Physiological Arousal and Performance in Elite Archers: A Field Study

European Psychologist

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Physiological Arousal and Performance in Elite Archers: A Field Study Claudio Robazza1, Laura Bortoli1, and Vincent Nougier2 ]

lstituto Superiore Educazione Fisica, Padova, Italy, 2Universite Joseph Fourier, Sport and Motor Performance Laboratory, Grenoble, France

The performance and heart rate often top-level female archers were assessed in afield study. The study was designed (a) to analyze the impact ofphysiological arousal on performance, (b) to investigate whether heartrate deceleration during shooting, a marker of optimal functioning of attentional processes, is affected by arousal modification, and (c) to verify whether heart-rate deceleration appears under conditions of occluded vision and mental rehearsal or while simulating execution. Treatments comprised optimal, delayed, blind, simulated, high-arousal, and lowarousal shooting conditions. Within-factors analysis ofvariance was conducted on performance variables (shooting scores, variable error, and total

error) and heart rate. The results revealed that best and worst outcomes were associated with optimal and delayed conditions, respectively. Decreased performance was also found for high arousal. Analysis of heart rate yielded significant results: Heart-rate deceleration during shooting, from draw to release, was associated with optimal, blind, and simulated conditions. Implications for practice in archery are derived from findings. Performance outcomes and heart-rate pattern can be assessed during training to determine optimal arousal and action timing, furthermore, heart-rate deceleration can be used as a physiological marker of modifications induced by mental rehearsal and skill simulation.

Keywords: Sport psychology, physiological arousal, heart rate, athletic performance.

The effects of physiological arousal on athletic performance have great relevance for both theoretical and applied purposes. Consistent high-level performance can be obtained when an athlete discovers the optimal physiological conditions leading to best execution and learns to control them. Arousal regulation procedures are some of the most widely used strategies taught to athletes by sport psychologists (Gould, Tammen, Murphy, & May, 1989; Vealey, 1988). Arousal is defined as a "general physiological and psychological activation of the organism that varies on a continuum from deep sleep to intense excitement" (Gould & Krane, 1992, pp. 120-121). For many years, the well-known inverted-U hypothesis has been employed as the dominant theoretical view in explaining the arousal-performance relationship (Yerkes & Dodson, 1908). This hypothesis specifies that good performance in a given task is achieved when an optimal or moderate arousal level is reached, too high or too low arousal resulting in decreased performance. Recently, however, there have been increasing criticisms of the inverted-U hypothesis (e. g., Hardy, 1990;Neiss, 1988). CritEuropean Psychologist, Vol. 3, No. 4, December 1998, pp. 263-270 © 1998 Hogrefe & Huber Publishers

ics, for example, have questioned the shape of the arousal curve and argued that the inverted-U hypothesis merely predicts—without explaining—the relationship between arousal and performance. In the sport psychology literature, moreover, the terms stress, anxiety, and arousal have been used nearly interchangeably, although they are in fact not synonymous (Gould & Krane, 1992). For instance, highly aroused performers experience augmented heart rate, respiration, and sweating, but this does not necessarily mean they feel anxious. Anxiety and arousal may

Claudio Robazza is a Professor of Psychology at the Physical Education Institute at University of Padova, Italy. A researcher and practitioner in sport psychology and physical education, he has published numerous books and articles on these topics and works as a psychological consultant to athletes of individual and team sports, including shooting, golf, pentathlon, and rugby. He provided psychological services to the Italian Archery Team during the 1996 Olympic Games. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Dr. Claudio Robazza, Istituto Superiore di Educazione Fisica, Via Gozzano, 64, Guizza, 1-35125 Padova, Italy (tel. +39 49 880-4412, fax +39 49 880-4609, e-mail [email protected]).

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Claudio Robazza, Laura Bortoli, and Vincent Nougier

be interwoven but they are certainly independent dimensions. In other words, arousal is not automatically associated with anxiety; rather, it is the individual's interpretation of own arousal level that defines what is experienced. This dissatisfaction has led to the development of other theories or hypotheses, including the individual zones of optimal functioning (IZOF) model (Hanin, 1980, 1986), the reversal theory (Kerr, 1985), the multidimensional anxiety theory (Martens, Burton, Vealey, Bump, & Smith, 1990), and the catastrophe theory (Hardy, 1990). A detailed examination of these views is beyond the scope of this paper; for the present discussion, however, it is important to recognize that in both multidimensional anxiety theory and catastrophe theory physiological arousal is hypothesized to affect performance in an inverted-U fashion. The multidimensional theory predicts that increases in somatic state anxiety (manifested in augmented arousal) facilitate performance up to an optimal level, with further increases in somatic anxiety beyond this level resulting in performance decline. Cognitive state anxiety (worry), on the other hand, would be negatively and linearly linked to performance. The catastrophe theory postulates a similar U-shaped relationship between physiological arousal and performance as predicted in the multidimensional theory. However, this relationship is maintained only when cognitive anxiety (or worry) is low. When cognitive anxiety is high, increases in physiological arousal are related to enhanced performance until a certain point, after which a dramatic (catastrophic) deterioration of performance occurs (Hardy, 1996). Therefore, physiological arousal would be related to performance in an inverted-U fashion under conditions of low cognitive anxiety. Although individual differences exist, a relatively moderate or low arousal is beneficial to an accurate execution of precision tasks involving steadiness or control of unwanted muscle contractions (Landers & Boutcher, 1993). A precise tuning of muscle activity is required in sports such as archery, golf, shooting, and bowling. The need to control physiological activation is apparent during competition, particularly when the increased arousal is interpreted by the performer as an anxiety symptom. Strategies designed to identify optimal arousal, to recognize signs associated with arousal modification, and to apply self-regulation during practice and competition are useful in helping athletes achieve peak performance (Harris & Williams, 1993; Zaichkowsky & Takenaka, 1993). Heart rate has been one of the physiological measures most commonly used in laboratory and applied settings to study arousal (for review, see Collins, 1995; Hatfield & Landers, 1987). Heart-rate pattern, moreover,

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offers insights into the interaction of activation with attention processes. Deceleration in heart rate of experienced athletes in the few seconds prior to the execution was reported in golf (Boutcher & Zinsser, 1990), shooting (Hatfield, Landers, & Ray, 1987), and archery (Landers, Han, Salazar, Petruzzello, Kubitz, & Gannon, 1994) and is associated with good performance. This effect was most commonly explained with the intake-rejection hypothesis (Lacey, 1967; Lacey & Lacey, 1970, 1974), suggesting that when attention is externally focused (intake task), heart rate decreases. On the other hand, when attention is internally oriented and the outer stimuli rejected (rejection task), heart rate increases. Collins (1995) proposed the example of the tennis player waiting to receive a service and thus directing attention externally. This intake task should cause a lowering in the arousal level. Conversely, the server concentrating internally on focusing power and technique is blocking out the external environment: This rejection task should increase arousal. Similar situations can be found in precision tasks. In archery, for example, in the few seconds (4-7 s) before arrow release, the archer's attention is externally oriented to control sight-target alignment. In this phase, cardiac deceleration usually found in expert performers is a marker of efficaciously focused attention (Hatfield et al., 1987; Landers et al., 1994). Such changes in the physiological arousal can reflect an orienting response (or reflex) of the organism. Heart-rate deceleration seems not to be a result of respiratory sinus arrhythmia (i. e., the connection between heart rate and breath holding), since in the experiments it occurred with a wide variety of accompanying respiratory patterns. An alternative view, the cardiac coupling hypothesis (Obrist, Howard, Lawler, Galosy, Meyers, & Gaebelein, 1974), suggests heart-rate deceleration as a concomitant to motor quieting, a condition facilitating stimulus detection. In shooting, for example, motor-quieting facilitates trigger timing and reduces disturbance in muscular control derived from heart pumping. Whatever the explanation might be, heart-rate deceleration could be considered a sign of good performance and have important implications for self-regulatory interventions (i. e., biofeedback and relaxation-energizing techniques). In a preliminary investigation in a field setting, 16- to 18-year-old expert archers were taught self-regulation procedures aimed at voluntarily modifying physiological arousal before shooting (Robazza, Bortoli, & Nougier, 1997). The archers were able to learn self-regulation techniques in a short time. Heart rate was monitored, and two shooting phases (drawand-aim and arrow-release) were linked to heart-rate European Psychologist, Vol. 3, No. 4, December 1998, pp. 263-270 © 1998 Hogrefe & Huber Publishers

Physiological Arousal and Performance in Elite Archers

Six shooting treatment conditions were used in the following order: (1) optimal, (2) delayed, (3) blind, (4) sim-

ulated, (5) high-arousal, and (6) low-arousal. Each archer was informed about the procedure and individually tested in the field. Heart-rate resting baseline was measured with the participant sitting quietly before warm-up. After light preparatory warm-up (physical exercises and stretching) and twelve shooting trials, the archer was required to shoot six arrows at a 70-meter distance from the target under optimal, delayed, higharousal, and low-arousal treatment conditions. Blind shooting was performed at a 5-meter distance, while simulated shooting was executed at a 70-meter distance without bow. Relaxation and energizing procedures were taught individually in the field, aimed at voluntarily modifying physiological arousal before shooting. To increase arousal, archers were instructed (1) to breathe mainly with the thorax and speed up breathing rate, (2) to tense limb and trunk muscles blocking breathing for a while, and (3) to execute active stretching or quick movements when needed. To decrease arousal, archers were instructed (1) to breathe slowly and deeply, mainly with the abdomen, (2) "check up" body parts from feet to head, paying attention on muscle relaxation (particularly on shoulders and neck), and (3) to draw and maintain visual attention on the ground while detaching from external cues. A heart-rate monitor was used to assess arousal level and provide feedback to athletes of their own autonomic function. We started by requesting athletes to shoot as they usually did and to attain best results (optimal condition). The delayed shooting condition followed: Performers were asked to delay arrow release by 5 s, waiting for the verbal cue of the experimenter located behind the respective archer (5 s were added to individual shooting time assessed in the previous shooting condition). This procedure was devised in order to force sustained attention in performers and, as result, to clearly detect heart-rate deceleration. In the subsequent blind condition, the participants were required to shoot at a reduced distance from the target with their eyes closed. They were also asked to mentally depict bow-string and sight-target alignments while shooting, and to accomplish any operation as if their eyes were open. In the succeeding simulated shooting condition, archers were requested to mime execution without a bow. They were also instructed to mentally rehearse bow-string and sight-target alignments while shooting, feel muscle tension derived from bow-string draw, keep execution timing, mentally depict arrow flight after release and the arrow landing in the center of the target. The last two conditions of shooting followed while highly or underaroused. Prior to execution, athletes underwent the

European Psychologist, Vol. 3, No. 4, December 1998, pp. 263-270 © 1998 Hogrefe & Huber Publishers

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pattern. Heart-rate deceleration from draw-and-aim to arrow-release was shown. However, the effects of modified arousal upon performance and heart-rate deceleration were unclear as arousal manipulations did not substantially affect performance and heart-rate deceleration. Thus, more research should be conducted to analyze the relationships among arousal, heart-rate deceleration, and performance in precision tasks. The present investigation was carried out in a field setting to examine some of these relationships in archery elite performers. In particular, one goal of the study was to analyze the impact of modified physiological arousal upon performance. Heart rate was chosen as a feasible measure of physiological activation in archers performing their skills under realistic conditions. It was hypothesized that deviations from individual optimal conditions (increased or decreased arousal) during shooting would impair performance. Another goal was to investigate whether heart-rate deceleration during shooting is affected in top-level athletes by arousal modification. This physiological marker of optimal attention and performance may disappear or be hidden during low or high activation. A final goal was to ascertain whether heart-rate deceleration appears while executing an action under conditions of occluded vision and mental rehearsal or while simulating execution. Heart-rate deceleration in such conditions would provide support for the field application of the two procedures as mental training techniques (mental rehearsal while shooting with closed eyes and physical simulation).

Method Participants

Ten top-level female archers of the Italian National team took part in the research. They ranged in age from 17 to 40 years (M = 25.80, SD = 8.12), and their experience at international competitions extended from 2 to 10 years. Four of them had participated in the Olympics and six in World Championships. The archers and their coach were contacted during preparatory meetings before European Championships. After we had explained the research goals, they agreed to participate. Informed consent was then obtained. Procedure


above-described energizing or relaxing procedures, try- treatment comprised two tests, as explained above). The ing to increase or reduce heart rate by at least five pulses six shots of optimal, delayed, high-arousal, and lowover or below the baseline. (The baseline measure was arousal conditions were averaged for the analysis. Each the heart rate assessed just before the drawing phase shot received a score from 0 to 10, and the six shot total during optimal shooting condition.) The sequence of the scores from 0 to 60. Variable error (VE) and total variabilsix treatment conditions, comprising six shootings each, ity (E) were derived from the shooting scores. The heart was repeated twice. Therefore, archers were tested twice rate corresponding to the two shooting phases of draw on each condition and performed a total of 72 actual or and aim and release was also analyzed. simulated shootings during a session of about two Within-factors analyses of variance 2 x 4 (tests x ophours. Before all treatments, archers were reminded to timal, delayed, high arousal, low-arousal conditions) always do their best. were performed on mean shooting scores, variable error, Shooting scores of optimal, delayed, high-arousal, and total variability. Significant differences on mean and low-arousal conditions were recorded. Heart rate shooting scores, £3,27 = 13.68, p < 0.001 T|2 = 0.60, and total was also assessed throughout treatments with a heart- variability, F3,27= 12.33, p < 0.001 r| 2 = 0.58, appeared on rate monitor (Polar Sport Tester) composed of wrist re- the main factor treatment conditions. Newman-Keuls ceiver and thoracic belt with a pulse transmitter record- follow-up (p < 0.01) revealed that shooting scores and toing 5 s heart-rate sampling (heart rate was averaged ev- tal variability associated with optimal shooting condition ery 5 s). Two phases of the shooting sequence—the were higher and lower when compared to delayed shootstarting time of draw and aim, and the time of arrow ing and high arousal shooting conditions, respectively. 1 release—were recorded, to then be linked to the heart- Moreover, the delayed shooting condition resulted in the rate pattern. They were identified by an expert coach through a chronometer synchronized with the heart monitor. The two shooting phases were chosen because they are thought to reflect the most important part of the Table 1 shooting sequence: The athlete has to focus complete at- Means and standard deviations of performance shooting tention on sight-target and bow-string alignments, in- scores (12 shots). hibit involuntary muscle tensions, and control external Performance Treatment conditions Optimal Delayed High Low and internal disturbances. Heart-rate recordings were arousal arousal then transferred to a computer via an interface and comScores pared to the two shooting phases for each shot.

Results The two sequences of six treatment conditions were kept separate in the analyses to control for the potential effects of experimental procedure acquaintance (each

M 8.36 SD 0.46 Total variability (E) M 2.03 SD 0.46 Variable error (VE) M 1.17 SD 0.22

6.60 1.27

7.54 0.74

8.08 0.65

3.82 1.39

2.80 0.81

2.25 0.69

1.69 0.71

1.29 0.49

1.15 0.33

Table 2 Heart rate means and standard deviations for different treatments and shooting phases. Shooting phases

Draw and aim M SD Release M SD

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Optimal

Treatment conditions Delayed Closed eyes Simulated

104.35 11.30

104.08 9.75

101.22 11.02

100.00 10.79

102.12 9.29

98.06 10.24

High arousal

Low arousal

93.24 10.99

116.99 15.53

92.65 9.57

88.58 10.42

114.30 15.53

93.32 9.77



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worst performance. Best performance was obtained when participants executed the action as usual, without experimental manipulations. No differences emerged between the first and second testing sequence, indicating subjects' acquaintance with experimental procedures starting from the first testing session. Means and standard deviations of performance scores for the different experimental conditions are reported in Table 1. Within-factors analysis of variance 2 x 2 x 6 (tests x shooting phases x treatment conditions) was conducted on mean heart rate. Significant differences emerged on shooting phases, Fi,9 = 5.72, p < 0.05 T)2 = 0.39, treatment conditions, F5/45 = 28.51, p < 0.001 r|2 = 0.76, and their interaction, F5,45 = 4.66, p < 0.002 r|2 = 0.34. Follow-up (p < 0.01) yielded significant differences in heart rate between optimal, delayed, and blind shooting conditions compared to high- and low-arousal conditions, indicating that energizing and relaxing procedures were efficacious in enhancing or decreasing arousal. Moreover, during simulated shooting, heart rate was the lowest of all conditions except the low-arousal condition. Significant deceleration on heart rate from draw to release was found on optimal, blind, and simulated shootings. Table European Psychologist, Vol. 3, No. 4, December 1998, pp. 263-270 © 1998 Hogrefe & Huber Publishers

2 contains heart-rate means and standard deviations linked to draw and release for the different treatments. Heart-rate decelerations on the first test of an archer are visible in Figure 1. High- and low-arousal treatments are not plotted because heart-rate deceleration did not reach significance. Heart-rate deceleration on delayed shooting, as shown in the figure, is similar to optimal condition. In the whole sample, the analysis did not yield significance because the prolonged effort to maintain the bow tensed 5 s more than normal caused heart-rate acceleration before release. Heart-rate resting baseline values (M = 82.93, SD = 7.34) were the lowest compared to those of all conditions. This was expected because in order to accomplish performance requirements and sustain effort, the arousal level must be over resting conditions. Indeed, pretask heart-rate baselines, collected in the 5 s prior to the draw-and-aim phase of optimal shooting, were about 23 pulses over the rest conditions (M = 106.30, SD = 10.14). Correlation coefficients of heart rate between baselines (r = 0.64) and those among baselines and start of draw phase of treatment conditions were all significant (p < 0.05) and positive, ranging from 0.64 to 0.82.

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Discussion Expert archers were able to learn quickly to apply selfregulation procedures aimed at voluntarily modifying physiological arousal. Heart-rate monitoring was used as a sensitive and low-intrusive measure of assessing arousal in an applied setting. Breathing control, muscle tension or relaxation, attention focusing, and heart-rate feedback were used as behavioral-somatic strategies to increase or decrease arousal (see Harris & Williams, 1993; Gould & Udry, 1994; Zaichkowsky & Takenaka, 1993). A first goal of the study was to investigate the impact of modified arousal upon performance. The hypothesis of performance impairment caused by changes in arousal level was confirmed for the high-arousal condition on shooting scores and total variability measures (see Table 1). Nonsignificant differences appeared between optimal arousal (set by the archer to best perform) and low-arousal conditions. The inverted-U hypothesis predicting the arousal-performance relationship was thus partially confirmed. Outcomes did not decline on the low-arousal condition likely because of movement inhibition, body stabilization, and fine muscle tuning required in archery. Most tasks in precision sports, in fact, are better accomplished at low or moderate arousal (Landers & Boutcher, 1993). Another tenable explanation is that top-level athletes were able to maintain good performance when arousal was low. A quiet condition in the body is often emphasized by coaches and archers as ideal for shooting, and expert performers are expected to easily attain this state. From these findings and considerations, the implication is drawn for applied sport psychologists and coaches to help athletes identify personal optimal arousal for best performance. This can be carried out by modifying arousal systematically and repeatedly, and by measuring the consequences upon performance and outcome. Optimal arousal-performance relationship can be established when best results are consistently attained within an individual-specific arousal bandwidth. This can be particularly beneficial to athletes with less experience facing problems in controlling body reactions and handling execution at the same time. The experienced top-level athletes participating in this study had no difficulty setting proper arousal during practice. However, this may not be the case during competition, particularly if somatic symptoms of activation are interpreted as anxiety. Worry linked to high physiological arousal increases the probability of catastrophic loss of performance (Hardy, 1996), making a

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combination of individualized cognitive and somatic mental preparation strategies appropriate (Burton, 1990). Somatic strategies can extensively rely upon arousal-management procedures applied in practice and then transferred to competition. Another implication for practice derives from the results of the delayed shooting. The prolonged effort of tensing the bow 5 s beyond usual shooting time caused the worst outcomes. Draw-and-aim is a critical phase of the shooting sequence, lasting about 4-5 s or more depending on the athlete. The archer here has to direct proper attention to the sight-target and bow-string alignments, keep steadiness, and control unwanted muscle activity. Even a few seconds added to the usual draw-and-aim time are enough to produce muscle tension, fatigue, trembling, and, as result, drastic declines in performance. The augmented fatigue of the protracted effort was also apparent in the heart-rate pattern. During draw-and-aim, after deceleration similar to the optimal shooting condition, the effort caused heart rate to increase just before release. This phenomenon is demonstrated in Figure 1 in the delayed condition, although only slightly noticeable in this archer. However, in the whole sample the augmented heart rate at release did not differ from heart rate associated with the start of action (draw). The diminished performance outcomes and the modified heart-rate pattern, derived from delayed shooting, highlight the importance of timing. Scores and heart-rate pattern could then be used to determine the optimal length of shooting time in archers, especially if inexperienced. Tension, trembling, and increased heart rate are signals of drawing times longer than optimal. Performers may be helped to become aware of these bodily reactions and establish suitable timing. The second goal of the study was to investigate heart-rate deceleration linked to the shooting sequence in conditions of high and low arousal. Findings showed that this physiological marker of good attention and performance faded or disappeared when arousal was modified. Significant differences on heart rate between draw and release were not found for high and low arousal. Different explanations can be advanced for the two conditions. In the high-arousal treatment, archers were requested to increase their heart rate voluntarily and then immediately start execution without recovering the usual arousal condition. When initiated, the shooting action had to be completed in a short time to prevent fatigue. The time span may not have been long enough to allow attention processes or quieting to determine a significant heart-rate decrease in highly aroused performers. In the low-arousal treatment, on the other hand, archers were European Psychologist, Vol. 3, No. 4, December 1998, pp. 263-270 © 1998 Hogrefe & Huber Publishers


required to become underaroused and immediately start the action. Heart rate increased as consequence of physical effort, and heart-rate deceleration did not appear. Interestingly, heart rate at release was about 6-7 beats lower in the low-arousal condition compared to optimal condition (see Table 2). It can be argued that a moderate level of physiological arousal, higher than rest conditions, is usually set by athletes for best performance. These findings suggest that heart-rate deceleration can be used profitably, beside heart rate and shooting scores, to set optimal arousal for shooting performance. More research is needed to confirm this hypothesis, also taking into account other samples of athletes (i. e., nonelite performers) and different sports. Findings may also emerge from a study of the emotionperformance relationship. For instance, the assessment of emotions, heart rate, and performance in competition would provide important information for applied and theoretical purposes. Another line of investigation should be addressed to the several physiological intervening variables that could mediate the decrease in heart rate during precision task execution. In rifle shooting, for example, Konttinen and Lyytinen (1992) recorded marksmen's heart rate and respiration during performance, revealing heart-rate deceleration prior to the trigger pull as well as a typical respiration pattern consisting of breath-holding and slow expiration. Although the heart-rate modification may be considered the result of respiratory sinus arrhythmia (Hirsch & Bishop, 1981), the association between respiratory pattern and heartrate deceleration was low. Therefore, the intake-rejection hypothesis offers a better explanation of the heart-rate pattern compared to the respiratory sinus arrhythmia. The intake-rejection hypothesis is also supported by other sport studies (see Landers et al., 1994) since heart-rate deceleration was associated with different breathing patterns (i. e., inhalation, exhalation, and breath-holding). A modified respiratory pattern is also evident in archery especially during the draw-and-aim phase where archers hold their breath for few seconds before releasing the arrow. The enhanced physical effort to draw and hold the bow at full draw causes an increase in intrathoracic pressure and in arterial blood pressure, which stimulates the baroreceptor reflex. Although these mechanisms do not seem to be the primary determinants of the heart-rate deceleration, their role and interaction with the attentional processes during athletic performance deserve further examination. The last goal of the study was to investigate whether heart-rate deceleration was also linked to shooting under occluded vision or simulation conditions. SignifEuropean Psychologist, Vol. 3, No. 4, December 1998, pp. 263-270 © 1998 Hogrefe & Huber Publishers

icant heart-rate deceleration was found in both cases from draw to release (see Table 2 and Figure 1). The heart rate during simulation was lower compared to all other treatments, except for the low-arousal condition, which is not surprising since the archer was told not to sustain the physical effort to tense the bow. Nevertheless, heartrate decrease was apparent, even though actual shooting was not performed. In the blind condition, participants were asked to mentally visualize bow-string and sighttarget alignments while shooting, and to execute as if the eyes were open. In the simulation condition, archers were similarly requested to mentally rehearse bowstring and sight-target alignments while shooting, feel muscle tension, visualize the arrow flying and landing at the center of the target. These mental rehearsal requirements are based on mental-training strategies very often applied in sports (see Hardy, Jones, & Gould, 1996; Williams, 1993), and they probably caused the heart-rate deceleration found in this study. Several studies on mental practice have documented slight electromyographic activity in the muscles involved in the imagined action, matching the actual movement (see Murphy & Jowdy, 1992, for a review). Although there is little evidence supporting the benefits of the minute muscular activity associated with mental practice, a relationship between muscle response and imagery is supposed to exist. A similar relationship could be hypothesized between mental rehearsal and heart-rate pattern found in the blind and simulation tasks in this study. This could have important implication for practice. In golf-putting, for example, Meacci and colleagues (Meacci & Pastore, 1995; Meacci & Price, 1985) demonstrated the benefits of mental rehearsal accompanied by the physical simulation of the task; imagery combined with physical practice was superior to physical practice alone. In precision tasks, such as golf and archery, heart-rate deceleration could then be used as a physiological marker of modifications induced by mental rehearsal and skill simulation. Research in this area is needed to investigate the physiological concomitants of mental rehearsal during practice and the effects on performance.

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