PROBLEMATIC IDEOLOGIES IN TEACHER EDUCATION

P R O B L E M A T I C I D E O L O G I E S IN T E A C H E R EDUCATION

Monica Jacobs D e p a rtm e n t o f G eneral Didactics University of Durban-Westville DURBAN

A b slracl

A critical problem facing educationiuls is the problematic quality o f m any teacher training courses. V ie major source o f the problem seems to be the irrational ideological foundations on which these courses are often based. The research them e revolves around a particular type o f problematic ideology, viz. lecturing course team s in teacher training whose m em bers refuse to adopt an integrated, muiually-compatible approach when teaching students how to teach. Such course teams in.s'ist on transferring contradictory, subjective views o f teaching to student teachers. It is estimated that a high percentage o f students annually qualifying as teachers in South Africa are, from a professional point o f view, incompetent to teach. The argument is outlined in three parts: statement o f problem, theoretical argimients being forwarded to justify problematic ideologies, and possible solutions. Bearing in m ind the far-reaching implications o f the situation, the solution could be to appoint a prescriptive controlling body/inspect orate whose members' main task would be to raise teacher training standards in South Africa. Experience in more developed countries suggests that such a controlling body would only function effectively i f com posed o f representatives from other social sciences, schools, future employers (o f pupils), educationists, and the government.

1.

INTRODUCnON

In this article evidence em anating from recent investigations into ideologies prevalent in teacher education is examined. T he main argument is that a low quality of teaching in schools is o ften d u e to p ro b le m a tic didactic ideologies b eing i m b e d d e d in many teacher training courses. In a large n um ber of tea che r training institutions throughout the world, a n d th e r e fo r e also in som e te a c h e r institutions in South Africa, this is a d i s t u r b i n g re ality. N o t only d o e s it le a d to a g r o u n d s w e l l o f f r u s t r a t e d h ope s, ambitions, and anxieties among children, parents, and teachers, but it also impedes the probability of South Africa becoming a m ore productive and pro.sperous country. S p a c e d o e s n o t allow s e m a n t i c a nalyse s o f th e m any key t e r m s p e r t i n e n t to this d i s c u s s i o n , eg. teaching, Didactics, teacher education, scientific theory, practice, curriculum, method, etc. Suffice to note that the sense in which these and o ther terms

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are used here, is m o re or less the sa m e as the sense in which they are used by prom i n e n t So u th A fric a n e d u c a ti o n i s t s like L a n d m a n (1985), M a r a is (1987), I.N.Steyn (1987,1988), Van de r Walt (1988), G re b e (1988), H.J. Steyn (1988), the V a n de r Stoeps (1988), and others. T he term ideology, as use d in this p aper, indicates a set o f ethical ideas that form the basis o f a theory or system. T his m ea n in g o f ideology is a d e v ia tio n from S nym a n’s (1987) usage of the term , viz. " ideolo gie is ’n disk o e rs wat ’n p a r ti k u l ie r e b e la n g be vorder op ’n m anier wat nadelig is vir an d er en hulle o or hierdie nadeligheid mislei". (1987:372). It griev e s me to d i s a g r e e on this p o i n t with a p h i l o s o p h e r w h o m I o t h e r w is e a d m i r e , but it w o u ld a p p e a r t h a t his d e f in i t io n o f id e o lo g y c o u ld be anachronic. It seems to be a backsliding to the m eaning of the word as used by Marx. Many m odern writers use the term in a m ore positive sense, indicating neith er a true nor a false system of thought - just a coherent set of ethical ideas that form the basis of a theory or system. C om pare, for instance, S nym an’s in te rp reta tio n to that of Bloom (1987:219): Ideology today, in p o p u la r spccch, is, in th e first placc, g enerally u n d ersto o d lo b e a g o o d and ncces.sary thing .... In sh o rt, id eology b ec am e iden tical to values, an d th a t is w hy it belo n g s on th e h o n o r roll o f te rm s by which we live.

So deeply ingrained is this m o d ern m eaning of ideology, th at bo th the W e b s te r’s and the Oxford dictionaries underscore Bloom ’s interpretation of the term. If an ideology consists of a collectio n o f c o heren t, non-intracontradictory ideas, it is here being seen as a justifiable ideology; if it consists o f a collection o f incoherent, intra c o n tr a d ic to r y ideas, it is r e fe rr e d to as a problem atic ideology. T h e l a tte r kind of ideology is problem atic becau.se its ideas do not form a p ro p e r set. As such, it fails to achieve its basic purpose, i.e. to provide a basis for a theory or system. T h e r e is thus a c e r t a i n s im ila rity b e tw e e n S n y m a n ’s d e f in i t io n o f ideology a n d my d e fin i t io n of

problematic ideology. T h e p a rtic u la r type o f ideologies relevant h e r e a re didactic ideologies, viz. a set of e th ic a l id e a s th a t fo rm t h e ba sis for a t e a c h i n g t h e o r y o r t e a c h i n g system . T h e argument is presented in three parts: a sta te m ent of the problem , theoretical grounds for problem atic ideologies, and the quest for solutions.

2.

STA TEM EN T O F PROBLEM

Most educational researchers, regardless o f their theoretical persuasion, would agree th at p r o b l e m a t i c id eolo gies is a m a j o r p r o b l e m in t e a c h e r e d u c a ti o n today. T his

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a rticle , how ever, is not so m uch d irec te d a t th em as a t a cad em ics from o th e r study fields (the reason for this will becom e clear late r on). It th ere fo re dem ands a starting point w here the problem is explained as sharply and as specifically as possible, to m ake the dilem m a clear to academ ics not directly involved in teach er education. T h e p ro b lem is how the q uality of te a c h e r e d u ca tio n in South A frica can be fu rth er im p ro v e d to e n su re th a t th e next g e n e ra tio n o f S o u th A frica n s will have a h igher quality of life than the presen t generation. It should be un d ersco red th at te a c h e r edu catio n is one of the vital d e te rm in a n ts of a c o u n try ’s q u a lity o f sch o o l te a c h in g a n d , th e r e f o re , o f a n a tio n ’s q u a lity o f life. T eaching is aim ed at providing students with ap p ro p ria te know ledge, skills, and values to m ake them intellectually and m orally as fit as possible to im prove the world in which th ey live. T h u s, w h e n te a c h in g in a p a r tic u la r c la ss ro o m , sc h o o l o r c o u n try is ineffective it m eans th at a large p ro portion of its pupils do not grow intellectually and m orally as rapidly as they should - a situation which has a negative effect on the quality o f life in th e c o u n try as a w hole. T h e re a re obviously m any c au ses o f ineffective teaching. Re.search has repeatedly indicated, however, th at tea ch e r quality is probably the m ost significant d e te rm in a n t o f pupil achievem ent (as opposed to such factors as e x p e n d itu re p e r p u p il, cla ss siz e , in s tru c tio n a l m a te ria ls , sy llab i, e tc .) . F u lle r (1987:258) found that in no less than 27 recent em pirical studies a bout the influence of te a c h e r q u a lity o n pupil a ch iev e m en t th e re su lts show ed th a t high quality tea ch e rs cause high pupil a ch iev em en ts, w hile p o o r tea ch e rs cause po o r achievem ents . T his re a lis a tio n , o f c o u rse , is n o th in g new . A lre ad y in 1944 th e A m e ric a n C o u n cil on T ea ch e r E ducation (1944;2) said it all: The (juallly of a nation depends on the quality of its citi/.cn.s. The quahty of its citizens depends - not exclusively, but in a critical m easure - upon the quality of their education. The quality of their education depends m ore than upon any factor, upon the quality of their teachcrs .... The quality of the teachers depends largely upon the quality of their own education .... It follows that the purpose and effectiveness of teacher education must be m atters of profound social concern.

It is th e re fo re a so u rce o f som e a m a z e m e n t th a t so m any g o v e rn m e n ts in the world ap p are n tly fail to in trodu ce m easures th at will en su re th a t te a c h e r e d u ca tio n in their countries is of a high standard. From various developed countries like W est G erm any, the U n ited S tates and C an ad a, e ducationists keep expressing grave concern ab o u t the m a tte r (B rezin k a, 1987; M anning, 1987; M cG regor, 1978; etc.). It is my co n te n tio n th at in South A frica, too, th e re is m uch room for the im p ro v em en t o f te a c h e r e d u ca tion. T h e succinct version of the problem , as stated above, obviously req u ires substantiation and e laboration. In the rest of this p a p er it is exam ined in g re a te r detail.

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2.1

E m pirical evidence o f p roblem atic ideologies

T he didactic ideology on which the average tea ch e r training course is based tends to be a sensitive issue. C onsequently, evidence in the form o f recognized research rep o rts of em pirical studies done a bout p roblem atic ideologies in previous decades are scarce. W ith the e x ce p tio n o f th e re m a rk a b le p u b lic a tio n by L o rtie (1978), re p o rts a b o u t specific cases w ere alm ost unobtain ab le until the beginning of the 1980’s. Since th en a fair num ber of researchers have tak en the bull by the horns (eg. L ittle, 1981; G riffin et a l, 1983; K oehler, 1984; C lark ei a/., 1985; G oodm an, 1985). Som e o f the m ost recent in v e stig a tio n s o f th is n a tu re h ave b e e n c o n d u c te d by H ow ey & Z im p h e r (1986), M an n in g (1987), H o o v e r e /a / . (1988), R ic h a rd so n -K o e h le r (1988), G ro ssm an & R ich ert (1988), and B oulianne & W eston (1988). In all these projects (m ostly case studies of specific teacher training courses) the findings indicated th a t the courses w ere w eak, due to a lack of agreem ent betw een lecturers ab o u t the ideological basis of th eir

It n e e d s to be e m p h a siz e d th a t in n o n e o f th e s e c ases w e re in e ffe c tiv e tra in in g p ro g ra m m e s the re su lt o f d isa g re e m e n ts am o n g le c tu re rs w orking a t different in sti tutions. If th a t w ere the case, one could explain the situation by saying th at different institutions have always ad h ere d to different schools o f thought, and thus the problem w ould be a m ere th eo re tic al one. T h e d ilem m a is caused by the fact th a t in each of th ese cases a team of lec tu re rs w orking a t the sam e in stitu tio n , tea ch in g the sam e students, often in the sam e subjects, advocated contradictory ap p ro ach es to teaching. Y et m ost of th ese stu d ies h ave b e e n c o n d u c te d o u tsid e S o u th A frica. T o g et the problem , as it exists in South A frica, into closer focus, it is useful to exam ine the only sim ilar South A frican case study th at could be traced. In this pro ject (D u Plessis, 1985) a p a rtic u la r te a c h e r train in g course was evaluated. T he m odus o p e ran d i included q u e stio n n a ire s, interview s, d irec t o bservations, and g ro u p d isc u ssio n s; m o re th a n 300 s tu d e n ts , te a c h e r e d u c a to rs , a n d h e a d m a s te rs p articip ated in the investigation. T he m ajor finding, in th e end, was th a t the co u rse was w eak d u e to the problem atic didactic ideology on w hich it was based. T h e m ajority o f stu d e n ts com p lain ed bitterly and re p e a te d ly a b o u t th e fact th a t d iffe re n t le c tu re rs u se d d iffe re n t c rite ria w hen lessons w ere being assessed (D u Plessis, 1985:284). As one stu d e n t com m ented: It is impossible for anybody to work if one boss says "Build the house” and another one says "Break it down". But this is exactly what lecturers do to us. W hat is the student learning in this situation? W hat does anybody achieve? (D u Plessis, 1985:288).

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T h e ideological d ifferences b etw een lecturers in this case study clearly did not m erely affect the assessm ent of students; in the n a tu re o f ideologies, it se e p ed through each and every co m ponent of their curriculum . This is evident, for exam ple, in the rem ark of a n o th e r student: When wc returned from the block session and spoke to o u r ... tutor, he mentioned that it would go against the principles of the academic world to dictate to academics how they should criticise lessons. W hat kind of principles are these? W hat right have they got to dictate to us if they won’t accept the rules themselves? (D u Plessis, 1985:288)

As can be seen in this extract, an unsound ideology in a tea ch e r education section o f a u n iv ersity , in e v ita b ly sp ills o v e r to o th e r a c a d e m ic fields, c a stin g d o u b t on the academ ic principles and com petencies of the university staff as a whole. W hat this case study show ed - sim ilar to the o th er case studies m entioned e arlie r - was that the teachers who taught the student teachers how to teach, could not explain what "effective tea ch in g " w as. A s in d iv id u a ls th ey m ight, o f c o u rse, have b e e n a b le to d escribe good teaching. But as a group they could not. A m ple evidence was given of th e tre m e n d o u s a m o u n t o f d isa g re e m e n ts, c o n tra d ic tio n s , a n d c o n fu sio n in the ideology on which the course was based. T he lecturers adam antly refused to agree on a coh eren t ideology. In the final analysis it seems as if the majority of the course-tcam arc more concerned with pas.sing on their own beliefs to studenls, than with the challenges posed by social and cultural changes. Instead of wrestling at length with the complex issues of teaching, in a spirit of co-operation, they merely stake out their territories and ignore the re.st of the didactic community (D u Plessis, 1985:3;W-9).

B oulianne & W eston (1988:106), in their case study, state the problem in even stronger term s: The teachers repeatedly mentioned their lack of preparation in the actual teaching process .... The respondents staled that the professors lacked the com petence to tcach ... the respondents stated that professional appointments are ba.sed on political considerations ....

It w ould .seem as though a team of teach er e ducators who read such evaluations about them selves, w ould upgrade the ideological basis of th eir course. N ot so. In none of the case studies m entioned did the w riters re p o rt any im provem ents at the end of the projects. In stead , re se a rc h e rs w ho a tte n d m eetings aim e d a t refo rm , usually have little m o re to re p o rt th a n d e a d lo c k -s itu a tio n s w h e re they "e x p erie n ce d a sen se of d isa p p o in tm e n t and fru stra tio n at the a m o u n t o f d isa g re e m e n t expressed by p a rtic i pants" (M anning, 1987:20). O ne gets the im pression that m any lecturers concerned do not re ad th e re p o rts, a situ a tio n th a t w ould prove ju st how c o rre c t and se rio u s the indictm ent against them is. M oreover, the ideological anom alies persist, with no end in view.

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2.2

Incidence ra te

T he core question, of course, is how w idely-spread the p roblem is. D ue to the sensitivity o f the issue, it w ould be a difficult task to establish the incidence rate. Even in regions w here the m atter has reportedly b e en investigated on a national scale (B o ne, 1980 a n d 1987; T u rn ey , 1977; M cN ergney, 1986) - E n g lan d , S cotíand, A ustralia, Sweden, C anada, m ost states in the U.S.A. - re p o rts with actual figures are apparently trea te d as privileged inform ation. If the p ro b le m was, is, o r will be re se a rc h e d in South A frica, it is u n likely th a t the incidence ra te o f in stitu tio n s w ith low quality te a c h e r train in g c o u rses will be m ade know n to th e public (fo r obvious reasons). It is exactly on th is kind o f secrecy th at p e rp etrato rs depend, and flourish. R e se a rc h e rs a re thus left w ith the d u b io u s m eth o d o f in te llig e n t guessw ork. In this vein one can argue th a t the situ atio n in South A frica is a t p re se n t p e rh a p s no b e tte r than it was in British C olum bia in 1978. In th at year the McGregor Report revealed that over ninety percent of tea ch e r training institutions in B ritish C olum bia offered courses o f a very low stan d ard . T h e fact th a t M cG reg o r re co m m e n d e d the a p p o in tm e n t of a g o v e r n m e n ta l c o n tr o llin g b o d y w h ic h w o u ld lay d o w n "p o licy c o n c e r n in g th e p re p a ra tio n of teachers, m o n ito r existing program m es, and ap p ro v e all new pro g ram mes" - and o th er m ore strin g en t m easures - suggests th a t pro b lem atic ideologies w ere at the root of the low standards (B one, 1980:59). Suppose a sim ilar situation at presen t exists in South A frica. T hen: *

If th e re a re 120 te a c h e r train in g in stitu tio n s, w ith an av era g e o f 228 final-year stu d e n ts in eac h (D u P lessis, 198.S:166), th e n th e re a re a p p ro x im a te ly 27360 teachers per year who qualify.

*

If ninety percent o f them have tak en professional courses o f a low quality, it could m ean th at every y ear approxim ately 24500 inco m p eten t tea ch e rs becom e licenced to teach.

*

If each te a c h e r te a c h e s 50 ch ild ren p e r y e ar (a high sch o o l te a c h e r actually teaches ab o u t 200 pupils p e r year), each y e ar’s crop o f new, in co m p eten t teachers teach a bout o n e-an d -a -q u arter m illion children p e r year.

*

T he accum ulative effect of incom petent teachers is th ere fo re incalculable.

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3. THEORETICAL GROUNDS OF PROBLEMATIC IDEOLOGIES It was suggested above th a t the professional p a rt of a te a c h e r train in g course can be ren d ered alm ost useless if a team of teach er educators refuse to agree on an ideology. W h at h a p p e n s w h en such a n a g re e m e n t is n o t re a c h e d is, for e x a m p le , th a t o n e lec tu re r tea ch e s th a t lesson p re p a ra tio n is good, a n o th e r le c tu re r tea ch e s th a t lesson p r e p a r a ti o n is b a d . O n e te a c h e s ’fo llo w y o u r ow n in s tin c ts r e g a r d in g lesso n p re p a ra tio n ’, a n o th e r one teaches ’ask the school teachers w hether you should p re p are lessons’, etc. etc. A stu d e n t can wind up w ith twelve o r m o re d iffere n t prescrip tio n s ab o u t lesson p re p a ra tio n . Suppose a stu d en t gets a hu n d red such prescriptions about how to te a c h fro m ev ery le c tu re r, a n d eac h le c tu re r ’s se t o f id ea s c o n tra d ic ts his c o lle ag u e s’ sets o f ideas, the stu d e n t ends up confused. T h e professional p a rt o f his course has lim ited value. As m ight be expected from pedagogues who have vested interests in the p ropagation of p roblem atic ideologies, lecturers involved forw ard a num ber of theories to justify their a p p a re n t irra tio n a l a p p ro ac h to te a c h e r ed u ca tio n . It is only fair to list and briefly discuss a few of these argum ents here. T he first argum ent is based on B ru n er’s (1966) theory o f instruction, viz. his em phasis on discovery learning. Using, for exam ple, the dictum "(l)earning and problem -solving re q u ire th e exploration o f alternatives" (B ru n e r, 1966:198), it is arg u ed th a t the m ore d iffere n t ideo lo g ies a n d d iffere n t th e o rie s o f tea ch in g a stu d e n t com es into con tact with, the m ore he will learn a bout teaching, and th erefo re the b e tte r he will teach. My ob jectio n to this is th a t the above a rg u m e n t is based on a h a lf-b a k ed know ledge of B ru n er’s theory. B runer saw "exploration of alternatives" m erely as a short, first phase in the lea rn in g process. H e suggested it as a way to predispose o r m otivate lea rn ers b e fo re th e a ctu al lea rn in g o f new m a te ria l sta rts. T h e bulk o f his th e o ry revolves around the te a c h e r’s task to structure the new know ledge in such a way th at the student is a b le to c o n c e p tu a liz e a n d c ateg o riz e it in to a m ea n in g fu l w hole. M ost lea rn in g p sy c h o lo g ists will p ro b a b ly be d isc o n c e rte d to h e a r th a t B r u n e r ’s th eo ry is b ein g d is to rte d in th is m a n n e r to ju stify th e re la p se in to e g o c e n tric id eo lo g ica l discord p re v a le n t in m any te a c h e r e d u c a tio n in stitu tio n s today. T o s tu d e n t te a c h e rs the learning process can becom e m eaningless. T hey may w ait for real learning to start, but never get beyond the point o f "exploring alternatives"; " ... the gorge betw een theory and p ra ctic e b e co m es d e e p e r and w ider, ex cavated by th e very individuals w ho are pledged to fill it" (W ragg, 1974:vii). T he second arg u m en t so m etim es used to give respectability to problem atic ideologies is th e v a lu e -re la tiv ism a rg u m e n t as p ro p a g a te d by th e o rists like N ie tz sc h e, F reu d , W eber, From m , R iesm an, and others. From this perspective, m any lecturers point out.

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'good' and 'bad' cannot be discovered by reason. T h e m eanings of ’g ood’ and ’bad' are entirely d e p e n d e n t on o n e ’s own subjective point o f view. It is th e re fo re exceedingly im p o rta n t, th ey a rg u e, not to im p o se th e ir own, o r any o th e r, d id ac tic ideology on student teach ers. O n the contrary, the m ajor functions o f lec tu re rs a re to stan d back and let students discover for them selves th eir own subjective m eanings o f w hat is ’good’ a n d ’b a d ’ te a c h in g , all th e w h ile e n c o u ra g in g th e s tu d e n ts w ith slo g a n s lik e ’be yourself!’, ’becom e inner-directed!’, ’discover the real you!’ T h e only logical reply one can give to th is a rg u m e n t is a q u e stio n : If th is is tru e , w hy d o w e n e e d te a c h e r education institutions? It m ust be the m ost expensive and m ost tim e-consum ing visit a student will ever have to a circus on earth. It is also the shortest way (as B loom rightly points out in his critique of relativism ) to nihilism o f the w orst kind: The inner seems lo have no relation lo the outer. The outer is di.ssolved and becom es formless in the light of the inner, and the inner is a will-o’-the-wisp, or pure emptine.ss ... Nihilism as a slate of soul is revealed not so much in the lack of Firm beliefs but in a chaos of the instincts or passions (Bloom, 1987:155),

T h e re a re o th e r argum ents. E xam ples: ’tea ch e rs a re born, not m a d e ’; ’one can only lea rn to teach by teaching, not by lea rn in g th e o ry ’; ’the "bath by fire" a p p ro ac h is all th a t w orks’; ’tex tb o o k s will m ak e up for p o o r te a c h in g ’; ’we m ust not b e afra id to c o n fu se s tu d e n ts ’; ’w e m ust b re e d e n q u irin g m in d s to b rin g a b o u t a n a lte rn a tiv e system ’; ’o u r m ost im p o rta n t jo b is to d e m o n stra te unconditional positive re g ard ’, etc. etc. T o discuss them h e re will d istract us from the m ain th em e. Suffice to p o in t out th a t all th ese n o tio n s have b e e n d isp ro v e d by e d u c a tio n ists o f calib re , like D ewey, Langeveld, Klafki, V an d e r Stoep, D e C orte, L andm an, Louw, A usubel, G age, Brophy, Nel, Van d e r W alt, and G re b e, to nam e but a few. T h e tra g e d y o f th e a b o v e a rg u m e n ts is th a t th e y a re p r o p a g a te d by a c a d e m ic s . Stu d en ts believe them . A stu d e n t te a c h e r ends his train in g w ith a set o f chaotic and unw orkable ideas a b o u t teaching. W hat little he knew at the sta rt o f his train in g has b e en destroyed by p a ssio n ate p leas to apply th e incorrect and extrem e versions of the th eo ries of B runer and relativity in th e classroom . H is original "faulty" ideas have not been replaced by anything coherent. T h e course was usele.ss, because it was based on a vacuum , instead o f a research-based a pproach to teaching.

4.

n i E Q U E S T F O R S O L U T IO N S

O n e c a n n o t e sc a p e fro m th e fact th a t th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a ju s tifia b le ideo lo g y , a ccep tab le to a large team o f te a c h e r e d u ca to rs w orking to g eth e r, takes effort. T h e m ore lectu rers involved, the g re a te r the effort. B ut the effort is no differen t from the effort any academ ic team in any o th er study field constantly has to m ake to en su re that

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their courses are scientifically justifiable.

4.1

Ideologies th a t a re didactically justifiable

A n ideology a c c e p te d by a g ro u p o f te a c h e r ed u ca to rs, aim ed a t m aking a definite im p a c t on stu d e n ts , sh o u ld b e sou n d e n ough fo r it to b e a fo u n d a tio n on w hich a scientific theory can be built. A n ideology is a system o f beliefs and norm s. It is sim ilar to a political party’s policy, or a church’s creed, or an individual’s personal philosophy. As such, it m ay or m ay not be p a rtly in w ritte n fo rm . C e rta in ly , w h en a n ideology is a c c e p te d by a g ro u p of p eople, the tendency is to sta te the m ain principles in w riting to m inim ize am biguity; y et such a s ta te m e n t is n e v e r c o m p le te , b e c a u se a n id eo lo g y is to o com plex, too changeable, too rooted in a "steeds groeiende verwysingsraam werk" (M arais, 1987:155) to be articulated in detail. O nce a course-team o f tea ch e r e ducators (i.e. a team who teaches the sam e students) a g re e on a d id a c tic ideology ( w hich sh o u ld h a p p e n as so o n as th ey s ta r t train in g te a c h e rs), sc ien tific p ra ctic e d e m a n d s th a t they e ith e r ack n o w led g e a w ell-know n, scientific tea ch in g theory, or fo rm u late th eir own. N eedless to say, the ideology and the theory m ust be co n g ru en t. T h is theory beco m es th e b a ck b o n e o f th e ir courses. W ith o u t such a th e o ry , th e c o u rse can b e c o m e a n in c o h e r e n t, b u lk y , irre le v a n t collection of verbalism s - as found in the case studies listed previously. It is th e re fo re c le a r th a t th e m ajo r g u ideline for a n ideology on w hich a m eaningful tea ch e r education course is based, is: if the ideology lends itself to the form ulation of a didactic theory, it is justifiable; if not, the ideology is problem atic. T he criteria which a didactic theory should fulfil, a re w ell-docum ented. A p art from the obvious relevance of K uhn’s (1970) exposition o f scientific principles, the requirem ents have re c e n tly b e e n skillfully re fo rm u la te d by, inter alia, L a n d m a n (1985), M arais (1 987), I.N . S teyn (1987), and G re b e (1988). L a n d m a n (1985:124), fo r exam ple, stresses the need for such a theory to m eet the requirem ents of a discipline: - ’n cic bcgrlppcstrukluur (basicsc Icrminologie) wat vcrwys na inhoud, - 'n bcpaaldc mcn.sbcskouing, wat vcral vcrwys na doelwillc, • die dinamicsc cn ondcrsockcndc aard daarvan, wat vcrwys na mctodologic, - die kriticsc ingcstcldhcid daarvan (vcral sclflcritlck) wat kan vcrwys na kurrikulumcvalucring.

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F or a th eo ry to be m eaningful, the p ro b lem , p a rad ig m and m eth o d choices m ust be

congruent (L a n d m a n , 1 9 85:125). T h e p ro c e s s d e m a n d s a t le a s t th r e e a c tio n s; reflection, verification, and description (L andm an, 1985:124). In G re b e ’s m ore recent fo rm u la tio n , fo u r e s s e n tia l f e a tu r e s u n d e r p in a s c ie n tific e d u c a tio n a l th e o ry : observational nesting, fertility, inter-theory support, and th eo retical scope (1988:5-8). It seem s unnecessary to e la b o rate fu rth er on these well-know n, tim e-tested principles of good scientific practice. T hey are the sam e in all social sciences: utterly d e p en d e n t on th e a c c e p ta n c e by in d iv id u a ls o f a c o h e re n t ideology d e c id e d u p o n by a g ro u p of scientists w orking together. In science individualistic views are seen as bein g u n re lia b le . If a n a ca d em ic ’s ideas a bout teaching are so insignificant th a t he cannot even find a sm all group of peers to agree with him, his ideas are unscientific and unacceptable. If a w hole group consists of such individuals, and they can n o t find com m on g round, th e ir ideology is e q u ally unscientific and u nacceptable. A justifiable ideology for a group o f te a c h e r educators therefore m eans, first and forem ost: agreement on a coherent ideology. A nd a coherent ideology is one that leads to ''system atic coverage o f a single in te g ra te d ap proach" to teaching (Brophy, 1988:15). In th e se c tio n on Statem ent o f problem e v id e n c e w as p re s e n te d to show th a t the ideologies on w hich m any te a c h e r train in g co u rses a re b a se d , a re p ro b le m a tic . T o solve the problem , th ree propositions are outlined and e valuated below.

4.2

Proposition 1: A n institutionally unifying ideology

Using the principles of L andm an and G re b e m entioned above, a team o f tea ch e r e d u cators working to g eth e r at the sam e institution, can agree on an institutionally unifying ideology. In the w ords of Liston & Z eich n er (1987:7): Tcachcr cducalors who cducatc with moral deliberation as a goal must themselves confront a moral dilemma.

T he m oral dilem m a they m ust confront is choosing betw een •

freedom th at en ab les each lectu rer to teach h is /h e r own perso n al ideology, which results in a course th at is unaccountable, or

•

accepting the need fo r lengthy and co n tin u o u s n e g o tia tio n s a b o u t ideologies and teaching theories, which results in a course th a t is accountable.

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A d e cisio n in fa v o u r o f th e la tte r is p re re q u isite fo r tlie e sta b lish m e n t o f a useful te a c h e r e d u ca tio n course. C ourses in tea ch e r train in g th a t a re not based on such an id eo lo g ica l a g re e m e n t, a re in my o p in io n u n e th ic a l; th ey d o n o t te a c h w h at they p u rp o rt to teach. T hus, one way to im prove te a c h e r e d u ca tio n in S outh A frica is for lecturing team s with p roblem atic ideologies to voluntarily reform the ideological bases of th eir courses.

4.3

Proposition 2: A d ep artm en tal ideology

E d u c a tio n d e p a rtm e n ts w ho em ploy the te a c h e rs w ho qualify - a n d o fte n pay for stu d e n t te a c h e rs’ studies - can prescribe an ideology as well as a teach in g theory on which tea ch e r e ducators at specific institutions have to base their courses. T his im plies th a t a p a rtic u la r e d u c a tio n d e p a rtm e n t w ould re g u la rly in sp e ct th e q u a lity o f the courses at relevant institutions, and w ould only em ploy teach ers who qualified a t such ’a p proved’ institutions.

4.4

P roposition 3: A standardized ideology

A state-ap p o in ted accreditation body can be created to negotiate an ideology on which all te a c h e r e d u c a tio n c o u rses m ust be b ased . T h is im p lies th a t only te a c h e rs who q u a lifie d a t a p p ro v e d in stitu tio n s , w hich m e e t c e rta in p re sc rib e d id eo lo g ica l and th e o re tic a l s ta n d a rd s , will b e em p lo y e d by e d u c a tio n d e p a rtm e n ts . F o r such an accred itatio n body to have ’te e th ’, regular in.spections of relevant institutions will have to be conducted.

4.5

E valuation o f the th ree propositions

In weighing up the value o f the above propositions, two realities n eed consideration: •

T h e a p p a re n t inability o f tea ch e r ed u cato rs to resolve these ideological problem s am ong them selves.

*

T he seriousness of the situation.

It is due to th ese two realities th at the p re sen t p a p e r is m ainly d irec te d a t academ ics from study fields o th er than E ducation. O n e fo rm id a b le o b sta cle in im plem enting the re co m m e n d a tio n c o n ta in ed in Propo-

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sition 1, is that its success hinges on w hat A n d erso n (1987:36a) refers to as a "logic of confidence"; that is, an assum ption that p ro p e r instruction is taking place w ithout direct a d m in istrativ e supervision. O p tin g for a n in stitu tio n a lly unifying ideology, w ithout direct supervision, could lead to stagnation. In tea ch e r trainin g a "logic o f confidence" often seem s to result in a disregard of standards. T o q uote G reen field (1983:17): My complaint is lliat the values we bring to the effort to right the situation are precisely the ones that got u;; in trouble in the first place and are only likely to perpetuate our grief (Howcy & Zimphcr, 1986:97).

It is because society, the governm ent, o th e r academ ics and p a ren ts, leave everything c o m fo rta b ly in th e h an d s o f te a c h e r e d u c a to rs , th a t th e q u a lity o f m any c o u rses deteriorates. In the U.S.A., w here p roblem atic ideologies are p e rh ap s m ore p revalent than in South A frica, tea ch e r e ducators are also realising th at a "logic o f confidence" strategy simply does not work. P orter (1988:5) states: ... until rcccnlly, g ra d u a lin g from an a cc rc d ilc d ic a ch e r tra in in g program satisfied the requirements for initial certification. This Is the weakest approach to teachcr assessment.

while M anning (1987:20) sadly adm its: ... it seems very likely that educational reform in this country will rem ain where it has always been - with lay "experts".

S ta te m en ts like these show the extent to which te a c h e r e d u ca to rs in the U .S.A . - the fo u n tain h ead from w hence p ro b lem atic a p p ro ac h es to te a c h e r train in g sprang - have b e e n p u lled up sh o rt by th e re v e la tio n o f K ozol (1985:4) th a t th e functionally and m arginally illiterate population of the U.S. now exceeds 60 m illion. A t last they seem to face the fact that unsupervised teach er training Is a failure. T h e strategy set out in Proposition 1 is ’w hat got us Into tro u b le In the first p lace’. A m ore prom ising ap p ro ach w ould be purposeful a ction on the lines suggested e ith e r In P roposition 2 or P roposition 3. F o r this to succeed. It seem s, te a c h e r ed u ca to rs who are co ncerned ab o u t glaring d efects In te a c h e r e d u ca tio n n e ed the help o f academ ics from o th er study fields across the university curriculum . A m ajor rea.son why the so cial sc ie n tists, is th a t interdisciplinary political universities w ith liberal,

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situ atio n can only be re ctifie d w ith the a ssista n ce o f o th e r th e p ro b le m is n o t a p e d a g o g ic -th e o re tic a l issu e , b u t an Issue. A t m any South A frican institutions (particularly m any left-w ing po licies) te a c h e r e d u ca to rs in favour of justifiab le

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ideologies seem to be o u tn u m b e red by tiiose w ho su p p o rt p ro b lem atic ideologies (at the 1989 C ongress o f the Education Association o f S.A., for exam ple, th ere w ere only a bout 400 participants from a corpus of approxim ately 3000 tea ch e r e ducators in S.A.). It is c le a r th a t m any v o tes and voices fro m n o n -e d u c a tio n ists w ould b e n e e d e d to overrule the m arked influence of tea ch e r e ducators with laissez-faire a ttitu d e s tow ards ideologies - be it on m icro or on m acro levels o f decision-m aking. W ith o u t s u b s ta n tia l a ssista n c e from in flu e n tia l a ca d em ics, p o litic ia n s, a n d o th e r le a d e rs o f th e S o u th A frica n co m m u n ity , te a c h e r e d u c a tio n a t in stitu tio n s w here c o u rses a re w eak can n o t be im proved. P ro o f for this can be fo und in th e fact th a t hardly any im p ro v e m e n ts have thus far b e e n ach iev ed in re le v an t in stitu tio n s. My im pression is th at the quality of their teach er training is rapidly declining. D espite the m any voices o f leading e d u ca tio n ists who have in re ce n t years p le a d e d for stro n g e r scientific b ases of E d u catio n courses - Nel (1984), L andm an (1985), M arais (1987), I.N .Steyn (1987), Postm a (1987), G re b e (1987, 1988), W olfaardt et al. (1988), V an der Stoep & V an d e r S toep (1988), H.J. Steyn (1988), etc. - the status quo rem ains. D espite cohesive arg u m en ts o f n on-educationists in su p p o rt o f scientific m eth o d s in all social sciences (eg. H a rtin , 1987; M oller, 1987; Snym an, 1987), m any aca d em ics and p o li tic ian s c o n tin u e to tu rn a blan d face and a d e a f e a r to calls fo r re fo rm in te a c h e r education. D espite edu catio n being the focal point o f years o f unrest in South A frica, the low quality o f teach er education in a large num ber of institutions persists. E vidence e m a n atin g from m ore develo p ed c o u n tries suggests th at th e m ost effective way to im prove te a c h e r e d u ca tio n on a natio n al scale, is to increase e x te rn al control over tea ch e r training institutions. T his evidence conflicts partly with the view of V an der S toep & V an d e r Stoep (1988:372): ... dal akkrcditcring op sy bcste funksionccr as dit ’n vrywilligc, sclf-rcgulcrendc akliwilcil is, as dil licfs nic ow crhcidsgcbondc is nic, cn as die gcbruikcrs van die ondcrwys self die inisiaticf uilocfcn icn aansien van die kontinue evalucring van gehalle by opleiding.

It w ould se e m as if th e la tte r view is b a se d on th e o p in io n s o f c e rta in A m e ric an educationists (reflecting, perhaps, som e of the reasons for the ’sorry sta te ’ of A m erican e d u c a tio n in recen t years - vide Kozol, 1985; M anning, 1987:21; B loom , 1987, etc.). Even so, the V an d e r S to ep s’ a rticle m akes it clear th a t th e ir id ea of ’g eb ru ik ers van d ie o n d e rw y s’ is 'D e p a rtm e n ts o f E d u c a tio n ’ w hich im p lies e x te rn a l c o n tro l, and th erefo re th eir view partly co-incides with the suggestion in Proposition 2 above. Space d o e s not p e rm it an overview o f d e v e lo p m e n ts in c o u n trie s w h e re , in re ce n t years, te a c h e r e d u ca tio n has show n im provem ent. H ow ever, for sub.stantiation o f the claim th at ex tern al co n tro l is the only effective m eans to im prove te a c h e r training, a brief look at, for exam ple, the recent successes achieved in G re a t B ritain should prove

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the point. D uring the 1960’s up to ab o u t 1975 tea ch e r ed u catio n in B ritain was found to be unsatisfactory, m ainly due to problem atic ideologies {James’ Report, 1972; Bone, 1980). It led to th e in v o lv e m e n t o f th e C ouncil fo r N a tio n a l A ca d em ic Awards (C.N .A .A .) in tea ch e r training (1973). A lthough this body, w hose m em bers are firmly com m itted to the value of p e e r group review, b ro u g h t a b o u t som e im provem ents, its su c c e ss e s w e re m a rg in a l (C .N .A .A ., 1979). O n ly d u rin g th e 1980’s, w h e n th e G overnm ent took firm control of tea ch e r education - both in colleges and in university d e p a rtm e n ts o f e d u c a tio n - w ere courses effectively a n d dram atically u p g rad ed with the e s ta b lis h m e n t o f a new c o n tro llin g body: th e Council fo r the Accreditation o f Teacher Education (C A T E ). T h e ir m ajo r m eth o d was re g u la r inspections o f tea ch e r training institutions: Power i.s ihc corrcct word to apply. C A TE moved quickly ... to set up and publi.sh criteria against which it would judge the course it looked al, and these were unashamedly prescriptive in areas which were thought to be vital. For example, the onc-ycar post-graduate cerliTicate in education courses ... had to be at least thirty-six weeks long .... the tcachcr-trainers them.sclves ought to display thal they had had regular and frequenl experience of classroom teaching ... the courses had to be planned in co nju nction with local schools ... M o reo v er, in gathering information about what happened in training institutions, C ATE would rely quite heavily on the reports of inspectors. (Bone, 1987:386)

T he two m ost notable facts, in our presen t fram e of reference, a re th at *

CATE is not controlled by teacher educators. It consists o f w orking p a rties draw n fro m r e p re s e n ta tiv e s o f th e sc h o o ls, th e fu tu re e m p lo y e rs o f p u p ils, te a c h e r educators, and G overnm ent itself (B one, 1987:385).

*

C ATE particularly inspects the ideological basis o f each course - it should "form a coh eren t program m e o f study and be explicitly c o n cern ed with the classroom and professional needs of the teacher" (B one, 1987:389).

The tim e seem s to be overdue for South A frica to adopt sim ilar m easures. A lready in 1985 L andm an w arned (1985:126): Die dcfiniering van dit wat basics is ... sal een van die mocilike lake wees waarm ee die onderwys gekonfronteer sal word ... Dit beteken dat onderwyskundiges baie m eer aandag moot gee aan regverdiging van waarom dit wat onderrig word ... behoort ondcrrig te word.

N evertheless, little a p p ea rs to have been done in certain q u a rte rs. In 1989 concerned educationists still have nothing m ore to say but to keep echo-ing L an d m an ’s sentim ent, in a kind of b roken-record fashion, eg. Die aangeleentheid van akkreditering verdien op hierdie lydslip in ons onderwysontwikkeling die w erklike n o u lctten d e aandag van die b eleid m akers (V an d e r S tocp & V an der Stoep,

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1988:375).

In th e m e a n tim e , every y e a r larg e sum s o f m oney a re b e in g p o u re d in to te a c h e r e d u c a tio n co u rses o f q u e stio n a b le quality. M uch o f this w ealth, it seem s, is paid to l e c t u r e r s o f th e ty p e a p tly d e s c rib e d by B lo o m (1 9 8 7 :3 1 4 ): "A p r o f e s s io n a l contem p lativ e holding dow n a prestigious and w ell-paying jo b , and w ho also believes there is nothing to contem plate." T h e m ost d istu rb in g aspect, how ever, is not the m aterial loss, nor th e criticism from student teachers, nor the w aste of tim e, nor even the disregard o f scientific know ledge but the harm done to each successive g eneration o f im pressionable children left to the mercy of, w hat could very well be, an incom petent teaching force.

5.

C O N C L U S IO N

rh e purpose o f this article was to shed light on serious ideological problem s existing in som e teach er training institutions. Partly because of clashing belief-system s, and partly because of the high degree of autonom y given to teach er education institutions, certain id eo lo g ica l a n o m a lie s a p p e a r to h ave b e co m e in g ra in e d in a larg e p e rc e n ta g e of te a c h e r e d u ca tio n courses. M any te a c h e r e ducators insist on th eir ’right’ to pass their personal, o ften dogm atic, beliefs ab o u t ’how to tea ch ’ to stu d e n t tea ch e rs, in stead of research -b ased facts. T h is frequently creates a pro b lem atic situation in w hich a team o f lec tu re rs a tte m p t to teach a set o f in tra -co n tra d ic to ry ideas ab o u t teach in g to the sam e corpus o f stu d e n t teachers. T h e m inds of the stu d en ts becom e a kind of b a ttle field on w hich le c tu re rs w ith conflicting id eo lo g ies c o m p e te fo r su p erio rity . M ore often than not, students em erge from such courses disillusioned, cynical, and u nable to bridge the gulf betw een theory and practice. T o resolve the problem , it was suggested th at academ ics from o th e r study fields take a firm stan d and stre n g th e n the position o f co n ce rn ed e d u ca tio n ists w ho a re trying to e stab lish high sta n d a rd s o f te a c h e r e d u ca tio n in S outh A frica. T h e se e d u ca tio n ists believe that even in cases w here the duration o f such courses a re only o n e o r two years, c u rric u la should be o f an excellent sta n d ard . U n fo rtu n ate ly , te a c h e r ed u ca to rs who su p p o rt pro b lem atic ideologies o ften o u tn u m b e r those w ho a re in favour of justifiable ideo lo g ies. It w ould a p p e a r th a t the la tte r gro u p n e ed s stro n g s u p p o rt from social sc ie n tists, p o litic ia n s, te a c h e rs, and th e c o m m u n ity a t la rg e fo r th e c r e a tio n o f a controlling body to e rad icate low standards in tea ch e r education.

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6.

B IB L IO G R A P H Y

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