Personality Dimensions of Religious Orientation

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Personality Dimensions of Religious Orientation John Maltby

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School of Health and Community Studies Sheffield Hallam University, UK Available online: 01 Apr 2010

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Personality Dimensions of Religious Orientation JOHN MALTBY School of Health and Community Studies Shefield Hallam University, U K

ABSTRACT. The aim of this study was to extend previous research on religiosity and personality among U S . adults (J. Maltby, M. Talley, C. Cooper, & J. C. Leslie, 1995) by examining the relationship between several measures of those dimensions among nonU.S.adults. Participants were 1,040 adults (436 men, 604 women) from the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland. Correlational techniques (Pearson product-moment correlations and principal components analysis with oblimin rotation) revealed that psychoticism shared a significant negative association with, and loaded on the same component as, measures of personal orientation toward religion. Obsessional personality traits had significant, positive associations with measures of personal orientation toward religion. Obsessional symptoms shared a moderate, significant, positive correlation with an extrinsic orientation toward religion. However, neither of these obsessionality measures loaded on a component that contains measures of religiosity. It is argued that although psychoticism is negatively related to personal aspects of religion and has relevance to the psychology of religion, the relationship between obsessionality and religion is fragmented, moderate, and limited.

A NUMBER OF STUDIES support the proposition that religious orientation is related to personality in adults. Two areas of research that emerge from these studies relate religiosity to H. J. Eysenck’s (1975, 1976) and Freud’s (1907/1961) personality theories of religiosity. One area of research into religiosity and personality centers on the application of the Eysenckian dimensional model of personality (H. J. Eysenck & M. W. Eysenck, 1985) to religiosity. Within this model, religiosity is a tender-minded social attitude, and tender-minded attitudes are thought to be a consequence of conditioning. Individuals who are easily conditioned are found to score significantly lower on psychoticism measures. H. J. Eysenck (1975, 1976) argued that individuals who are tender minded are expected to hold more religious attiAddress correspondence to John Maltby, Psychology Subject Group and Centrefor Health and Social Care Research, School of Health and Community Studies, Shefield Hallam University, Collegiate Crescent Campus, Shefield, SIO 2 B e United Kingdom. 63 1


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tudes. Therefore, according to Francis ( 1991, 1992), psychoticism, rather than other personality dimensions (such as neuroticism and extraversion), is fundamental to religiosity. There is empirical support for this proposition. Researchers using the Francis Scale of Attitude Toward Christianity (Francis & Stubbs, 1987) have found that higher scores on this measure of religiosity are accompanied by lower scores on H. J. Eysenck’s measure of psychoticism (Francis, 1991, 1992; Francis & Bennett, 1992; Francis & Pearson, 1993; Lewis & Joseph, 1994b; Lewis & Maltby, 1995a; Maltby, 1997c; Maltby, Talley, Cooper, & Leslie, 1995). In addition, researchers have used other measures of religiosity to examine this proposition. Studies using measures of private and public expressions of religiosity based on Brown’s (1987) distinction between personal and public references to religion have shown that psychoticism shares a significant negative relationship with the frequency of personal prayer and church attendance (Francis & Wilcox, 1994; Maltby, 1995; Smith, 1996).In contrast, Lewis and Maltby (1996) reported that lower psychoticism scores were associated with a greater frequency of personal prayer but not with a greater frequency of church attendance. Other researchers have used the distinction between an intrinsic orientation and extrinsic orientation toward religion to examine H. J. Eysenck’s (1975, 1976) theory of religion. An intrinsic orientation toward religion is one in which religion is personal and central to the individual (Allport, 1966; Allport & Ross, 1967).Descriptions of the extrinsic orientation toward religion emphasize membership in a powerful group that provides protection, consolidation, and social status, allowing religious participation and use of an ego defense (Allport & Ross; Fleck, 1981; Genia & Shaw, 1991; Kahoe & Meadow, 1981). A majority of researchers have found no evidence for a significant relationship between low psychoticism scores and either of these two religious orientations (Chau, Johnson, Bowers, Darvill, & Danko, 1990; Johnson et al., 1989; Robinson, 1990). There is one exception: Maltby et al. (1995) found a significant, negative relationship between psychoticism and an intrinsic orientation toward religion. A second area of research, based on Freud’s observations of the functions of religion (Freud, 1907/1961, 1912-13/1961, 1927/1961),has been the relationship between religiosity and obsessionality. Freud wrote of the similarities between individual obsessional neuroses and the collective role of religion. Freud remarked that there is a resemblance between obsessive actions and religious practices, demonstrated by the rituality involved in both behaviors, the guilt involved if these practices are neglected, and the exclusivity to which these acts are carried over to other behaviors. To examine these observations, researchers have used a number of measures of religiosity and obsessionality: the Ai3 (Kline, 197 l), the Sandler-Hazari Obsessionality Inventory Trait Scale (Sandler & Hazari, 1960). the Content Scored Rorschach (Masling, Rable. & Blondheim, 1967). the Sandler-Hazari Obsessionality Inventory Symptom Scale (Sandler & Hazari, 1960), and mea-


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sures of religious attitude toward Christianity (Francis & Stubbs, 1987), private and public expression of religiosity (Brown, 1987), and intrinsic and extrinsic orientation toward religion (Allport & Ross, 1967; Gorsuch & Venable, 1983). The majority of researchers who used the adult form of the Francis Scale of Attitude Toward Christianity (Francis & Stubbs, 1987) have found that a more positive attitude toward Christianity is accompanied by higher scores on measures of obsessional traits but not on obsessional symptoms (Lewis, 1994; Lewis & Joseph, 1994a; Lewis & Maltby, 1992, 1994; Maltby, 1997b; Maltby, McCollam, & Millar, 1994). However, Lewis and Maltby (1995b) reported a significant association between obsessional personality traits and attitude toward Christianity among women only. Nonetheless, researchers have used other measures of religiosity, following suggestions that there are particular measures of religiosity and obsessionality that allow Freud’s observations to be examined more accurately. Lewis (1994) suggested that obsessional symptoms reflect Freud’s theory, as this type of obsessionality emphasizes guilt and ritualistic behaviors (Fontana, 1980).Maltby et al. (1994) suggested that measures of religiosity used to examine this theory should address communal aspects of religion. They suggested that the extrinsic orientation toward religion, with an emphasis on the communal (Allport & Ross, 1967; Genia & Shaw, 1991), participative (Fleck, 1981), and defensive aspects (Kahoe & Meadow, 1981) of religion, is analogous to Freud’s observations. If these definitions are used, there is some empirical support for Freud’s observations. Maltby et al. (1994) drew a distinction between three groups of individuals: nonreligious persons, persons demonstrating an extrinsic orientation toward religion, and persons with an intrinsic orientation toward religion. They reported that individuals with an extrinsic orientation toward religion scored significantly higher than nonreligious persons on the Sandler-Hazari obsessional symptom measure, whereas individuals with an intrinsic orientation toward religion did not score higher than nonreligious persons. The authors suggested that this finding provides at least some support for Freud’s observations.Furthermore, Maltby et al. (1995) found some support for this theory. In comparing a number of religious and personality measures, these authors found that the Sandler- Hazari obsessional symptom measure loaded on the same component as an extrinsic orientation toward religion among male and female U S . Southern Baptists. Within the area of research into personality and religion, there has been a recent move to compare some of these theories. Maltby et al. (1995) found a distinction between H. J. Eysenck’s (1975, 1976) and Freud’s (1907/1961) theories of religion in that psychoticism loaded negatively on measures indicating a personal orientation toward religion, and measures of obsessionality loaded on measures indicating a public orientation toward religion. However, at present this distinction between the two theories has received limited support from researchers using samples other than U.S. Southern Baptists. Given this clear distinction, a consideration of how personality theories relate to religious attitude

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and behavior seems to be warranted. My aim in this study was to compare H. J. Eysenck’s and Freud’s theories of religion by using a number of religious and personality indices among a non-U.S. sample.

Method


Participants The participants were 1,040 adults (436 men, 604 women) from the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland (England, n = 353; Northern Ireland, n = 386; Republic of Ireland, n = 301). Their ages were between 17 and 72 years (M = 40.2).

Questionnaires All respondents completed a questionnaire booklet that contained the following items: 1. The adult-form of the Francis Scale of Attitude Toward Christianity (Francis & Stubbs, 1987). 2. An amended version of the Age-Universal I-E Scale (Gorsuch & Venable, 1983). Amendments to the Age-Universal I-E Scale (originally derived from the Religious Orientation Scale; Allport & Ross, 1967) include two changes to the questionnaire, suggested by Lewis and Maltby (1996). The first was a change to the response format and instructions. Rather than a 5-point response format ranging from I strongly disagree to I strongly agree, items were scored on a 3-point scale: yes (I), not certain (2), and no (3). The second was a change to Item 6 of the questionnaire, which refers to a preference of frequency of church attendance. Both the Intrinsic and Extrinsic scales demonstrated improved internal psychometric properties among U.S., English, and Irish adult samples compared with the original format of the Age-Universal I-E Scale (Maltby & Lewis, 1996). In addition, the scale demonstrated adequate reliability among schoolchildren and concurrent validity with measures of personality among adults (Maltby, 1997a, in press). 3. The abbreviated form of the Revised Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQR-A; Francis, Brown, & Philipchalk, 1992). 4. The Sandler-Hazari Obsessionality Inventory (Sandler & Hazari, 1960). This inventory subsumes two subscales that measure obsessional personality traits and obsessional symptoms. Obsessional personality traits are measured with items concerned with an overemphasis on hygiene, self-control, order, and rigidity. Obsessional symptoms are measured with items describing feelings of guilt, ritualistic behaviors, indecision, and compulsive thoughts and impulses. 5 . Two questions concerning the frequency of two religious behaviors, based on Brown’s ( 1987) distinction between public and private expressions of

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religiosity. First, respondents indicated how often they attended their place of worship. Available responses ranged from never (l), very rarely (2), once a month (3),forrnighrly (41, to once a week or more ( 5 ) .Second, respondents indicated how often they practiced personal prayer. Available responses ranged from never (l), rarely (2), sometimes (3), often (4), to daily ( 5 ) .


Results Table 1 contains the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients between all the measures, including alpha coefficients for each of the scales used in the study. Sex was also included in this matrix (1 = male, 2 = female). Satisfactory internal reliability statistics were found for most of the scales. Although the score for the psychoticism measure was relatively low, the reported alpha coefficient was high compared with previous reports of the psychometric properties of psychoticism and favorable in light of the previous difficulties in measuring this personality dimension (Francis, 1996). Because of the size of the present sample, a higher significance criterion was used (p < .OO1 ) to interpret significant relationships between the variables (though the table also includes an indication of those relationships significant at p < .01). Significant positive relationships occurred between all the measures of religiosity. Psychoticism was significantly, negatively associated with the Francis attitude scale, an intrinsic orientation toward religion, and a greater frequency of personal prayer. In addition, higher scores on the measure of obsessional personality traits were significantly, positively associated with a positive attitude toward Christianity, an intrinsic orientation toward religion, and a greater frequency of personal prayer and obsessional symptoms, and higher neuroticism and lie scores. Obsessional personality traits also shared a significant, negative relationship with psychoticism. A significant, positive relationship was found between the measures of an extrinsic orientation toward religion, neuroticism, and obsessional symptoms. Gender was also significantly, positively associated with all the religious measures and with neuroticism (women scored higher on all these measures). Gender also had a significant negative association with psychoticism (men scored higher on this measure). To provide a comparison with the findings of Maltby et al. (1995), and to facilitate ease of interpretation of the correlations between the various measures, I subjected all the measures to principal components analysis (Harman, 1967). The number of components to be extracted was selected with a scree test (Cattell, 1966), and the subsequent solutions were rotated to simple structure (see Table 2). With loadings above .44accepted as fair (Comrey, 1973), seven components emerged from the analysis. The Francis Scale of Attitude Toward Christianity, the intrinsic orientation toward religion measure, frequency of personal prayer, and psychoticism (loading negatively to the other variables) loaded on the first component. On the sec-

-

.82 NIA .79 NIA .67 .84 .85 .74 .70 .71 NIA

*p c .01. * * p c ,001 (two-tailed).

.33**

.94

1. Francis Attitude 2. Intrinsic Orientation 3. Personal Prayer 4. Extrinsic Orientation 5. Church Attendance 6. Psychoticism 7. Extraversion 8. Neuroticism 9. Lie 10. Obsessional Traits 11. Obsessional Symptoms 12. Sex

2

a

Measure

-

.38** .35**

3

.15** -

.12**

.19**

4

-

.22** .23**

.19**

.16**

5

6

-

-.01

-.27** -.26** -.23** .06

~~

~~

.o 1 -

-.09* .08* -.04

.04

-.08*

7

.06 -

.01 -.02 .13** .09* -.02

.04

8

.a

-

.09*

-.01 -.18** -.03

.06

.03 -.02

9

-

.07 -.16** .o 1 .12** .11**

-.05

.15** .13** .17**

10

TABLE 1 Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficients and Alpha Coefficients for AU Measures


-

12 .18** .16** .03 .22** .18** .15** .06 .21** -.18** -.06 -.05 .02 .27** .13** .02 .07 .18** -.o 1 .06 .01

-.02

11

m m

W

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TABLE 2 Principal Components Analysis of the Scales, With Oblimin Rotation for All Samples


~~

Measure

1

1. Francis Attitude 2. Intrinsic 3. Personal Prayer 4. Extrinsic 5. Church Attendance 6. Psychoticism 7. Extraversion 8. Neuroticism 9. Lie 10. Obsessional Traits 1 1. Obsessional Symptoms

.71 .68 .73

2

3

4

5

6

7

-.77

.65 -.5 1

.92 .91 .83

-.62 .62

ond component, neuroticism and obsessional symptoms loaded together. For the remaining measures (an extrinsic orientation toward religion, frequency of church attendance, extraversion, lie scores, and obsessional personality traits), all loaded singularly on separate components.

Discussion My aim in this study was to examine the relationship between several measures of religiosity and personality among adults from a non-U.S. sample. On the basis of the correlation coefficients and principal components analysis, the findings suggest that all personal aspects of religiosity (an intrinsic orientation toward religion, frequency of personal prayer, and religious attitude) are negatively correlated with psychoticism. Furthermore, no association was found between any of the religious measures and the other measures contained within the abbreviated form of the Revised Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (Francis, Brown, & Philipchalk, 1992). Thus, I suggest that low psychoticism may be associated with personal aspects of religion. This finding is consistent with H. J. Eysenck’s theory of attitude and with the previously mentioned study among U.S.Southern Baptists (Maltby et al., 1995). In terms of Freud’s speculations, the findings are less convincing. Though an extrinsic orientation toward religion was related to obsessional symptoms, the correlational statistic was low, suggesting that these two variables share only around 3% of the variance. Furthermore, these two variables did not load together on the principal components analysis. These findings lend some support to the suggestion of Maltby et al. (1995) that an extrinsic orientation toward religion is


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associated with obsessional rituals. However, these findings also suggest that this relationship, and the significance of this relationship to the psychology of religion, may be limited. The present findings also suggest that obsessional personality traits are positively related to aspects of personal religion (an intrinsic orientation toward religion, frequency of personal prayer, and religious attitude). This finding is consistent with those of previous studies (Lewis, 1994; Lewis & Joseph, 1994b; Lewis & Maltby, 1994; Maltby, 1997b). However, the variance shared between these aspects of religion and obsessionality was low (no more than 3% of the variance). Furthermore, the measure of obsessional personality traits did not load on the same component as these three religious measures, again suggesting that any relationship between obsessional personality traits and religion is limited. The present findings suggest that both H. J. Eysenck’s (1975, 1976) and Freud’s (1907/1961) observations on religion may have some relevance to the psychology of religion. However, the present findings also suggest that although psychoticism is negatively related to personal aspects of religion, the relationship between obsessionality and religion is fragmented, moderate, and limited. REFERENCES

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Received August 20, I998