Physiological and psychological responses to lead ...

2 downloads 0 Views 145KB Size Report
Climb time, heart rate, VO2, lactate concentrations, and task load (National ... Rock climbing, lead climbing, top rope climbing, anxiety, oxygen uptake, heart rate.
European Journal of Sport Science, January 2010; 10(1): 1320

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Physiological and psychological responses to lead and top rope climbing for intermediate rock climbers

NICK DRAPER1, GLENYS A. JONES2, SIMON FRYER2, CHRISTOPHER I. HODGSON2, & GAVIN BLACKWELL1 1

School of Sciences and Physical Education, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand, and 2Centre for Sports Science and Medicine, University of Chichester, Chichester, UK

Abstract Rock climbing is a popular adventure sport with an increasing research base. Early studies in the field did not make comparisons of ascents using different styles of climbing. More recently, differences in the physiological responses for an onsight lead climb and subsequent lead climb have been reported. The purpose of the present study was to examine the effect of style of climb (lead climb or top rope climb) on the physiological and psychological responses to rock climbing. Nine intermediate climbers volunteered for, and completed, two randomly assigned climbing trials and a maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max) test on a separate occasion. The climbers ascended the same 6a (sport grade) climb for both trials. Before climbing, heart rate, perception of anxiety (Revised Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2), and blood lactate concentration were measured. Climb time, heart rate, VO2, lactate concentrations, and task load (National Aeronautics and Space Administration Task Load Index) in response to each trial were also recorded. Results indicated significant differences (P B0.05) between the trials for climb time, blood lactate concentration immediately after and 15 min after climbing, and heart rate 1 min after climbing. During lead and top rope climbing, mean VO2 and represented 44% and 42% of treadmill VO2max and mean heart rate represented 81% and 77% of maximum heart rate, respectively. There were no significant differences in feelings of anxiety before either climb, although climbers reported the lead climb to be physically and mentally more demanding, requiring more effort and resulting in greater frustration (P B0.05) than the top rope climb. Our results indicate that the physiological and psychological responses of intermediate climbers are different for a lead climb and top rope climb.

Keywords: Rock climbing, lead climbing, top rope climbing, anxiety, oxygen uptake, heart rate

Introduction Rock climbing is a diverse adventure sport that is undertaken both recreationally and competitively (British Mountaineering Council, 2004, 2006; Giles, Rhodes, & Taunton, 2006; Sheel, 2004; Watts, 2004). An ascent can be made in a number of styles, including: (a) lead climbing, where the performer leads from the ground up protecting the climb during the ascent; (b) seconding, where the climber follows a leader removing protection as they climb; (c) top rope climbing, where the rope passes through a top anchor between the climber and their belayer (climbing partner who protects the climber in the case of a fall); (d) free solo climbing, where the ascent is made without a rope; and (e) bouldering,

usually on shorter routes, which are again climbed without a rope, but normally with a bouldering mat underneath the climber. Routes can range from single pitch climbs of 5 m in height to multi-pitch routes of over 1000 m. During lead climbing, the leader has either to place protection into the rock face en-route (traditional climbing) or to clip bolts that have been pre-drilled in the rock (sport climbing). Physiology- and psychology-based research has tended to concentrate on single pitch top rope climbing and bouldering (Billat, Palleja, Charlaix, Rizzardo, & Janel, 1995; Booth, Marino, Hill, & Gwinn, 1999; Draper, Bird, Coleman, & Hodgson, 2006a; Draper, Brent, Hale, & Coleman, 2006b;

Correspondence: N. Draper, School of Sciences and Physical Education, University of Canterbury, Private Bag 4800, 8140 Christchurch, New Zealand. E-mail: [email protected] ISSN 1746-1391 print/ISSN 1536-7290 online # 2010 European College of Sport Science DOI: 10.1080/17461390903108125

14

N. Draper et al.

Schoeffl, Klee, & Strecker, 2004; Sheel, Seddon, Knight, McKenzie, & Warburton, 2003; Wall, Starek, Fleck, & Byrnes, 2004; Watts, 2004). Only two physiological studies have reported data collected on natural rock (Booth et al., 1999; Williams, Taggart, & Carruthers, 1978). Most research in these fields has been conducted on artificial walls or climbing treadmills, perhaps due to ease of data collection, safety issues, and the assumption that there are no physiological or psychological differences between lead and top rope climbing (Booth et al., 1999; Draper et al., 2008; Mermier, Janot, Parker, & Swan, 2000; Mermier, Robergs, McMinn, & Heyward, 1997; Sheel, 2004). However, the number of studies with lead climbing as the focus of research has been on the increase (Booth et al., 1999; Draper, Jones, Fryer, Hodgson, & Blackwell, 2008; Gerbert & Werner, 2000; Hodgson et al., 2008). The style of ascent, type of rock, demands of the climb, and the environmental conditions have implications for the overall physiological demands of the climb, and such differences should be taken into account when interpreting findings (Sheel, 2004; Watts, 2004). Several studies have reported oxygen uptake (VO2) and heart rate data for climbing (Bertuzzi, Franchini, Kokubun, & Kiss, 2007; Billat et al., 1995; Booth et al., 1999; de Geus, Villanueva O’Driscoll, & Meeusen, 2006; Doran & Grace, 2000; Draper et al., 2008; Hodgson et al., 2008; Mermier et al., 1997; Sheel et al., 2003; Watts, Newbury, & Sulentic, 1996). Early papers that focused on these aspects of rock climbing were in the main descriptive and reported aerobic and anaerobic contributions (Billat et al., 1995; Booth et al., 1999; Mermier et al., 1997). Their findings led to speculation regarding the relative contributions of aerobic and anaerobic metabolism to performance. Booth et al. (1999) believed aerobic metabolism made a greater contribution to overall energy supply. Their findings led them to conclude that the nature of climbing (single pitch) requires a significant reliance upon anaerobic metabolic processes: strength, power, and power endurance. More recently, Bertuzzi et al. (2007), de Geus et al. (2006), Draper et al. (2008), and Sheel et al. (2003) examined the relative anaerobic and aerobic contributions to energy supply through manipulation of the difficulty of the climb, steepness of the climb, and style of ascent. Their findings suggest that such factors do have an impact on the relative contribution of aerobic and anaerobic metabolism to total energy supply. For bouldering VO2 represented 3338% of VO2max, whereas for other forms of climbing values of 4581% have been reported during lead and top rope climbing and figures of up to 60% for treadwall climbing (Billat et al., 1995;

de Geus et al., 2006; Draper et al., 2006a; Watts & Drobish, 1998). Common to many studies are reports of disproportionate rises in heart rate during climbing for a given VO2 relative to the heart rate elicited at the same VO2 during treadmill running or cycle ergometry (Billat et al., 1995; Booth et al., 1999; Mermier et al., 1997; Sheel et al., 2003; Watts & Drobish, 1998). Mermier et al. (1997) proposed that the disproportionate rise was indicative of a breakdown in the linear relationship between heart rate and VO2. This breakdown has been variously attributed to the relatively high loading on the muscles of the upper body, the intermittent isometric contractions associated with gripping, or anxiety-related rises in heart rate induced by fear of falling (Giles et al., 2006; Mermier et al., 1997; Watts, 2004). Sheel et al. (2003) suggested the disproportionate rise in heart rate is most likely due to activation of the metaboreflex during climbing. The role of metabolite build-up during ischaemic exercise and the consequent metaboreflexmediated pressor response is well documented (Cornett et al., 2000; O’Leary, 1993, 1996; O’Leary, Augustyniak, Ansorge, & Collins, 1999; O’Leary & Sheriff, 1995; Rowell, 1993; Rowell & O’Leary, 1990). The metaboreflex response induces an increase in heart rate, ventricular filling and ejection, vasoconstriction in inactive vascular beds (such as the kidneys) and non-ischaemic active skeletal muscle, increasing cardiac output and restoring blood flow (Cornett et al., 2000; O’Leary et al., 1999). While early research in the area was conducted with animals, findings from human studies using rhythmic hand-gripping as the ischaemic exercise have demonstrated the presence of the metaboreflex in human forearm muscles (Cornett et al., 2000). Such research supports Sheel and colleagues’ (2003) conclusion that the metaboreflex is the trigger for the disproportionate rise in heart rate during climbing. The effects of psychological factors, such as anxiety, on the physiological response to rock climbing have only recently attracted research attention. Hodgson et al. (2008) found significant differences in plasma cortisol concentration and anxiety among intermediate climbers in a comparison of lead climbing, seconding, and top rope climbing. These authors’ regression analysis identified a cubic relationship between cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety, self-confidence, and plasma cortisol concentration during climbing. Draper et al. (2008) reported significant differences in somatic and cognitive anxiety, as well as elevated heart rate and VO2, among intermediate climbers during an on-sight lead climb and a pre-practised lead climb on the same route. To date, there has been little research on

Physiological and psychological responses to rock climbing

15

the psychological and physiological responses to lead and top rope climbing. Building upon previous research findings, the aim of the present study was to measure the physiological and psychological responses to lead and top rope climbing in intermediate climbers. We hypothesized that the climbers in our study would show a greater physiological and psychological response to lead climbing than when top roping the same route.

participants completed the same warm-up protocol before each trial, which involved 5 min of light jogging, mobilizing exercises, and an ascent of a lower grade practice climb wearing the portable gas analyser. After a shake-out and mental preparation, all climbers made both ascents without weighting the rope. Climbers were asked to complete each climb in their own time and at a speed that meant they felt in control and not rushed during the ascent.

Methods

The climb

Participants

The climb was 9.38 m high and set on an Off the Wall† (Off the Wall, Kendal, UK) outdoor climbing wall using Entre-prise† (Entre-prise, Kelbrook, UK) bolt-on holds. The route was graded 6a (sport grade) and the climbers used natural features as well as bolt-on holds for hands and feet to ascend the climb. The route was slightly overhanging (58 from vertical) in the first 2 m and afterwards vertical to the top. The climb was designed so as to maximize the use of the natural features and minimize the number of bolt-on holds to increase the realism of the climb. The technical grade was selected so as to provide an appropriate level of difficulty, such that failure to complete the climb was a realistic possibility for all participants.

Nine male intermediate rock climbers volunteered to take part in the study (mean9s: age 20.391.1 years, height 1.7590.07 m, mass 69.396.0 kg, body fat 9.693.1%, VO2ma 58.796.0 ml × kg 1 × min 1, maximum heart rate maximum 19598 beats × min 1). The climbers had a mean climbing experience of 2.7591.75 years, trained two or three times a week, had a highest technical grade on a traditional lead climb of between 4a and 5a (British technical grade) and a sport lead of 6a to 6c. The participants had experience on at least three types of natural rock, as well as frequent use of artificial climbing walls. After having been fully acquainted with the nature of the study and informed that they could leave at any stage, they provided written informed consent and completed a health history questionnaire. Ethical approval for the study was obtained from the University of Chichester Ethics Committee. Experimental design The participants attended three sessions. In the first session, anthropometric data were collected, a VO2max assessment was made, and the participants were accustomed to climbing wearing a portable gas analyser. The climbers then completed, in random order, two climbing sessions (lead and top rope climbs) on an outdoor artificial climbing wall. The lead climb involved a roped ascent clipping bolts (six in total) en-route to protect the climber. The climbers were asked to refrain from exercise the day before testing and to avoid eating within 2 h of testing. The climbers completed the same route on both occasions. A minimum of 2 days separated the trials and the climbers completed both trials at the same time of day to allow for variation in circadian rhythms. The results of paired sample t-tests indicated that there were no significant differences in temperature, atmospheric pressure, relative humidity or wind speed across the two climbing trials (mean9s: temperature 15.792.28C, atmospheric pressure 760.0911.1 mmHg, relative humidity 73.098.3%, wind speed 3.392.9 km × h1). The

Physiological measurements Height and mass data were gathered using a portable stadiometer (Cranlea Instruments, Birmingham, UK) and percent body fat was assessed using a Tanita BC-418MA body composition analyser (Tanita Corporation, Tokyo, Japan) as described by McCarthy and colleagues (McCarthy, Cole, Fry, Jebb, & Prentice, 2006). During the laboratory session, all participants completed a VO2 treadmill test using the athlete-led protocol (Draper & Hodgson, 2008). The tests were completed on a Pulsar† treadmill (h/p/ Cosmos† , Nussdorf-Traunstein, Germany) with Douglas bag pulmonary gas sampling. Maximum heart rate and VO2max were recorded for each participant. For each climbing trial, the participants wore a Cosmed K4b2 portable pulmonary gas exchange analyser (Cosmed, Rome, Italy) and Polar Vantage NV heart rate monitor (Polar Electro Oy, Kempele, Finland). The K4b2 was air, gas, turbine, and delay calibrated between participants. The K4b2 weighed 0.7 kg and was fastened to the climber by a chest harness, with both the battery and the analyser on the climber’s back. Oxygen consumption, total climb time, heart rate 1 min before climbing, immediately before climbing, during climbing, and 1 min after climbing were recorded.

16

N. Draper et al.

Arterialized capillary blood samples for lactate analysis were taken after the warm-up, after each climb, and 15 min after each climb. The samples were collected from the little finger of each climber to minimize the impact on grip during the climbs. The samples were collected using the method and equipment described by Draper et al. (2008). The lactate analyses were conducted using a YSI 2300 Stat Plus (Yellow Springs Instruments, Ohio, USA). The YSI 2300 was calibrated and checked against standard solutions before use. The YSI 2300 used a 25-ml blood sample that was haemolysed (YSI 1515 Lysing Agent) and stabilized (YSI 2357 Buffer).

Statistical analysis All analyses were performed using the SPSS program (version 16.0, Chicago, IL) and Microsoft Excel (Microsoft 2003, Redmond, WA) software packages. The data are reported as means and standard deviations (s). Results of one-sample KolmogorovSmirnov goodness-of-fit tests indicated that all variables displayed normal distributions. Paired samples t-tests were calculated for each of the variables to check for significant differences between trials. Statistical significance was set at P B0.05. Results

Psychological measurements Research evidence suggests that mood state can influence physiological performance and thus have an effect on climbing performance (Beedie, Terry, & Lane, 2000; McMorris, et al., 2006; Renger, 1993; Terry, 1995). The Profile of Mood States (POMS) questionnaire, and its shortened version, measure an individual’s perception of fatigue, vigour, anger, depression, and tension (Grove & Prapavessis, 1992; McNair, Lorr, & Droppleman, 1971). Fatigue indicates an individual’s feelings of tiredness and weariness, vigour represents readiness to take part in mental or physical work, and anger indicates feelings of aggression and hostility. Scores for depression and tension indicate an individual’s feelings of worthlessness and restlessness respectively. The inventory is scored on a Likert scale of 04. The main psychological measures for the study were the Revised Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2R) (Cox, Martens, & Russell, 2003) and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration Task Load Index (NASA-TLX) (Hart & Staveland, 1988). These inventories were completed before (CSAI-2R) and after (NASA-TLX) climbing to assess each individual’s feelings of anxiety and self-confidence before the climb and perception of the task load after the climb. The CSAI-2R was completed after the participants’ pre-climb capillary blood sample was collected. The CSAI-2R is a 17item inventory, each item being scored on a Likert scale of 14. The scores for each individual are combined to create a score on the three subscales for somatic anxiety, cognitive anxiety, and selfconfidence. Immediately after the post-climb capillary blood sample, each climber completed the NASA-TLX. The NASA-TLX has a Likert scale of 020 for each of its six subscales. The subscales are mental, physical demand, temporal demand, performance, effort, and frustration. All participants had to rate their feelings for the components after each climbing trial.

Results for the POMS questionnaire indicated that there were no significant differences between trials for any of the components. This finding suggests the prior mood state of the participants did not affect performance during the climbing trials. The results for the physiological measures are shown in Table I and Figure 1. Trends were as expected. The lead climb took significantly longer (P B0.0005) to complete than the top rope climb, resulted in marginally higher mean VO2 and higher VO2peak, higher mean respiratory exchange ratio and heart rate during the ascent, as well as significantly higher post-climb lactate concentrations (P 0.023) that remained significantly elevated 15 min later (P 0.023). The mean and standard deviation for heart rate at key points throughout each trial are shown in Figure 1. The only significant difference in heart rate between the climbs occurred 1 min after the climb, when mean heart rate for the lead climb was significantly higher than for the top rope climb (P B0.0005). As anticipated, in the final minute of preparation before both climbs there was a Table I. Physiological measures during lead and top rope climbs (mean9s) Lead climb

Top rope climb

Climb time (min) 3.13930 s Lactate concentration (mmol × l 1) before climbing 1.590.5 immediately after 3.190.6 climbing 15 min after climbing 1.290.4 VO2peak (ml × kg 1 × min1) 40.8796.63 Average VO2 25.992.6 (ml × kg 1 × min 1) Average RER during climb 1.0190.05 Average heart rate 15996 (beats × min1) 1.42 s955 s Heart rate recovery time#

1.27922 s* 1.591.2 2.590.9* 0.890.4* 38.2995.92 25.191.3 0.9390.1 15195 3.56 min9109 s*

*Significant difference (PB0.05) between the climbs. # Heart rate recovery time was calculated from time taken for heart rate to fall below 100 beats × min1 after climbing. RERrespiratory exchange ratio.

Physiological and psychological responses to rock climbing

Heart rate (bts . min-1)

200

Discussion

180

Lead climb

160

Top-rope climb

140

#

120

*

#

100 80 60 40 20 0

HR 1 min pre climb

HR immediately pre climb

Peak HR

HR1 min post climb

Figure 1. Heart rate (HR) before, during, and after the lead and top rope climbs. * Significant difference (PB0.05) between the climbs. # Significant difference (P B0.05) between heart rates 1 min before and immediately before climbing within trials.

significant rise in heart rate (P 0.021 and P 0.043 for lead and top rope respectively). The results for the CSAI-2R and NASA-TLX inventories are shown in Table II. Although the results indicated the climbers experienced higher somatic and cognitive anxiety and perceived themselves to have lower self-confidence just before the lead climb, compared with the top rope climb, these differences were not significant. For the NASATLX, the participants indicated that the mental and physical demands were significantly higher for the lead than for the top rope climb (P 0.008 and P 0.003 respectively). The climbers felt more time pressure during the lead climb and rated their performance as being better during top roping, although in both cases the difference was not significant. The respondents believed, however, that the lead climb required significantly greater effort (P0.004) and resulted in significantly more frustration (P0.009) than the top rope climb. Table II. Psychological measures during lead and top rope climbs (mean9s) Lead climb

Top rope climb

CSAI-2R a Somatic anxiety Cognitive anxiety Self-confidence

1596 1999 2695

1495 1698 2997

NASA-TLX b Mental demand Physical demand Temporal demand Performance Effort Frustration

1194 1393 1095 1294 1394 1095

994* 894* 795 1494 995* 593*

*Significant difference (P B0.05) between the climbs. Scale of 14. b Scale of 020.

a

17

To our knowledge, this is the first study to examine the physiological and psychological responses to lead and top rope climbing among intermediate climbers. The main findings of the study were as follows: (a) the physiological demand of lead climbing was higher than that for top rope climbing and the additional energy demands were met through anaerobic metabolism; (b) the disproportionate rise in heart rate relative to VO2 during the two types of climb lends further support to the presence of a metaboreflex response in rock climbing; and (c) there was no significant difference in anxiety between lead and top rope climbing, although the participants reported the lead climb as being significantly more demanding (mentally and physically), requiring significantly greater effort, and creating significantly greater frustration regarding their performance. The anthropometric data indicated that the climbers in the present study had height, mass, and percent body fat that were comparable to climbers of similar ability and of a higher standard in previous research (Bertuzzi et al., 2007; de Geus et al., 2006; Mermier et al., 2000; Watts et al., 1996). The mean body fat (9.693.1%) of the climbers in the present study, however, was higher than that reported for elite climbers in several previous studies (Bertuzzi et al., 2007; de Geus et al., 2006; Mermier et al., 1997, 2000; Watts et al., 1996). This appears to be a consistent finding across rock climbing research; the higher the standard of the climber, the lower their relative body fat. The VO2max of the climbers in the present study would place them in a ‘‘superior’’ fitness category, which is again in line with previous research for intermediate, advanced, and elite climbers (Billat et al., 1995; Heyward, 2002; Watts & Drobish, 1998). Although oxygen consumption during climbing (Table II) indicated that mean VO2 during the lead climb was higher than during top roping, the difference was only marginal (less than 1 ml × kg 1 × min 1) and was statistically non-significant. A similar finding was observed for VO2peak, which was also not significantly different between the climbs. Our mean VO2peak values were similar to those reported by Bertuzzi et al. (2007) for elite climbers on moderate and difficult routes. These values are higher, however, than those reported in previous research (Billat et al., 1995; Mermier et al., 1997) and most likely reflect methodological differences between the studies (online gas analysis as opposed to Douglas bag sampling). Taken together, these results suggest that the relative aerobic contribution to performance remained similar despite differences in climb time and style of ascent. Mean

18

N. Draper et al.

VO2 during climbing was similar to that reported in several previous studies (range 20.126.5 ml × kg 1 × min 1) (Billat et al., 1995; Draper et al., 2008; Hodgson et al., 2008; Mermier et al., 1997). The VO2 results and the relative contribution of aerobic metabolism are in line with Sheel et al. (2003), who investigated physiological responses to easier (5c) and harder (6a) (relative to the climbers’ abilities) rock climbs. These researchers reported only a small rise in VO2 between the climbs (20.19 3.3 to 22.793.7 ml × kg 1 × min1) despite the increase in difficulty. Mermier et al. (1997) measured VO2 during easy (3c), moderate (4b), and difficult (6a) climbs and found that mean VO2 rose from 20.798.1 to 21.995.3 and to 24.994.9 ml × kg 1 × min 1 as the difficulty increased. Despite a significant difference (P B0.05) in VO2 between the easy and difficult climbs relative to the increase in climbing grade, the mean difference (4.2 ml × kg 1 × min 1) appears quite small. The findings for average VO2 across a number of studies led Watts (2004) to speculate on the possibility of an apparent plateau in VO2 for climbs lasting at least 80100 s. The findings of the present study lend further support to this observation. The results for mean lactate concentration (Table I) suggest that the climbers began each trial in a similar state of preparation after the warm-up for each climb. There were significant differences in lactate concentration for both lead and top rope climbs 15 min after the climbs had ended. Postclimb mean lactate concentrations were 3.1 mmol × l 1 for the lead climb and 2.5 mmol × l1 for the top rope climb, which fell to 1.2 and 0.8 mmol × l1 respectively 15 min after climbing. Blood lactate concentration in previous studies were reported to range from 1.64 mmol × l 1 during easy (B5a) climbing to 10.2 mmol × l 1 to for an exhaustive climbing treadmill test (Booth et al., 1999; Mermier et al., 1997). In their TC study of easy (B5a), moderate (5c), and difficult (7a) climbs, Mermier et al. (1997) reported mean lactate concentrations of 1.6490.63, 2.490.68, and 3.2090.97 mmol × l1 respectively. Based on a technical grade of 6a, the mean lactate concentrations after climbing in the present study are in line with those of Mermier et al. (1997). In a study of the influence of different angles of climb on physiological response, Watts and Drobish (1998) reported mean lactate concentrations of 3.691.2 mmol × l 1 for an 808 climb to 5.991.2 mmol × l 1 for a 1028 climb (P B0.05). It would appear that an increase in the technical difficulty of climbing, angle of climbing or style of ascent (lead vs. top rope) results in a rise in lactate concentration.

The results of the present and previous studies support the notion of a plateau in aerobic metabolism with increasing climbing stress (grade, wall angle or style of ascent) (Giles et al., 2006; Sheel, 2004; Watts, 2004). The respiratory exchange ratios recorded for the lead and top rope climbs indicate a greater reliance on glycolysis with increased climbing stress. Post-climb lactate concentrations suggest that at least some of the additional energy demands are met through an increased relative contribution by anaerobic gycolysis. It is likely, however, that the difference in climb time is also at least partly responsible for the increase in lactate concentration in the lead climb compared with top roping. More recently, Bertuzzi et al. (2007) found evidence to suggest an increasing reliance on both ATP-PCr and anaerobic glycolysis with increasing difficulty of climb. The significant increase in heart rate recovery time for the lead climb is indicative of an increase in the fast component of the excess post-exercise oxygen consumption and therefore the contribution of the ATP-PCr system. Bertuzzi et al. (2007) reported the ATP-PCr system to have a far greater role in sport climbing than had been previously thought (Billat et al., 1995; Mermier et al., 1997). The metabolic processes involved in rock climbing are an area of research that requires further investigation. Several studies have examined heart rate and VO2 during climbing relative to individual maximum heart rate and VO2max as measured during treadmill running or cycle ergometry (Billat et al., 1995; Booth et al., 1999; de Geus et al., 2006; Draper et al., 2008; Mermier et al., 1997; Sheel et al., 2003; Watts & Drobish, 1998). Research suggests that for a given climbing VO2, when compared with the equivalent during treadmill running, the heart rate response is disproportionately higher (Giles et al., 2006; Sheel, 2004; Watts, 2004). Billat et al. (1995) found that, during climbing, their participants reached 80% of their maximum heart rate but only around 4245% of their VO2max. The results from our study are comparable with those of Billat et al. (1995). Relative to each participant’s VO2max for treadmill running during the lead and top rope trials, the VO2 represented approximately 44 and 42% of maximum respectively. Heart rate in the lead and top rope trials represented 81% and 77% of treadmill maximum heart rate respectively. De Geus et al. (2006), however, using four routes with the same difficulty but different steepness/displacement, found less of a breakdown in the relationship. These researchers reported VO2 during climbing as representing 7581% of running VO2max and heart rate as representing 8691% of maximum. Sheel et al. (2003) attributed the disproportionate rise in heart

Physiological and psychological responses to rock climbing rate to the effect of metaboreflex during climbing. Increased heart rate during ischaemic exercise is one of the pressor responses generated to increase cardiac output (O’Leary et al., 1999). The metaboreflex pressor response is triggered in an attempt to restore blood flow during ischaemic exercise such as that encountered during climbing. Our results, irrespective of climbing style, indicate support for Sheel and colleagues’ (2003) conclusion. Further research in this area would be beneficial to identify whether additional metaboreflex activation indicators, such as vasoconstriction of non-ischaemic active skeletal muscle and increased ventricular filling, are present in a climbing context. Draper et al. (2008) found significantly higher somatic and cognitive anxiety, as measured via the CSAI-2R, for an on-sight lead climb when compared with a subsequent lead climb of the same route. The results indicated that for the intermediate climbers in the current study, although anxiety levels were higher, the differences were non-significant when comparing a pre-practised lead climb with a top rope climb. These findings suggest that for intermediate climbers, the most anxiety-provoking situation is an on-sight lead climb. It appears that when intermediate climbers have prior knowledge of a route there is a non-significant difference in their perception of anxiety, regardless of the style of ascent. To our knowledge, this is the first time that perception of task load (NASA-TLX) for climbers has been reported. Our findings suggest that the climbers found the lead climb to be more mentally (P  0.008) and physically demanding (P 0.003), requiring significantly more effort (P 0.004), and resulting in significantly greater frustration after climbing (P 0.009). In conclusion, the results of the present study suggest that the physiological demands of lead climbing are greater than for top rope climbing and the additional energy demands appear to be met through anaerobic metabolism. The disproportionate rise in heart rate relative to VO2 for both types of climb in the present study is suggestive of a metaboreflex pressor response in rock climbing. Our findings suggest that although there were no significant differences in anxiety for the two types of climb, the participants perceived the lead climb to be more mentally and physically demanding. With portable lactate and pulmonary gas exchange analysis equipment becoming more widely available, studies on natural rock and further investigation of lead climbing would add to our understanding of the physiological and psychological demands of rock climbing. Anecdotally, coaches of advanced and elite climbers report no differences in the mind set between lead and top rope climbing.

19

References Beedie, C. J., Terry, P. C., & Lane, A. M. (2000). The Profile of Mood States and athletic performance: Two meta-analyses. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 12, 4968. Bertuzzi, R. C., Franchini, E., Kokubun, E., & Kiss, M. A. (2007). Energy system contributions in indoor rock climbing. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 101, 293300. Billat, V., Palleja, P., Charlaix, T., Rizzardo, P., & Janel, N. (1995). Energy specificity of rock climbing and aerobic capacity in competitive sport rock climbers. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 35, 2024. Booth, J., Marino, F., Hill, C., & Gwinn, T. (1999). Energy cost of sport rock climbing in elite performers. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 33, 1418. British Mountaineering Council (2004). Annual Report. Manchester: BMC. British Mountaineering Council (2006). Annual report. Manchester: BMC. Cornett, J. A., Herr, M. D., Gray, K. S., Smith, M. B., Yang, Q. X., & Sinoway, L. I. (2000). Ischemic exercise and the muscle metaboreflex. Journal of Applied Physiology, 89, 1432 1436. Cox, R. H., Martens, M. P., & Russell, W. D. (2003). Measuring anxiety in athletics: The Revised Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 25, 519533. de Geus, B., Villanueva O’Driscoll, S., & Meeusen, R. (2006). Influence of climbing style on physiological responses during indoor rock climbing on routes with the same difficulty. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 98, 489496. Doran, D. A., & Grace, S. R. (2000). Physiological and metabolic responses in novice and recreational rock climbers. In N. Messenger, W. Patterson, & D. Brook (Eds.), The science of climbing and mountaineering (CD-ROM). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Software. Draper, N., Bird, E. L., Coleman, I., & Hodgson, C. (2006a). Effects of active recovery on lactate concentration, heart rate and RPE in climbing. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 5, 97105. Draper, N., Brent, S., Hale, B., & Coleman, I. (2006b). The influence of sampling site and assay method on lactate concentration in response to rock climbing. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 98, 363372. Draper, N., & Hodgson, C. (2008). Adventure sport physiology. Chichester, UK: Wiley. Draper, N., Jones, G. A., Fryer, S., Hodgson, C., & Blackwell, G. (2008). Effect of an on-sight lead on the physiological and psychological responses to rock climbing. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 7, 492498. Gerbert, W., & Werner, I. (2000). Blood lactate response to competitive climbing. In N. Messenger, W. Patterson, & D. Brook (Eds.), The science of climbing and mountaineering (CD-ROM). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Software. Giles, L. V., Rhodes, E. C., & Taunton, J. E. (2006). The physiology of rock climbing. Sports Medicine (Auckland, NZ), 36, 529545. Grove, J. R., & Prapavessis, H. (1992). Preliminary evidence for the reliability and validity of an abbreviated Profile of Mood States. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 23, 93109. Hart, S. G., & Staveland, L. E. (1988). Development of NASATLX (Task Load Index): Results of empirical and theoretical research. Human Mental Workload, 1, 139183. Heyward, V. H. (2002). Advanced fitness assessment and exercise prescription (4th edn). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Hodgson, C. I., Draper, N., McMorris, T., Jones, G. A., Fryer, S., & Coleman, I. (2008). Perceived anxiety and plasma cortisol

20

N. Draper et al.

concentrations following rock climbing with differing safetyrope protocols. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 33, 1418. McCarthy, H. D., Cole, T. J., Fry, T., Jebb, S. A., & Prentice, A. M. (2006). Body fat reference curves for children. International Journal of Obesity, 30, 598602. McMorris, T., Harris, R. C., Swain, J., Corbett, J., Collard, K., Dyson, R. J., et al. (2006). Effect of creatine supplementation and sleep deprivation, with mild exercise, on cognitive and psychomotor performance, mood state, and plasma concentrations of catecholamines and cortisol. Psychopharmacology, 185, 93103. McNair, D. M., Lorr, M., & Droppleman, L. F. (1971). Manual for the Profile of Mood States. San Diego, CA: Educational and Industrial Testing Service. Mermier, C. M., Janot, J. M., Parker, D. L., & Swan, J. G. (2000). Physiological and anthropometric determinants of sport climbing performance. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 34, 359365; discussion 366. Mermier, C. M., Robergs, R. A., McMinn, S. M., & Heyward, V. H. (1997). Energy expenditure and physiological responses during indoor rock climbing. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 31, 224228. O’Leary, D. S. (1993). Autonomic mechanisms of muscle metaboreflex control of heart rate. Journal of Applied Physiology, 74, 17481754. O’Leary, D. S. (1996). Heart rate control during exercise by baroreceptors and skeletal muscle afferents. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 28, 210217. O’Leary, D. S., Augustyniak, R. A., Ansorge, E. J., & Collins, H. L. (1999). Muscle metaboreflex improves O2 delivery to ischemic active skeletal muscle. American Journal of Physiology: Heart and Circulatory Physiology, 276, H1399H1403. O’Leary, D. S., & Sheriff, D. D. (1995). Is the muscle metaboreflex important in control of blood flow to ischemic active skeletal muscle in dogs? American Journal of Physiology: Heart and Circulatory Physiology, 268, H980H986. Renger, R. (1993). A review of the Profile of Mood States (POMS) in the prediction of athletic success. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 5, 7884.

Rowell, L. B. (1993). Human cardiovascular control. New York: Oxford University Press. Rowell, L. B., & O’Leary, D. S. (1990). Reflex control of the circulation during exercise: Chemoreflexes and mechanoreflexes. Journal of Applied Physiology, 69, 407418. Schoeffl, V., Klee, S., & Strecker, W. (2004). Evaluation of physiological standard pressures of the forearm flexor muscles during sport specific ergometry in sport climbers. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 38, 422425. Sheel, A. W. (2004). Physiology of sport rock climbing. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 38, 355359. Sheel, A. W., Seddon, N., Knight, A., McKenzie, D. C., & Warburton, D. E. R. (2003). Physiological responses to indoor rock-climbing and their relationship to maximal cycle ergometry. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 35, 12251231. Terry, P. C. (1995). The efficacy of mood state profiling among elite competitors: A review and synthesis. The Sport Psychologist, 9, 309324. Wall, C. B., Starek, J. E., Fleck, S. J., & Byrnes, W. C. (2004). Prediction of indoor climbing performance in women rock climbers. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 18, 7783. Watts, P. B. (2004). Physiology of difficult rock climbing. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 91, 361372. Watts, P. B., & Drobish, K. M. (1998). Physiological responses to simulated rock climbing at different angles. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 30, 11181122. Watts, P. B., Newbury, V., & Sulentic, J. (1996). Acute changes in handgrip strength, endurance, and blood lactate with sustained sport rock climbing. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 36, 255260. Williams, E. S., Taggart, P., & Carruthers, M. (1978). Rock climbing: Observations on heart rate and plasma catecholamine concentrations and the influence of oxprenolol. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 12, 125128.

Copyright of European Journal of Sport Science is the property of Taylor & Francis Ltd and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.