peacebuilding in the muslim world

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Jan 27, 2011 - Justice:Gacaca Courts inPost-Genocide Rwanda" in My Neighbor, My Enemy: Justice and community in the Aftermath of Mass Atrocity, ed.
PEACEBUILDING

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PEACEBUILDING IN THE MUSLIM WORLD -

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hi trip to Egypt and Kuwait in February 2011, British Prime Minister David arneron stated, "Freedom and democracy are the best way to bring peace and prosperity I the Middle East." He further argued that democracy often goes hand in hand wlrh open markets and insisted that "instead of trying to impose democracy or pick ympathettc leaders for Middle Eastern states ... the West should support the full range of free institutions, including an independent judiciary. a free press. and open markets," While in Cairo. responding to his critics about the potential of the Muslim Brotherhood coming into power. Cameron also suggested that "the Egyptian uprising suggested a desire for Western-style freedoms. not for Islamic extremism" and tared: "what is so refreshing about what's been happening is that this is not an Islamist revolt, this is not extremists on the streets; this is people who want to have the sort of basic freedoms that we take for granted in the UK.'" The Muslim Brotherhood's Mohammed Morsi was announced to be the new president of Egypt following the June 2011 elections, putting a question mark on Cameron's observations and analysis of the slluation. DURINO

Prime Minister Cameron's discourse during his trip is an example of what Oliver Richmond calls "the conlemporary liberal peacebuilding project:" Liberal peacebuilding has been part of many peacebuiJding initiatives in various Muslim countries suchas 80 nia and Herzegovina. Iraq. Afghanistan. and Libya, to name a few. The liberal peace approach is not limited to Muslim contexts. however. As Richmond notes. "it has been deployed in somelhing like fifty to sixty post-conflict and fragile states'" since Ihe 1990S. A1th ugh it has made significant contributions to peacebuilding, development, and human rights practices and has set important standards. this chapter argues that the liberaJ peace approach failed to bring about the promised peace and stability and failedto resp~nd ~onstructively to many conflicts around the world. including ethno-religious confllcls 111 Muslim communities. In Iraq and Afghanistan. for instance. peacebuilding eErorl.sfail.ed t~ bring even basic security. while security in Pakistan is decreasing rapidly. The 1Iuatlon 111 Darfur has not improved. Even in Bosnia and Herzegovina, communities are more divided than ever.

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. onlyon Muslim contexts, this chapter argues that one reason for the failure of I\lCUS~g eaceframework has been its secular. rational problem-solving approach that '·libeta p ~ ewsreligionas an ..instigator 0 f con fliic t or or !Ignores .It a Itogetth er b ecause religious t beaddressed from the empirical and positivist perspective they favor.' It offers is'''' canno . .tical examinationof liberal peace. approaches that inform peacebuilding efforts and ,(11 to expandthem 10 include a justpeace perspective, which. recognizing the comrI"x>"'sin whichreligio-cultural traditions play both constructive and destructive roles in iousconflicts, is better suited to respond to conflicts in the Muslim world. re C •• '_

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LIBERAL PEACE IN MUSLIM .....................................................

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. d N·anons (UN) European Union (EU), International institutions such as the Unite t urvr, . dand S the . di b t r ited to the Unite tales. World Bank,as wellas various governments mclu 109 ut no 1m eacebuilding efforts in United Kingdom,Germany, Canada. and France are leadlOg the p eacebuilding approach ""'yMuslim contexts.' Rooted in the liberal peace tradlt.on, the. r p . d I _ .. . en's rights promoung eve op rmphasizesdemocratization. seculanzatlon, advanemg worn. . . M' I· countries and f 1 eacebUJidlOg 10 us 1m men\andopening up markels as keys to success uP. I.· t ention tools in . t· t naUonal po ICy 10 erv elsewhere. Assuch, they have become Importan 10 er I actors in war-affected dieaftermath ofthe Cold War.' Although the involvement of ex:ter~~entions have increased oommunities and politics is certainly not new. peaceb"uildlOg mte the United ations (UN) ,,!Iillysince the 1990S.Daniel Philpott observes that smce 1988, d fr ency'" L.. •• I f nary number an equ . '.. undertaken peacebuilding operatIOns 10 revo u 10 . ul d b former UN ild· g was artlc ate y Theconceptual definition of peace b u 10 < P " published in 1992. · ''An Agenda ,or eace, G Ii ""ral-SecretaryBoutros Boutros-Gha m ..fy d support structures .. "tions to Identl an In this document,he defined peacebuildmg as ac .d relapse into conJlicL"'o ,....h ·11 d lidify ace in order to avOl . "lit WI tend to strengthen an so pe .. eacebuilding in differmg Boutros·Ghali further identified the UN's role as aS5lsnng P

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th e ins - t'lutions and infrastructures of nations torn by civil warand I _ con ex ". _ d f mutual benefit between nations formerly at war; and addresSingthe strife- building bon sOd - I - _. d ll _ • f II" t ch as economic espair, sOCIa injustice, an po tical oppresd epest causes 0 con ic su fd __ e ifi all focused on the process sion Paragraph 81 spec c Y _ _.0 emocratization, the promotion of d h t ction of vulnerable minorrties, humannghts.an t e prore hi h inf - J a b rr- no t es , the hegemonic liberal .'peace. w c mrcrms modern-day peaceAs Vivienne as progress,erom_ buiJdingefforts.lsa- diISti10'ctly modern idea associated with concepts such . d -I t "The liberal peace approach puts forth a particular underslanding cipatton, an CIVl socte y. . ... _.J s market economic policies, vibrant cIVIl society, human rights, the h of peace t at pnvl ege . . nocracy as preconditions for a peaceful society, This understandingof d rule 0 f Iaw, an d el . I. _. - th e philosophical • epistemological,.. and methodo ogleal tradllionsofthe peace -IS roote d In . nllg- hId ten men an tl'e Western experience and bnngs a particular , ',. set of eonfbet " resolution d tools that are mainly top-down and elIte-led mstltutlOn·buildmg strateassumptions an, ,'. J2' , . - th case -InIraq '('" Afghanistan and Bosma and Herzegovina_ Liberal peacebuildmg gICS, as IS e . "I . stralegies employ what Robert Cox caLIs problem-solvmg approaches. ) which takeexistIng so inl and political institutions as starting points for analysis and aim to find solutionsto the problems arising from these starting poi.nts.14 These approaches ~ffe~ economic, social, and political "solutions" and support reforms that promote democratlzatlOn, human rights, and market economies, and other liberal institutions. John Heathershaw also supportsthis view when he argues that this understanding of peace "reflects a rationalist understanding f human affairs, one which embodies a problem-solving ethos and assumes a universal ethical frnmework."ls He adds that Hberal peace intervention strategies, such as "structural adjustment," "good governance;' and "civiJ society" are born out of these ethics.16Similarly, Eva Bertram defines UN peacebuilding in this way: since it is "designed to address thoroot cau cs f connict, it entails buiJding the poUtical conditions for a sustainable democratic peace. generally in countries long divided by social strife, rather than keeping or enforcing peace between hostile states and armed parties."'7 Many of the peacebuiJding intervention strategies used in the Muslim world reflect these values and principles of the liberal peace_ For instance. UNAMI. the Uniled Nations Assistance Mission for Iraq that was established in 2003, states that its mission mandate ·include advancing inclusive, political dialogue and national reconciliation, assistingin 'he electoral process and in the planning for a national census. facilitating regional dialogue between Iraq and its neighbors. and promoting the protection of human rights and judicial and legal reform_"" The US Agency for International Development's (USAlD) stralegyin Iraq for lOIO-20I2 prioritized the estabHshment of just, representative, and accountablegov· ernance; the integration of Iraq into the global economy; and contributing to regionalpeace and security.'9 Again, the USAID mission in Afghanistan aims to "ensure economic growth led by the private sector. establish a democratic and capable state governed by the ruleor law, and provide basic services for its people."20 The United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMAl. on the other hand. is focused on leading and coordinatingthe international civilian efforts with a particular focus on National Priority Programs,cooperating. with NATOIISAF for transition, reconciliation, elections, regional cooperation, human rights, and humanitarian assistance.21 t

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Although their goals are worthy and important. these peacebuilding efforts havefailed to bring the promised peace and prosperity to these countries_ For example. peacebuild109 efforts have not led to peace and security in Iraq or Afghanistan_ Despite nationaland

IN Tli E MUSLIM WOR.LO

parliamentary el IOn n l!lulional t: ~3J relorm and th tern,ethnie and sect.ana.n \'. lence a well as t '. e emergence of a m I _ • _L. erronsm a . U ti-partv s Afgharustan,peaCf;VUaJdin on have faUed t . re InCreaSingin Iraq" S- _I ys. b th 0 prOVide se . . ImL arly In trary, In 0 contu n II\'~ rt'actions to fcret cunty Ordemocracy 0 h • - al __aT' reign tnterventi fli . n t e cononmternatIOn u,.u.andudanglnttrnationaI·d One Ortsaregrowing A L. . killed ar Workers are'. . ttacks are being • or ludn ppcd.'l tmon Re-Id H ,mcreasIng; more aid we ._. - enry argue th rr..c:rs primarilybecause an ()Unln from udan to P ki s at these attacks have grow . . a istan, Chad and P n and humanitarian • II n ar seen as eve ' apua New Guinea aid . r mare Complic't lth ., ' Westernliberal a ndA" I WI state m.illtariesand the One reason f, r lh f lIur f the liberal peace fram kh ewor as been· t . , war,problem- h'10 rrr h. wtu h ignores relig-Io ult I . I S universalistic, sec· , . -e ura traditions peacebUlldlllg. Th hbC'f- I C' tradition assumes pe t b' as a resource for ace 0 e universal and "att· bl 'f lhecorrect methoeln crtedly and c nslstenlly applied b I h _ ama" h b r yap et Oraof different actors workingon t e u n rn-d pea e building consensus and C h, LOCusmgon t e reglmes slruclure • and In UlUllu r qutrrd at multiple levels of analysis and . uI _ I _ • In m IIp e lssue areas byliberal governan Iht ppru h determines what peace means, how peace can and shouldbe attained. J Whd n be on ide red agents of peace. Such a perspective reduces the social w rid lot n t). oPPO ilions and simplistic patterns of cause and effect: war/ peace.good/bad. II .. 1'1111 I,
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makingtradition fl commuOl.lies. 1-. I-tl·escan be referred to a f1 t 'n Mus 101 commun Many of the p nl~d can lC s I . . les and worldviews play an I -c values pnnClp , dl hi "ethno-religious c nO. ~ were s ami '. th. and national objectives, an 1 'li izing certaIJ1 e me M I' important role in de min r rtle '. egl m . . flicts in other contexts, us 101 .." thno-rehglOus con . f the or mobilizing the papuJalion Imuar to e esent a significant portion 0 clergy and religioLU 10 Ulullon 10 lhese c~ntexts re%e as lenses through which his~ory hs and Images se .. iew nOI1SCIC!R yt community, and n:l1g. w. te I . m , ., Ilk the Islamic tradltIOn, v . d \I R I' . us traditions. e ded in their saW: and events are interpret ed . e. IglO . titian and revelation recor r. viewed aJ . ch as dreams or 10 U . ams are Qlten tiflcways of knowmg uRI- us leaders, such as 1m ' ts accordingly, -ledge e IglO . terpret lex f k texts as valid oure no\\ 'h the truth is and how to In ler noles that the legitimate authonli 10 rl"'OClalm , ... ~s_sacred histories.}1. ~ober: L~~~lSand myths, for Religious truths arc con\."e}-ed 10 myt led only in its aSSOCiated Y ttempts to expre5S ' nt is revea . h een and a ( f an e..e "religious significance d prehends what It as s . usness expresses moS il is only through th lhat lhe min aythp that the symboliC conscdloedin sacred texts sucn 0f ill ths , reCOr its meaning"J.l and • 11 I beans m "3-4 These trU , , of the cosmos. completely its unde";l ndmg

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as the Bible, the Torah, or the Qur'an, provide a degree of certainty to I" re IglOUS na . These truths are then communicated and realized through religious rituals wh' rratlVes. the faithful to their spiritual sources and provide models for action. ' ich connea By denying legitimacy to alternative worldviews, epistemologies and . . . • practices building interventions often inflict what Polly O. Walker calls "Olltologl'cal . I ' peace· VlO ence"35 S h an attitude colonizes and silences alternative conceptions of peace and way th . uc s rough whi h this peace can be attained, imposing what Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak refers to as h " c ternie violence of imperiaJism,"36 where the "colonized disappears from the' t e eps. view Or are onl brought forth through the actions of the colonizer,"? Iabri agrees with Edward Said h .r "epistemic violence is enabled by the positivist social science that denies complexi t atthiS .. Its epls . t emo I'ogle al r ul e- b 00.k")' S uch deni . atttru . d es generate resentmtya space m emgrating . ~~ trust, and hostiiIity. Culture as an exotic and distant other, resisting modernity and posing a threat to . diiscourse .In peace b u ildi109 e ffiorts, especially in Muslim Ct. peace, h as b een an Important on exts, Since the horrific attacks of September 11, 2001, violence in the so-called "Islamic world' haJ been a major concern, and Samuel Huntington's thesis of "the clash of civilizations" hasbeen revisited."? Certainly representations in the media and elsewhere often reinforce a bleak icture of Muslim societies. that are either victimized or vilified, Islam. today. is associated:ith violence rather than. peace, ev~n though it is rich with values and practices that encourage tolerance, peacemaking, and dialogue. Islam and Muslims are the "ultimate other'" andterrorism is defined and explained as Isla.mic.4l As Karen Armstrong has observed, Islamhas become a "foil against which we [the West] could measure Our achievements;'43 an existential threat to "civilized us" and to the possibility of creating the conditions of a "perpetual peace:'44 As such. Muslims become "the irrational other: all that we are not" or are pigeonholed into the categories of radical vs. moderate Muslims, or bad vs. good Muslims.41Th!s "Culture Talk" holds t.hat "every culture has a tangible essence that defines it, and it expla!ns politics as a consequence of that essence:'46 For instance. in 2003, Bernard Lewis arguedthat "the confrontation with a force that defines itself as Islam has given a new relevance-indeed, urgency-to the theme of the 'clash of civilizations.m" Conseque)1tly, developing effective intervention approaches to build peace in the Muslim world has become a priority in the so-called West. Shallfbanou Tadjbakhsh notes that peacebuilding efforts in Afghanistan have reinforced the dichotomies of liberal. altruist. and benevolent external actors, mostly Western countries. in the role of liberators on the one hand, and Afghans caricatured as non-liberal, non-Western "others" steeped in a conservative culture in need of engineering, on the other. " She adds: The more the regime ofTaliban was constructed as being dangerous and illiberal, the more,by implication, as in colonial situations. the population was painted as primitive, unknowingof its basic rights, and needy of international interventions to restore conditions for securityand rights-based institutions, This type of binary seeped through initial assumptions about whose peace and which peace were being built in Afghanistan.49 Soumaya Ghannuchi argues that such attitudes reproduce the orientalist discourse thai contrasts the irrational. barbaric, and violent Muslims with Western interveners (suchas American mediators), the benign outsiders who are rational, civilized. and peace-loving. without examining the historical. social. and political dimensions of the realities on the 5o ground. Today. global economic structures and international norms and values that reflect

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are seen as modern

neocolonial policies. and it is not uncommon . . . Pakistan, and Iraq refer to peacebuilding interto h~ar thas neocolonial or neo-irnperialist strategies that aim to subjugate Muslim societ\'entlOns. . g off their religious culture and identity," This perception is intensified when . by stnppm les.. Ileaders such as Tony Blair and George Bush emphasize the need to distinguish ca pohtl " ood" and "bad" Muslims." According to Mamdani, such a discourse implies that between g • 'ghanistan Palestine, or Pakistan, Islam must be quarantined and the devil .whether III .t\.l: '. • " " 'sed from it by a Civil war between good Muslims and bad 53 The repust be excrci . . Muslims. . m ion of Islam as a religion in need of reform and efforts to mnunuze the role of Islam resentall h . d th rea t 0 ft en Iea d s t0 , li contexts present a treat to Is Iarrucic id I enuty. ThiIS perceive In MU~irn sand reification of an idealized and essentialized self that is built upon selective defensiVenes, , . ...., th tradition. When the threat IS directed at religious Identity, reaction also takes elements 0f e . " , and at times fundamentalist religious discourse.w on a ra d·1Calized I

.. dear Western ose in cOWltries like Afghamstan,

CivilSociety and Peacebuilding Although the liberal peace tradition often privileges the role of official actors, such as individual governments or intergovernmental organizations: i~addressing conflicts through -t k diplomatic efforts including mediation, negotiation, and good offices, the erefi t rsracof a self-sustaining civil peace through local ownership an d partiCipatIOn lcloaticn has ation as b eco~e . portant concern.55 Additionally, the international community has come to recogmze ~Im h . .. the important roles nonstate and unofficial organization.s (such ~s. c anty orga~lzatloI1s~ faith-based groups. humanitarian agencies, and human nghts actiVistS) can play III peace 'Id' e"orts 56The emergence of these non-state and unofficial actors is closely related bullngil I" nd to Kantian liberal peace theory, which privileges an agency-led, emanclpator.r po ItlCSa . focuseson the public sphere. citizen participation, and the individual's capacity to assert differencewithin a wider set of social relations.57 Kant states that for parties to possess agency forpeace, "they must exist in what [he] refers to as a 'legal civil state; for oilly such ~ state can . provide the guarantee agall1st the state of nature. W h'ICh a Iways con stitules a threat. ,8 W,thll1 thisframework, the possibility of peace is associated with the emergence of legal frameworks · kin g hwnanity, in a universal terram susthat supersede the sovereignty of states. t h ere b y I111 i



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tained beyond a merely moral set of obligations59 and a civil SOCiety, , . iI society . . a k ey component of the transformation From a liberal peace perspective. CIV IS " . b y VIOence. I t 0 a "legal civil state ,.characterfrom a state of nature-which is charactenzed ' cy d izedby peace human rights a liberal economy. an d emocra , as it assumes that Civilsociety • • 60 S· 't·· ated in eighteenth-century processes will impact political decision-makers. 1I1ceI ongm bl' h th t d t ferto the pu ICsp fere a Western Europe the term civil society has often b een use 0 re isseparate from 'the state and protected by law. In contras t t 0 th e "barbariC" state 0 nature.d . where emotions prevail. civil society alms to create a peace f u I society based .on reason f W tan ' .' d rtical evolution 0 es .ern a SOCial contract.61 Closely tied to the SOCIal. economiC. an po 1 , . ·th h uJ of law democratization. Europe and the United States. it is often assOCiated WI t ere . '.. bot.h . li sm, thr can human rights. and political and economic hbera . Dugh which cillzens 'f ' h where relations 0 power are uphold and resist the state. As such, it is one of the mall sp eres tiated and discourses are Workedout, relations between the individual and the state are nego , d " "1 ciety" . 1ar h'Istonca . I backgroun , CIVI so constantly articulated. Deriving from this partlcu

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today refers to grassroots. democratized politics, and ways in which citizen . scan tnfluen and participate in the process of governance. Th e emergence of civil society' ft ' ce IS 0 en VIew d as the first step toward democratization and the protection of human rights Th e "W ' I' k d the: ' tenee of civil society ill non- estern contexts IS In e to err attitudes towardUS,the"is, de . zation human rights, and individualism, and linked with the civilizing Or de mocrah, • 62 mocratJzalion mission of the West. Especially since the end of the Cold War" NGOs have become important actors in address. ing international conflicts. Pointing to the Important role NGOs played in facUitatin ' 'M ozam biIque, 6J Oliver Richmond obs gaCOn· nection between glo b a1 an d ci ClY il society in . . erves t hat "it has often been suggested that NGOs can fulfill VItal roles that states and their ' . agencies caooot:'64 These organizations may provide humanitarian relief and assistance afte r a catastrophic event, or facilitate post-conflicr reconstruction through legal, educational, politic~, and medical assistance to cornmumnes. They may attempt to avert conflicts or bringconfliet_ ing parties together through mediation, problem-solving workshops, and so on, Theyrna help local communities build their capacity by bringing in resources that may not be avail. able locally (such as funds, technology, etc.). They may offer training and know·howregard. ing conflict management and resolution skills such as negotiation and consensus-building. Because civil society is considered the sine qua non ofa peaceful society, many post-conflict reconstruction and peacebuilding initiatives in non-Western contexts exert significant effort to develop a civil society and look for like-minded, Western-oriented organizations andindividuals with whom to cooperate, Without taking note of the spatio-ternporal situatednessof the modern notion of civil society. they seem to expect NGOs in non- Western contextsto resemble Western ones in structures, attitudes, work towards human rights, democracy,and liberalism, and familiarity with specific grant-writing strategies or evaluation methods," This expectation contributes to grave misunderstandings between Muslim and non-Muslim actors of peace, as many of the former operate within a religio-cultural context that issignificantly different from the ones in which Western actors operate." Furthermore, because Western organizations often fail to understand local customs and traditions, as well as power relations, their intervention efforts can be perceived to threaten existing power structures and local customs; therefore, they may provoke hostility among local authorities and in the community itself. In some cases, such as in Iraq, Afghanistan, and Pakistan, these Western organizations are perceived to be agents of the West and a threat to traditional ways of life. Especially within the context of military intervention and peacebuilding processes, such as in Iraq, international NGOs are often viewed with grave susptdon." Pakistan is a case in point. The current madrasa system in Pakistan, which places a strong emphasis on spiritual studies, purification of the belief system, and the rejection of imperialism and its values, was a direct response to the form of Western education that was introduced by the British during the colonial period.' Considering the local people uncivilized and "backward;' the British initiated a civilizing mission through the transformation ofvanous institutions, including the educationaJ institutions, which were forced to change. DU~lI1g 'd" • missIOnary c hurches were also encouraged to convert as many Ioca Isas pOSSIble; th'ISperlO . educational institutions such as missionary schools played an important role in thIS process. Western-based inst.itutions that aim to introduce modern scientific subjects to refo~m 'P a k'Istan are still associated with this period, and thus h ave b een Perceivedwllh rna d rasas 10 grave suspicion and hostility.69

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" ortant to recognize that the relationship between state and society in each com.,. . evolves as a result of ItSown unique CIrcumstances. Derived from particular religious ",uOlty ' istics tth at rna kee iIt d i-f d cultural contexts, M us I'IIl1 communi ttlres diISPIay uOlque c h aracrensttcs an It for observers unfamiliar with Muslim societies and peacemaking traditions to identify ficu (forts and local agents of peace. Many Muslim societies have traditional structures peacee . '1 structures. Some of these traditional " are different from European or Amencan socia thatctures may emphasize tribal, religious, or ethnic identities; may be based on hierarchical str~al divisions rooted in their religio-cultural systems; and may be perceived by outsiders soobstruct effective peacebuilding efforts and contribute in many ways to the continuation of conflicts. Although there are an increasing number ofNGOs in Muslim regions similar to the ones in the West, oftentimes agents of peace are individuals-their peacebuilding work , med in that identity-that is, as individuals, they are engaged in charity or humanitarIsassu ian efforts. They are local leaders or imams, working from their mosques or homes, doing the work of intervening in conflicts, not only between local people but also between communities. Such actors are doing extremely constructive and critical work in their communities under very difficult conditions and not without success. Working effectively with theseactors would contribute to overcoming many of the misunderstandings between these communities and outsiders and would definitely strengthen their capacity as peacemakers. Unfamiliarity with these situations, on the other hand, may deepen misunderstandings and miscommunication that can be unproductive, even destructive, in the long run. It ISImp

JUSTPEACE

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IN MUSLIM CONTEXTS .............................................................................................. Peacebuilding initiatives in Muslim contexts must take into consideration the reiigio-cultural context, which provides a set of values, worldviews, rituals. and role model~, because for peace to be sustainable, peace initiatives must be broadly supporte~ by ~he SOCI· ety in general. These initiatives must be sensitive to the particular needs and historical, cultural, and religious backgrounds of these societies. Peacebuilding strategies and approa~hes must empower local community members and address the social, economic, psychol~g~c.al, and environmental needs of the parties as the parties themselves define thel~l. The~einitia, Ivate aa feeling feelinz 0 of owners hi'P ra th er t h an an trn [rnposition . This requires livesmust also cultivate . . COI1met resolution interventions and peacebuilding initiatives to be perceived as legltlm~te ,by the society. Therefore they must take into consideration local sources of iegitimacy,7° indigenous knowledge, and traditions." b " of justpeace realizes .zes that The perspective at flor peace building to be sustainable, . it must e , ,'I' Rooted m the conconsldered legitimate, acceptable, and meanmgful by the communi res, d , , , h kn I d 'both socially constructed an structlVlst tradition, justpeace recogmzes t at ow e ge IS . ..d , , , ' t d through the actions of mdivi . mtersubJectiveTz and that violent confhct IS co-construe e . ' ,, I t 73 This view holds that conflICts uaIS situated in their own unique religlO-cultura contex s. , , 'f t which in turn can conmvolve the construction of meaning and lI1terpretatlon 0 even s, . h 'b ill 74 W'thin its own hlstory, eae tn ute to either escalation or de-escalation of the con ct. I . d h 'h "t should be attamed, all W 0 community develops its own definition of what peace lSI ow I

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should declare it. Finally, justpeace recognizes that even within a single commun' Ity,based on a common religio-c ul tur aI tra ditnon, th ere are diff irrerent narratives regardin " th ,. I gpeace, The justpeace approa ch d oes not d isrmss e cnttca contributions of lib I , b UIildsS on approaches. 00 the contrary, It on iIts streng th s and complements themI bera peace , 0f vi 1 yempha. sizing the reduction VIOence an ddt es ruc t'rve con fli c t w hil e .Ulcreasing just!Ice, mutual respect and understanding. Furthermore, justpeace recognizes that working effie ti I ' . . . . c IveYWith communities who have different sources of legitimacy, worldviews, linguistic canst ., . I . forms of social organtzanon, myt h s, hiIS tonca narratives, an d power relations mcls, ' . ... requires understanding them and developing strategies that incorporate them and empo I . . Mr~ agents of peace. The Justpeace approach promotes human rights, economic prosperity, d g governance, and equality as well as en:ironmental sustain ability, but does not offera :_ ticular form or method that can be applied to all contexts. On the contrary, it emphasizes the importance of ownership of the process and promotes a tailored approach to peacebuildin by engaging in a creative, participatory process of articulating an approach that respondsto the unique needs and historical, cultural, and political context of each community, Rather than viewing communities as victims who are unable to understand and respond to theconflict they have experienced constructively, it aims to create an opportunity for communities to engage with their own tradition in a reflective manner. Iustpeace aims to do thatby working towards establishing just social, economic, political, and cultural institutions to address the needs of the members of the community through a creative, bottom-up, and participatory process that involves various local and international actors. This approach is basedon the premise that "people are the best resources for building and sustaining peace and [it] aims to strengthen community capacities to resolve disputes peacefully; to develop trust, safety, and social cohesion within and between communities; and to promote inter-ethnic and inter-group dialogue."! Consequently, it engages credible actors, members of the grassroots, policymakers, and key decision-makers in order not only to reduce violence butalso to build institutions, policies, and relationships locally and globally, As such, it servesas a mirror through which it reflects the best of each tradition to address their conflicts and establish sustainable peacebuilding. The justpeace perspective recognizes the complex relationship between religio-cultural traditions, violence, and peacemaking. Religious texts, images, symbols, and myths areoften used and abused to evoke various emotions such as heroism, chivalry, bravery, vengeance, and violence, perpetuating a culture of violence." It also recognizes that religious traditions can bring moral, social, and spiritual resources to peacebuilding and inspire a sense of engagement and commitment to the process." Religious rituals (e.g., cleansing ceremo· nies) and values and principles (forgiveness, patience, mercy, accountability, or predestination, etc.), can facilitate healing and trauma management. Religious texts and prophetic stories can provide examples of peacemaking, forgiveness, and compassion that can leadloa change of attitudes and behaviors and encourage interacting or even making peace withthe " ot h er... R ecogmzmg . . their constructive potential, justpeace creates space lor C reli'glOusactors and traditions to playa critical role in peacebuilding and transforming deadly conflict byan ethos of tolerance and nonviolence. David Little and R. Scott Appleby describe thIS process as religious peacebuilding." In this process, faith-based actors such as religious leaders, individuals, groupS, aod orga· nizations that are motivated by their faith engage in activities that aim to find a lasting solu· . h . . 'I' Ii RelIgiOUS tlOn to t e conflict, repaIr and build relationships, and encourage reconCl la on.

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nd institutions often have a reputation for integrity and service through constant leaders a t with people." As middle-range leaders, who have access to both high-level leadercontac . . IIy "Ieng-term p Iayers who live and belong . d the grassroots. re I'IglOus actors are typica Shipan . I d i II' "'oTh the communities mvo ve In con ICt. ey 0ft en Ilave a Iong record of charitable work to d a rivileged status that gives them authority and legitimacy, They can legitimately interan the traditions sacred texts from a new perspective to highlight values such as justice, C ~. acceptance of accounta bili"ty, compassion, an d 'rorgiveness. Th ey can also set a moral mercy, . . . . s peacemakers through their interactions With, sermons about, or attitudes toward exampIe a . theadversanes.

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Agents of Peace in an Islamic Context

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Muslim communities are replete with historical and contemporary examples of men and women, inspired by their faith, working to bring peace and justice to their societies. Qamar-ul Huda observes that "real initiatives in Islamic peacebuilding are occurring in all Muslim communities, every day and throughout the world, from Muslim minorities in the West to majority Muslim societies in Africa, the Middle East, and South and Southeast Asia."81 As he notes, these initiatives include high-ranking scholars, such as muftis and grand ayatollahs;regional and local-level politicians; imams; te~c8hers;qadis; lawyers;.:"omen; and others. One such example is the late Delma Ibrahim Abdi, ' founder of the WaW Peace and Development Committee (WPDC). Inspired by her faith, Islam, Delma Ibrahim played a criticalpeacebuilding role in her community. She and a group of women, frustrated by constantviolence, arms smuggling, refugee migration, kidnappings, and mistrust among clans, founded WPDC in 1993. Soon after, the Wajir Peace Group was established with the main objective of restoring peace by involving all stakeholders. WPDC evolved into a network of . ' ty f twenty-seven governmental and nongovernmental organizations representlll.g a var.le ~ stakeholders including businesswomen, elders, and religious leaders, operating mainly m theWajir District of Northwestern Kenya.84 WPDC employs a variety of approaches, such as interfaith dialogue, forming early warning teams, and engaging all stakeholders in the peace process, and they have been quite successful in reducing and preventing violence. WPDC utilizes traditiol1~l SOJl~a.hconflict resolution tools, such as religious and traditional laws rooted in the Islamic tradltt~n ..Local religiousleaders and elders who are well respected in their community and have slglll.ficant moral and spiritual legitimacy and leverage, play an important role during these c.onflict , . d"t 1 identlty as a resolution processes. Dek.ha Ibrahim expressed that her reI19lOUS an spm ua 85 Muslim formed a strong foundation for her peace work. ln particular, Islam informed her ., . . h ft C d t Qur'anic teachings to underVISionof how peace IS to be achieved, and seD en reLerre 0 standwhat is necessary for bringing about a sincere and durable peace. "She also enco~raged individuals and communities affected by conflict to critically analyze themselves uSing the verses from the Qur'an, which she stated would enable them to build their conflict transformalion on a religious and spiritual base~86 Imam Ashafa, a Muslim preacher who, together Muslim-Christian Dialogue and Interfaith Mediation

. d d th with Pastor Wuye, foun e e f Center in the Kaduna region °d · . . . k ., Th nter aims to mediate an NIgena, IS another example of an effective peacema er. e ce II ., I d nd the government as we as encourage dialogue among youth, women, reltgious ea ers, a

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to promote diversity, dialogue, and tolerance, Inspired by Is Iarruc " pnnc] I ---tolerance, Imam Ashafa has been propagating values and virt f reli p es of peaceand ' in hi ues a rehglous h peace ful coexistence in IS commumty. In his work, he utilize I I' arrnonYand d i th Q' dh' ssamICvaluesad' roote in e uran an t e Prophets example as positive tool f ' n prmeiples ial i li h I' d s Or pursumg th soci Justice. equa Ity, ea mg, an peace for humanity. e causeof In yet another example, five of the most influential leaders fA h , , a ce, Indone' , the heads of the Provincial Office of National Education ' the P rovincial " , Off Sla-mcluding Ii Affairs, the " Consultative Council of the Ulema of Aceh ,na d th e rectors ofceth OrReligious A State Institute for Islamic Studies and Syiah Kuala Untver ity -mltlated , " , the P e r-Raniry , Program to promote Islamic peacemaking and to elevate i d! eace Education , fli 88 Th n rgenous mechanism f 109 can ICtS, e manuals developed for this program incl d d Q " 5 Orsolv. heti di . u e uramcverse d P enc tra. inon..,as well as Acehnese proverbs ,0According t A soa H'usm Qu > • san proprophetic tradition Included in the beginning of every rn,0 d uJ e gave an ',rame uisol . versesor whole text, a starting point for further discussion • and rneani , piration .. amng to Issues in ( d dforthe . module, while Acehnese proverbs from the local indigenous cult die u e in the lidate the i " ure an anguage W d to va 1 ate the Issue ' , under discussion, to increase a sense of owners hiIp, and also toereuse I' t h e ,AceIh nese .religious and cultural heritage amidst cultural con testati estations amo reeIarm I nationa •and International spheres.89 ng oca J

to these local ctIn addition hid . .... Iniriatives of peacemaking by loc a It'ac ors, Muslim statesand aI ors ave. e various imnanves at international < levels • 90 Fa r J.nS lnst ance, In ' 2010 Pakist . mam rahtr ul-Q, adri, the leader of Minhaj-ul-Quran International a gl b 1M'" am th ' 'd h h ' 0 a uSlmgroup at ISsal to ave undreds of thousands of followers issued a s'lx-hu d d f 'fi 1I ' , , ' n re -page atwaspe, CI ca y to enact a firm prohibition against terrorism, which bans suicide bombing without pretexts, or exceptions?' Also, all heads of state from th e 0 rganJza 't' IOn0f I I any . excuses, C . S amrc ,ooperatlOn (OIC) issued the Mecca Al-Mukarramah Declaration in Derembe 2005, which stated, "the Islamic civilization is an integral part of human civilization, base~ o~ the Ideals of dialogue, moderation, justice, righteousness, and tolerance as noble human v ues tha~ counteract bigotry, isolationism, tyranny, and exclusivisrn:'91 Additionally,the Salam.. InstItute for Peace and Just' Ice, b ase d' In W as h'mgtoo, DC, has been providing research, conflict resolutIOn and dialog u e t raIning, '" ' " dialogue and curriculum llltra- an d mter-falth development , con illct transformation . ' co m b'1I1111g approaches with Islamic ' values and prinCIples ' ,m vanous ' . .of peacebuilding as well as 'd' 111 Igenous tra di llOos Muslim countries includmg Niger, Chad, Sudan, Jordan, Iraq, and Iran'" the type of mechanism used to As these cases indicate' ) 111eac h M us I'1m community resolve conflicts often d epen d s on Ioca I C,actors, the nature ' of the dispute, and the sperme cu Itural context . It is qUI't e common ClOr a community to have a variety of formal and 'mformal ' arbitration, consultatIon, ' med'1. mechanisms and pract" ces t 0 reso Ive con fl"lcts mcluding atlOn, and reconcillaI'oI n. Th ese mec h'anlsms often incorporate Islamic and local collUraI values of peace and c oexls't ence an d re.flect the requirements of the unique social, hlston' ' cal, and political cant ex t an d ellItura I tradltlOns ' , of each community. For example, the most favored. mechanism in ACIgh amstan, ' , partICularly in rural areas, is the community or tn'baI council of elders (kn own as t h e prga .. or shura)'" In the context of the Middle East,S. lh aor musalaha, ' -, . a ritualized process 0 f restorative" Justice and peacemaking, is often the pfCierrtu mechamsm to respo n d t 0 community' conflicts.9S However as their associated vocabuIary . . indIcates ' '" • all. th ese d''''' lllerent mechamsms are rooted in the Qur'anic notion of sulh (reconclhatlOn/peacebu'ld'1 mg. ) Th ey d eflve ' their inspiration from and base their practices ' on the

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sameIslamic sources, namely the Qur'an, the Hadith (sayings of the Prophet), and the Surma (the practices of the prophet),

IslamicPrinciples of Peace As Huda stresses, effective and lasting peacebuilding strategies and conflict resolution practicesin Muslim communities should be constructed within an Islamic framework'" because Islamplays an important role in social and political life, and religion is one of the key components of people's identity both as a cultural framework and as a religious creed, In these societies. Islamic discourse becomes an Important source of legitimacy upon which notions oftruth, justice, and peace are built. Legitimacy in many Muslim societies can be characterizedas being based on what Weber calls subjective sources-mostly an ambiguous mixture of religion and custom.97 In these societies, Islamic tradition derives its legitimacy in virtue ofthe sanctity of its roughly l,400-year-old rules and customs derived from the Holy Book, theQuian, Holy texts, such as the Qur'an, Hadith, and the Surma, contain sacred truths that form the basis for Islamic ethics and inform the actions of believers. Islamic rules and customs call for obedience to the persons who occupy a position of authority according to the Islamictradition. Therefore, peacebuilding strategies must acknowledge Qur'anic evidence, other religious texts and narratives, the fields of jurisprudence, philosophy, and theology, 98 and essential foundational doctrines, creeds, beliefs, and practices ofIslam. However, it is important to note that Islamic culture is not a "'thing' that can be reified into one objective or dimension";99 nor is it shared uniformly among all Muslims, Culture is alwaysin the making, constantly evolving and changing with the expeeiences of the society, Cultural difference incorporates self·articulation and representation, both of which are situated in relation to a wider constitutive context of symbolic orders, social norms, and institutional continuities, Thus, it is located within the relations of power. "The symbolic orders and frameworks of meaning that confer identity to an individual or community are continuallyproduced in social interaction, at one and the same time both drawing all established practices recalled through traces of memory and deep-rooted interactions as well as reenact· ing the situatedness of the individual self'''' As Homi Bhabha has argued, understanding the political significance of cultural difference does not emerge from the attribution of characteristics deriving from static points of origin, but is rather dependent upon the practices wherein cultural difference comes into force, where such difference is articulated in intersubjective settings.101 Moreover, there is more than one culture and various subcultures within each community,"By linking cultures to individuals and emphasizing the number and diversity of social and experiential settings that individuals encounter," Kevin Avruch "expands the scope of reference of culture to encompass not just quasi- or pseudo-kinship groupings (tribes, ethnic group, and nation are the usual ones), but also groupings that derive from profession, OCcupation,class, religion, or region,"101 This definition recognizes "culture is always psychologicallyand socially distributed in a group:'''' Vivienne Jabri goes further to emphasize that it is also important to recognize the individ· ual'scapacity for moral choice and action. She argues that "the self situated within the con~inuitiesof social life is also recursively implicated in the reproduction of its discursive and mstitutional norms:'1041ndividual reflexivity and interpretive capacity impact the way each

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person relates to these institutional and discursive norms . As a res uIt, every' di . --to, and interacts diiferently with his or her culture within specifi c hiIstoncal , UI IVIdualreacts . in ti . discursive contexts, lOS Thus, although religio-cultural traditions im .ms ltutlOnal,and 'f 0 peace, an d perspectives on how to resolve confli ~~=st I'd'entity, notions ructionor ily determine individual behavior, cts, they do not necessar. As the religion of more than 1.7 billion people around the w Id ' diff li " uI al or v Islam mclud irrerent nguisnc, c tur .and ethnic groups. Reflecting thi sill' esmany ithi ' , I versny, Islam i Ii c and static, but includes multiple understandings of what I I' , s not mono· , " s am IS, What It a M us Irm, what Islam IS, who IS a Muslim, and who has the auth 'ty d meanstobe ", on to efinewh M ' IS, are highly contested Issues among Muslims Islam as ad' th , ' ' , ' ynamlc eology' 0 ah ushm and m turn shapes LtShistorical, social, cultural, and political t ,IS S apedby , ' , con ext, It mcludes di practices and interpretations reflecting the particular histori I 'I ', iverse , I'" rear, SOCIa, politicaj a d nomic eva utron of each group. Islam, like every other religious t di , .an eco. ' , ' ra rtion, IS thep d f the synthesis of ideas ,ebeliefs and th concrete lived ,ro ex eri uct0 b oth ItS. hentage-Itself . the ' "106 P Ienceof .. earlier Muslims and the way that heritage is interpreted b y every generation I . discourse contains what Iabri calls "a complex array of memo yth " s amrc If ' ry, m , symbolic order d se -Imagery a1"'" Itchan san , d [that] come to constitute the life-world of the situated indiIVIid uar. over time ue to external and internal factors. Islamic discourse' I' ges .der soci IS a ways situated withina WI er societal realm constituted by a religio-cultural context and instit tl I ddi , . . U rona an IScurSlve h b structures t .at oth constrall1 what Islam and Muslim mean and at th e same time ' enabledirc ' systems t hat areshaped bJerent ..narratIves. to emerge. Contextual factors go through me amng y rehglO-cultural ~ons.tructions and institutional and discursive structures that enablethe emergence of multiple rnterpretations that claim to hold the Islamic Truth .,,' Eacotese h fh . narrat~ves emer.ges at the nexus of events and texts. Although events are shaped by some set of Ideas, behefs, and rules embodied in ritual, symbols, or speech, they also transform these same cultural objects and social structures.I09 Each narrative de-historicizes various textual elements , . and takes them as th e fix e,d I'd entlc. aI • and self-sufficient origins of mean· mg, upon which a particular interpretation of the sacred texts and an "Islamic Truth»are constructed. 110 ill th' . . and subjectiVIty .. . also play an hnportant role in indio , , ISprocess, creatIVIty ~d~~l moral chOIces and actions. Not recognizing this would be "an un reflexive namingof ~divlduals that denies them their space, their subjectivity. their creativity."11l Particular relatIonsofpower also rooted \vl'th'mere th I"19tO-CU Itural tra d"ItlOns and the SOCial " and histoncal ' " 1l2 context, lOfluence which of these narratives becomes hegemonic. ,Contemporary peacebuilding activities in the Muslim world reflect this unity and dlversl~. For example, conflict resolution practices among the Pashtun communHiesof Afgharustan and Pakistan are often combined with the local tradition called Pa,htunwali."1 Among Somali communities, Islamic tradition is often used in combination with traditional Somali cultural values and the xeer tradition of conflict resolution.H' Shnilarly, ,u/ha prac· tIces In the Middle East reflect local traditions and history, Although Muslim peacebuilding actors in different regions respond to the unique needs ofthmcom ' ' 'I . mum 't' les an d a Iso are mfluenced by their local cultural traditions and hlstonca expenences, they all operate within an Islamic discourse that both constrains and enables ~elr definiti~ns of peace, how to achieve it, and who can legitimately intervene in conflicts. Islam as a dIscourse refers to a body of thought and writing that is united by having a corn· mon object of study, a common methodology used by Islamic scholars and a set of corn' mon terms and ideas it incorporates which is lingUistically and culturally specific~'" IslamiC

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------------_=-:..::..::~:.:::.::.::~~ ' urse makes it possible for all Muslims who have been socialized under its authority dISCOeak and act together, 116' as Muslims across the world agree on the sources of Islamic w~ , ' teachings (i.e. the Qur an and the recorded saymgs and deeds of the Prophet Muhammad) nd basic tenets of Islam. This discourse constrains Muslim agents of peace by drawing the ~orders of what they can legitimately say or do in the name of Islam and enables the emerenceofvarious narratives. These sources and tenets create a unified community (umma) ~d provide Islamic approaches to peace with a common vocabulary, a set of values and rinciples. Many of these values promote reconciliation and peace among Muslims and ~etweenMuslims and non-Muslims, Some of these principles and values shared by Muslims includejustice, compassion, and mercy; social responsibility as God's agents on earth; belief in the original coostitution of human beings as good, created in the "best of molds" (Qur'an 95:4); the unity of God and all God's creation; diversity and multiplicity as God's blessing and divine plan; forgiveness; and love. They provide religious imagery and sacred myths stories that urge Muslims to establish divine harmony and can inspire people to change and act."?

Islamic Principles of Peace Irrespective of the Islamic tradition they adhere to, Muslims agree that Islam is a religion of peace and that the application of Islamic principles will bring justice, harmony, and order, therefore peace, liB The Islamic conception of peace begins with God, as As-Salam is one of the most beautiful names of God, Many references to peace (e,g" ,a/am, silm, su/h) in the Qur'an suggest that peace together with justice is the central theme in the Islamic discourse.119 The Islamic concept of peace is broader than a negative understanding of peace that is defined as the absence of war, oppression, and tyranny. Similar to the justpeace perspective, peace is viewed in Islam as a process in which human beings strive to establish foundations for interacting with each other-and with nature-in harmony and to institute just social, 120 economic, and political structures where they can flourish and fulfill their potential. It also implies a positive state of safety or security, which includes being at peace with oneself, one'sfellow human beings, nature, and God.l2l This definition of peace requires a condition of both internal and external order and encompasses both individual and social spheres, as "the individual must be endowed with the necessary qualities to make peace an enduring reality,not only in the public sphere but also in the private domain:'122 Peace in Islam is not passivity: "it is being fully active against the menaces of evil, destruction, and turmoil, which may come from within or without;'123 as God constantly calls believers to the "abode of peace" (Qur'an 10:25) and to strive to establish harmony, justice, and peace on earth. As Tawakkol Karman, the Nobel Peace Prize Laureate for 2011, noted in 4 her lecture, the Qur'an urges, "0 ye who believe, enterye into peace, one and all."12 Therefore, in their struggle to establish conditions for durable peace, Muslims are urged to take into conSideration key Islamic values and principles. The principle of Tawhid (unity of God) asks Muslhns to actively pursue unity and har· mony to maintain the balance established by God, while the principle offitrah (the original constitution of human beings, which is good) reminds Muslhns that irrespective of gender, religion, race, and so on, all human beings are created in the image of God, therefore they are all sacred, As such, the idea of fitrah becomes a safeguard against dehumanizing

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"the other." Closely tied to the idea ofjitrah is khilafah (stewardsh' lp Or VIcegeren . ) underscores the Islamic understanding of social responsibility and remm. d saliM cyI', which they are responsible for the order on earth as they are God's represe n t atlVes ' (Qu ' us ImsIhat 33'72). Accordingly, Muslims should contribute to bringing aU cre t ran ")0 and .. . . . a ures underth equilibnum and harmony and live In peace with creation .l2S Con sequen tly whil e Sway of the principle of Tawhid Islam asks Muslims to respect pluralism add' : ue throUgh . . ,. n tversity and IJ f solidarity among humanity, the pnnciples of jitrah and khilafah invite M 11 ca S Or the universality, dignity, and sacredness of humanity and call for s ocia 'I us ms 10 recognize empowe doing good. rmem and Islam .reCOgQniz~sthadt without justice (Al-Ad/) it is not possible to have durable p Accor 109 iscourse, Justice IS the key to establishing h armony and Sustaineace, d to UI arne ' . hI peace among Go d s creation, because the Qur'anic conception of pea a e iust d . fi bli h d ,,< ce cannot be attained un Iess a JUs or er IS rst esta IS e , lor peace is predicated upon th il bil; 'h d .. c eava a tyofequal ng ts an opportunities lor all to realize their goals and potentials':" I I " . .. . samKJ~~t~ seend, s any consideration of gender, religion) race or creed It is th ibili ." e responsi Ihtyofall Mus toward the esrablishmenr of justice for all ' including SOcia . I an d economic .. Inns to work , justice (Qur an 4:135;57:Z5; 5:8; Z:178;2:30; 16:90). This notion of justice extends to both men and women, Muslim and non-Muslim, and cannot be achieved without an ac t'ive, socially , itvTh C ••• engage d commuruty ererore, this principle asks Muslims to pursue justi I' t: ' This ori ce, equa Ity,and rairness. IS principle., was invoked in the preamble of the Women's Isla mlC ' In" , ,In ... ttiative Spirituality and Equality (W ISE), which stated, "justice, fairness, and equality are coreval of Islam,"!" ues Afu (forgiveness) is another critical principle of Islamic peacebuilding, As an actof goodness (,hsan) and the basis for reconciliation, Islam urges believers to forgivethose who have wronged them to re-establish harmony. Forgiveness is closely related to the Islamic values of rahmah (compassion) and rahim (mercy). These twin values remind belIevers that a true Muslim must be merciful and compassionate to all human beings, Irrespective of their ethnicity. religion. or gender. and that they cannot be insensitive to the suffering of other beings. For instance, these values have played an important role In the work of Thai peacemaker Soraya Jamjuree to create harmonious and peaceful relations between Buddhists and Muslims in South Thailand.'" Thus torture, will, fully harming another human being, contradicts Islamic commands. Principles of 'Ju, rahman, and rallim often inspire Muslims to transform their relationships and rehumanize the "other." These principles also call for reconciliation and healing of broken relationships. Love (hubb and muwadda) is another key principle of Islamic peacebuilding as it playsa crucial role in transforming violent conflicts. Love comes from God and is often associated with peace, mercy, and forgiveness and is a sign to be reflected upon (Qur'an )0:21). islam recoglllzes that transforming enmity into love is a sign of the mercy of God and emphaSIzes the importance of transforming hostile relations into love and friendship. The IslamiC conception of love has often encouraged Muslims in their work for peace and justice,For mstance, Sheiklla Cemalnur Sargut of Turkey summarized the Islamic perspective of peace rooted in divine love in this way: We s~ould be in a state to forgive and love others, then Allah will not be leaving us alone and

he will shower his choicest blessings on us ...

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Let us unite and let us be the one committed to spread the message of Allah: of his love. compassion, peace and tranquility to humanity at large which is now reeling under hatred, 129

violence and wickedness.

Finally,sabr (patience). which is seen as the antidote to violence, is another central tenet of Islamicpeace. The Qur'an often asks believers to be patient when faced with conflict and violence. However, the Islamic principle of patience should not be equated with inaction, as the Qur'an does not ask Muslims to stay idle and accept injustice. On the contrary, it asks Muslims to work hard and strive to ensure justice for all through active, creative nonviolent methods that would restore harmony among God's creation. In this process, justice, compassion. mercy. and forgiveness should be central to the way Muslims deal with our current problems and conflicts. Nonviolent Muslim ieaders like Ghaffar Khan of India in the 1940S and jawdat Said of Syria today have argued that sabr is the antithesis of violence from an IslamiC view.I)O Based on these principles. the Islamic understanding of peace. with its strong emphasis on justice. is quite similar to the justpeace perspective and can be defined as a process in which human beings can establish foundations for interacting with each other and with nature in harmony. instituting just socioeconomic structures where human beings can flourish and fulfilitheir potential. Consequently, tyranny, discrimination, and oppression that perpetuate injustice toward any group in the Muslim society are viewed as being among the greatest threatsto peace and harmony.

Features of Muslim Peacebuilding Actors Muslim peacebuilding actors often employ these Islamic values and principles of peace in combination with other local traditions and practices. and not without success. Although they share some similarities, many Muslim peacebuilding actors differ from Western-based peacebuilding organizations.13] First, Islam is often inseparable from other aspects of life. With the exception of a few countries like Turkey. in most Muslim societies it is very difficult to separate the religious from the nonreligious. Even in those cases, religious discourse is interwoven into various assumptions about conflict and peace, and it influences the interactions between actors as a cultural/discursive framework. Peacebuilding activities are no exception. Peace work in many Islamic discursive contexts is seen as a duty of re-establishing God'sharmony between people; thus. it is a religious duty. As such, peacebuiJding activities and initiatives are not viewed as a separate job, but as a social and religious responsibility of the individual, part of one's life and leadership role. Because peacebuilding activities are viewed as part of the social and religious responsibility of religious leaders, and because most of the time, the local imam or sheikh or other religious leaders and elders undertake peacebuilding activities in their personal capacity, quite often they do not feel the need to indicate or emphasize the role ofIslam in their work, but take it for granted. Thus, they do not explic2 itlyrefer to their organization or work as specifically "Muslim" or "Islamic."'3 Second, agents of peace in the Muslim world draw on Islamic values, social relations. and rituals. which are critical to legitimize their efforts.l3J The Qur'an often discourages con· flicl, warns against its detrimental effects on the community, and urges MuslimS to resolve their disputes peacefully (49:9 and 8:46). There is a strong sense of community, solidarity

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of people, and a collaborative understanding of freedom that is embedd d i h e m t enol' umma, the community of Muslims. Integration of the urn rna and creati h 100 of . . ng armonyw·th. the community are called for by the principle of Tawhid, as has been discussed I In · communities, . . con flict .Therefore in many Mus 1un ct iIS seen as a negative phenomenon d . ' . estruchve of h social fabric and order; to protect the uruty of the social group, it must be avoid te . al r. .. d . ... I ed.Values and ntu s lOCUS on repamng an mamtammg social relationships· em h . ... ' P asize linka between people and group identity, collective responsibility for wrongdo.' ges mg, lace-savin restorative justice, and maintenance of social harmony; and call for reconcll, t· ~ . I ia ion, publt apology. forgiveness, and compensation, among other things.'> For example fl. C . .. '~Kt~ lution mechanisms such assulha In the Middle East,xeerin Somalia andjirga in Af h . . wrong d 010g . as an orrense a: bot b against . i diIVItd ual and the community· gth amstan VIew t hee 10 ' . ,. ,e~~ they Involve offenders and victims as well as the whole community in a partid t d. . ipa ory ialogue process to address the needs of the parties, restore a sense of justice, and re-establish order and harmony within the commumty. These processes stress the importance of restoring broken relationships and compensating victims. but do not go as far as ostracizin the offenders to a point where their integration into society is no longer possible.135 Thepr;cess aims to empower the victims of the conflict and the affected communities, while reaffirming collective values, minimizing retribution, and maximizing restoration of community harmony through a collective decision-making process.'J' Acceptance of responsibility, repentance (tawba), and offering apology and compensation rather than qisas (retribution) are encouraged by invoking unity, harmony, and Islamic principles such as forgiveness and reconciliation. Furthermore, Muslim peacebuilding actors heavily utilize Islamic rituals, rnythology, terminology, and stories stated in the Qur'an and Prophet's exampies as weiias historical examples to support their peacebuilding efforts and to rehumanize the"others." These Islamic principles have been an inspiration to many Muslim peacebuilding actors. Basing their work on Islamic texts and the Prophet's example enables Muslim peacebuilding actors to work more effectiveiy because Islam provides concepts,language, and terminology that are familiar and meaningful to Muslims. For instance, Soraya Jamjuree-the founder of Friends of Victimized Families and a lecturer at Prince Songklah University in Panani Province of South Thailand-derives a strong senseof responsibility from the Islamic principles of vicegerency and justice. She invokesIslamic principles of forgiveness, apology, and compassion to prevent militants from creating hate between Muslims and Buddhists.'" Similarly, Imam Ashafa says that Islamishis compass in life and states: You should take care of God's creation. When you destroy the animals or plants, whenyou pollute the environment, you do the same level of harm as you do to feUow human beings.My religion is about love for all creation.IJ8 A group of leading Islamic scholars from Afghanistan also has issued a declarationwhere they have identified the Islamic principle of peace and condemned violence and terronst anacks in the name of Islam. '39 Based on Qur'anic verses and the prophet's example,th. d ocument states th at the best mode of)·ihad-struggIe d . nonviolent for the sake 0f GO-IS , . efSe5 struggie. In order to support their position, these religious scholars refer to Quramc v , . d the Prophets an d v al ues 0f patience. justice, and compassion, among others, and raw on examples of resoiving conflicts peacefuity.

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Th'rd,peacemaking practices in Muslim contexts are rarely undertaken by stable instituI h as NGOs. Rather, they are often ad hoc and informal, initiated by religious lead1IOns sUC h . . ch as sheikhs or imams, W 0 intervene either upon the request of one of the parties or ers. su resoluti .. hei wn initiative. Indi genous con flic t reso u IOn mee hani arnsms sue h as su lh a an d Jlrga ontelro based on the formation of an ad-hoc delegation to intervene in conflict, mostly upon are est of one of the parties. Peacemakers in Islamic contexts are often cultural insiders therequ whoseefforts are accepted because they have a better understanding of the way the communitymembers malee sense of the world and the way they think. Peace .work is regarded a collectiveresponsibility, and those who know Islamic history and tradition-elders and ~ligiousleaders, such as zaumas in Lebanon. mohtars in Turkey, as well as imams and qadis in other places-are often perceived as natural peacemakers. They are expected to possess a deepknowledge of the conflict and of local customs. Their wisdom gives them the necessar ualiiications and authority to set the procedures and establish ground rules of mediatio~.ispeciallY in Muslim Arab families, mediators should possess such qualities as high status,kinship ties, previous experience, honor, and authonty.'e? In Somalia, as well as in At hanistan, mediators are often a jury of elders in the community who know the customa glaw in addition to the Islamic law.':" In addition to being trustworthy, these elders have knowledge of the parties and the history of the conflict, which is important because they area first step in understanding and resolving the conflict. Peacemakers are also expected to have the ability to articulate the situation well, to use the right rhetoric, idioms, stories, and references to the past.':" Because peacemakers are traditionally chosen for these characteristics, it is not common in Muslim communities to establish separate and enduring institutionsthat are devoted only to peace work. Much of the peacebuilding work, such as education, advocacy. observation, and so on, takes place at mosques through sermons, at religious educational sites such as rnadrasas, and at informal gatherings or other ~eetings. Even though with the impact of Western groups and missionary churches, MuslIm communities are now more familiar with NGOs, they are still not very common. Recently established Western-inspired peacebuilding organizations often lack regular staff, ~~sources,~d infrastructure. They are rarely familiar with budgeting systems or grant-wrItmg practices .

expected by Western funders or other organizations. . . Although building consensus is an important element of decision~making 1.nconflIct resolution processes such as jirgas, xeer. or sulha, and community involvement IS encour~ aged,hierarchical and authoritarian procedures and structures are often accepted to ensure the protection of community interests and relationships. These peacemakers often have a highdegree of control over the process of local peacemaking efforts. 111 manyMusii": co~texts,the credibility and power of the peacemaleers are derived from the" sOClalrankmg s . . . religious. .ieaders have an opposed to education or profeSSIOnal tralOillg. As peop 1e 0 f'·th 13.1 • ' important role as peacemakers because of their religious and spirituallegttimacy and theIr . to warn those who have committe . d·crunes an d done wrong ..This view is supported authonty . by Imam Ashafa who states that because of his roie as a religious leader, his commumty .' . ' ., f fl· t'" The leverage of reHgious leaders turnslo him for guidance espeClaUy ill times 0 coniC. sternsfrom their close tribal, family, social, or sectarian linkages as well as th~ir.knowledge .. h I I t· ns and affiliations are not o r thecommunity and reUgio-cultural traditions. Sue c ose re a 10 . . it them to put enormous Viewedas a weakness but a strength: their close connectIOns a ow . t 144ln pashtun commUnipressureupon the disputants to setile and abide by th e agreemen . , . . . olunteer group to enlorce ties In Afghanistan and Pakistan. third parties may even raise a v

448

S. AYSE KADAYIFCI-ORELLANA

PEACEBUILDING

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the decision in some cases, which gives them enormous power in the proc Th' ess, 18 stat helps them persuade parties and reframe conflict in ways that are acceptable to the a Us and the communities. p rtie In addition,

peace work in Muslim

communities

is often combined

with d

organizations

extend

their efforts to include

and pursuing

justice. a~d reconciliation.

activities such as peac;build~

Peace work is o~~n s~en as an integral aspect~~

their other work, Religious and local leaders who ,are familiar WIth the physical, emotional, and spiritual needs of the commumry are often VIewed as more effective and legitimatein providing the necessary assistance. F~r t.hese reasons, there is less need to establish separate institutions devoted solely to peacebuilding. Cultural differences between Muslim peacebuilding actors and their Western Counter, parts often lead to misunderstandings between the two, Building working relationships with Muslim peace actors in these regions requires an understanding of these cultural communication differences. For example, Muslim communities tend to be high-context cultures.'v less individualistic and more community-oriented. They may be more emotionally expressive, prefer indirect communication styles, and display discomfort at saying no or refusing another person directly. Peacemaking processes in Muslim contexts recognize that conflicts can raise emotions such as anger, an urge to get revenge.or embarrassment. Spontaneous and emotional acts are considered part of conflict resolution, and parties are allowed to express their feelings and vent. Especially in the Middle East, individuals often engage in "heart-to-heart" conversations where interruptions with expressions of empathy and support are quite common.v" Interrupting others and talking together is not considered rude but an expression of concern, Although nega, tive emotions such as anger, hate, and fear are considered part of the human experience, they are seen as being harmful to group unity and harmony, and for that reason they must be transformed. For instance, Qur'anic verse 3:134149 associates repression of anger with doing good, Also, the Prophet is recorded to have said: "The strong is not the one who overcomes the people by his strength, but the strong is the one who controls himself whiJe in anger."ISO

I I I

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s and Limitations of Agents Strength of Peacein Islamic Contexts

I

," I' " h eve opmental and humanitarian assistance. Mus irn commumnes ave a long tradition of so . I ' . . Cia servIces community assistance, and charitable work. Many MusLun organizations. such as M h ' in Bosnia and Herzegovina.r" Kimse Yak MU146 in Turkey, and Islamic ReliefWoe~d~et operate as relief and humanitarian agencies, Still, in conflict-affected regions, man Of;de humanitarian

IN THE MUSLIM

Peacemaking traditions in Muslim communities often rely more on body languagethan words to avoid shame and to save face, which is criticaL They tend to concentrate on relatlo~' ships, make linkages between people and group identity, and emphasize collective responsl' bility for wrong, Because shame, honor, dignity, and reputation are the driving forcestoward uJtimate resolution, conflict resolution processes pay special attention to saving faceforall those involved, especially the offender, Conflict resolution mechanisms such asjirga, slIlha, and xeer pay special attention to protecting the honor and dignity of all parties, take mea, sures to avoid humiliating the parties further and look for ways to restore d'Igru'ty, honor, , and respect.ISI Managing the emotions of the parties as well as the commum 'cation between , . , tional reactions them IS the responsibility of the third parties; nevertheless, expressive emo ill' ' are perceived as a normal aspect of the process, In this context they c all Iior recone atlOn, d'ng pu bl'IC apology, and compensation, These stylistic differences may Iea d t0 m isunderstan I between the non-regional and Muslim actors,

h research in this area is lagging, emerging literature suggests that engaging local Althoug d values of peacemaking through a participatory process can Significantly tradItIOnsan. . . , t contnbute 0 peace building in the Muslum world, For example, some local peacebuilding , nons such as Cooperation for Peace and Unity (CPAUl and Sanayee Development organJ':.tion (SDO) in Afghanistan have successfully implemented local peacebuilding ini~r~al1lrooted in the local traditions.v" These initiatives were effective in increasing resolutlalives f I 'I di d " I t! t , uf con fliers: tion 1 , lowering levels 0 vic ence, 1I1C u mg omesnc VIOence; , crea mg grea er ity ohesion and resilience to external threats or events; expanding development commUIlI c , 'ty. and successfully reintegrating of returnees.w acnv; ,' ft have uni h II I' , Int hlsproc ess , Muslim peacebuilding actors 0 en ave unique strengt s as, we. as uru, It IS ' us uaJly the case that Muslim actors-such as Imam Ashafa of Nigeria, jawdat. tatiOns. . ' td fS ' Imam Tahir-ul-Qadri of Canada.t" and Grand-Mufti Mustafa Ceric of Bosma Sal 0 yna, , , .. because as relIgIOUSleaders an d Herzegov ina - are more effective than secular institutions "d whoknow the Islamic tradition, history of the conflict, and the parties, they have moral an , 'tnallegitimacy and are perceived to be even-handed and trustworthy, They are highly ~n h h'f respec te d ,an d their opinions are generally held in high regard wit in t elf communi res. th Theyknow the history and the traditions of the parties, and they also know the needs (bo h steal and emotional) of their communities. Thus, they are better eqUlppe~ to reach out p tthe peop Ie, m,obilize them and rehumanize the "other,".. They employ Islamic values suchk to asjustice for all, forgiveness, harmony, and human dignity to, motlv~t~ ~he people t~ w~r toward peace. As a result, they have been much more effective in mobilizing an~ m?tlvatmg their communities to change their behavior and attitudes than secular orgamzanons. ~or example,Tahir-ul-Qadri was able to gather tens of thousands of people to march nonvtolentlyagainst corruption in Pakistan in January 2013.155 . . The moral and spiritual authority of religious leaders-their reputatl~n as honest and even-handed people of God-also places them in a better position to mediate between con, Iso f con fl'ICtreso Iu f10n , such assuluh. . or musalaha flictingparties. Islamic practices and ntua . , COmmUl11tles "b (reconciliation), are important for Muslun ecau se they are famlhar With..these , d aut h entlc' an d Iegl'fII.nate Employing traditional localmechanisms; thus they are consldere . conflict resolution methods, Muslim actors have contributed significantly to altenng negative frames of mind' fighting the negative stereotypes of Muslim leaders through speeches , , . . d'Isarmament , demilitarization, an d sermons, and education; reducting Violence; promoting ." reintegration; and encouraging reconc il"latIOn an d' 10ter tal'th dialogne in places hke .Nlgena, h Lebanon, and Indonesia. For example, the H'" vvaJlr P eace an d Development Committee . as been successful in reducing violence by estalsbl' h'109 rapl"d response teams that . have mter· , , aI f into violent confliCts, They fpervened 10 disputes and prevented them from esc a 109 'I ' ' h ols and it has become part suaded the government to provide peace educatIOn In sc 0 , , fI h 0' t1e schoolcurriculum in the district.ls6 Also the peace shura of one peacemaker

In

A g anlstan,

Mohamed Suleman, is based on the Wajir model. '57 , 'th' de pool ' groups also have a broad commumty'b ase, W hich proVides them WI a dWI t the Mushm from which to draft committed and unwavenng' vo Iun teers. These volunteers can" evo e t , ". . necessary time to mediation, reconcIliatIOn, or peace e d uca tion as part of thel r service 0

450

S. AYSE KADAYIFCI-ORELLANA

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God. Muslim leaders have access to community members through mos ue . al iinstitutions, .. centers, an d ed ucanon sue h as Q'ur an sch ools, They are paq t s,communty f . ' . ich th ft roanuller tional Muslun network, whic t ey 0 en connect to for support. Consequentl na. the capacity to mobilize the community as well as national and international y,theyhave fOTlh peace process. Throug h t h elf. networ ki ng potentia,. I they can also help sp support d e . . . th rea peace work to wider communities. This allows em to reach out to larger numbers of,·nd· ld IV' uah th secular groups can, and to increase their effectiveness. Grand-Mufti Mustafa C . f an enco Boso' and Herzegovina, for instance, was able to elicit support from Islamic cornm .. , u . provided him with unltleS,"rhil woek iill peace an d recone iliati ration th ere. H·IS re I·· igious Jidentity ace those communities. Similarly, orc often aims to provide support to Muslim COm . ess to .. . '. mUOitiesm areas of peace and reconciliation, and It has been increasing allocation of resources tos _ port peacebuilding, development. and education initiatives in various Muslim contexts,l;P At the same time, peacebuilding actors in the Muslim world face enormous ch It . " " . a enges that hinder their work. For Instance, many Muslim societies have traditional structures that restrict effective peacebuilding efforts and contribute to the continuation of conflicts in many ways. Deep-rooted traditional customs and structures, which usually servethe interests of certain groups, become strong barriers for these actors, especially in traditional societies such as Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Sudan. Some of these traditional structures include hierarchical social structures and discrimination based on religious affiliationor gender. In some cases, these structures prevent women or youth from taking activeroles in peacebuilding efforts.'" Transforming these structures and challenging these customs are quite difficuJt and require resilience, perseverance, and courage. Still, operating within an Islamic discursive field by referring to various Qur'anic verses and historical examples, and with their moral authority and knowledge of sacred texts, Muslim peacebuilding actors can reinterpret religious texts and challenge these traditional structures. For example,inthe Wajir district, women were often excluded from public decision-making processes, asthese were reserved for male elders. The WPDC initiative, which was started bya group ofwomen, initially faced enormous challenges as a result. However, their commitment, their understanding of the cuJtural and religious context, and their incorporation of religious valuesand principles have helped them transform these structures, and eventually their role in public decision-making was solidified when a woman was invited to participate in the councilof elders for the first time.'60 Similarly, the Sixth Clan movement founded by Asha Hagi Elmi during the Somalipeace talks in Arta in 2000 is another example in which women's peacebuilding efforts havehelped them overcome traditional structures. Through empowerment, advocacy, awareness,and mobilization, Sixth Clan aimed to respond to conflict among tribes in Somalia and worked to include women's voices in the peace process.161 Their efforts enabled women to be invited to the negotiation table as equal partners in decision-making. In addition, their workhelped establish the Ministry for Gender and Family Affairs. Sixth Clan was able to securea 11 percent quota for women representatives in the Transitional Federal Parliament and ensurea 30 percent quota for women in district and regional councils, national commissions, ~nd local committees and conferences. The movement also introduced fair gender forma~g (he/she) in the charter language. Finally, Elmi becan1e the first woman to be represented ma . Somalia. Her success represents the achievements 0f Soma I·Ian womenduro peace process In . .IIlg th e t h·uteen years 0 f Civil . . war. Her achievements are partIe. ul ar I·y Imp res sive considermg the challenges women faced during this period.

PEACEBUILDING

IN THE MUSLIM

WORLD

451

. their work within the Islamic tradition was an important aspect of the Sixth Locating "The Political Economy of Peacebuilding: A Critical Theory Pe g con~ensus. PUgh, rspective lnte . Journal of Peace Studies 10, no. 2 (2005): 23, 24. Although ther e h as bee een a di"'allanal . on whether the Washington Consensus is "dead;' Pugh argues th . lSCUSSlon . link I" I at a revISedve . continues to I po itica economy and development to peace 0 he " f'SIOn . n t e death" fth Washington Consensus, see Simon Maxwell "The Washington Co . 0 e . h . " .' nsensus IS Dead! Lon LIve t e Meta-Narrative! 001 working Paper 243, January 2005' d S h g · Del ." . ' an antes Mehrot~ and E nTlque amoruca, The Private Sector and Privatization in S . IS' Consensus Dead!" OC1a ervlces' Isthe Was,hineton mgton Consensus ~ead? Global Social Policy 5, no. 2 (2005): '41-174. . 10. Boutros Boutros-Ghali, An Agenda for Peace: Preventive Diplomac P ki ..' y, eacema ng and P eace-Keepmg, UN .document A/47h77 (New York: United Nalio ns, 1992, ) para. 21. http: II www.gobapohcy.org/componentlcontent/article/226/3 I I 2313.html. 11. Vivienne [abri, War and the Transformation of Global Politics (New York: Pal rave Macmillan, 2007), 68. g 12. For thorough discussions of liberal peace, see Michael Doyle, "Three Pillars ofLiber I P " A . P/" IS a eace m~rtcan 01tlCQ cience Review 99. no. 3 (2005): 463-466; Edward Newman, Roland ParIS, and Oliver Richmond, eds., New Perspectives on Liberal Peacebuilding (Tokyo:United Nations Press, 2009); Oliver Richmond and Jason Frank, Liberal Peace Transitions:Between Statebuilding and Peacebuilding (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2010);Shahrbanou Tadjbakhsh, ed., Rethinking the Liberal Peace: External Models and Local Alternatives (Oxon: Routledge, 2011); Philpott and Powers eds. Strategies of Peace: Transforming Conflictin a VIOlent World (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010). p. 4. 13· Robert Cox, "Social Forces, States and World Orders: Beyond International Relations Theory," Millennium 10. no. 2 (1981): 128-129. 14· Steve Smith, "The Contested Concept of Security:' in Critical Security Studies and World Politics, ed. Ken Booth (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2005), 40-41. 15· John Heathershaw, "Unpacking the Liberal Peace: The Dividing and Mergingof Peacebuilding Discourses." Mil/enniwn 36, no. 3 (2008): 601. 16. Heathershaw, "Unpacking the Liberal Peace:' 597. 17· Eva Bertram, "Reinventing Governments: The Promises and Perils of United Nations Peace Building:' Journal of Conflict Resolution 39, no. 3 (1995): 388. 18. United Nations Assistance Mission for Iraq. http://unami.unmissions.orgiDefault.aspx?la bid=2832&language=en-US. 19· See USAID Iraq at http://iraq.usaid.gov/node/3. 20. See USAID Afghanistan at http://afghanistan.usald.gov/en/about/abouCusaid_afghanistan. 21. See UNAMA at http://unanla.wlmissions.orgiDefauJt.aspx?tabid=12255&language=en.US; See also Shahrbanou Tadjbakhs, "Liberal Peace and the Dialogue of the DeafinAfghamstan nou in Rethinking the Liberal Peace: External Models and Local Alternatives, ed. ShaMa Tadjbakhsh (Oxon: Routledge, 20n), 206-220. 22. See A. Slash and P. Tom, "Is Liberal Democracy Possible in Iraq?" in Tadjbakhsh, Rethillkillg the Liberal Peace, 194-205.

Simon Reid-Henry

IN THE MUSLIM

WORLD

455

writes

that lethal attacks on aid workers have grown from to more than 150 in 2008. See Reid-Henry. "Why Western Aid Workers Are Coming Under Threat," Guardian, May 27. 2011, http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/ poverty -matte rs/20 11/ may 1271 western-aid - workers- u n der -th rea t. eid-Henry, "Why Western Aid Workers Are Corning Under Threat:' '4· Rliver P. Richmond, The Transformation of Peace (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), O

1]. around thirty a year in the mid-1990S

.,.

183· See Mahmood Mamdani, Good Muslim, Bad Muslim: America, the Cold War, alld the Roots of Terror (New York: Pantheon, 2004). 27. Richmond, A Post-Liberal Peace, 46 28. Richmond, A Post-Liberal Peace, 50. 29. The "clash of civilizations" thesis is an example of this perspective. Religious discourses also present a challenge to the liberal peace thesis as they often involve different epistemologies, such as revelation. It can be argued that certain unique characteristics of religion make it extremely hard to operationalize or rationalize it from a positivist epistemological perspective. One such characteristic is that religious discourses rest on a "claim to Truth" defined in terms of the absolute, the complete, and the changeless and that does not need to be verified by logic or empirical evidence. See S. Ayse Kadayifci-Orellana, "Etbnn-Religious Conflicts: Exploring the Role of Religion in Conflict Resolution," in The Sage Handbook of Conflict Resolution, ed. jacob Bercovitch, Victor Kremenyuk, and I. William Zartman (London: Sage Publications, 2008), 264-284. 30. I define ethno-reltgious conflicts as those conflicts where religion is a key identity marker and an integral aspect of social and cultural life; where religious institutions represent a significant portion of the community; where religious identity becomes an important divider; and where religious myths, symbols, and texts are used to fuel intolerance and hatred, create enemy images, and justify violence toward the "other."These conflicts often take place between communities that live in close proximity, whose history is filled with hostility, resentment, trauma, and violence. Religious and political leaders do not hesitate to use religious texts, images, symbols, and myths to justify their policies and evoke various emotions such as heroism, chivalry, bravery, and vengeance, among others, perpetuating a culture of violence. For more information, see Kadayifci-Orellana, "grhno-Religious Conflicts;' 264-267. Also on erhno-religious conflicts, see Appleby, Ambivalence of the Sacred; and Little with the Tanenbaum Center, Peacemakers in Action. For a thorough literature review and discussion of religion and peacemaking, see Chapter I of this volume. 31. Kadaylfci-Orellana, "Ethno- Religious Conflicts:' 32. Mircae Eliade, Myth and Reality, trans. W. Trask (New York: Harper and Row, '963). 33. Robert Luyster, "The Study of Myth: Two Approaches; Journal of BibIe and Religion 34> no.

.6.

3(1966) 235 34. Luyster, "The Study of Myth ; 236.

. . 35. PoUyO. Walker, "Decolonizing Conilict Resolution: Addressing the Ontological VIOlence of Westernization;' American Indian Quarter/Y2B, no. 3/4 (2004): 527. 36. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, A Critique of postcolonial Reason: Toward a History of the Vanishing Present (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999), 277· 37. jabri, War and the TrallSformation of Global Politics, 149· 38. jabri, War and the Transformation of Global Politics, 149· 39. Richmond, A Post-Liberal Peace. 40. Samuel Huntington, "The Clash of Civilizations?" Foreign Affairs 72, no. 3 (1993): 22-49·

"

dtn

_

456

S. AYSE KADAYIFCI-ORELLANA

41. Farid Esack, "The Contemporary Democracy and the Human Ri h ' --Societies;' in Contemporary Islam: Dynamic not Static ed Abd lAz: Project forMusH_ ,. u ZIZ S id '" Abu Nimer, and Meena Sharify-Funk (London: Routledge • zo 06) ,117-128 ar ,Mohammed 4Z. Mamdani, Good Muslim, Bad Muslim, 17. ' 4). Karen Armstrong, Mohammed: A Western Attempt to Understand Isla 1991),39. m (London:Orion 44. [abri, War and the Transformation of Global Politics, 139. 45, See, for example, Mamdani, Good Muslim, Bad Muslim. 46. Mamdani, Good Muslim, Bad Muslim, 17. 47. Bernard Lewis, "I'm Right, You're Wrong "Go To Hell" The Atl an ti1C291 no 4(M . http://www.theatlantlc.com/docI200305/Iewis. See also Ber nar d LeWIS ' ." Thee"apoOl), II Terror (New York: Random House zoo ). IsIam: HoyI W.aran d Url/oy '. TIS" of "Th e 'CI ash 0 f CiIViliizauons . 'dan the ' Waron Terror;"49th Par ' 11 1 3,andMichaelD . unn, 7), xv, a et, no. 20 (Willter 2006200

48, Tadjbakhsh, "Liberal Peace;' 209. 49. Tadjbakhsh, "Liberal Peace;' 209. 50. Soumaya Ghannoushi, "The Propagation ofNeo-Orientalism" AI r h II I' I' d > JQzeera. January 27, 2011 ttp: www.aijazeera.com tn epth/opinionI2011/0i1201112611591745716 ht I O' " ' hi h d ' d h . rm, nentahsm W rc eprcre t e non- Western Orient as the chiJdlike irrational db b ' " . '. an ar anc otherthat' d nee depicting the West as rational )evolved ,clvlze,asbeen and ivili d h . s to be redeemed, I' .. while , mstrumenta in iegitlmizing colonialism. See Edward Said Orientalism (N v t, V' ' I' I·.'· ,ew ronc mtage, 1979· ) 0nenta 1St po icies 111 Muslim communities were based on the ar gument t hat IIs am was the source o~backwardJless and called for secularization of the Muslim communities in order to modernize them. 51. In fact, .duri~g his aforementi~ned trip: Prime Minister Cameron acknowledgedthat supportlOg liberal democracy m the Middle East will benefit the UK's interestswhe he st~ted, "Si~ce democracy often goes hand-in-hand with open markets, morefree~ ~om In the Middle East could deliver commercial opportunities for Britain:'SeeKirkup, Democracy Is Route to Peace in Middle East:' 52. Mahmood Marndani, "Good Muslim, Bad Muslim: A Political PerspectiveonCultureand Terrorism;' American Allthropologist 104, no. 3 (2002): 766. 53· Mamdani, "Good Muslim, Bad Muslim: A Political Perspective," 766. 54· This argument is supported by Tadjbakhsh's research in Afghanistan, where she inter· Viewed community members, conducted focus groups, and asked the respondentsto describe their view of these value systems: liberalism, Islam, and traditional understand~gs. She notes that during her interviews, respondents voiced suspicions abouttheuhe· :lOr motives of the international community, which might use liberal peace as an excuseto Impose a secular model on the country and launch an assault on local values systems.The suspicions would then increase determination to "preserve" Afghan values andtraditions in the name of lIamous (honor), ezzat (honor), and Islam. Tadjbakhsh, "LiberalPeace; 216.

55· Richmond, A Post-Liberal Peace, 27, 30. 56. Pamela Aall, "What Do NGOs Bring to Peacemaking?" in Turbulent Peace: TheClwlleng~ of Managing Jnterstate Conf/ict, ed. Chester A. Crocker, Fen Osler Hampton, and Pamela Aall (Washington, DC: US Institute of Peace Press, 2001), 365-384. 57· Jabri, War and the Transformatioll of Global Politics 70. 58. Jabri, War and the Transformatioll of Global Politics, 72-7).

------------~~~~ PEACEBUILDING

IN THE MUSLIM

,bri, War and the Transformatioll of Global Politics, 68. 59, JOliver Richmon, d M'aintaining " 0 r d er, Ma kimg Peace (Basingstoke, 60.

WORLD

457

UK: Pal grave,

'00'),96. 61. See D. Pietrzyk, "Civil Society-Conceptual History from Hobbes to Marx;' International Politics, Marie Curie Working Papers no. 1 (2001); Colas Alejandro International Civil Society (Cambridge: Polity, 2002); Benny D. Setianto, "Somewhere in Between: Conceptualizing Civil Society" lnternational Journal of Not-far-Profit Law 10, nO.1 (2007):

109-118.

62. Fora discussion of the construction of the religious/secular and public/private binaries associated with the liberal peace, and how they are embedded within a particular European historical narrative and Christian conceptions of personhood and autonomy, see Talal Asad, Formations of the Secular: Christianity, Islam, Modernity (Stanford, CA: StanIord University Press.

2003)·

6). Richmond, MaintainingOrder,

96,

Oliver Richmond, "NGOs, Peace, and Human Security," in Mitigating Conf/ict: The Role of NGOs, ed. Henry F. Carey and Oliver Richmond (London: Frank Cass, 2003), 1-11. 65. See, for example, Ziad Abdel Sarnad, "Civil Society in the Arab Region: Its Necessary Role and the Obstacles to Fulfillment;' International Journal of Not-for-Profit Law 9, no. '(2007); and Salam Nawaf, "Civil Society in the Arab World: The Historical and Political Dimensions" (Occasional Publications 3, Islamic Legal Studies Program, Harvard Law

64,

School, October 2002),3· 66. Fora discussion of Muslim NGOs and peacebuHding actors, see Mohammed Abu-Nirner and S. Ayse Kadayifei-Orellana, "Muslim Peacebuilding Actors in the Balkans, Horn of Africa, and the Great Lakes Regions;' Salam Institute for Peace and Justice, May 23, 2005, http://salam institute.orgl MuslimPeacebllildingActorsReport.pdf. Also, Imam Ashafa of Nigeria states that many Western-based peace organizations operating in that country are viewed with suspicion; they are seen to be there to destroy the communities or monopolize them. See "A Discussion with Pastor James Wuye and Imam Muhammad Ashafa,' Berkeley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs, October 31, 2011, http:// berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/interviews/a-discussion-with-pastor-james-wuye-and ~imam-muhammad-ashafa. 67. Fora thorough discussion of international NGOs in Iraq,see Cecile Genet, "International

NGOs in Iraq: Actors or Witnesses in the Evolution of the Iraqi NGO Sector?" NCCI NGO Coordination Committee for Iraq, Draft Report 2, December 2010, http://southsudanngoforum.org/wp_content/uploads/2011/05/NCCI-Survey-INGOs-Iraqi-NGOs-D raft-2,pdf. 68. International Crisis Group, "Pakistan: Madrasas, Extremism and the MiJitary;'AsiaReport

no. )6, July 29,2002, p. 5. See also Mohammed Abu-Nimer and S. Ayse Kadayifci-Orellana, "Evaluation of International Center for Religion and Diplomacy's Madrasa Reform Project in Pakistan;' Salam Institute for Peace and Justice, September 2008, p. 15· 69. See Abu-Nimer and Kadayifci-Orellana, "Evaluation ofLnternational Center." 70. Formore on legitimacy and conflict resolution, see S. Ayse Kadayifci-Orellana, St.mldi1Jg n on an Isthmus: Islamic Approaches to War and Peace;11 Palestine (Lanham MD: Lexmgto , 2007) and S. Kadayifci-Orellana, Ethno-Religious COIlf/icts. 71. At this point it is important to note that religio-cultural traditions are not unified: They are not shared uniformly among a tradition's members over time and space. Oftenumes they are interpreted to promote direct. structural, or cultural violence. I do not recommend

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that only cultural resources can resolve conflicts, but suggest that' d . . I' . In or er tn devel nve mechanisms, cultura traditions must be taken into account I ddi opeffec_ . n a mon.: di . experiences and choices also cause certain actors to become agents of e ,.I~IVldual be addressed later in the section "Islamic Principles of Peace." p ace.1hlsISsUelViJj 72. Oliver Richmond, Peace ill International Relations (London: Routled . ge,2008) 12) 7)· John Paul Lederach, Preparing for Peace: Coriflict TrallS'orm ti A ' . ~, a tOn cross C II (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1995). U U'u 74· Lederach, Preparingfor Peace, 9. 75· Matt Waldman, "Community Peacebullding in Afghanistan' The C t: . ase lor a Nat' naI Strategy;' Oxfam International Research Report, p. 3, http:// 10 files/20080228_communitypeacebulidinginafghanistan.J59kb.pdf. WWw.oxfam.del 76. Defined by Iohan Galtung as those religious, ideological, or linguistic s b I . . . d'irect or structura I VIO . Ience, CU Itura I violence contributes to th ym Osthatle~1 trruze . . . . . . . e continuatIOn of con fl let by teaching, preaching, or condoning those acts that dehumanize and . . 'fy di ... d i h satanize the OPPflo~len~,jusn flSCTlmll~atlon, an .mclte atred. In order to transform theseviolent con icts inro peace ul relata ns, there IS a need to first replace the cultural . I . .. , . VIQ ence With a cultural peace by rapping into religious, cultural, and national symbols val h ' ues, myt sand images that promote reconciliation. coexistence, and peace. Johan Galtun "Viele " g, 10 eno, Peace, an d Peace Research, lournal of Peace Research 6, no. 3 (1996): 167-191. 77- Mohammed Abu.-Nimer, "Conflict Re,~olution, Culture, and Religion: Toward a Training Model of lnterrellgious Peacebuilding. journal of Peace Research38, no. 6 (2001):686. 78. David Littl~ and R. Scott Appl~by, "A Moment of Opportunity? The Promise of Religious Peacebuilding 111 an Era of ReligIOUS and Ethnic Conflict;' in Religion and Peacebuilding, ed. Harold Coward and Gordon S. mith (Albany: State University of New YorkPres, 2004). 5- For more on religion and peace, see David Little, "Religion, Nationalism, and Intolerance." in Between Terror and Tolerance: Religious Leaders, Conflict, and Peacemaking, ed. Timothy D. Sisk (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press,lOll), 9-28; Douglas Johnston and Cynthia Sampson, eds., Religioll, the Missing Dimensionof Statecraft (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994); and Appleby, Ambivalence of the Sacred. 79· See Little and Appleby, "A Moment of Opportunity;' 3; Little with the Tanenbaum Center, Peacemakers ill Actioll; Jacob Bercovitch and S. Ayse Kadayifci-Orellana, "Religionand Mediation: The Role of Faith-Based Actors in International Conilict Resolution; lournal of IlItematiollai Negotialioll '4, no. I (2009): 175-204. 80. Little and Appleby, "A Moment of Opportunity;' 3. See also Bercovitch and Kadayifci-Orellana, "Religion and Mediation:' 81. Not all religious leaders are agents of peace. ]n fact, in many ethno-religious conflicts, religious leaders use religious texts, myths, and images to incite hatred and escalateconflict. Recognizing the complex and confUcting roles religious actors play, however, thjspaper focuses on the role of religious actors as agents of peace only. 82. Qamar-ul Huda. ed., Cresce'1t and Dove: Peace and Conflict Resolution i/1 Isfam (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 2010), xxili. 83. The peacebuilding community lost Dekha [brahim in a tragic accident in July201L 84· Abu-Nimer and Kadayifci-OrelJana, "MusHm Peacebuilding Actors:' . . 85· See The Right Livelihood Awards, "Dekha Ibrahim Abdi (Kenya)," http://rightlivehhood. org/abdi.html. 86. Right Livelihood Awards, "Dekha Ibrahim Abdi (Kenya):'

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Abu-Nimer and Kadayifci-Orellana, "Muslim Peacebuilding Actors;' 21. 87· S e Asna Husin, "Islamic Peace Education: Changing Hearts and Minds;' in Crescent 88. a~d Dove: Peace and Conjlia Resolution ill Islam, ed. Qarnar-ul Huda (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 2010), 152. 89. See Husin, "Islamic Peace Education," 159-162, For information on other Muslim peace initiatives, see David Smock and Qamar-ul 9°, Huda, "Islamic Peacemaking Since 9/n," US Institute of Peace Special Report 218, January 1,2009.". . . . " Dominic Casciani, Islamic Scholar Tahir ul-Qadn Issues Terronsm Parwa, BBC, March 91. 2,2010, http://news.bbc.co.ukh/hi/uk_news/854453I.stm. Ghazi bin Mohammed bin Talal, True Islam and the Islamic Consensus on the Amman 2 9 . Message (Amman: Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, 2006). For the complete declaration see Huda, Crescent and Dove, Appendix l. r more information on the Salam Institute's work and activities, see www.salarninsti93· Fo tute.crg. . Waldman, "Community Peacebuilding in Afghanistan; 4· 94 For more information on Sulha, see Mohammed Abu-Nimer, "Conflict Resolution 95· Approaches: Western and Middle Eastern Lessons and Possibilities;' American Journal of Economics alld Sociology 55, no. 1 (1996): 35-55; Abu-Nimer, "Conflict Resolution in an Islamic Context: Some Conceptual Questions;' Peace and Change 21, no. 1 (1996): 22-40; George Irani, "Reconciliation and Peace: Rituals for the Middle East," Middle East IlISight (September-October 1998): 24-26; Irani, "Islamic Mediation Techniques for Middle Eastern Conflicts;' MERIA (Middle East Review of lIIteTllatiollal Affairs) 10l/TIIal3, no. 2 (1999), http://www.gloria-center.orgiI999/06/irani-1999-06-0l/; Irani and Nathan C. Funk, "Rituals of Reconciliation: Arab-]slamic Perspectives;' Arab Studies Quarterly 20, no. 4 (1998):53-73: and Hussein Tarabeih, Deborah Shmueli, and Rassem Khamaisi, "Sulha as a Cultural Peacemaking Method for Managing and Resolving Environmental Conflicts among Arab Palestinians in ]srael:' Journal ofPeacebuildjfJg arId Development 5, no. I (2009):50-64. Huda, Crescent and Dove, xxv. 97. Kadayifci-Orellana, Stalldillgoll all Isthmus, 46. 98. Huda, Crescent and Dove, xxv. 99. Abu-Nimer Nonviolence mld PeaceBuilding in Islamic Theory and Practice (Gainseville 96.

FL:University Press of Florida, 2003)· 5· 100. 'abri, War alld the TrallSformation of Global Politics, 141. 101. Jabri, War alld the Trallsformatioll of Global Politics, 141. . 102. Kevin Avruch, Culture alld COllflict Resolutioll (Washington, DC: US InslItute of Peace Press, 1998), 5. 10). Avruch, Culture alld Conflict Resolutioll. 5,6 . ... 104, lahri, "Explorations of Difference in Normative International Relations, m Women, . . . ) b' d Eleanor O'Gorman (Boulder, Culture, and International RelatIons, ed. Vlvlenne a nan CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1999),46. 105. Kadayifci-Orellana, Stalldillg 011 all Isthmus, 46. 106. Esack,"The Contemporary Democracy;' 119107.Jabri, "Explorations of Difference;' 45-46. , OUSt d' g 108. Fora discussion of different Islamic narratives of peace, see KadayiLci- re ana, an 1/1 on an Isthmus.

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109. M. Sahlins, "The Return of the Event, Again: With Reflectio h nsonteb" the Great Fijian War of 1843 to 1855 between the Kingdoms of B egmnmg,of .' . . au and Rew ". m Oceama: Toward a Historical Anthropology, ed. Aletta Biersack a, .InClio DC: Smithsonian, '991), 37-100: W. R. Sewell, "Three rem 1" (Washmgto~ . .. . .. pora Illes' To d Eventful SoclOlo~. In. The Hlst~rzC. Turn in the Human Sciences. ed, T. . war an (Ann Arbor: University of MIChigan Press, 1996), 245-280: Ste h ). McDonald P "Understanding the Dialectic of Discourse and Collective Action en Ellmgso~ . Ant e b e 11 um C"mcmnatr, .•. 10 Social Movements: Re . diPublic Deb,an d Rioti otmg In ne Emergence, Mobilization, and Dynamics, ed. Doug MCAdam and Dav~d,;gSs on ThOr Angeles: Roxbury Publishing Company, 1997): 268-280. . now(1.0, 110. See Kadayifci-Orellana, Standing on an Isthmus. Ill. [abri, "Explorations of Difference," 44. 112. [abri, "Explorations of Difference:' 11J. See Hassan M. Yousufzai and Ali Gohar, Towards Understanding Pukhtovn . . Indigenous Way ofPeaceblliidillg and More ... (Peshawar , Pakistan' . Just Peace Internationa! hrga.An 2005), peace.fresno.edu/docs/PukhloonJirga.pdf. ' 114· See Abdile Mahdi, "Customary Dispute Resolution in Somalia" A(,.,·ca C ,n° •• • ., ')1 n 011.J.ICl and Peacebuiiding RevIew 2, no. I (2012): 87-UO: and Abdullahi MohammedShirwa "Malo . t h e Tra diitiona I Soma I'I Way," Mennonite Central Committee Peace ' Office ng Peace 10 Newsletter33, no. 2 (2003): 6. U5. Kadayifci-Orellana.Srsnznsg o» all Isthmus, 46. u6. Kadayifci-Orellana, Standing all an Isthmus, 46. 117· For more on Islamic discourses of peace, see Kadayifci-Orellana, Standing on an Isthmus. u8. Kadayifci-Orellana, Standing on an [sthmIlS.lOl. 119· Kadayifci-Orellana, "Religion. Violence, and the Islamic Tradition of Nonviolence" Turkish Yearbook of lnternational Relations 34 (2003): 43. 120. Kadayifci-OrelJana, Standing on an Isthmus. 121. Ibrahim Kalin. "Islam and Peace;' in Crescent and Dove: Peace and Conflict Resolutionin Islam, ed. Qamar-ul Huda (Washington, DC: US InstituleofPeace Press, 2010),8. 122. Kalin, "Islam and Peace," 8. 12). Kalin, "Islam and Peace." 8. 124· Tawakkol Karman, "Nobel Lecture" (Oslo, Norway, December 10, 20n), http://www. nobelprize.orglnobel_prizes/peace/laureates/2011/karman-lecture_en.htm!. 125· William C. Chittick, "The Theological Roots of Peace and War According to islam: Islamic QlIarterly 34, no. 3 (1990): 156. 126. Kalin, "Islam and Peace," 8. 127. Women's Islamic Initiative in Spirituality and Equality, "Jihad Against Violence:Muslim Women's Struggle for Peace; July 2009, p. 4. http://www.wisemuslimwomen.Olg! images/uploads/Jihad_againsl_ Violence_Digest%28color%29.pdf. . u8. Aaron Goodman, "Thailand: Women for Peace Offering Solace to Victims ofConflict;Front!inl, August 9, 200h http://www.pbs.orglfrontlineworldJrough/2007108/thailand_women.html . 129· Zafar Alam Khan, "There Are Different Paths to the Kaaba: CemalnurSargut,"intervlew with Cemalnur Sargut during the International Conference on Sufism, TIlePioneer, Delhi, India, November 25,2011, http://www.sufinews.org/palhs-IO-lhe-kaabah/. 130. See Kadayifci-Orellana Stal/ding on all Isthmlls. . . 131. See Mohammed Abu-Nimer and S. Ayse Kadayifci-Orellana, "Muslim PeacebUllding 8 Actors in Africa and the Balkans:' Peace and Change 33, nO-4 (October 2008): 549-5 '.

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more information, see Abu-Nimer and Kadayifci-Orellana, "Muslim Peacebuilding 131.For Actors." For more information, see Irani and Funk, "Rituals of Reconciliation." ::~: Abu-Nimer, "Conflict Resolution in an Islamic Context"; S. Ayse Kadayifcr-Orellana.

St(wdingon an Isthmus. Mahdi, "Customary Dispute Resolution:' 98. 13~-Unisaro Alice Karakezi, Alphonso Nshimiyimana, and Beth Mutamba "Localizing 13 . Justice: Gacaca Courts in Post-Genocide Rwanda" in My Neighbor, My Enemy: Justice and community in the Aftermath of Mass Atrocity, ed. Eric Strover and Harvey M. Weinstein (Camhridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004): 69-84 1 Goodman, "Thailand: Women for Peace:' 3;. "The Imam and the Pastor: Cooperating for Peace; Interview with Imam Muhammad ije. Ashafa and Pastor James Wuye; SGJ Quarterly (April 2008), http://www.sgiquarlerly. orglfeature2008apr-4.html. 1)9. Khalil Nouri and Matthew Cappiello, "Islam and Conflict Resolution in Afghanistan: Cross-Cultural Leadership and Constructive Engagement." New World Strategies Coalition, Inc., August 19,2010. http://www.ariaye.com/eng!.ish/noori2.pdf. 140. Mohammed Paour, "Conflict Management within the Muslim Arab Family." in Conflict Resolution ill the Arab World: Selected Essays, ed. Paul Salem (Beirut: American University of Beirut. 1997), 175-197. See also Abu-Nlmer, "Conflict Resolution in an Islamic Context:' 14'- Shirwa, "Making Peace in the Traditional

Somali Way:' 6. 142_Yousufzai and Gohar, Towards Understanding Pukhtoon Jirga. 14J. "ADiscussion with Pastor James Wuye and Imam Muhammad Ashafa." 144. Abu-Nirner, "Conflict Resolution in Islamic Context;' 14· 145. See Abu-Nimer and Kadayifci-Orellana, "Muslim PeacebuiJding Actors." 146. For more information, see the website of Kimse Yak Mu at http://globa1.kimseyokmu. org.tr/?lang=en. 147.Edward 1. Hall, Beyond ClIltllre (New York: Anchor Books, 1981). See also Abu-Nimer and Kadayifci-Orellana, MlIslim Peacebllilding Actors. 148. Irani, "Islamic Mediation Techniques:' 149. The verse reads: "Those who spend [in AUah's Cause-deeds of charity, alms, etc.] in prosperity and in adversity, who repress anger, and who pardon men; verily, Allah loves AI-Muhsimln [the gooddoers):' 150. Hadith: Sahih Al-Bukhari 8:135, narrated by Abu HUIaira. Ill. S. Ayse Kadayifci-Orellana, Mohammed Abu-Nimer, and Amjad Mohamed-Saleem, "Understanding an Islamic Framework for Peacebuilding," IslamiC RehefWorking Paper Series No. 2013-02, 2013. 152.According to a report by Oxfam, external evaluators have found these initiatives crealive and enabling and supporting what is truly wanled by Afghan partners. Oxfam, "Afghanistan: Development and Humanitarian Priorities;' 2008, ~ttp:II~O~l~y.praCl:1ce. oxfam.org.uklpublications/afghanistan-development-and-humanitanan-pnont1es-126000. Also, Tadjbakhsh notes that most of the respondents in her research stated that. Islam was in fact the best methodology of peace in Afghanistan because Afghans were believers who respected religion. Tadjbakhsh, "Liberal Peace;' 215· 153.Oxfam, "Afghanistan: Development and Humanitarian Priorities." 4· 154·Tahir-ul-Qadri is a Canada-based Is!amic scholar of Pakistani origin.

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~---------:.....:.=-:::.::=:....:~~ 155. See M.llyas Khan, (12 January 2013) "TahiruJ Qadri-Paki t 'L -------sans atestPOrt· I BBC, January 12, 2013, http://www.bbc.co.uklnews/world_ . 2 I rca 'Drone'" . . ... 3513- °998010' 156. Abu-Nirner and Kadayifci-Orellana, Muslim Peacebuildin A " . Ri h L· lih dAd"[ g ctors, 16 157. g t rve 00 war, nterview with Dekha Ibrahi "N . . h I· I· ... irn, ovember 6 200 www.ngtlveihood.org/dekha_lbrahlm_abdUnterview.html. 7,bttpJi 158. See the OlC website at http://www.Oic-ocLorg/home.asp. . 159. See S. Ayse Kadayifci-Orellana and Meena Sharify-Funk "W · world": ' omen . M us Iuri nor . In C rescent and Dove: Peace and Conrflict R I '. Peacemakers eso ution m Isla d In the ul-Huda (Washington, DC: USlP, 2010). m, e . Qamar 160. S. Ayse Kadayifci-Orellana, "In Pursuit of Peace· W ' Peace-Building," in Women and Peace in the Islamic World' G admen s InVOlvementin . en er, Agencyand I rfl e d . Yasmin . Sai kila and Chad _.Haines (London: . I . B. Tauris , 2014,) 191-223. n uence, . 161. SeeSSWC information at http://wlSerearlh.org/organization/·/d VIew 607 ooe8absb 8 824a56a622 b829. FormoreinformationonSSWC,seealsoSunniSaidSaI " 9 a/e8 Group Assists Women and Children:' Somalia Report April 9 h ah, SomaliaAid . ' . 2011, ttp'/ /wwwso ali areport.com/lndex.php/post/486/Somali_Aid_Group Assists W . •. m . 6 I . .I h .. - "omen_and Childre I 2. nterview Wit 1 As a Hagi rn Abdurrahman M. Abdullahi "w d "". n. bate i . • omen an Constitutional D e ate 111 Samaha: Legal Reforms during Reconciliation Confe ( lbd renee 2000-03): http·11 www.scn.com/doc/15421298/Women-and·Conslitutional_Deb t . S . . 6 I lew with . . ..' a e-m- omaha, 131 3· ntervtew WI Asha H. Elmi 111 Abdullahi, Women and Constit ti l Deb ·" _ u rona e ate 10. S oma I ra, 13. 164· ~bdullahi, "Women and Constilutional Debate in Somalia:'14. 165. The lmam and the Pastor." 166. "A Discussion with Pa tor James Wuye and Imam Muhammad Ashafa" 167· Bunmi Akpata-Ohohe, "The Imam and the Pastor:' Africa Today, December 29,2006, http://www.afncatoday.com/cgi-bin/public.cgi?su b= news&action=one&cal=76 &ld=878.

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