scales. An increasing number of papers describing passive sampling technology, published in recent years, have shown new applications and methodological improvements in the use of passive sampling in environmental analysis. These improvements are based on: & & &

Toronto, Canada

To assess urban-rural trends for POPs and PAHs.

Remarks and practical use of information obtained from the data Information obtained Monitoring objective Target compounds Sampling site Medium analyzed Type of sampler

Table 2 (continued)

Passive samplers were used to [121] show large diversity in spatial and temporal trends for several POPs classes over a relatively short transect. POGs can be used to investigate [122] source-sink relationships. This study showed the sensitivity of the POGs and illustrated how applicable the technique is for spatial mapping. Seasonal and spatial variation in [123] BTEX concentrations was found.

B. Zabiegała et al. Ref.

294

modification of passive sampler design to improve uptake rate; studies on new compounds accumulated by passive samplers (novel applications of passive sampling); and comparative studies with active methods for air sampling and with grab sampling for liquid/solid media.

We strongly believe that the search for new applications for passive samplers/passive sampling and improvement of existing procedures will continue in the immediate future.

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