Proceedings of the Griffon Vulture Conference

Proceedings of the

Griffon Vulture Conference

ISBN 978-9963-2982-0-4

6 - 8 March 2013, Limassol, Cyprus

Proceedings of the Griffon Vulture Conference, 6-8 March 2013, Limassol


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Editors: Dr. Clairie Papazoglou Mr. Constantinos Charalambous Photographs: M. Apostolidou, BirdLife Cyprus, Michael Gore, N. Kassinis, C. Mousikos, D. Nye, C. Papazoglou, D. Psaras, Dave and Jan Walker, S. Xirouchakis Produced by: PaperDrops Printed on recycled paper Publisher: BirdLife Cyprus, P.O.Box 28076, Nicosia, 2090, Cyprus. Copyright © 2013, BirdLife Cyprus All rights reserved Recommended citation: BirdLife Cyprus (2013) Proceedings of the Griffon Vulture Conference 6-8 March 2013, BirdLife Cyprus, Cyprus. ISBN: 978-9963-2982-0-4 The copyright of the photographs are reserved by their creators. No part of this publication may be produced, stored in a retrieval system, copied or transmitted, in any form or by any means - mechanical, electronic, photocopying, recording or otherwise - without written permission from the publisher or, in the case of photographs, from their creators, in accordance with the provisions of the Law and international conventions. If you require further copies please contact BirdLife Cyprus: Email: [email protected] or telephone on +357-22455072 or mail: BirdLife Cyprus, P.O. Box 28076, 2090, Nicosia, Cyprus.

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Proceedings of the


6 - 8 March 2013, Limassol, Cyprus Edited by: BirdLife Cyprus P.O. Box 28076, 2090 Nicosia, Cyprus The project “GYPAS” (www.gypas.org) is financed by 80% by the European Union and by 20% by National Funds of Greece and Cyprus as part of the Cross Border Cooperation Program Greece-Cyprus 2007-2013. The programme is led by the Game and Fauna Service in Cyprus, and partners in the program are BirdLife Cyprus and the Department of Forests in Cyprus, as well as the Natural History Museum of Crete (University of Crete) and Gortyna Municipality in Crete.

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Griffon vultures from Crete at the holding cage of Agios Giannis, Cyprus © Dave and Jan Walker

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Editorial BirdLife Cyprus organized an international Conference on the conservation of the Griffon Vulture between 6-8 March 2013 in Limassol, Cyprus in the framework of the GYPAS project. The GYPAS project is implemented by the Game and Fauna Service of Cyprus, together with BirdLife Cyprus and the Department of Forests as well as the Museum of Natural History of Crete (University of Crete) and the Municipality of Gortyna in Crete. The project will last 29 months and finishes January 2014, and is part of the Cross Border Territorial Cooperation Programme Greece-Cyprus 2007-2013. The International Conference gathered in Cyprus international experts with significant experience in vulture conservation, from countries like France, Israel, Bulgaria and Greece. The experts not only presented the latest information on vulture conservation in Europe, but also gave first hand advice on the situation in Cyprus and the Cyprus project, on issues like release dates, conditions in cages, feeding regimes, awareness raising and policy requirements for Cyprus. In these proceedings you will find the presentations of the participants as delivered at the Conference, covering subjects from conservation, survey techniques, best practice, threats, extensive agriculture and public awareness. The Editors would like to thank all the speakers for their participation and contributions, the participants for their lively contributions, and the project partners for their constructive participation and help in organization. Special thanks go to Constantinos Charalambous from BirdLife Cyprus for the organisation of the Conference. Additionally, special thanks to the Game and Fauna Service and the Department of Forests for helping with transport of participants on the day of the field trip to Agios Giannis in Pafos and Limnatis in Limassol. We hope that these Proceedings will provide inspiration and solid advice to all vulture conservation workers in Cyprus and abroad. Editors Clairie Papazoglou Constantinos Charalambous

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Contents Editorial

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Contents

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Agenda of the Conference

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List of Speakers

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13 Nicos Kassinis: The Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus in Cyprus and the GYPAS Project 18 Minas Papadopoulos: First efforts to save the Griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus) in Cyprus Kate Risely: Best practice in census and monitoring techniques

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Orr Spiegel, Roi Harel, Alejandro CentenoCuadros and Ran Nathan: Vulture tracking techniques and movement ecology

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François Sarrazin: History of Griffon Vultures reintroductions in France

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36 Ohad Hatzofe: Working with vultures in Israel: Conservation, mortality factors, survival, PVA model of the Griffon vultures in Israel & the Middle East

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Dobromir Dobrev, Stoycho Stoychev: Vulture conservation in Bulgaria

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Thanos Kastritis: Working with vultures in Greece

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Xirouchakis S., Andreou G., Probonas M., Baxevani K. & M. Sakellari: Conservation and management of vulture populations in Crete

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Willem Van Den Bossche: 71 Vulture Action Plans in Europe José Tavares: Overview of the main threats to vultures in Europe today

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Clairie Papazoglou: 88 Legal Measures to protect vultures in Europe Panos Azmanis: Assessing morbidity and mortality in vulture populations

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Sotiris Christofi: 97 EU regulations for vulture feeding stations Ohad Hatzofe: Sanitation and supplementary feeding: a nationwide program to reduce poisoning and veterinary drugs exposure risks

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Patricia Mateo-Tomás: The role of extensive pastoralism in vulture conservation

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John M Halley: Population viability analysis (case studies, software) for griffon vultures

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THE CONSERVATION OF GRIFFON VULTURE IN CYPRUS Agenda 6th - 8th of March 2013, Elias Hotel, Limassol, Cyprus

Day 0 (Tuesday 5th of March 2013) - Arrival of Delegates Day 1 (Wednesday 6th of March 2013) 08:30 - 09:00 09:00 - 09:15

Welcome by Director Game and Fauna Service

09:15 - 09:35

Opening Speech by the Director of Griffon Vulture Project in Cyprus, and aims of the Project

09:35 - 09:45

Introduction to Agenda and Structure of the conference

09:45 - 10:00

Past efforts to help Cyprus Griffon Population

10:00 - 11:00

Pantelis Hadjigerou Nicos Kassinis Clairie Papazoglou Minas Papadopoulos

VULTURE POPULATIONS and CENSUS TECHNIQUES

10:00 - 10:20

Best practice in Census and monitoring techniques

10:20 - 10:40

Alternative tracking techniques and the movement ecology of vultures through GPS tracking

10:40 - 11:10

Vulture reintroductions and restocking: best practice

11:10 - 11:40

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REGISTRATION and WELCOME

COFFEE BREAK

Kate Risely Orr Spiegel Hans Frey


11:40 - 13:20

BEST PRACTICE RESTOCKING AND REINTRODUCTIONS

11:40 - 12:10

Working with vultures in France

12:10 - 12:35

Working with vultures in Israel

12:35 - 13:00

Working with vultures in Bulgaria

13:00 - 13:20

Working with vultures in Greece

Francois Sarrazin Ohad Hatzofe Stoycho Stoychev Thanos Kastritis

LUNCH

13:20 - 14:15 14:15 - 14:35

Working with vultures in Crete, population

14:35 - 14:55

Vulture Action Plans in Europe

14:55 - 15:15

Update on vultures in Indian subcontinent

Stavros Xirouchakis Wim Van Den Bossche Jose Tavares Chris Bowden

15:15 - 15:30

COFFEE BREAK

15:30 - 17:00

Questions and Discussion/roundtable

20:00

DINNER AT THE HOTEL

Day 2 (Thursday 7th of March 2013) 09:00 - 11:00

MAIN THREATS AND MANAGEMENT MEASURES FOR VULTURES TODAY

09:00 - 09:30

Overview main threats to vultures in Europe today

09:30 - 09:45

Legislative measures to protect vultures in Europe

09:45 - 10:05

Assessing mortality causes (necropsies, toxicological analysis, protocols)

10:05 - 10:30

Windfarms and Vultures

Alvaro Camina

10:30 - 11:00

EU regulations for vulture feeding stations

Sotiris Christofi

Jose Tavares Clairie Papazoglou Panos Azmanis

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11:00 - 11:30

COFFEE BREAK

11:30 - 13:00

MAIN THREATS AND MANAGEMENT MEASURES FOR VULTURES TODAY (cont)

11:30 - 11:50 11:50 - 12:10 12:10 - 12:40

Habitat improvement (extensive pastoralism and grazing systems) Population viability analysis (case studies, software)

Ohad Hatzofe Patricia Mateo Tomas John M Halley

12:40 - 13:00

Questions and discussion

13:00 - 14:00

LUNCH

14:00 - 17:00

ROUNDTABLE DISCUSSION AND GUIDELINES FOR CYPRUS RESTOCKING PROGRAMME

14:00 - 14:20 15:30 - 15:45

Questions for discussion:

20:00

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Location, stocking and number of vulture feeding stations

Introduction to the project in Cyprus, photo introduction to the places that will be visited on Day 3

Nicos Kassinis Minas Papadopoulos

COFFEE BREAK How many to release? When to release? Where to get birds from? How many restaurants, Network of restaurants? Monitoring and census frequency What kind of food? Working with neighbours (Greece, Israel, Bulgaria) Monitoring the impact of windfarms, poisons, and other threats The future of vultures (and other scavengers) in modern Europe The importance of education and awareness raising DINNER IN LIMASSOL


Day 3 (Friday 8th of March 2013) 08:00 - 18:00

FIELD TRIP

08:00 - 13:00

Episkopi Cliffs Travel through major valleys (Xeros valley, Diarizos, etc) to see vulture habitats and maybe other raptors Ay Giannis cage, Pafos

13:00 - 14:00 14:00 - 18:00

LUNCH AT TRADITIONAL TAVERN Limnatis Cage, Limassol END OF CONFERENCE

LIST OF SPEAKERS: Dr. Panos Azmanis

Dr Chris Bowden Dr Alvaro Camina

Resident of European College of Zoological Medicine (Avian subspecialty) Clinic for Birds and Reptiles, Veterinary Faculty, University of Leipzig, Germany International Species Recovery Officer & SAVE Programme Manager, Royal Society Protection of Birds/BirdLife in the UK Senior Environmental Consultant , ACRENASL

Dr Sotiris Christofi

Veterinary Officer, Department of Veterinary Services, Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Environment, Cyprus

Dr Med Vet Hans Frey

Head of Bearded Vulture European Endangered Species Programme, Institute of Parasitology, Vienna University of Veterinary Medicine & Bearded Vulture Vienna Breeding Unit, Austria

Mr Pantelis Hadjigerou Dr John M. Halley

Director, Game & Fauna Service, Ministry of Interior, Cyprus Associate Professor, Department of Biological Applications and Technology, University of Ioannina, Greece

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Dr Ohad Hatzofe

Avian Ecologist, Division of Science & Conservation, Israel Nature and Parks Authority, Israel

Mr Nicos Kassinis

Senior Game and Wildlife Officer, Game & Fauna Service, Ministry of Interior, Cyprus

Dr Thanos Kastritis

Conservation Manager, Hellenic Ornithological Society/ BirdLife Greece, Greece

Dr Patricia Mateo Tomas Mr Minas Papadopoulos Dr Clairie Papazoglou Ms Kate Risely

Dr François Sarrazin

Mr Orr Spiegel Mr Stoycho Stoychev Dr José Tavares Mr Willem Van Den Bossche Dr Stavros Xirouchakis

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Researcher, Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos, Spain Forest Conservator A’, Department of Forests, Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Environment, Cyprus Executive Director, BirdLife Cyprus Breeding Bird Survey National Organiser, British Trust for Ornithology, UK Professor Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Laboratoire Conservation des Espèces, Restauration et Suivi des Populations, Paris, France PhD Candidate, The movement Ecology Lab, Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behaviour, Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel Conservation Director, Bulgarian Society for the Protection of Birds/BirdLife in Bulgaria Director, Vulture Conservation Foundation, Switzerland European Nature Conservation Officer, Stichting BirdLife Europe-BirdLife International, Belgium Senior Researcher, Museum Natural History Crete, University of Crete, Greece


The Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus in Cyprus and the GYPAS Project Nicos Kassinis Senior Game and Wildlife Officer, Game and Fauna Service, Ministry of Interior, Cyprus Contact details: [email protected]

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Historical information on species presence and abundance

The Griffon vulture used to be common and widespread on the island as several historical sources state. The vulture congregations have been compared to “flocks of sheep” by foreign visitors and travelers (Locke 1553 in Cobham 1908), (Mariti 1760-67 in Cobham 1909). The species was common until the late 1950s - early 1960s, counted in the hundreds at carcasses (Flint and Stewart 1992). Since then, a decline has commenced even though during the 1960s, the population consisted of at least 100 individuals (Bannerman and Bannerman 1971). After the Turkish invasion and the de-facto partition of the island, the Griffon vulture was exterminated from its northern colonies at Pendathaktylos range by the mid 1980s (Flint and Stewart 1992) even though Episkopi cliffs, the largest colony on the island, produced 10 (6 successful) nests in 1979 and 16 in 1982 (Flint and Stewart 1992) and the species was still considered as “fairly common resident but slowly declining in numbers.” The population was estimated at 2030 pairs in the mid-1990s (Snow and Perrins 1998) but declined to 8-10 pairs by 2000 (Birdlife International 2004).

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Historical Griffon vulture colonies Vulture colonies existed on several parts of the island; the largest historically is Episkopi cliff, which is still active. Vultures bred on Kerynia (Pendathaktylos range), Kourris valley, Papoutsa peaks, Limassol forest, Cha Potami valley, Diarizos valley, Xeros valley, Akamas, Pafos forest (Vrodishia).

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Current status According to Cypriot Law 152 (Ι) 2003, the species is endangered. The 13


population of the Griffon Vulture in Cyprus has been declining rapidly over the past 20 years. The last vulture population census, which took place in early December 2012 and covered 14 locations in the SW of the island, estimated the total wild Vulture population in Cyprus at 10-11 individuals.

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Reasons for species decline The reasons led to Griffon vulture decline are summarized as follows: 1. Direct mortality due to poisoned baits placed for the control of foxes and feral dogs in livestock areas (Kassinis 2009, 2010). 2. The reduction of food availability due to the change from traditional, extensive livestock husbandry to intensive farming, and changes in the disposal of carcasses due to relevant legislation. 3. Disturbance during the nesting period due to construction of roads near colonies, low-flying aircraft, quarries, visitors. 4. Exclusion of domestic herds from Pafos forest and changes in the landscape due to reforestation. 5. Destruction of Kerynia (Pendathaktylos) range colonies.

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Population reinforcement necessity Despite past efforts made to help the population of the Griffon Vulture in Cyprus, these have not been successful to reverse decline. During the past decade, only 1-3 pairs have been reproducing annually, with the fate of the young Vultures still uncertain. Due to island small size, the small Cypriot population is vulnerable to environmental changes and disasters, and inbreeding. The population of Crete is considered large and healthy, though conservation actions there are also necessary. This led the competent authorities in Cyprus together with BirdLife Cyprus and others, to draw up a management plan for the Griffon Vulture, whose main aim is the reinforcement of the population with individuals from abroad. The Vulture population in Crete was considered the most suitable one for the reinforcement of the Cypriot population because of its island nature, geographical proximity and similar ecological characteristics. Also, transportation logistics were much simpler than from any other country.

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Project GYPAS The project is carried out under the ‘Cross Border Cooperation Program Greece-Cyprus 2007- 2013’ and is co-funded by the European Regional Development Fund and national funds of Greece and Cyprus. The ‘Gypas’ 14


Project started in September 2011 and will last for 24 months. It is led by the Game & Fauna Service in Cyprus, and partners in the program are BirdLife Cyprus and the Department of Forests in Cyprus, and the Natural History Museum of Crete and Gortyna Municipality in Crete. It is the first conservation effort of its kind to reinforce a declining population of the largest breeding species with individuals from abroad. The project’s ultimate goal is to release a large enough number of pairs so to re-establish a viable population, given that the limiting factors responsible for local population decline cease to be significant.

6.1 Summary of Project Actions in Cyprus (Fig. 1) • • • • • • • •

Construction of acclimation cage and feeder in Limnatis, Limassol. Construction of a feeder in Sotira / Paramali, Limassol. Upgrade the existing cage / feeder in Ai Giannis, Paphos. Census of the Cypriot population of the Vulture (and scientific publication) and genetic analysis. Construction and operation of a project website and the setting up of a webcam for informational purposes. Production of information material and other communication actions including lectures to schools, hunters, farmers. Organization of an international conference in Cyprus with the participation of specialists. Reception of Vultures from Crete, place them in the 2 aviaries and release in the Cypriot countryside after a period of acclimation.

Acquisition of equipment including 4X4 trucks for monitoring and vulture feeding, optical equipment, GPS/GSM tags.

Fig. 1. Cyprus map with the 4 areas of major conservation actions in GYPAS project 15


6.2 Summary of Project Actions in Crete • • • • • • • •

Determine the number/ages/sex ratio of Vultures that can be sent to Cyprus annually. Vulture Genetic study. Vulture capture, marking and telemetry program (and scientific publication) for population monitoring. Production of information material. Construction of cages for capture and rehabilitation. Construction of raptor restaurant (feeder) at Psiloritis. Construction of hide and access path to the hide. Capture (except adults during breeding season), transfer and dispatch of Vultures to Cyprus.

6.3 The vulture conservation in Cyprus must include the following • • • • • • • • • •

actions in order to be successful in reestablishing the population at safe levels: Reinforce Cypriot population with individuals from abroad Promotion of traditional livestock husbandry in vulture range Marking of electricity wires crossing vulture habitat Monitoring of Wind farms in Cha Potami for collisions Prevent any other development of wind farms in vulture range Establish a network of vulture feeding stations Strict protection of vulture range (especially nesting sites, feeding areas) population monitoring Continuous public awareness campaigns Farmer / hunter / student education on vulture conservation Deal with the fox /feral dog problem locally

Literature cited Bannerman, D.A. and W.M. Bannerman. (1971). Handbook of the birds of Cyprus and migrants of the Middle East. Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh, U.K. BirdLife International 2004. Birds in Europe: population estimates, trends and conservation status. Cambridge, UK: BirdLife International. (BirdLife Conservation Series No.12). Cobham, C.D. 1908. Excerpta Cypria. Cambridge University Press. ___________. 1909. English Translation of Travels in the island of Cyprus, by G.Mariti, 1769. Cambridge University Press. Snow D.W. and C.M. Perrins (eds) 1998. The birds of the Western

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Palearctic, Vol. 1 concise edition-Oxford University Press, Oxford. Flint P, and Stewart P. 1992. The birds of Cyprus. Second edition. British Ornothologists Union. U.K. Kassinis, N.I. 2010. Demographics of the Bonelli’s eagle Aquila fasciata population in Cyprus. Bird Census News 2010, 23/1-2 pp. 21-27. __________ 2009. Long-legged Buzzard Buteo rufinus rufinus breeding distribution and abundance in Cyprus In: Fornasari, L, G. Tellini Florenzano (eds). Proceedings of the 17th International Conference of the EBCC: Bird Numbers 2007 Monitoring for Conservation and Management, Chiavenna, 17-22 April 2007. Avocetta, 33 (2): 75-78. Kourtellarides, L. (1998). Breeding birds of Cyprus. Bank of Cyprus group, Cyprus.

A Griffon vulture released after treatment, Crete © S. Xirouchakis

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First efforts to save the Griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus) in Cyprus Minas Papadopoulos Forest Conservator A’, Department of Forests, Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Environment, Cyprus Contact details: [email protected]

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Site Description Cyprus is a small island of 9251 km2 located at the eastern part of the Mediterranean basin, 65 km south of Turkey and 100 km west of Lebanon. The population of the island is 1 million and the economy is heavily depended on tourism and services, whereas 40 - 50 years ago was mainly depended on agriculture. Cyprus has an intense Mediterranean climate with annual precipitation of 300mm - 1000mm and long dry periods. The maximum temperature often exceeds 40 degrees during summer times. Cyprus is characterized by high degree of mosaicosity and landscape diversity. Natural vegetation and agricultural land accounts for 44% and 48% respectively. 19% of the natural vegetation is composed of forests (mainly Pinus brutia) and 25% of shrubs (maquis) and bushes (frygana).

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Species Population History

Griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus) is the most threatened bird species in Cyprus. The species was very abundant in the old times. The abundance of the species in the past, is documented in many historic reports: Locke 1553 & Giovanni Mariti 1760 reports that “Many vultures were standing in fields like flocks of sheep”, Guilemard 1888 and Bucknill 1909-1910 referred to great colonies of Griffon vulture and that it was very common to observe up to 70 vultures feeding on a single carcass, while Flint and Steward (1983) reports that between 195060, it was very common to see 140 birds feeding on a dead animal. A strong evidence for the species abundance is a photo taken in 1980 by a Forest Officer with 70 birds flying in Pentalia village, Paphos. The species’ population decline initiated around 1950s and intensified many years later due tο: a) mechanization of the agriculture and the replacement of donkeys, mules, horses and camels by machines, b) changes in animal

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husbandry and the decrease of free ranging grazing animals, c) unstable political conditions, d) low environmental awareness, e) exponential increase of modern shooting guns and f) the introduction of agrochemicals. Between 1980 - 1995, the population decline was more intense due to the extensive use of poisons, to restrict damages in agriculture and game, from feral dogs, foxes, magpies etc. According to Flint and Steward (1984) by 1984 the Pentadactylos Range population disappeared, all the birds had been shot.

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The First Conservation Measures The first efforts on Griffon vulture conservation in Cyprus initiated by the Department of Forests in the mid of 1980s, when some breeding colonies within and/or close to the state forests were abandoned or decimated. The first coordinated attempt was the “Griffon vulture conservation project” that was launched in 1987 by the initiative of the Department of Forests and the decision of the Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Environment. The other partners were the Game and Fauna Service (then Game Fund Service), the Veterinary Service, the Environment Service and the Cyprus Ornithological Society. For various reasons, after a short period of time, the program continued running mainly by the Department of Forests and the Cyprus Association of Professional Foresters. The objectives of the project were to investigate the declining reasons, to apply the appropriate conservation measures and to promote public awareness. The project ran until 2011 when the Gypas project kicked off. The initial project was financed by national resources (apart from the period 2001-2003 when the project was financed by USAID and UNDP and by the Research Promotion Foundation) which were very limited. The most important actions taken were: a) Localization and investigation of all active and historical breeding sides: 25 historical breeding sites were found, b) Population surveys and monitoring: from 6 breeding colonies and 18 pairs in 1993, the species declined to 1 breeding colony and 3-4 pairs (see fig. 1). c) Breeding success monitoring: 133 pairs bred during 13 years (1993-2005) that gave 118 eggs, 95 of them were hatched and 81 young left the nests. d) Collection and rehabilitation of young birds fallen from nests: 18 birds were saved through daily monitoring during July-August. e) Collection and rehabilitation of injured and poisoned birds. f) Establishment feeding stations and food supply 2 times per week. 19


g) Construction of bird watching hides for Agios Ioannis feeding station. h) Tagging, ringing and wing-tagging: almost all birds were tagged and a considerable number of individuals was radio-tagged. i) Artificial breeding. j) Numerous lectures and presentations. k) Release of considerable informative material. l) Scientific publications etc.

Fig.1: Griffon vulture population

4 Discussion-Conclusions Poisoning was one of the main reasons for the sharp decline of Griffon vulture population in Cyprus. However, poisoning incidents seem to be declined in recent years. There is no evidence about the size of the species population before the start of the decline in the 1950s. Considering a) the traditional way of living, b) the favorable feeding conditions prevailing on the island (large amounts of cattle, donkeys, camels, mules, horses and free ranging goats and sheep), c) the very limited use of poisons and hunting guns, d) the large number (25) of historical breeding colonies and, e) the size of the island and the similarities with Crete that supports more than 700 birds, it can be safely assumed that there were at least 400 birds on the island until the 1950s. Taking into account the: a) low breeding dynamics of the species (they lay only one egg per year and they reach breeding age at 5-6 years), b) social behavior of the species, c) long period of low species population status (8-12 birds) and possible 20


inbreeding issues, d) low breeding success average 0.45 young per pair (40 pairs, 18 young over the period 2003-2012), e) existence of only one active breeding colony, it seems that the remaining population (8-10 birds) is lower than the “Minimum Viable Population Size”. Poisoning, minimum viable population size and possibly food shortage seems to be the most important negative factors affecting the population at the moment. Despite the fact that the number of free ranging grazing animals has significantly declined in the last decades, the total animal stock today has increased during the last 20 years. It follows that the establishment of more feeding stations should be pursued in combination with environmental awareness and anti-poisoning campaigns. Many of the abandoned breeding areas are still in good condition, whereas Cyprus habitats are still largely suitable to sustain a viable population of the species. Considering the uncertain future of the species on the island, the success of the restocking with individuals from a similar environment, such as Crete, and the boosting of the local population (before it becomes extinct in the wild) should be actively pursued as they constitute the last chance for the species survival in Cyprus. References Flint P.R and P.F. Stewart. 1983. The Birds of Cyprus B.O.U. Check list No. 6. British Ornithologists’ Union. Locke (1553) in Cobham, C.D. 1980. Excerpta Cypria. Cambridge University Press. Giovanni Mariti (1760) Travels in the Island of Cyprus Translated from the Italian by Claude Delaval Cobham, C.M.G., Cambridge: at the University Press, 1909 Bucknill, J.A. 1910. On the Ornithology of Cyprus-Part II. IV: 1-47.

Guillemard, F.H.H. 1888. Ornithological notes of a tour in Cyprus in 1887. Ibis 1888:94-124.

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Best practice in census and monitoring techniques Kate Risely Breeding Bird Survey National Organiser, British Trust for Ornithology Contact details: [email protected]

Summary Successful monitoring depends on establishing clear aims at the start of the study, of choosing appropriate monitoring methods and of standardising the survey methods as much as possible to eliminate bias. When surveying Griffon Vultures the main potential sources of bias are: the observers, the amount of effort put in to the survey in different areas or different years, the habitat, bird activity, times of year/day, and the weather. It is recommended that survey methods are kept as consistent as possible year-to-year, and that any methods involving sampling, rather than direct counts, involve an element of random selection. Examples from UK monitoring schemes involve surveying Buzzards through average counts of soaring birds, of surveying Golden Eagles through nest site occupancy, and surveying Grey Herons through colony counts. 1 Survey design, precision and accuracy When designing a survey, the first step is to establish the desired outcome - a full count or an index, annual or periodic reporting, breeding birds or total population, distribution or numbers only. The survey method chosen will depend on the desired result; in the case of Griffon Vultures, the standard method would be a straightforward count of birds or nest sites. Productivity should be recorded if possible. Whatever method is used, the issues of precision and accuracy should be considered. Precision is a measure of how much the results vary around the mean value (e.g. the density of birds recorded on sample plots compared to the mean density). When trying to estimate a mean density, the precision of the estimate increases with an increase of replicate samples. Samples should be representative of the whole and should be randomly chosen. Samples can be stratified random, where an area is divided into sub-areas based on some relevant characteristic (e.g. habitat), which are then sampled separately. Accuracy is a measure of how near the estimated or sampled mean is to 22


the true mean. This can apply to both direct counts and samples, since it is nearly always impossible to directly count every bird. Bias cannot be made to disappear with a larger sample, but can be minimised by recognising sources of error: The observer. Observers vary in their birding skills. In the case of monitoring individual Griffon Vultures this may be less of an issue, but may be a factor if nest site monitoring is to be carried out, or if it is necessary to distinguish between breeding and non-breeding individuals. Consider training observers if necessary, or double-checking counts with different observers. Effort. Effort should be standardised across years, plots and visits, even if none of the target species are recorded. Null counts should also be recorded. Habitat. Birds and nests can be easier to find in some habitats than others, such as lowland versus upland areas. If this is not accounted for, the methods should be designed to reduce the effect of habitat (e.g. by recording different habitats using different protocols). Bird activity. Bird activity may affect detectability (e.g. feeding or not feeding, breeding or non-breeding) and will vary with time of day and year. Survey times should be standardised, and it may be necessary to record activity of individuals if this affects the detectability. Weather. Bird activity will be affected by weather. Surveying in poor weather conditions should be avoided, and if possible surveys should be carried out in standardised weather conditions. If this is not possible, weather should be recorded. In summary, to maximise precision, the following points should be considered: the size of the area under study, the most appropriate survey method, the balance of effort against precision (i.e. number of sample sites), and the way of selecting sites. To maximise accuracy, and reduce bias, the following points should be considered: the steps are being taken to deal with the sources of errors listed above, whether bias can be measured, and whether any remaining bias can be spread similarly across all plots. 2 Examples from UK monitoring Buzzard. This survey method has been used to derive regional densities for Buzzard in the UK. A count is made of the maximum number of soaring Buzzards seen on any one visit per 2x2 km square. Counts are made from suitable vantage points, and last for a minimum of 1 hour (preferably 2), between 10am and 2pm on sunny days. Report the density as the mean number (+/standard error) of soaring Buzzards per tetrad visit. Golden Eagle. This method aims to record the number of breeding pairs in 23


a specified area. All sites are visited that are known to have a history of Golden Eagle nesting (other likely sites can also be visited). Make as many visits as necessary to confirm occupancy, defined as either an incubating adult or two adults seen together. Report number of occupied sites Grey Heron. The BTO Heronries Census collects nest counts of herons from as many heronries as possible in the UK each year. Changes in the number of nests give a population trend, taking into account sites that were not surveyed. Periodic full surveys, sampling other areas, are used to produce a population estimate. References Advice on census and monitoring techniques is derived from the following publications: Bibby, C.J., Burgess, N.D. and Hill, D.A. (2000): Bird Census Techniques. Academic Press, London, 2nd edition. Gilbert G, Gibbons D.W. and Evans J. (1998) Bird Monitoring Methods. RSPB Sandy

Griffon vulture in flight © C. Mousikos 24


Vulture tracking techniques and movement ecology Orr Spiegel, Roi Harel, Alejandro Centeno-Cuadros and Ran Nathan Movement Ecology Laboratory, Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Contact details: [email protected]

Abstract Vultures worldwide suffer from various threats resulting in population decline and motivating various conservation programs. These programs include artificial feeding stations, population census efforts and many other practices that necessitate tracking movements of individuals. A diverse set of marking and tracking techniques are available, ranging from simple markings (metal rings, color rings and patagial tags) to advanced biologging tags (including RFID chips, Argos PPTs, GPS receivers etc). These tags cover a wide spectrum of qualities and costs, ranging from high-quality continuous 3D data collected by expensive GPS units to automated presence/ absence data collected by cheap active-RFID tracking system. We studied the foraging movements of griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus) by tracking vultures using RFID chips and GPS-ACC (accelerometer) receivers. The RFIDs may provide information about survival, social interactions and visits to feeding stations of ~170 individuals. The GPS tags provide high-resolution (10 min interval) long movement tracks (339 ± 36 days; Mean± S.E.; range: 30-1161 days) from 47 adults and the ACC sensors provide complementary information about behavior and energy expenditure, facilitating the identification of unobserved feeding events. Collected data is stored onboard until it is downloaded via UHF communication, thus limiting the ability to distinguish between dispersal and mortality. We also focused on the distinct behavior of Long-Range Forays (LRF), where vultures leave their usual home range, performing long return trips to remote areas (up to 1700 km from home). Despite high fidelity to specific roosts in the 25


home range, six females and one male performed eight LRFs to Egypt and Saudi-Arabia. We find higher energy expenditure and lower food intake rate during the LRFs, suggesting that optimal foraging currencies cannot explain these journeys. We propose that the findings of LRF seasonality and biased sex ratio imply that LRFs are motivated by social and/or reproductive drivers, presumably reflecting a search for a potential (male) partner.

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History of Griffon Vulture reintroductions in France François Sarrazin University Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, FRANCE Contact details: [email protected]

1

Introduction

The long term restoration of Griffon Vulture populations in France constitutes a rare example of a group of efficient reintroductions that have been well monitored and documented. It provides numerous elements about these conservation translocations (IUCN 2013) as well as an improvement of knowledge on many aspects of the ecology of this long lived scavenger. This paper presents a short synthesis of the main results and lessons that were gained concerning Griffon vulture ecology, reintroduction strategies and management for the long term population viability of this species and other related ones in human landscapes. In France, populations of four species of vultures benefit from conservation measures. Griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus), Black vulture (Aegypius monachus), Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus) and Bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) have shown local or total extinctions in the past. Reintroduction has been a powerful tool to restore the local populations of all vulture species except the Egyptian vultures. We will mostly focus here on the five reintroduction programs that concerned Griffon vultures during the last decades in southern France. 2

Local extinctions and reintroduction programmes

Up to the end of the 19th century, Griffon vulture used to occupy large areas in southern France. It went extinct in Southern Alps in the beginning of the 20th century and in the south of Massif Central in the 40’s. A small population remained in the French Pyrenees. The poisoning of carcasses, including the use of strychnine, to destroy carnivores, as well as direct shooting had probably a huge impact on the survival of this long lived species, leading to its rapid decline. But changes in agricultural practices, particularly in transhumance and disposal of carcasses, also contributed to this decline. The first reintroduction program for Griffon vultures took place in the Jonte Gorges at the heart of Causses Region. It was initiated in the late 60’s by a group

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of naturalists and from the early 70’s, the Fond d’Intervention pour les Rapaces (FIR now part of LPO, BirdLife France) and the Parc national des Cévennes (PNC) managed and supported this reintroduction. A feasibility study showed that nest sites and food resources were still abundant due to the presence of numerous cliffs and limestone plateaus and traditional sheep rearing. This livestock constituted a significant local resource for meat and milk production. A first release of four juveniles collected in Spain, failed in the early 70’s and it was decided to set up a captive stock from birds coming from French and European zoos as well as rescue centres in Spain and the French Pyrenees. This captive stock was maintained in acclimatization aviaries located in the release area in front of the last occupied cliffs and some pairs bred in captivity. During that period a large awareness raising campaign targeted local farmers, hunters, local authorities and the general population. Contrary to the previous unsuccessful releases, it was decided to release mostly adults in order to favour the settlement of pairs as quickly as possible. This second release period started in winter 1981 and until 1986, 61 birds, of which 41 adults, were released (Terrasse et al. 1994, 2004). Since then the Causses population of Griffon vulture showed a positive growth (Ferriere et al. 1996, Sarrazin 1998, figure 1.) This success led to four other projects: one, in the same region Cirque de Navacelles, starting in 1993 and three in Baronnies starting in 1996, Verdon starting in 1998 and Vercors in 1999 on the south western side of the French Alps.

Figure 1: Dynamics of the number of breeding pairs in populations of Griffon vultures in France. The Ossau colony is one of the native colonies in the French Pyrenees. The Causses population results from the first reintroduction of this species. The second reintroduction attempt in Navacelles, close to the Causses, failed. Three other reintroductions in Baronnies, Verdon and Vercors constituted a group of colonies in the south western border of the Alps. 28


3

Demographic monitoring In the Causses population, the ringing of the released birds as well as most wild born birds that born from 1982, allowed us to age individuals (Duriez et al. 2011) and estimate survival (Sarrazin et al. 1994) and dispersal rates using capture mark recaptures methods. Using multi-strate models we could account for ring losses and dead recoveries and compare the survival rates among the successive reintroduction programmes where ringing was also intensive (Le Gouar et al. 2008a). Long term survival of released and wild born birds, once adults, was very high except immediately after release. This release cost on survival was similar in all programmes (Sarrazin et al. 1994, Bosè et al. 2007, Le Gouar et al. 2008a) showing the good repeatability of the efficiency of releasing adults. Electrocution, mostly of juvenile and immature birds, was the main artificial source of mortality but no shooting or poisoning was detected up to now showing the relevance of the information campaigns for the local communities. Breeding success also improved with time and reached values similar to natural populations (Sarrazin et al. 1996). In the Causses, dispersal was relatively low and new breeders mostly settled on cliffs where breeding success was high in the previous year (Mihoub et al. 2009). This habitat selection strategy based on conspecific attraction explained why birds released in the second reintroduction program joined the first settled population. This caused a local reintroduction failure in this second programme but contributed to the overall conservation of this species in France (Le Gouar et al. 2008a, Mihoub et al. 2011, Le Gouar et al. 2012). 4

Genetic monitoring From 1993, feathers samples were collected from wild born birds during ringing as well as from adults that were recaptured using old aviaries. Molecular sexing techniques showed no effect of sex on survival, breeding attempts or dispersal in this population (Bosè et al. 2007). Using 10 polymorphic microsatellite markers, genetic diversity was studied to assess the absence of genetic bottleneck in the Causses population, evaluate the genetic diversity in the release stocks in the Alps and estimate genetic structure at the level of the Mediterranean area using samples from Spain, Israel and Croatia. Overall genetic diversity was high and except for the Cres population in the Kvarner archipelago, there was no significant genetic difference between native and translocated populations and the genetic structure among these populations was low, showing the high level of exchanges that existed within this long lived species (Le Gouar, et al. 2006, 2008b, 2011). More immigration than emigration in the reintroduced populations, particularly in the Grands Causses, increased their diversity and played a positive role in their growth and viability.

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5

Release strategy Demographic, genetic and behavioural approaches of data analyses and modelling allowed us to confirm that releasing adults was a good strategy in order to bring about the settlement of the first breeding pairs of Griffon vultures, as quickly as possible. Indeed despite the initial losses in survival and breeding success, reproduction occurred in the first year following releases and often led to settlement of breeding colonies compared to releases of juveniles that would require at least four years before breeding (Sarrazin & Legendre 2000, Robert et al. 2004, 2007, Mihoub et al. 2011). 6

Long term population viability Since the Causses population of Griffon vultures is still growing, as well as the colonies in Baronnies, Verdon and Vercors, the main challenge is presently to evaluate what is the actual habitat suitability for the species at local and regional levels in order to be prepared for the natural regulation process that may take effect on the demography and take relevant management decisions with local communities. Indeed the settlement of these populations has been successful and they are now in their growth phase (Sarrazin 2007, IUCN 2013). It becomes important to identify at what level the regulation phase will occur to project the ultimate viability of these populations in the long term. It appears that the high nest site availability and the real but limited electrocution risks do not constitute regulation pressure that may limit soon the growth of these populations. Food availability is thus the main factor likely to play a central role on the density dependent dynamics of these populations. Food resources are mostly dead sheep from local livestock. In France, sanitary laws have been preventing the dumping of carrion in the wild over the last decades. The first feeding stations were set up in the 70’s to supplement the remaining population of Griffon vultures in the French Pyrenees. At the beginning of the releases in the Causses, three feeding stations managed by FIR/LPO and PNC were used to collect dead sheep from local farms. These animals were not bought but simply collected to help the farmers get rid of them, supply the vultures and favour their settlement. In 1998 the French Ministry of Agriculture agreed to the creation of ‘light’ feeding places directly managed by farmers on their own farms. This system expanded since then and more than 70 light feeding stations are now used in the Causses region. This natural disposal of carrion through the ecosystem services provided by vultures was threatened by the adoption of the European regulation on BSE and TSE that prevented dumping of carrion in the wild without sampling dead animals for prion detection. This regulation had a strong impact on the management of vulture populations in several countries including Spain and this probably affected the dynamics of the Ossau colony 30


(figure 1). From 2003 to 2011, the LPO, national and European authorities were engaged in strong negotiations, to establish that the system of light feeding stations developed in the Causses in the 90’s was relevant for addressing both biodiversity and sanitary issues in France and in other European countries. The EU regulation finally allowed using light feeding stations according to a random sampling of 4% of dead animals to maintain sanitary monitoring. In that context we studied the relationship between farmers and vultures to identify the potential mutual benefits of the natural destruction of carcasses. Through sociological interviews, behavioural analyses of foraging and demographic monitoring we could model the numerous dimensions of this ecosystem service of regulation provided by scavengers such as Griffon vultures. It appeared that Griffon vultures are extremely efficient at providing this ecosystem service; however it may be necessary in some cases to maintain also the services of industrial companies to cope with some local surplus of carcasses. Vultures help in reducing financial costs, as well as, release of carbon usually associated with carcase destruction (Dupont et al. 2011, 2012). Their long term foraging behaviour is not impacted by the availability of food on light feeding stations (Deygout et al. 2009, 2010, Montsarrat et al. 2013). Adults are dominant over young during feeding events (Bosè et al. 2007, Bosè et al. 2012, Duriez et al. 2012), and this competition between adults and young may be a factor of regulation by inducing dispersal or survival reduction, even though we have not yet detected these processes in the demography of the Causses population. 7 Perspectives Our results show that the success of conservation translocations has to be measured on the long term particularly for long lived species such as Griffon vultures (Sarrazin & Barbault 1996, 1997, Sutherland et al. 2010, IUCN 2013). The efficiency of the release and monitoring techniques produced relevant outputs that should be used in other programmes. Black vultures as well as Bearded vultures are being reintroduced in places where Griffon vultures were successfully translocated (e.g. Mihoub et al. in press a, b). The management of these populations remains a running process with the future colonisation of new sites. For example Griffon vultures foraging in new areas can be an issue since farmers that have forgotten the past relationship between livestock and vultures sometimes show some sensitivity when vultures forage on very weak animals. This sensitivity may be partly correlated to the return of large carnivores such as bears and wolves that were destroyed in France before the reintroduction of Griffon vultures. The conservation of a community of scavengers together with the presence of large carnivores in changing human landscapes shaped by 31


livestock is a central challenge for Biodiversity conservation in Southern France and Europe. Acknowledgements These studies rely on the conservation projects run by several NGOs and institutions such as Ligue pour la Protection des oiseaux (LPO Grands Causses, LPO PACA), the Parc national des Cévennes, the Parc national des Pyrénées, the Parc naturel régional du Vercors, and Vautours en Baronnies. Numerous individuals played a key role in the planning and management of reintroduction and data collection including Christian P. Arthur, Constant Bagnolini, Jean Bonnet, Jean Pierre Choisy, Bruno Descaves, Sylvain Henriquet, Jean de Kermabon, Philippe Lecuyer, Raphael Néouze, Jean Louis Pinna, Didier Peyrusqué, Michel Terrasse, Christian Tessier. PhD Students and colleagues largely contributed to data analyses and modelling including Carmen Bessa Gomes, Michela Bosè, Chloé Deygout, Hélène Dupont, Olivier Duriez, Agnès Gault, Pascaline Le Gouar, Jean Baptiste Mihoub, Alexandre Robert, Stéphane Chantepie together with numerous Master students. References Bosè , M. & Sarrazin, F. 2007 - Competitive behaviour and feeding rates in a reintroduced populations of Griffon vultures (Gyps fulvus). Ibis. 149 : 490-501. Bosè, M., Duriez, O, & Sarrazin, F. 2012. Intra-specific competition in foraging griffon vultures : 1. The dynamics of feeding in groups. Bird Study. 59 : 182-192. Bosè, M., Le Gouar, P., Arthur, C., Boisselier-Dubayle, M.C, Choisy, J.P, Henriquet, S., Lécuyer, Richard, M., Tessier, C. & Sarrazin, F. 2007 - Does sex matter in reintroduction of Griffon vultures (Gyps fulvus) ? Oryx. 41. 503-508. Deygout, C., Gault, A., Duriez, O., Sarrazin, F., & Bessa-Gomes, C. 2010 - Impact of food predictability on social facilitation by foraging scavengers. Behavioral Ecology. 21 : 1131-1139. Deygout, C., Gault, A., Sarrazin, F., & Bessa-Gomes, C. 2009 - Modeling the impact of feeding stations on vulture scavenging service efficiency. Ecological Modelling. 220 : 1826-1835. Dupont, H., Mihoub, J.B., Becu, N., & Sarrazin, F. 2011 - Modelling

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interactions between scavenger behaviour and farming practices : scavenger carrying capacity and ecosystem service efficiency. Ecological Modelling. 222 : 982-992. Dupont, H., Mihoub, J.B., Bobbé, S., & Sarrazin, F. 2012. Modelling carcass disposal practices : implications for the management of an ecological service provided by vultures. Journal of Applied Ecology. 49 : 404-411. Duriez, O., Eliotout, B., & Sarrazin F. 2011 - Age identification of Eurasian Griffon vultures Gyps fulvus in the field. Ringing & Migration. 26 : 24-30. Duriez, O., Herman, S., & Sarrazin, F. 2012. Intra-specific competition in foraging griffon vultures : 2. The influence of supplementary feeding management. Bird Study. 59 : 193-206. Ferrière, R., Sarrazin, F., Legendre, S. & Baron, J.P. 1996 - Matrix population models applied to viability analysis and Conservation : Theory and Practice using the ULM software. Acta Oecologica 17 (6) 629-656. IUCN/SSC 2013 - Guidelines for Reintroductions and Other Conservation Translocations. Version 1.0. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN Species Survival Commission, viiii + 57 pp Le Gouar P, A. Robert, S. Henriquet, P. Lécuyer, C. Tessier, & Sarrazin F. 2008 a - Roles of survival and dispersal in reintroduction success of Griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus). Ecological applications 18 : 859-872. Le Gouar, P., Mihoub, J.B., & Sarrazin, F. 2012 - Dispersal and Habitat Selection : Behavioural and Spatial Constraints for Animal Translocations. In Ewen, J.G., Armstrong, D.P., Parker, K.A., & P.J. Seddon (Eds) Reintroduction Biology : Integrating Science and Management. Blackwell Publishing : 138-164. Le Gouar, P., Rigal, F., Boisselier-Dubayle, M. C., Samadi, S., Arthur, C., Choisy, J. P., Hatzofe, O., Henriquet, S., Lécuyer, P., Tessier, C., Susic, G. & Sarrazin. F. 2006 - Genetics of restored populations of Griffon vulture in Europe and in France. International conference on conservation and management of vulture populations, Thessaloniki, Grèce, 2005. Le Gouar, P., Rigal, F., Boisselier-Dubayle, M-C., Sarrazin, F., Arthur, C., Choisy, J.P., Hatzofe. O., Henriquet, S., Lécuyer, P., Tessier, C., Susic, G., & Samadi, S. 2008 b - Genetic variation in a network of natural and reintroduced populations of Griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus) in Europe. Conservation Genetics 9 : 349-359.

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Le Gouar, P., Sulawa, J., Henriquet, S., Tessier, C., & Sarrazin, F. 2011 Low evidence of extra-pair fertilizations in two reintroduced populations of Griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus). Journal of Ornithology. 152:359-364. Mihoub, J. B., Jiguet, F., Lecuyer, P., Eliotout, B. Sarrazin, F. in press a. Modelling nesting site suitability in a reintroduced population of european Black Vulture Aegypius monachus. Oryx. Mihoub, J.B., Le Gouar, P. & Sarrazin, F. 2009 - Breeding habitat selection behaviors in heterogeneous environments : implications for modeling reintroduction. Oïkos. 118 : 663-674. Mihoub, J.B., Princé, K., Duriez, O., Lecuyer, P., Eliotout, B., & Sarrazin, F. in press b. Comparing release method effects on survival of the European Black Vulture Aegypius monachus reintroduced in France. Oryx. Mihoub, J-B., Robert, A., Le Gouar, P., & Sarrazin, F. 2011 - Post-Release Dispersal in Animal Translocations : Social Attraction and the “Vacuum Effect”. PLoS ONE 6(12) : e27453. Monsarrat, S., Benhamou, S., Sarrazin, F., Bessa-Gomes, C., Bouten, W., & Duriez, O. 2013. How predictability of feeding patches affects home range and foraging habitat selection in avian social scavengers ? PLoS ONE 8 (1), e53077. Robert, A, F. Sarrazin, D. Couvet & S. Legendre. 2004 - Releasing adults versus young in reintroductions : interactions between demography and genetics Conservation Biology 18(4) : 1078-1087. Robert, A., Couvet, D, Sarrazin, F. 2007 - Integration of demography and genetics in population restoration. Ecoscience 14. 463-471. Sarrazin, F. 1998 - Modelling establishment of a reintroduced population of Griffon vultures Gyps fulvus in Southern France. In Holartic Birds of Prey. Chancellor, R.D., Meyburg, B.U. & Ferrero J.J., eds. ADENEX - WWGBP : 405-416. Sarrazin, F. 2007. Introductory remarks : a demographic frame for reintroduction : Ecoscience 14 : iii-v. Sarrazin, F. & Barbault R. 1996 - Re-introductions : challenges and lessons for basic ecology. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 11, 474-478. Sarrazin, F. & Barbault, R. 1997 - Reply to Bullock J.M. and Hodder, K.H. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 12 : 69.

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Sarrazin, F. & Legendre S. 2000 - Demographic approach to releasing adults versus young in reintroductions. Conservation Biology 14(2) : 488-500. Sarrazin, F., Bagnolini, C., Pinna, J.L., & Danchin, E. 1996 - Breeding biology during establishment of a reintroduced Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus) population. Ibis 138 : 315-325. Sarrazin, F., Bagnolini, C., Pinna, J.L., Danchin, E., & Clobert, J. 1994 High survival estimates in a reintroduced population of Griffon Vultures. The Auk 111 (4) : 853-862. Sutherland, W.J., Armstrong, D., Butchart, S.H.M., Earnhardt, J.M., Ewen, J., Jamieson, I., Jones, C.G., Lee, R., Newbery, P., Nichols, J.D., Parker, K.A., Sarrazin, F., Seddon, P., Shah, N., & Tatayah, V. 2010 - Standards for documenting and monitoring bird reintroduction projects. Conservation Letters. 3 : 229-235. Terrasse M., Sarrazin, F. Choisy, J.P., Clemente, C., Henriquet, S., Lecuyer, P., Pinna, J.L., & Tessier, C. 2004 - A Success Story : The Reintroduction of Griffon Gyps fulvus and Black Aegypius monachus Vultures in France. In Chancellor, R.D. & B.-U. Meyburg (eds) Raptors Worldwilde. WWGBP : 127-145 Terrasse, M, Bagnolini, C., Bonnet, J. & Sarrazin, F. 1994 - Re-introduction of Griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus fulvus) in the Massif Central-France. In Raptor Conservation Today (Meyburg, B.-U., & Chancellor, R.D. eds., WWGBP / The Pica Press) : 479-491

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Working with vultures in Israel: Conservation, mortality factors, survival, PVA model of the Griffon vultures in Israel & the Middle East Ohad Hatzofe Division of Science & Conservation, Israel Nature & Parks Authority, Jerusalem, ISRAEL Contact details: [email protected]

Abstract The Griffon vultures (GVs) were common in Israel and elsewhere in the Middle East a century ago. From about 1000 nesting pairs before the mid 1940’s, only 39 nesting attempts with only 10 chicks fledged successfully in the wild in Israel in 2011. The causes of the decline are similar to most vultures’ populations around the world (poisonings, electrocutions, persecution, disturbances and others). On average, 13 GVs per year are found injured or dead (2001-2012) in Israel or GVs from Israel found abroad: 64 GVs were poisoned, 15 electrocuted, 10 shot with lead pellets, 5 lead poisoned, 5 collided with power lines or infrastructure, 50 died from unknown factors. In the Mediterranean habitats in Israel the breeding success rate (laying to fledging, 1997-2011) is very low: 29%. Unlike the GVs’ populations in France and Croatia, in Israel the survival rate is almost identical in all age classes (from 1st year to adulthood: 5 year and older): 0.77, compared with 0.97 survival of adult GVs in France and Croatia. The Israeli population is closely monitored. Since 1992 more than 1000 Griffon vultures were tagged in Israel (with standard metal rings and plastic color coded rings, coded wing tags since 2007, 180 with VHF telemetry, ~55 with GPS/UHF GSM data loggers, 15 with PTT or PTT/GPS, ~150 with microchips). These origins of the tagged GVs: ~730 are wild caught (at least 45 of them originated from Turkey and the Balkan); 154 are chicks tagged in the nests; 115 are released captive bred birds; 62 are rehabilitated wild birds. By using Mark-recapture analysis we found that around 1600 GVs utilize the area since 1996. A PVA model revealed that increasing both, the annual recruitment and the survival rate, is imperative in order to postpone extinction. The survival is dependent on the improvement in conservation in all countries in the region (especially Syria, Jordan and Saudi

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Arabia and Sudan according to loss of GVs tagged with PTT or GPS). The recruitment is increased by releasing captive born GVs (~7 per year) or GVs that were reared in captivity from eggs collected from the wild. The released GVs are at the age of 3-5 years old. A network of more than 30 feeding sites is operated constantly throughout Israel with over 200 tons of livestock carcasses supplied. All food items that are supplied for the GVs are free of drugs (e.g. antibiotics and NSAIDs). Efforts to insulated power lines’ pylons, ban the use of lead in shotguns and rifles, control of Aviation activity in the vicinity of nesting sites and education programs are performed on a regular basis within the work of the Israel Nature & Parks Authority.

An old photo with vultures resting on a pine tree © BirdLife Cyprus

A Griffon vulture at Vretsia area, Cyprus © N. Kassinis 37


Vulture conservation in Bulgaria Dobromir Dobrev, Stoycho Stoychev Bulgarian Society for the Protection of Birds (BSPB), Sofia Contact details: [email protected], [email protected]

Summary All four European vulture species were widespread in 19th century in Bulgaria. About 1950s large vultures were already very rare. Currently only Griffon vulture and Egyptian vulture are regular breeders in Bulgaria. Black vultures from the colony in Dadia national park forage regularly in Bulgaria. Long term conservation efforts brought results in the Eastern Rhodope where the last population of Griffon vulture in Bulgaria has survived. The species has increased from about 10 pairs in 1990s to 67 pairs in 2013. This is to a large extent due to reducing of poisoning and persecution achieved by involving local stakeholders in nature related business. Other conservation efforts that contribute are supplementary feeding, establishment of protected areas and awareness raising. Reintroduction of Griffon vultures has started in four sites in Stara Planina and Kresna gorge in 2008. The first three breeding attempts have been recorded. The feeding sites at the reintroduction areas have been used by dispersing Griffon vultures from Serbia, Croatia and Eastern Rhodope (Bulgaria). The Egyptian vulture population in Bulgaria is rapidly declining as all over the Balkans. In 2013, the species bred only in the Eastern Rhodope and Northeast of Bulgaria. The bulk of the population (21 out of 29 pairs) is in the Eastern Rhodopes. The threats for vultures in Bulgaria are similar to other areas in Europe with poisoning being the most significant one. Other threats are illegal shooting, electrocution, egg-collecting (by foreigners) and collision with powerlines and wind farms. Further conservation efforts should be focused on limiting all the threats for the vulture populations, namely poisoning, shooting, electrocution and wind farms collision, habitat destruction, quarries building. In the case of Egyptian vulture coordinated international efforts should be made to tackle the threats along the flyway and in the wintering grounds. 1 Introduction Large-sized scavenging birds, such as the vultures are an essential component of the biotic system in the ecosystem. Vultures play an irreplaceable and important role in clearing the animal carcasses and preventing the spread

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of diseases. Their ecological characteristics have defined them as providers of a different range of biological, ecological, economic and cultural services within their range.(Newton, 1979, Saran, Purohit, 2012). All four European vulture species were widespread in 19th century in Bulgaria. Decline began in the end of 19th and the beginning of 20th century (Reiser, 1894). About 1950s large vultures were already very rare (Patev, 1950). Currently only Griffon vulture and Egyptian vulture are regular breeders in Bulgaria. (Iankov, 2007). The bearded vulture is extinct as a breeder since the beginning of 1970s. (Boev, 1985). Between 1994 and 2004 there are 8 observations, 5 of them in the Eastern Rhodopes near vulture feeding stations. (Iankov, 2007). Reintroduction was proposed for Stara Planina mountains, Western Rhodopes, (Kmetova, pers. com.), Eastern Rhodopes. Since 1970 Black vulture is considered as “extinct” from Bulgarian ornithofauna but breeding of 1-3 pairs is assumed by some authors. (Arabadjiev, 1962, Michev, 1985). For the period 19801990 only wandering birds in the southeastearn part of the country originating mainly from the breeding colony in Dadia Nature park in Greece have been recorded. A nest with a chick was discovered in the Eastern Rhodopes in 1993 (Marin et al., 1998). A permanent group of immature Black vultures inhabit the region in the period 1993-1999. Irregular breeding may have occurred. (Hristov, 2000). Radio tracking and visual observations show that Black vultures from the colony in Dadia regularly forage in Bulgaria. Between 1960 and 1970 the last known breeding localities of the Griffon vulture disappeared and some authors considered the species as extinct in Bulgaria (Baumgart, 1974). The species was rediscovered in 1978 in the Eastern Rhodopes - 28 birds and only 1 breeding pair found (Michev et al, 1980). In 2013, the local population in the Eastern Rhodope numbers 67 pairs, while 161 birds were counted during the roost count in November 2012. (Dobrev, auth.unpubl. data). Reintroduction projects have been started in Stara planina (4 sites) and Kresna gorge. Totally 56 birds counted at those sites during roost count in November 2012 (Kmetova, Stoynov pers. com). In the beginning of 20th century the Egyptian vulture was widespread in the country (Iankov, 2007). In 1960s, it was still widespread although declines in distribution and numbers had been recorded (Michev, 1968). Decline continues after 1980s and leads to more than 50 % reduction of the population. Last data from 2012 shows that less than 80 pairs remained in the Balkans, 29 in Bulgaria - 50% decline for the last 10 years (Iankov, 2007, Dobrev, V, pers.com.) 2 Material and Methods The information on vulture conservation activities have been collected from published papers as a primary source. Another source of information were 39


project reports of Bulgarian Society for the Protection of Birds (BSPB) - BirdLife partner in Bulgaria prepared in the frame of various vulture conservation projects implemented since 1990. Unpublished data were collected as well since both authors have been involved in vulture conservation work of BSPB. In addition unpublished information especially for the reintroduction projects was provided by Elena Kmetova (Green Balkans) and Emilian Stoynov (Fond for Wild Flora and Fauna). Data on vulture populations were collected by volunteers since 1987 and by BSPB/BirdLife staff since 1992. Population monitoring of Griffon and Egyptian vultures was conducted annually for a period of 25 and 10 years respectively between 1987 - 2013. All localities known from the literature or sites with unpublished observations of Egyptian vultures in Bulgaria are regularly checked for presence of vultures. In the Eastern Rhodopes and Northeastern Bulgaria surveys for locating occupied nests were conducted for all suitable cliffs. Observations from elevated viewpoints was the main method used (Bibby et al., 1999). All observations were made in rainless days with good visibility at distance from 300 to 500 meters from the particular cliff in order to avoid disturbance. Viewing scopes x20 and x20-60 were used for observation. A Griffon vulture colony was considered occupied, when it consisted of a minimum of 2 pairs, at least 1 kilometer away from neighboring occupied cliff (Sarrazin et al. 1996, del Moral, Marti 2001, Lopez-Lopez et al. 2004, del Moral 2009, Demerdzhiev et al, in prep.). An occupied Egyptian vulture nest was considered by following the methodology described by Steenhof, Newton, 2007. For every nest its location was recorded, the exposition and type of the nest substrate (niche or ledge). Other parameters recorded were: 1. number of occupied nests (all nests occupied by breeding and non-breeding pairs), 2. number of breeding pairs (pairs which were observed incubating), 3. breeding success (fledged juveniles per incubating pairs), 4. productivity (fledged juveniles per occupied nest). The criteria for considering of non-breeding pair (pairs which did not lay eggs) was when both birds of the pair were observed attached to particular niche/ledge of the cliff which is suitable for breeding, where nest may or may not be present and engaged in at least two of the following behavior types: courtship flights, mutual preening, copulation, nest building, defense of the immediate vicinities of the chosen nest area from conspecifics. A juvenile was considered fledgling if it was aged at least 125 days for Griffon vulture and after 85 days old for the Egyptian vulture (Cramp, Simmons 1980). During 2004-2011, when it was possible, the age of the birds in the pairs was recorded according to Blanco et al., 1997 and Forsman, 2007. 3 Results and Discussion 40


3.1 Population Trend From 1988 to 2013, the native Griffon Vulture breeding population in Bulgaria located in the Eastern Rhodopes increased from 10 to 67 territorial pairs and expanded its breeding range, while the Egyptian vultures suffered a sharp decline in its population from more than 100 pairs in the 1990s to 29 pairs in 2012 (Dobrev et al., 2013). (fig.1,2)

Fig 1. Griffon vulture population dynamic in Bulgaria

Fig. 2 Egyptian vulture population trend in Bulgaria

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During 1988-1992, the Griffon Vulture breeding range was confined only in the region of town of Madzharovo (Eastern Rhodopes), while the Egyptian vultures were still widespread in Northeastern, Northwestern Southeastern and Southwestern part of the country. The breeding range of the Griffons started expanding westwards in 1993, and in 1994, two pairs were found breeding on a cliff in the area of Studen kladenetz, (Hristov 1997, 2003). From a total of 17 breeding cliffs used by Griffon vultures in the study period, four were regularly used in the first 5 years of the study period, while 15 cliffs were used during the last five years (Demerdzhiev et al, in prep.). In the early 1990s, Griffon vultures were recorded nesting always on the big cliff formations along Arda river while with the increase of the population in the last 5 years breeding pairs were registered in smaller cliffs among these big formations, a sign for the increase of the population (Demerdzhiev et al, in prep.). In the Eastern Rhodopes the sharp increase of the Griffon vultures is related according to some authors with good feeding conditions and increased immature and adult survival. (Demerdzhiev et al., in prep.). At the same time Egyptian vulture population collapsed and remained stable only at its core are in Eastern Rhodopes (Dobrev, V., pers. Comm.). 3.2 Breeding performance During 1987-2012, 706 occupied territories of Griffon vultures were registered and a total of 487 juveniles fledged (Demerdzhiev et al, in prep.). From 2003 to 2012, 381 occupied territories of Egyptian vultures were established with a total of 290 juveniles fledged (BSPB, unpublished data). 3.3 Threats All over Europe the massive use of poison baits brought the vultures and other large birds of prey to the brink of extinction in 1970s-1980s (Bijleveld, 1974). In Bulgaria wolf poisoning was carried out at national scale by the State forestry service in 1950s and 1960s and brought the Griffon Vulture to the brink of extinction (Stoyanov, 2010). Currently the poisoning is still the main threat although the cases are much rarer. A survey of the wild Griffon vulture population in the Eastern Rhodopes shows that during 33 years, 38 birds were found dead. Almost half of the birds were found to have died from poisoning, nearly 16 % were shot, while vultures that died from collision or electrocution or exhaustion were in equal proportions reaching a total of 13 % (Demerdzhiev et al., in prep.). The highest recorded mortality from poisoning occurred in 1996, when 5 adult, 1 subadult and 5 juvenile, were found dead (Hristov, 1997). The poisoning is main threat for Egyptian vulture as well. For the period 20032012 a total of 30 Egyptian vultures were found dead. Poisoning caused 13 of the casualties, diseases 3, shooting 2, electrocution 1 and the cause was 42


unknown for 11 cases. However some threats such as shooting by poachers and taxidermist and electrocution might be underestimated since they are more difficult to record. Secondary reasons for mortality of vulture in Bulgaria are shooting, electrocution, collision with power lines, wind farms and starvation. A relatively new threat for Bulgaria was recorded in 2011 - nest robbing by egg-collectors. Shooting was a major factor contributing to the population decline most notably in the first half of the 20th century (Stoyanov, 2010). There is data of a lethally shot Griffon vulture and at least two Egyptian vultures shot in the northern of Bulgaria (Demerdzhiev et al., in prep.; Dobrev, V., pers. com.). Electrocution is considered to be a serious mortality factor for many scavenger and large birds of prey, resulting in high mortality and affecting species population demography (Newton, 1979, Ferrer et al., 1991, Ferrer, 2012). It seems to have been an underestimated problem before the full surveys made in Bulgaria (Demerdzhiev et al., 2009). In 2012, a massive survey was initiated on the territory of Eastern Rhodopes, where more than 8000 pylons were checked for electrocuted or collided birds (Dobrev, V, pers. Com.). However, wild Griffon vultures in the Eastern Rhodopes, do not have habit for perching on power lines, since they have been very rarely observed doing this (Demerdzhiev et al., in prep.). Different studies show that the Griffon Vulture is a species highly vulnerable to collision with wind farms (Carrete et al. 2012). In Bulgaria one case of Griffon vulture killed by wind turbine was recorded along Black sea flyway (Via Pontica) near cape Kalikra. In the stronghold of vulture species in Bulgaria, Eastern Rhodopes there are still no operating wind turbines. However big wind turbine complexes are operating in the bordering area in Greece and has been known to have caused mortality to several Griffon and Black vultures crossing the border between these two countries (Demerdzhiev et al., in prep.). An English egg- collector that settled in Bulgaria was caught by the police in 2011. The investigation revealed that he robbed Griffon vulture and Egyptian vulture nests. Survival along the migration flyway and in wintering areas may significantly affect the populations of long-lived birds (Newton, 2008). Juvenile griffon vultures fledged in the eastern Rhodopes are known to spend their first months abroad on the territory of Israel (Demerdzhiev et al., in prep.), and probably Syria, Lebanon and Jordan while the Egyptian vulture travels more than 5000 km to reach central African countries, like Chad and Sudan to spend its youth years (Meyburg et al., 2004, BSPB UNPUBL DATA). 3.4 Conservation Efforts 43


3.4.1 Supplementary feeding Supplementary feeding to support vultures in the Eastern Rhodopes has been done since 1980s. The BSPB feeding program for vultures started in 1988 with two feeding places - Studen Kladenets and Madjarovo. Two more feeding stations have been operated by Green Balkans (since 1999) and the Hunting Union (since 2011). Feeding at other sites has been done irregularly as well. The quantity of food provided yearly averaged 4-7 tones during 1987-1999, increased to 10-15 tones during 2000-2007 and reached maximum of 30 tones during 2007-2010 (Demerdzhiev et al., in prep) In 2008, an individual supplementary feeding program has been launched aimed at some Egyptian vulture pairs. Small pieces of food have been provided on rocks 200 -300 metres from the nests. In 2012 10-12 pairs have been fed this way. 3.4.2 Anti-poisoning activities In Bulgaria the main cause provoking stock breeders and hunters to use poison is the conflict with wolf. Currently poisoning is illegal in Bulgaria. However poisoning events still occur in the country. In order to reduce the risk of use of poisons against predators the following approaches have been used: • Providing stock breeders with good guarding dogs to reduce the number of wolf attacks. This turns to be effective and farmers with good dogs have significantly lower number of wolf kills or even none at all. • A public free anti-poison telephone alert system was operating for 3 years but turned to be ineffective and it was abolished. This is due to the fact that people do not call and probably due to low number of poisoning incidents. • The Hunting reserve “Studen Kladenets“ located in the core vulture breeding area in Eastern Rhodopes that has Fallow deer as main game species was involved in carrying out birdwatching tourism connected with vultures. The hunting reserve has built vulture watching hide, operates a vulture feeding station and offers vulture photography. In addition the wolf from a pest species has become a valuable trophy and attraction for hunters. Thus the hunting reserve that use to be a place where poisoning occurred in the past was turned into poison free area. • Eco-tourism becomes an important source of income in another key vulture breeding area in the Eastern Rhodope, the municipality of Madzharovo. A visitor center called Vulture Center was established by BSPB/BirdLife in Bulgaria in 1998 and the area has become popular as a site for rural and eco-tourism. The Griffon vulture was depicted even on the municipality logo. A hotel and several guest houses have been opened since 2000. The tourism connected with nature has started to bring income to the local people in this

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small municipality (about 1000 inhabitants) that has high unemployment rate. Thus the risk of poisoning wolves by stock breeders was decreased since some of them have become involved in tourism connected with vultures or at least their neighbors have become. • Campaign among institutions (Regional Inspectorate of Environment and Waters, Police, Forestry Services) focus on conservation and legal aspects of poisoning was carried out. 3.4.3 Establishment of protected areas Most of the Griffon vulture and Egyptian vulture nesting cliff and adjacent forests were declared as protected sites in 1995-2000 thus preventing mining and other development. After EU accession of Bulgaria in 2007 they were included in Natura 2000 network 3.4.4 Policy and case work Every single wind farm project in the Eastern Rhodopes was appealed by BSPB/BirdLife and Green Balkans in the last 7 years. Several projects have been abolished. Three cases were lost in the court but the projects have been delayed for 4 years so they are not built yet. Currently there is no wind farms built in the Bulgarian part of the region. However there are several in Greece some of them just on the border line with Bulgaria. On national level a complaint to European Commission was submitted and consequently an infringement procedure for lack of protection of Natura 2000 sites was started. Great success was achieved in 2012 - National Renewable Energy Development plan declared all Natura 2000 sites in Bulgaria and the geographical region Eastern Rhodopes as no go area for new wind farm development till 2020. 3.4.5 International cooperation and common efforts Joint cross-border monitoring of Griffon Vulture roosting sites has been ongoing since 2008 when five organizations from Bulgaria and Greece were united to count simultaneously all known roosting sites. In 2012, a total of 599 vultures counted by 7 organizations from Bulgaria, Greece, FYR Macedonia and Serbia. Between 2005 and 2008 radio and GSP tracking of Black vultures was carried out in the Eastern Rhodopes mountains, as close collaboration of BSPB, Green Balkans NGO and WWF Greece BSPB/BirdLife has initiated collaboration in Africa and Middle East (Sudan, Ethiopia, Oman, Turkey) in order to ensure the international support and collaboration for the globally threatened Egyptian vulture along the flyway and in the wintering grounds. In addition to field work special efforts have 45


been done to train and involve conservationists from Turkey, Chad, Sudan, Ethiopia and Somalia in vulture conservation since those countries are the main flyway or wintering areas for the Balkan population of the Egyptian vulture. More than 15 people took part in the training and consequently small grants for African conservationists from those countries were provided for Egyptian vulture research. Thanks to satellite telemetry and collaboration of BSPB with local conservationists the wintering grounds for the Balkan population was revealed and threats were identified. Local collaborators discovered that in some cases the transmitters are reason for persecution by local people so the whole satellite tracking program was redesigned. 3.4.6 Nest guarding of Egyptian vulture nests The action started in 2010 in order to address the rapid decline of the population and aiming to reduce disturbance caused mainly by treasurehunters and tourists. Ten nests were guarded in 2012 all were successful except for one that failed for unknown reasons. Two juveniles that fell from the nests were saved. This action followed successful experience gathered by BSPB during nest guarding of the Eastern Imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca) (Demerdzhiev, pers.com.). On the other hand this action should be carefully organized and carried out in order to avoid attracting unwanted attention to the nesting territories of the threatened species. 3.4.7 Agri-environmental scheme An agri-environment scheme aimed at Egyptian vulture was developed by BSPB experts and accepted by the Ministry of agriculture in 2012. The scheme encourages farmers that have their land plots within Egyptian vulture breeding territories to maintain their land as pastures instead of arable land thus improving the feeding habitats of the species. 3.4.8 Vulture reintroduction projects in Bulgaria Aiming at the restoration of large vulture species in Bulgaria, 3 NGO’s (Green Balkans, Fond for Wild Flora and Fauna and Birds of Prey Protection Society) initiated Griffon vulture reintroduction in Stara planina (Balkan mountains). Another reintroduction project was initiated in Kresna gorge in South West of Bulgaria by Fond for Wild Flora and Fauna. A total of 113 Griffon Vultures have been released since 2009 at four release sites in Stara Planina and about 50 birds still remain at those areas. Since 2010, 35 Griffon Vultures have been released in Kresna Gorge of which 11-12 birds are now settled in the area. The reintroduction projects include a number of preparatory and conservation

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actions. For the purpose of sustainable management of the species a network for collecting dead animals from local people and monitoring the released birds was established. Transhumance practices have been maintained and promoted as well. Provision of guarding dogs to shepherds, compensation and prevention programme for predated livestock were organized. The team of the project established two photographic hides and closely collaborated with target Nature Park authorities. Together with the on-going poison-prevention campaign widescale public awareness actions have been implemented in the project sites. The main threat for the reintroduced Griffon vulture turned to be electrocution. In Stara planina mountains 11 out of 17 confirmed death cases after release were due to electrocution, 1 case of secondary electrocution after a confirmed poisoning and 1 case of poisoning. In Kresna gorge 5 deaths were registered, 3 of them due to electrocution and 2 by poisoning. In order to mitigate the threat a number of meetings with the electricity distribution company were carried out. As a result, the four most dangerous pylons were insulated and more are planned to be insulated. In Kresna gorge eight powerline poles were equipped with safe perch. The first encouraging results were achieved. A pair laid egg for two subsequent years (2012, 2013) in the Eastern Balkan Mountains. No chick hatched probably due to insufficient experience of the birds. This was the first recorded breeding attempt in Balkan mountains for the past 50 years. Two other birds released from the Balkan Mountains moved to the natural colony in the Eastern Rhodopes (150 km Southward) where they formed pairs with wild birds and currently are nesting in the existing natural Griffon Vulture colonies. In Kresna gorge an egg was laid and a chick was hatched, but did not fledge (most probably overheated or predated in mid June 2011). This was the first breeding attempt of Griffon Vulture in SW Bulgaria in the last 50 years. The feeding sites in the reintroduction areas have been visited by Griffons from Serbia, Southern and South-western Bulgaria. Egyptian Vultures were also seen at two of the release sites. Thus the reintroduction project contributes to the survival of floaters and immature birds during their dispersal. 4

Conclusions The threats for vultures in Bulgaria are similar to other areas in Europe with poisoning being the most significant one. Long term conservation efforts brought results in the Eastern Rhodopes where the last population of Griffon vulture in Bulgaria survives. The species has increased from about 10 pairs in 1990s to 67 pairs in 2013. This is to a large extent due to reducing of poisoning and persecution achieved by involving local key stakeholders in nature related business. Other conservation efforts that contribute significantly 47


are supplementary feeding and establishment of protected areas. This increase is contrasting with the rapid decline of the Griffon vulture in the neighboring countries Greece and Macedonia (Th. Kastritis and M. Velevski, pers. com). The successful recovery of the Griffon vulture gives hope for future reintroduction of Black and Bearded vulture as breeding species in Bulgaria. Reintroduction of Griffon vultures started in four sites in Stara planina and Kresna gorge in 2008. The first three breeding attempts have been recorded. The feeding sites at reintroduction areas have been used by Egyptian vultures and dispersing Griffon vultures from the colonies in Serbia, Croatia and Eastern Rhodopes (Bulgaria) thus contributing to the conservation of the native populations as well. The Egyptian vulture population in Bulgaria is rapidly declining as all over the Balkans. In 2013 the species has bred only in the Eastern Rhodope and Northeast of Bulgaria. The bulk of the population, 21 out of 29 pairs is in the Eastern Rhodopes where the most intensive vulture conservation efforts took place in the last 20 years. Further conservation efforts should be focused on the threats to the vulture populations, namely poisoning, shooting, electrocution and wind farm collision, habitat destruction, and nest robbing. In the case of Egyptian vulture that spends significant part of their lifetime in Africa coordinated international efforts should be made in order to address the threats along the flyway and in the wintering grounds. Acknowledgements We are grateful to Elena Kmetova (Green Balkans) and Emilan Stounov (Fond for Wild Flora and Fauna) for providing information on Griffon vulture reintroduction projects that have been implemented by their organizations. We thank to Vladimir Dobrev, Dimitar Demerdzhiev, Stoyan Nikolov and all the BSPB staff and volunteers involved in vulture conservation without whom this publication would not be possible. Vulture conservation work of BSPB would not be possible without the support of many donors - Bulgaria-Swiss Biodiversity Conservation Program, RSPB, Frankfurt Zoological Society, Black Vulture Conservation Foundation, Vulture Conservation Foundation, EAZA, UNDP Rhodope project, Rufford Small grants, UNEP/CMS Office-Abu Dhabi, Operational Program Environment in Bulgaria, Edward Keeble. A significant conservation project (The return of the Neophron, LIFE10 NAT/BG/000152) aimed at halting the decline of Egyptian vulture in Bulgaria and Greece is ongoing thanks to the LIFE+ program of the European Union and A. G. Leventis Foundation.

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References Arabadzhiev I. 1962.Birds of Prey in Bulgaria. “Science and Art” State Publishing Company, Sofia.(In Bulgarian). Baumgart, W. 1974.Wiestehtes um EuropasGeier? - Falke, 21 (8), pp. 259267. Bibby C., M. Jones, S. Marsden. 1999.Expedition Field Techniques.-Bird Surveys - Royal Geographical Society, London. Bijleveld M. 1974. Birds of prey in Europe. Macmillan Press, London. Blanco G., F. Martines, J. Traverso.1997.Pair bond and age distribution of breeding Griffon Vultures (Gyps fulvus) in relation to reproductive status and geographic area in Spain. - Ibis, 139, pp. 180 - 183. Boev, N. 1985. European Shag Phalacrocorax aristotelis; Eurasian Bittern Botaurus stellaris; Bearded Vulture Gypaaetus barbatus; Hazel Grouse Tetrastes bonasia; Black Grouse Lyrurus tetrix; Western Capercaillie Tetrao urogallus; Common Pheasant Phasianus colchicus colchicus; Common Crane Grus grus; Demoiselle Crane Anthropoides virgo; Great Bustard Otis tarda; Little Bustard Otis tetrax; Corn Crake Crex crex; Eurasian Woodcock Scolopax rusticola; Rosy Starling Sturnus roseus. –In Botev, B., Ts. Peshev (Eds.). Red data book of R of Bulgaria, V.2, Animals. P. BAS.183 pp. Carrete M., J. A. Sánchez-Zapata, J. R. Benítez, M. Lobón, F. Montoya, J. A. Donázar 2012.Mortality at wind farms is positively related to largescale distribution and aggregation in Griffon Vultures. - Biological Conservation145, pp. 102-108. Cramp S., K. Simmons (eds.) 1980.The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Vol. 2. Oxford - London - New York, Oxford Univ. Press. Pp. 695. Del Moral J. C. (Ed.) 2009 El buitre leonado en España. Población reproductora en 2008 y método de censo. SEO/BirdLife. Madrid. Del Moral J. C., R. Martí (Eds.) 2001. El buitre leonado en la Península Ibérica. III Censo Nacional y I Censo Ibérico Coordinado, 1999. Monografía, 7. SEO/BirdLife. Madrid. Demerdzhiev, D., S. Stoychev, T. Petrov, I. Angelov, N. Nedyalkov 2009. Impact of power lines on bird mortality in Southern Bulgaria. - Acta Zoologica Bulgarica, 61(2): 175-183 p. Demerdzhiev, D., Hristov, H., Dobrev, D., Angelov, I., Kurtev, M. (in 49


prep.).Long-term population status, breeding parameters and limiting factors of the Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus) population in Eastern Rhodopes, Bulgaria. Dobrev, D., Angelov, A., Dobrev, V. 2013. Status and conservation of vultures in Bulgaria. Bulgarian society for the protection of birds/ Birdlife Bulgaria (BSPB) activities. In: Andreevski, J. (ed.). 2013. Vulture Conservation in the Balkan Peninsula and Adjacent Regions. 10 Years of Vulture Research and Conservation, pp. 14 - 16. Ferrer, M. 2012. Birds and power lines. From conflict to solution.Pp. 182. Ferrer, M., De La Riva, M., Castroviejo, H. 1991. Electrocution of raptors on powerlines in southwestern Spain.J Field Ornithol.,62 (2), pp. 181-190. Forsman, D. 2007. Egyptian vulture plumages. González, L.M., Margalida, A., Sánchez, R., Oria, J. 2006. Supplementary feeding as an effective tool for improving breeding success in the Spanish imperial eagle (Aquila adalberti).Biol Conserv129, pp. 477-486. Hristov, H. 2000. Actions for support and monitoring. “Eastern Rhodopes” project reports, S., BSBP - BSPB, 71 - 92 pp. Hristov H. 1997.“Status, monitoring and support to the vultures in Eastern Rhodopes”. - Reports from project Eastern Rhodopes, - BSPB, - 3, Sofia. (In Bulgarian). Hristov H. 2003.“Monitoring and support to the vultures in Eastern Rhodopes”. - Report Eastern Rhodops project faze, Sofia. (In Bulgarian). Iankov, P. (ed.). 2007 Atlas of breeding birds in Bulgaria. Bulgarian society for the protection of birds, Conservation series, Book 10. Sofia, BSPB, p.679 Lemus, J. A., Blanco, G., Grande, J., Arroyo, B., Garci´a-Montijano, M. & Martinez, F. 2008 Antibiotics threaten wildlife: circulating quinolone residues and disease in avian scavengers. López-López P., C. GarcÍa-Ripollés, J. Verdejo 2004 Population status and reproductive performance of Eurasian Griffons (Gyps fulvus) in eastern Spain. - J. Raptor Res.,38, pp. 350-356. Margalida, A. 2010.Supplementary feeding during the chick-rearing periodis ineffective in increasing the breeding success in the bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus). Eur J Wildl Res56, pp. 673-678. 50


Marin, S.A., Rogev, A.B., Christov, I.M., Sarov, M.S. 1998.New observations and nesting of the Black Vulture (Aegypius monachus. L., 1766) in Bulgaria. In: Tewes E, Sánchez, J.J., Heredia, B., Bijleveld Van Lexmond M, eds. Proceedings of the International Symposium on the Black Vulture in South Eastern Europe and Adjacent Regions (Dadia, Greece, 15-16 September 1993). Palma de Mallorca: Black Vulture Conservation FoundationFrankfurt Zoological Society, pp. 47-50. Meyburg, B.U., Fuller, M.R.2007.Satellite tracking. In: raptors research and management techniques, pp. 242-248. Meyburg, B.U., Gallardo, M., Christiane, M., Dimitrova, E. 2004.Migrations and sojourn in Africa of Egyptian vultures (Neophron percnopterus) tracked by satellite. J Ornithol 145, pp. 273-280. Michev, T. 1985. Black vulture (Aegypius monachus). In: Botev X, Peshev X, eds. Red Data Book of the People’s Republic of Bulgaria: Volume 2, Animals. Sofia: BAS, p. 83-84. Michev, T. 1968. On the distribution and the breeding biology of the Egyptian vulture in Bulgaria. Proceedings of the zoological institute and museum, pp. 65-79. (In Bulgarian). Michev T., V. Pomakov, V. Stefanov, P. Yankov 1980. “Colony of the Griffon vultures” (Gyps fulvus) in Eastern Rhodops. - Ecology, 6, pp. 74 -79. (In Bulgarian). Newton I. 1979.Population ecology of raptors. T&AD Poyser, London. p.399 Newton I. 2008.The migration ecology of birds. Academic Press, Elsevier Ltd. London. Patev P. 1950. Birds of Bulgaria. Sofia, BAS. 1: 364 pp. (In Bulgarian) Saran, R.P., Purohit, A. 2012.Eco - transformation and electrocution. A major concern for the decline in vulture population in and around Jodhpur. International journal of conservation science.Volume 3, Issue 2, pp. 111 118. Reiser O. 1894. Materialen zu einer Ornis balcanica. II. Bulgarien. Wien. In Commission bei Carl Gerold’s Sohn. 204 p. Sarrazin F., C. Bagnolini, J. Pinna, E. Danchin 1996. Breeding biology during establishment of a reintroduced Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus population. Ibis138, pp. 315-325

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Steenhof, K., Newton, I. 2007. Assessing Nesting Success and Productivity. In Bird, M.D., Bildstein, K.L. (eds.): Raptors research and management techniques. HANCOCK HOUSE PUBLISHERS LTD, pp. 465. Stoyanov, G. 2010. Past and current distribution of the Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus) in Western Bulgaria. - Ornithologische Mitteilungen, 7-8.

Griffon vulture © D. Nye 52


Working with vultures in Greece Thanos Kastritis Conservation Manager, Hellenic Ornithological Society Contact details: [email protected]

Summary Vulture species have unfavourable conservation status in Greece and have been characterized as threatened species in the latest edition of the Greek Red Data Book. The population of Griffon Vulture is estimated to 270 pairs, with the majority of them located in Crete. Bearded Vulture has become extinct from continental Greece and only 6-7 pairs breed in Crete. Black Vulture has an isolated breeding population of less than 30 pairs in the National Park of Dadia in Thrace. Egyptian Vulture is the most threatened vulture species with no more than 15 pairs left. The most significant threat for vultures in Greece is the illegal use of poison baits. Other threats include the decreased food availability, disturbance, collisions with wind turbines, electrocution, degradation of habitats and direct persecution. Many conservation projects have been implemented during the last 25 years for the protection of vultures in Greece. The actions which have been carried out include, amongst others, field surveys, nest monitoring and guarding, telemetry, establishment of feeding stations, supplementary feeding of individual pairs, toxicological analyses, diet analysis, establishment of artificial watering ponds, public awareness actions against the use of poisons, etc. Additionally, policy work has been made for the enforcement of the relevant legislation. The conservation priorities for the recovery of vulture populations in Greece should be focused on the complex threat of poison baits, as well as on the establishment of a network of feeding stations in critical areas for the species. Additionally, specific knowledge gaps should be filled in. 1 Conservation status of vultures in Greece All four European vulture species breed in Greece and in the past were common and widespread. During the past decades, their populations have faced severe reductions and their conservation status has been downgraded significantly. Nowadays, all vulture species in Greece have an unfavourable conservation status and have been characterized as threatened species in the latest edition of the Greek Red Data Book. More specifically, 270 pairs of Griffon Vultures breed in Greece, with the great majority of them located in Crete (240 pairs or more than 700 individuals) 53


(Sidiropoulos et al., 2013). The population in the mainland is small with almost 30 pairs, while there is a small breeding population on Naxos island in the central Aegean. The species distribution in continental Greece has two main clusters: one in Thrace with 2-3 breeding colonies and one in Western Greece with 3 colonies. This population has faced a severe decline during the last 20-30 years and as a result the species has been classified as “Critically Endangered” in continental Greece in the 2nd edition of the Greek Red Data Book. On the contrary, the Cretan population has slightly increased during the last years and has been classified as “Vulnerable” (Xirouchakis, 2009a). The Bearded Vulture breeds only on Crete with 6-7 pairs (40-45 individuals) (Sidiropoulos et al., 2013). Its former range included mountainous areas in central Greece (Parnassos Mt., Olympos Mt., etc) and Macedonia (e.g. Tzena-Pinovo) and in 1985 the national population was estimated at 25 pairs (Hallman, 1985, Handrinos, 1985); however the species became extinct from the mainland during the late 90s - early 00s. Today, the Cretan population is stable; nonetheless the species has been classified as “Critically Endangered” in the Greek Red Data Book (Xirouchakis, 2009b) due to its very small population size and range. The Black Vulture has also suffered a steep decline in its population and range and nowadays breeds only in the National Park of Dadia in Thrace. This is the only breeding population in the Balkans with 90 - 100 individuals and less than 30 pairs (Sidiropoulos et al., 2013). The species is classified as “Endangered” in the Greek Red Data Book (Skartsi, 2009). The Egyptian Vulture is the most threatened vulture species in Greece. Its population has collapsed during the last decades (graph) and no more than 15 pairs (or 20 occupied territories) are left (Sidiropoulos et al., 2013). The two main breeding areas are in Thrace (8 pairs) and in Meteora, Central Greece (3-4 pairs) with very few remaining territories in Epirus and Macedonia. The Egyptian Vulture is probably the bird species with the highest risk of extinction in Greece and has thus been classified as “Critically Endangered” (Sidiropoulos & Tsiakiris, 2009). 2 Threats The most severe threat for the vulture species in Greece is the illegal use of poison baits (Sidiropoulos et al., 2013). Poison baits are used for three main reasons: i) persecution of “harmful” mammals, such as wolves, foxes, bears, martens, badgers, etc, which cause damage to livestock, beekeeping and farming, ii) population control of foxes and iii) as a result of the conflicts between livestock keepers and hunters. It is characteristic that Crete is the only Greek region where the conservation status of vultures could be described as adequate, as here the use of poison baits is not as widespread 54


as it is in the mainland (due to the absence of large carnivores). Other main threats are lack of food, caused by the abandonment of traditional livestock keeping practices and disturbance caused by human activities especially during the breeding season. Other mortality factors include collisions with wind turbines, electrocution, degradation of habitats and direct persecution. 3 Conservation efforts A lot of effort has been spent so far in Greece in order to tackle the complex problems which lead to the severe population reductions of vultures. During the last 25 years many conservation projects have been implemented targeting the protection of vulture species. For example, six LIFE projects have been carried out from 1998 till today focusing on vultures (http://ec.europa.eu/environment/life/project/Projects/ index.cfm). More specifically, during 1998-2002, in the framework of a LIFE project (LIFE97 NAT/GR/004243), implemented by the National Agricultural Research Foundation and the Hellenic Ornithological Society, three feeding stations for vultures were established in three Special Protection Areas in Greece. Unfortunately, after the end of the project, the feeding stations stopped operating regularly due to funding and management problems. In the same period, a LIFE project targeting the Bearded Vulture (LIFE98 NAT/GR/005276) started in Greece with beneficiaries the Hellenic Ornithological Society and the Natural History Museum of Crete. The field surveys of this project confirmed the extinction of the species breeding population from continental Greece. The actions of the project included, amongst others, supplementary feeding of breeding pairs, nest guarding, designation of Special Protection Areas and an awareness campaign against poison. A follow-up project for the species implemented in Crete (LIFE02 NAT/GR/008492), focusing on the conservation of the species breeding population. Project’s conservation actions included the establishment of feeding stations, telemetry, nest guarding, construction of artificial watering ponds and breeding/releasing of Chukar partridges. An additional feeding station was established in Nestos Gorge, targeting mainly Griffon Vultures in the framework of a LIFE project for the conservation of raptors in the area (LIFE02 NAT/GR/008489). In Dadia National Park, a LIFE project was implemented by WWF Greece and the Prefecture of Evros (LIFE02 NAT/ GR/008497) focusing on raptor species and especially the Black Vulture. The conservation actions of the project included the operation of feeding stations, genetic analyses, re-establishment of forest openings, construction of artificial ponds and the compilation of a Management Plan for the species. From 2011, a new LIFE project for the survival of the Egyptian Vulture in Greece and Bulgaria is being implemented (LIFE10 NAT/BG/000152). 55


Beneficiaries of the project are the Bulgarian Society for the Protection of Birds, the Hellenic Ornithological Society, WWF Greece and the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds. In the framework of the project urgent measures are being implemented to secure the survival of the species in both countries. The field surveys revealed the dramatic status of the Greek population of the species, as less than 20 occupied territories have been confirmed. Telemetry using satellite transmitters confirmed the two alternative migration routes of the species towards central - eastern Africa: a route through Bosporus and Minor Asia and another one with a southwards direction with a direct crossing of the Mediterranean through Crete. Samples for DNA and toxicological analyses have been collected, while a diet analysis will be carried out based on food remains collected from the nests. All active nests are being monitored and/or guarded and a pilot scheme for feeding individual pairs with small quantities of highquality food has been established with encouraging results so far. Combined with individual feeding, food is supplied regularly in two feeding stations. The power lines network, in a radius of 5 km around active nests, has been mapped in order to assess and then insulate the most dangerous pylons. In order to tackle the poisoning problem, an anti-poison network has been created in the Epirus region, consisting of local key stakeholders, as well as local authorities. Seminars for the training of competent authorities regarding bird crime issues will be organized, while a wide range of public awareness actions are been implemented. Finally, in the framework of the project, a National Action Plan for the species will be prepared. Other significant projects for the conservation of vultures in Greece include the 4-year project funded by the Vulture Conservation Foundation. During this project field surveys were implemented in order to locate the Egyptian Vulture territories, while all active nests of the species were monitored together with selected Griffon Vulture colonies. Additionally, experimental disposals of food in Western Greece were carried out in order to define suitable sites for the establishment of feeding stations in the area. 4 Policy work Another critical factor for the conservation of the vulture species is the enforcement of the environmental legislation. The Hellenic Ornithological Society has been actively involved in the preparation of legal documents, consultation during the development of relevant regulations, as well as lobbying for the enforcement of the existing legislation. In 2010, the transposition of the Birds Directive (2009/147/EC) into Greek legal framework was made through the Common Ministerial Decree ’’For the conservation of wild birds’’ (37338/1807/E.103). This legislation ratifies the legal protection of all vulture 56


species through prohibition of killing, capture, damage of nests/eggs, removal of eggs and disturbance. Two years later, a Common Ministerial Decree for ‘’Conservation measures for the SPA network’’ (8353/276/E103) was put into force. This legal document includes articles which are closely related to the vulture conservation. For example, regarding wind farms establishment within SPAs, the legislation makes reference to i) buffer zones around vultures nests that should be proposed in the framework of the “Special Ecological Assessment” (which is part of the Environmental Impact Assessment procedure), ii) underground or entwined power lines, iii) monitoring the wind farm area for carcasses and iv) automatic turbines start-stop system along migration bottlenecks. Another article mentions that regional forestry authorities are responsible for the control of the illegal use of poison baits, especially within SPAs where vulture species are present, while a national programme for the establishment and operation of supplementary feeding stations for carrion-eating raptors is also mentioned. However, most of these articles are not mandatory, making the enforcement of the law problematic. 5 Conservation priorities for the future The recovery of vulture populations should be a top priority for bird conservation in Greece. As the poison baits are the major factor for the severe declines of the vulture species, all efforts must focus on this very complex threat. An anti-poison campaign should be launched both at national and local level, aiming to raise public awareness of the problem as a way to minimize the use of poisons. The local “anti-poison” networks, consisting of key stakeholders and local authorities, could play a significant supportive role to the campaign. These efforts can be combined with concrete conservation actions against poison, such as the establishment of poison-detecting dog units within the most critical core areas of vulture species. A National Anti-poison Action Plan could act as a guideline document for the smooth coordination of all the actions mentioned above. The establishment and regular operation of a network of feeding stations close to the breeding grounds, as well as along the migration routes of the species would have a double positive conservation impact: breeding success would be enhanced due to the increased food availability but mortality factors would also be tackled, as the food provided in the feeding stations would be “poison-free”. Additionally, small-scale food supply to individual pairs should be continued. At policy level, the EU legislation regarding carcass disposal must be fully transposed into Greek law. Some specific knowledge gaps should be also filled in: mortality factors, such as electrocution or bioaccumulation have to be assessed in detail in order to plan better the conservation actions. Additionally, feeding grounds, as well 57


as migration/movements routes should be defined to secure a spatial planning for large-scale works, such as wind farms, with the minimum negative impact to vultures. References Hallmann, B., 1985. Status and conservation problems of birds of prey in Greece. In: Newton, I. & Chancellor, R. (eds.) Conservation Studies of Raptors. ICBP Techn. Pub. No 5, Cambridge. Handrinos, G., 1985. Status of vultures in Greece. In: Newton, I. & Chancellor, R. (eds.) Conservation Studies of Raptors. ICBP Techn. Pub. No 5, Cambridge. Sidiropoulos, L., Tsiakiris, R., Asmanis, P., Galanaki, A., Stara, K., Kastritis, T., Konstantinou, P., Kret, E., Skartsi, T., Jerrentrup, H., Xirouchakis, S. & Kominos, T., 2013. Status of vultures in Greece. In: Andevski, J. (ed.). Vulture Conservation in the Balkan Peninsula and Adjacent Regions. Vulture Conservation Foundation & Frankfurt Zoological Society. Sidiropoulos, L., Tsiakiris, R. 2009. Egyptian Vulture. In: Legakis, A. & P. Maragou (eds.). The Greek Red Data Book. Hellenic Zoological Society. Skartsi, T. 2009. Black Vulture. In: Legakis, A. & P. Maragou (eds). The Greek Red Data Book. Hellenic Zoological Society. Xirouchakis, S. 2009a. Griffon Vulture. In: Legakis, A. & P. Maragou (eds). The Greek Red Data Book. Hellenic Zoological Society. Xirouchakis, S. 2009b. Bearded Vulture. In: Legakis, A. & P. Maragou (eds.). The Greek Red Data Book. Hellenic Zoological Society. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/life/project/Projects/index.cfm

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Conservation and management of vulture populations in Crete Xirouchakis S., Andreou G., Probonas M., Baxevani K. & M. Sakellari Natural History Museum of Crete, University of Crete Contact details: [email protected]

1 Introduction All four European vulture species are found in Crete, namely the Bearded Vulture (Gypaetus barbatus), the Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus), the Cinereous Vulture (Aegypius monachus) and the Egyptian Vulture (Neophron percnopterus). The Cinereous Vulture is a winter visitor whereby immature birds in dispersion arrive on the island and stay for 4-5 months, while the Egyptian Vulture is usually observed during fall migration. The island of Crete is considered the stronghold in Greece for the Bearded and the Griffon Vultures, as the island holds the last viable breeding population of both species in Greece. However, due to their ecology and biology, the risk of extinction for both species is quite high. The Bearded Vulture is listed among the critically endangered species of birds in Greece, while the Griffon Vulture is Critically Endangered in continental Greece and vulnerable in Crete (Handrinos & Kastritis 2009). 2 Distribution & Conservation status The Bearded vulture is the rarest vulture species in Greece. In the 80s, it was distributed across most mainland mountain ranges and Crete while its population was estimated at 25 pairs (Handrinos 1985). In the mid 90s the species declined dramatically. Its population collapse was linked to the illegal use of poison baits for the control of wolves primarily in the mountains of Central Greece and Thessaly (Handrinos & Akriotis 1997). Today, the species is found only in Crete and its population is estimated at 6-7 pairs (Map 1). The Griffon Vulture is the most common vulture species in the country (Handrinos & Akriotis 1997). In the 80s its population was estimated at 400500 pairs, with 200 of them in Crete (Vagliano 1981, Handrinos 1985). In the 90s, the population declined in continental Greece due to secondary poisoning

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after the consumption of poisoned carcasses or baits used against mammalian carnivores (Handrinos & Akriotis 1997, Bourdakis et al. 2004). Currently, Griffons occur in Thrace, Epirus, Aetolia, the Cyclades island complex and Crete (Map 2). The population is estimated at 170-200 pairs of which 2530 are located in the mainland and the rest of them in the islands of Naxos, Heraklia and Crete (BirdLife International 2004, Bourdakis et al. 2004). By late 2000s the island of Crete hosted 140-160 breeding pairs (Xirouchakis & Tsiakiris 2009). However more recently the species is showing signs or rapid increase and its population is estimated at 200-250 breeding pairs.

Map 1. Distribution map of Bearded Vulture in Greece in the 80s and 00s.

Map 2. Distribution map of Griffon Vulture in Greece in the 80s and 00s.

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3 Biology & Ecology The Bearded Vulture occurs in pastureland in middle altitude areas during the winter and above the tree line in the alpine zone during the summer. It is usually observed near open rocky terrain at an altitude ranging from 400m up to 2.500m. It feeds chiefly on bones originated from carcasses of medium and small sized animals, while it forages in sizeable territories (> 300 km2, Xirouchakis & Giannatos 1997). In Crete, the species nests at relatively low altitude (600-700m), systematically avoiding northern exposure (Xirouchakis & Nikolakakis 2002). In each territory, the pair constructs 1-2 nests (max = 7) in small caves, which are used alternatively (Xirouchakis 2003). In contrast the Griffon Vulture is a gregarious species, mostly found in hilly and mountainous areas, and depend heavily strongly on extensive livestock husbandry (Handrinos & Akriotis 1997, Xirouchakis & Andreou 2009). In Greece, the species colonies are located at altitudes ranging from 120 to 1100m oriented mostly southwest (Xirouchakis & Mylonas 2004). The breeding period of both species is quite long and lasts about eight months (Table 1). Table 1. Breeding period of vultures in Crete Gypaetus barbatus Nest building Egg-laying (2 eggs) Incubation (53-55 d) Egg-hatching Chick-rearing (110-120 d) Fledging Dependence period Post-fledging dispersal Gyps fulvus

S E P

O C T

N O V

D E C

J A N

F E B

M A R

A P R

M A Y

J U N

J U L

A U G

S E P

O C T

N O V

D E C

J A N

F E B

M A R

A P R

M A Y

J U N

J U L

A U G

Nest building Egg-laying (1 egg) Incubation (53-61 d) Egg-hatching Chick-rearing (120-140 d) Fledging Dependence period Post-fledging dispersal

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4 Threats All vulture species in Crete are threatened by: • Inadequate management of protected areas: Management actions to protect priority species can only be effective when the causes of increased mortality and reduced reproductive success are controlled in the long term. These conditions are fulfilled mainly in protected areas, where the legal framework, staff and financial resources are sufficient to support the implementation of specific management actions. Although all Special Protection Areas (SPAs) in Crete became wildlife sanctuaries, there is still insufficient personnel, resources and expertise to fully implement the necessary management actions. • Human-caused mortality: The two main factors of mortality of vultures are poaching and illegal use of poisoned baits for control of certain “vermin” species (mainly stray dogs and corvids) • Reduction of seasonal food availability. Vulture productivity depends largely on food availability during the breeding season. During the recent decades, the decline in food supply is linked to the intensification of livestock farming (housing of animals), abandonment of extensive areas of cropland and reduction of the population of large domestic ungulates (e.g. equines, bovines). • Genetic drift and inbreeding: Reduced reproductive success and increased mortality, along with the collapse of the population of the Bearded Vulture in the neighboring areas of the Balkans, has led to the complete isolation of the species population. The Bearded vulture is now considered to have surpassed the critical threshold of self-preservation, which may lead to genetic drift and endogamy. • Negative behavior of certain social groups: Small groups in the local population, mainly farmers and hunters, express fears that management actions in SPAs will limit their traditional rights (e.g. restrictions on grazing, creating wildlife sanctuaries etc.) and have been negative towards wildlife conservation • Habitat degradation: Land use change and overexploitation of agricultural land have a negative impact on the habitat of many priority species (scrublands, subalpine areas etc.), while favoring the desertification of vulnerable areas. 5

Projects on conservation During the period from 1996 to 2006, six conservation projects were implemented in Crete with national and mainly European funds totaling in budget 2.5 million Euros. Most of these projects aimed to improve the conservation 62


status of the Bearded Vulture and to the manage mountain biodiversity. All projects shared common objectives for the conservation and management of priority and flagship species mainly through the: • study and monitoring of raptor populations. • coordination with and assistance to government agencies in order to improve the conservation status of vultures in Crete. • limitation of human-caused mortality of vultures and other priority species. • improvement of reproductive success of vultures and improved survival rate of young vultures. • improvement of the quality of nesting and foraging habitat of priority species. • raising awareness of local communities and strengthening the participation of different social groups in the management and protection of birds of prey. • promotion of sustainable agro-environmental practices and ecotourism activities, compatible with biodiversity conservation 5.1 Population monitoring The results of vulture population monitoring in Crete show that the population of Bearded Vulture is supported by a few successful breeding couples, while the overall productivity is low (Table 2). The population of Griffon Vulture is robust and constitutes the largest insular population of the species in the world (Table 3). Table 2. Population and reproductive success of Bearded Vulture in Crete (1998-2006).

Year

Active territories

Nesting pairs

Chicks

Reproductive success

Productivity

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Μ.Ο.

4 5 4 4 4 4 4 5 6 4

1 3 4 3 3 3 2 3 4 3

1 0 2 2 2 1 2 3 3 2

100 0 50 67 67 33 100 100 75 66

0,25 0 0,5 0,5 0,5 0,25 0,5 0,6 0,5 0,40 63

2006 Μ.Ο.

6 4

4 3

3 2

75 66

0,5 0,40


Table 3. Population and reproductive success of Griffon Vulture in Crete (1996-2005).

Year

Active territories

Nesting pairs

Chicks

Reproductive success

Productivity

1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Μ.Ο.

16 16 19 22 25 28 27 27 26 27 23

64 68 84 123 126 114 106 111 91 111 100

50 56 62 95 88 92 73 74 67 79 74

0.78 0.82 0.74 0.77 0.70 0.81 0.69 0.67 0.74 0.71 0.74

0.50 0.55 0.46 0.52 0.50 0.59 0.53 0.50 0.48 0.55 0.52

5.2 Telemetry & early warning system for monitoring human-caused mortality factors (poaching and poisoning). During the period from 2001 to 2006, a total of six young bearded vultures were radio-tagged, all of them born in the same territory. Radio-tracking was pursued every 10-15 days from a vehicle, while in 2005 attempts were made to locate the tagged birds by air (flights with a Piper Seneca PA 34-200). The exact position of the tagged individuals was determined by homing or triangulation whereas the assessment of their home ranges was extrapolated by relevant software (e.g. Calhome), (Kenward 1987, White & Garrot 1990, Kie et al. 1996). The main results of the analysis of telemetry data showed that: • Fledging takes place from mid April to mid May (and occasionally early June). • Young birds depend on their parents for food for 1-1.5 months after fledging. • Young Bearded vultures often follow other scavengers (mainly corvids and vultures) apparently due to their lack of foraging experience. • The period of the post-fledging dispersal of young Bearded vultures takes place from 15 to 20 August (i.e. 10-12 weeks after fledging). • Long distance flights during the post-fledging dispersal in young Bearded vultures take place from 13 to 15 weeks after fledging (i.e. November). • The young bearded vultures home range (ADK75%) covers an area of 2.000 km2. • Foraging occurs within 4-10 km from the roosting place of the young birds. 64


Settlement areas bear suitable foraging habitat as well as favorable flight conditions (i.e. orographic air currents). During the years 1996 to 2006 a total of 78 griffon vultures were also marked (with metal and PVC colored rings as well as wing tags) and 21 of them were harnessed with VHF transmitters. Telemetry proved a particularly useful technique in order to identify “risk” areas since the detection of dead birds, not harnessed with transmitters would have been practically impossible •

5.3 Intensive monitoring of active nests of Bearded vultures - Rescue of a second chick for future enhancement of population. Originally, this action aimed to help design and construct an audiovisual monitoring and surveillance system, to collect data on the reproductive biology of the species in Crete (Figure 1). However, the possibility of rescuing the second chick (which almost never survives) was also investigated. The ultimate goal of the action was the establishment of a breeding stock and the possibility of restocking the species population in Crete. In general, this action fulfilled a substantial part of the initial objectives and contributed to: • The significant improvement of our knowledge on the reproductive behavior of the species (nesting, hatching, feeding etc) • The estimation of the appropriate period for marking the chick (at 80% of the chick rearing period). • The assessment of the critical period for providing additional food to the chick (1 to 3 weeks after hatching). • The accurate determination of the correct timing to remove the second chick from the nest (i.e. 2 days old). • The assessment of the increased risk of nest predation by corvids, in case of removal of the second chick. The integration of specific information in public awareness campaigns

Picture 1. Samples of low-resolution images of a Bearded vulture nest monitored by an audio-visual system in 2004.

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5.4 Operation of first-aid station. Overall, 90 griffon vultures were brought in the Natural History Museum during 2002-2006. Poisoning was the main cause of death (47.2%), followed by starvation (28.6%). Fortunately, direct persecution accounted for only a small percentage (3.2%). Phenology of cases (Figure 1) shows that starvation coincides with the fledging and dispersal periods of young vultures (JulyOctober) while poisoning is rather common all year round, culminating during summer months. The use of poisoned baits peaks during late summer to mid autumn (i.e. August-October) coinciding with the opening of the hunting season, when baits are used to discourage hunting activities in pastoral zones.

Figure 1. Phenology and mortality causes of griffon vultures (data acquired from birds hospitalized at the Natural History Museum during 2002-2006).

5.5 Analysis of genetic material. During the period 2002-2005, 15 samples from Bearded Vultures and 55 samples from Griffon Vultures (feathers, tissues or blood samples) were collected. Analysis was performed by the Laboratory of Molecular Biology of the Natural History Museum of Crete and gave the following results: • •

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Sex ratio for Bearded Vulture and Griffon Vulture population is 1:1. The Bearded vulture population possesses low levels of heterozygosity and deviates from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. (The Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium states that two alleles A1 and A2 with frequencies p and q respectively in a population with random mating and no mutations or migration occurring, should give rise to the following genotypes A1A1 , A1A2 and A2A2 at the following frequencies p2, 2pq and q2 respectively).


•

•

•

The Bearded vulture population in Crete has a low genetic diversity and a rather moderate endogamy rate, as expected in a population that has undergone a significant decline. However, genetically this population does not appear to be at risk, more than any other population in Europe. (Instead, we should consider that its small size and insular character are the main obstacles in order to maintain population in the short term). Fixation index (Fst) of Bearded vulture population in Crete was calculated in 0.16. This index shows the population endogamy rate or the probability of two alleles, which are chosen through random sampling and belong to the same, or different individuals, are identical by descent. In case of a major gene flow within the population, the probability is low. On the contrary, in case of a low gene flow, the probability is high and shows the genetic diversity of the population. The Fst index values range from 0 (minimum genetic differentiation and high genetic flow within the population) to 1 (full genetic diversification and minimal gene flow within population). Based on the above, the population of Crete presents a slightly high genetic differentiation. Regarding the genetic management of Bearded vulture in Crete (similar to other populations of the species in Europe) the release of individuals of mixed ancestry would be the best solution for its genetic enhancement.

5.6 Artificial feeding. Since 1998, 22 feeding sites for Bearded Vulture and other scavengers were established on the island. The first two years, several pilot feeding sites operated in order to determine their acceptance by the birds. Finally, 7 feeding sites were selected, which met the specific standards (i.e. remote areas that have easy access for site managers, escape route for birds in case of disturbance and mild weather so sites are not covered by snow during winter). During the period 1998-2006, a total of 21.5 tons of food was supplied to feeding sites which proved successful since they a) attracted a large number of predator and scavenger species (n = 20), b) supported the reproductive success of specific pairs of Bearded Vultures and Griffon Vultures, c) increased the survival rate of young Bearded Vultures during the first years of their life, and finally d) helped us improve Bearded Vulture population monitoring (mainly young and immature individuals who are difficult to locate in the species breeding territories) 5.7 Pilot rehabilitation measures and habitat enhancement. Pilot habitat management measures were implemented in collaboration with the Forest Services and Municipalities of the island and included: • Construction of a winter shelter and brooding pen for game species (i.e. Chukar partridges). 67


• • • • •

Construction of aviaries for acclimatization and release of game species. Habitat improvement by planting native species in decertified areas and construction of an irrigation network. Protection of forest stands of the endemic Theophrastus’ Date Palm (Phoenix Theophrastus). Construction of two “vulture restaurants” and watch towers. Construction of water ponds for livestock and wildlife species.

5.8 Communication and public awareness raising actions Finally, emphasis was given to communication and public awareness raising actions, such as:  Establishment and operation of Information Centres at: • the exhibition hall of the Natural History Museum of Crete • the Venetian port of Chania • Rogdia settlement of Chania • Kato Metohi settlement at Lassithi Plateau.  Production of information material: • brochures, posters and stickers. • T-shirts with prints of wildlife, • two documentaries in DVD format (Agios Dikaios, Asterousia Mountains) • a photo book of 78 pages for “Mountainous Crete.” • two bird-watching guides for Agios Dikaios and Asterousia areas. • two eco-guides for Agios Dikaios and Asterousia areas. • a “Guide of Good Agricultural Practices” on agriculture and biodiversity conservation. • Proceedings of the International Conference on: “Conservation and Management of Vulture Populations” (Thessaloniki, 14-16 November 2005), co-organized with WWF Greece.  Organization of workshops / conferences: • Network for Conservation - Protection of the Bearded Vulture in the Balkans”, Dadia, Prefecture of Evros, 29-31 March 2004. • “Conservation and Management of Vulture Populations”, Thessaloniki, 14-16 November 2005. • “Actions for Conservation - Protection of the Bearded Vulture in Europe”, Elos, Prefecture of Chania, 5-9 April 2006.  Environmental Education Material: Ten (10) «Bearded Vulture

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Packages» were given at both primary and secondary education directorates of Crete.  Organization of eco-festivals: In collaboration with the Forest Directorate of Crete and local municipalities, more than 30 eco-festival were organized in NATURA 2000 sites. References BirdLife International, 2004. Birds in Europe: population estimates, trends and conservation status. BirdLife Conservation series No. 12. BirdLife International. Cambridge. Bourdakis, S. Alivizatos, H., Azmanis, P., Hallmann, B., Panayotopoulou, M., Papakonstantinou, C., Probonas, N. Rousopoulos, Y. Skartsi, D., Stara, K. Tsiakiris, R. & Xirouchakis, S. 2004. The situation of Griffon Vulture in Greece. In: The Eurasian Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus) in Europe and the Mediterranean. Status report and Action plan. L. Slotta-Bachmayr, R. Bögel, C.A. Camina (Eds.): 48-56. EGVWG. Chandrinos, G. & Kastritis, A. 2009. Birds. In: Legakis, Α. & Maragou, P. (eds), The Red Book of Threatened Vertebrates of Greece, pp: 213-353. Greek Zoological Society, Athens. Handrinos, G. & T. Akriotis T. 1997. The Birds of Greece. Helm - A&C Black, Handrinos, G. 1985. The status of vultures in Greece. In: Conservation Studies of Raptors. I. Newton & R. Chancellor (Eds.): 103-115. ICBP Technical Publication No 5. ICBP. Cambridge. Heredia, R., & B. Heredia 1991. (Ed.) El Quebrantahuesos (Gypaetus barbatus) en los Pirineos, Caracteristicas Ecologicas y Biologia de la Conservacion. Icona, Madrid Kenward, R.E. 1987: Wildlife radio tagging. Academic Press, London. Kie, J.G., Baldwin, J.A. & Evans, C.J. 1996. CALHOME: a program for estimating animal home ranges. Wildlife Society Bulletin 24: 342-287. Tucker, G.M. & Heath, M.F. 1994. Birds in Europe: their conservation status. BirdLife Conservation Series no 3. BirdLife International. Cambridge. Vagliano, C. 1981. Contribution au statut de rapaces diurnes et nocturnes nicheurs en Crète. In: Rapaces Méditerranéens. Annales du CROP. 1. Cheylan, G. (Ed.): 14-16. Aix En Provence. White, G. & Garrot, A. 1990: Analysis of Wildlife Radio-Tracking Data. 69


Academic Press, London. Xirouchakis S.M. & G. Andreou 2009. Foraging behaviour and flight characteristics of griffon vultures (Gyps fulvus) on the island of Crete (Greece). Wildlife Biology 15: 37-52 Xirouchakis, S & M. Nikolakakis 2002. Conservation implications of the temporal and spatial distribution of the Bearded Vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) in Crete. Bird Conservation International 12: 211-222. Xirouchakis, S. & Giannatos, G. 1997. Preliminary results on the status of Lammergeyer in Crete. In: Frey, H., Schaden, G. and Bijleveld, M. (eds). Bearded Vulture annual report 1997, pp: 50- 53. Foundation of the Conservation of the Bearded Vulture, Wassenaar, The Netherlands. Xirouchakis, S. 2003. Population trends and aspects of breeding biology of the Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus in Crete (1996-2002). In: Proceedings of the international meeting. Conservation and management of Bearded Vulture populations . F. Sarrazin & J-M. Thiollay (Eds.): 61-67. Ligue pour la protection des Oiseaux (LPO). Tende, France. Xirouchakis, S. 2005. The diet of the Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus) in Crete. Journal of Raptor Research 39: 179-181. Xirouchakis, S.M. & M. Mylonas 2004. Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus) distribution and density in Crete. Israel Journal of Zoology 50: 341-354. Xirouchakis, S.M. & Tsiakiris, R. 2009. Status and population trends of vultures in Greece. In: Donázar, J.A., Margalida, A. & A. Gampion (eds). Vultures feeding stations & sanitary legislation: a conflict and its consequences from the perspective of conservation biology. Munibe (suppl), 29: 154-171.

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Vulture Action Plans in Europe Willem Van Den Bossche European Nature Conservation Officer, BirdLife International Contact details: [email protected]

1 Introduction Species extinction is one of the most visible dimensions of biodiversity loss. The extinction of species is irreversible and the rate of species extinction at present is estimated to be “100 to 1000 times the background or average extinction rate in the evolutionary time scale of the planet” (Lawton and May 2002) and for these reasons, preventing extinction traditionally has been in the core of conservation practice and codified in legislation. Modern approaches to species conservation are based on a long term view that threatened species or species that have been historically depleted would require continuous management to recover to a self-sustaining and ecologically resilient state (Scott et al. 2010). Therefore species recovery is a more comprehensive aim which includes a series of scenarios in place and time. This broader aim can be broken down into a set of measurable targets. Thus successfully conserved species will: (a) be self-sustaining demographically and ecologically, (b) be genetically robust, (c) have healthy populations, (d) have representative populations distributed across the historical range in ecologically representative settings, (e) have replicate populations within each ecological setting, and (f) be resilient across the range (BirdLife International 2012). In this article we provide some background information on the international work on Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus, Cinereous Vulture Aegypius monachus, Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus and Lammergeier Gypaetus barbatus. 2 Status of bird species One of the aspects of prioritizing which species are in need of urgent actions is an overall review of the conservation status. There have been two reviews of the conservation status of all wild birds in Europe, identified per country: Birds in Europe I, published in 1994 (Tucker and Heath 1994) and Birds in Europe II, published in 2004 (BirdLife International 2004). They identify priority species in Europe named SPECs (Species of European 71


Conservation Concern). The categories are SPEC 1 (species of global conservation concern under the IUCN Red List Criteria), SPEC 2 (species whose global populations are concentrated in Europe and which have an Unfavourable Conservation status in Europe), SPEC 3 (species whose global populations are not concentrated in Europe and which have an Unfavourable Conservation status in Europe), Non SPEC (species with a Favourable Conservation status in Europe). Currently there is an update on the European Red List of birds linked to the Article 12 reporting of the EU Birds Directive (2009/147/EC) known as the ‘Birds in Europe 3’ project. This is a contract for the European Commission, delivered by a broad project consortium and led by BirdLife International. The European Red List of birds project has three main objectives. To produce the European Red List of birds (using IUCN criteria/guidelines) at panEuropean and EU28 scales. To provide assistance to EU Member States for the first round of reporting using a new system for reporting under Article 12 of the Birds Directive and to provide technical support to the European Commission, European Environment Agency and European Topic Centre on Biological Diversity for EU-level analyses of data (technical & composite reports). These new data will be published by the European Commission in spring 2015 and will cover all wild bird species in Europe. This will allow species prioritization linked to the threat status. The IUCN Red List of threatened species is widely considered to be the most objective and authoritative system for classifying species in terms of the risk of extinction. Information on a taxon’s population size, population trends and range size are applied to standard quantitative criteria to determine its IUCN Red List Category (Extinct, Extinct in the Wild, Critically Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable, Near Threatened or Least Concern). Species for which there is insufficient information to apply the criteria are assessed as Data Deficient. Additional information on ecology and habitat preferences, threats and conservation action are also collated and assessed as part of Red List process. The Red List is regularly reviewed, when a species shows a 30% decrease of the population in a 10 year period it is uplisted to a higher threat category.

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The status of the four vulture species breeding in Europe is as follows (Tucker and Heath 1994), (BirdLife International 2004), BirdLife International (2013a):

Species

1994SPEC

1994-Red List

2004SPEC

2004Red List

2012Red List

Europe

Europe

Europe

Europe

World

Griffon Vulture

SPEC 3

Rare

Non SPEC

secure

LC

Cinereous Vulture

SPEC 3

Globally threatened

SPEC 1

Rare

NT

Egyptian Vulture

SPEC 3

Unfavourable in Europe

SPEC 3

(EN)

EN

Lammergeier

SPEC 3

Unfavourable in Europe

SPEC 3

(VU)

LC

3 Species action plans To date, the single species recovery plan has been the most common format promoted at international level by the relevant agreements that produce and endorse such plans in the African-Eurasian region (Bern Convention, AEWA and CMS). It is important to point out that although the target of the European single species plans is the species (sub-species or population in question), the goals and objectives developed in the plans include the conservation of the habitats and ecosystems on which the species depends. By eliminating threats to the species and its essential resources (e.g. nest sites, breeding and foraging habitats, prey organisms, etc.) these plans de facto implement an ecosystem approach, as required by the Birds Directive. This is particularly valid for species that are closely associated with given species rich habitats and which can serve as flagship species for the conservation of entire ecosystems (BirdLife 2012). BirdLife International (2012) has made an overview of the current system of development and implementation of Single Species Action Plans and Management Plans for huntable species in unfavourable conservation status. The main objectives of international species work is: to coordinate the prioritization of species that should be the subject of new and revised recovery plans; to agree on lead body to manage the production and implementation of

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plans; to coordinate the (timetable for) production, consultation and approval of plans. To coordinate the implementation of recovery plans e.g. through Species Working Groups; to form an (Informal) European Coordination Group for bird species conservation planning and an assessment of the relevant experience of European Commission, Member States and key international NGOs. The methodology (Strategy) for bird recovery for the European Commission is summarized in the diagram and can also be implemented for the development of national action plans (figure 1).

Figure1: Proposed recovery planning procedure (BirdLife International 2012)

4 Plans for European Vulture Species Because of the good global conservation status of “Least Concern” of the Griffon Vulture there is currently no international Species Recovery plan (BirdLife International 2013b). There is also no international Species Recovery plan for the Rüppell’s Vulture Gyps rueppellii observed in Spain and Portugal, which is Endangered but not breeding in Europe. For the other vulture species occurring in Europe international species

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recovery plans were developed and endorsed by international agreements. The species action plan for Cinereous Vulture was published in 1996 and revised in 2001, 2004 and 2010. This European Union action plan is endorsed by the Bern Convention and CMS. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/conservation/wildbirds/action_ plans/docs/aegypius_monachus.pdf The species action plan for Egyptian Vulture was published in 2008 and is a European Union action plan. Weblink: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/conservation/wildbirds/ action_plans/docs/neophron_percnopterus.pdf The species action plan for Lammergeier was published in 1997 and revised in 2010. This European Union action plan is endorsed by the Bern Convention. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/conservation/wildbirds/action_ plans/docs/gypaetus_barbatus.pdf When developing and implementing a successful international species recovery plan these elements need to be covered (BirdLife International 2012): Follow an ecosystem approach; Be flexible - single species or groups of species; Contain objectives that are quantifiable and scientifically robust, but at the same time practical and understandable by the stakeholders ; Implement threat based intervention logic based on sound prioritisation of actions; Implement a partnership approach to conservation; Build on communication, coordination and collaboration with stakeholders (spatial planners, forestry, agriculture & agri-environment departments are often not aware of existence of species recovery plans); Ensure plans are maintained up-to-date and allow for adaptive management and learning through their monitoring and feedback. References BirdLife International (2004): Birds in Europe: population estimates, trends and conservation status. Cambridge, UK: BirdLife International. (BirdLife Conservation Series No. 12) BirdLife International (2012): Methodology for bird species recovery planning in the European Union. Downloaded from http://ec.europa.eu/ environment/nature/conservation/wildbirds/action_plans/docs/final_report. pdf BirdLife International (2013a) IUCN Red List for birds. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 02/03/2013. BirdLife International (2013b) Species factsheet: Gyps fulvus. Downloaded

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from http://www.birdlife.org on 02/03/2013. Lawton R. and M. May (2002) Extinction rates, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK Scott J.M., Goble D.D., Haines A.M., Wiens J.A., Neel M.C. (2010) Conservation-reliant species and the future of conservation. Conservation Letters: 3: 91-97 Tucker, G.M. and Heath, M.F. (1994): Birds in Europe: their conservation status. Cambridge, UK: BirdLife International. (BirdLife Conservation Series No. 3)

Griffon vulture in flight © Michael Gore

Griffon vulture © D. Nye 76


Overview of the main threats to vultures in Europe today José Tavares Director, Vulture Conservation Foundation (VCF) Contact details: [email protected]

Summary This paper reviews the main threats to the 4 species of European vulture, as defined in their international species action plans. It is obvious that among those, three seem to have more severe impacts for all the species: poisoning, food shortages, and habitat alterations/loss/deterioration. Current evidence suggests that adult mortality, more than poor breeding productivity, is behind most of the local extinctions and/or declines of these species. Avoiding adult mortality is therefore key for the long term conservation prospects of the 4 vulture species. So among this short-list of critical threats, poisoning seems to be the key one. Dealing adequately with poison is probably the most important conservation action regarding vulture conservation in Europe. This talk summarises some key and general issues about poisoning of vultures. 1 Introduction This paper aims to review the main threats affecting the European populations of the 4 European vulture species: black vulture (Aegypius monachus), bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus), griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus) and Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus). The identification of the threats, and their impact, is crucial in any conservation strategy. A joint analysis of the threats affecting the 4 European vultures may identify and/or confirm wide patterns that may help focus resources and conservation plans to the most critical threats. 2 Methods The threats were identified and ranked according to the International species action plans for the species: a) Action plan for the Cinereous Vulture (Aegypius monachus) in Europe (1996, BirdLife International); b) European Union Species Action Plan for the Lammergeier (Gypaetus barbatus) (1999, EU); c) Species

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Action Plan for the Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus in the European Union (2008, EU), and d) The Eurasian Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus fulvus) in Europe and the Mediterranean: status report and action plan (2004, East European/Mediterranean Vulture Working Group). Threats were sometimes grouped in some more general categories for consistency and comparability - e.g.”Food shortages” was lumped with “Decline in extensive livestock farming” and “Stricter sanitary and veterinary regulation” because they are all related. 3 Results Table 1. Comparative analysis of the threats (and their estimated relative impact) for the 4 species of European vultures. For explanations of estimated relative impact see below

Threat/ Impact Habitat alterations/loss /deterioration Poisoning

Food shortage/ Decline in extensive livestock farming/ Stricter sanitary and veterinary regulation Persecution and illegal trade Human disturbance

Collision with overhead cables and wind turbines

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Critical Black vulture

Bearded vulture & Egyptian vulture & Griffon vulture Egyptian vulture

High

Medium

Low

Bearded vulture & Griffon vulture Black vulture

Egyptian

Bearded vulture & Griffon vulture

Black

Bearded vulture & Griffon vulture Bearded vulture & Egyptian vulture & Griffon vulture Bearded vulture & Egyptian vulture & Griffon vulture

Egyptian

Black

vulture

vulture

vulture

vulture

Black vulture


Critical: a factor that could lead to the extinction of the species in 20 years or less High: a factor that could lead to a decline of more than 20% of the population in 20 years or less Medium: a factor that could lead to a decline of less than 20% of the population in 20 years or less Low: a factor that only affects the species at a local level 4 Discussion If we take in consideration the 4 species of vulture, the three most impacting types of threat seem to be 1. Poisoning 2. Food shortages, either by a decline in extensive livestock farming or because of the strict sanitary and veterinary regulations introduced in most countries after the mad cow´s disease, or both 3. Habitat alterations/loss/deterioration Collision with electricity lines and wind turbines (particularly the latter, associated with the extremely rapid development of wind farms in Europe), human disturbance (from forestry works, and recreational human activities), and direct persecution (important in the past but declining) seem to be important but lesser threats globally. Critical Threats 1. Poisoning A large number of vulture deaths in Europe can be attributed every year to poisoning. Figures from Spain are illustrative - between the years 2000 and 2010 a total of 40 bearded vultures, 638 black vultures, 348 Egyptian vultures and 2,146 griffon vultures were found poisoned (WWF/Adena 2008, Ecologistas en Acciòn 2009). The recent extinction of the bearded vulture in the Balkan peninsula was largely due to the extensive poisoning campaigns against wolves and jackals. In the majority of the cases, this is caused by the use of poison baits targeted at terrestrial predators (or feral animals) to protect livestock and game. The use of poisoned baits is a method that is non-selective, and therefore impacts on many species that are not the main target of the action. The use of poison in the countryside was legal in most countries, including in Europe, until the mid-late part of the 20th century (e.g. in Spain it was legal until 1983), but was made a crime since, in part as a response to the large impact on threatened biodiversity. In the last few years over 70 active substances were found in poisoned baits or animals in Spain alone (LIFE+ Veneno data, de la Bodega Zugasti, 79


2012), many of which are legal (phytosanitary products, biocides, etc.). Often the pesticides and herbicides used in agriculture are the substance used in the baits - the insecticides aldicarb & carbofuran being some of the most frequently used in Spain for example (LIFE+ Veneno data, de la Bodega Zugasti, 2012). This makes the fight against poison baits very difficult since these substances are very easy to obtain, and their use is legal, albeit regulated with strict rules. EU and national regulations are usually very clear - at European level the Bern Convention and the EU Birds (2009/147/EC) and Habitats (92/43/EEC) Directives prohibit any poisoned baits, even with legal agricultural/biocide toxics. Further, EU Directive 2009/128/EC regulates the good use of toxic agricultural products, but evidence suggests that these are still used inadequately and often illegally for poisoning. Further, there is still a clandestine trade in illegal substances (e.g. products that are not included in the EU list of authorized products). Poison may also be secondary, including the consumption of inappropriately disposed poisoned animals (e.g. rodents) at rubbish dumps, and consumption of dead livestock treated with veterinary medicines. Analyses from many countries (e.g. Lemus et al. 2008) have highlighted high levels of contamination of Vultures. Contaminants include antibiotics, non-steroid anti-inflammatory drugs, and other veterinary drugs, lead and other heavy metals. The actual impact of these substances on the different species is not clear and specific research is needed. Diclofenac caused the collapse of the vulture populations (incl. Egyptian Vulture) in the Indian subcontinent (Green 2004) and other veterinary drugs may have a role in the species’ decline. Lead from gunshots and other heavy metals are known causes of mortality and declined productivity in many carrion-eating raptors. This so called “Ghost poisoning” is poorly studied - an accurate diagnosis at large geographic scale is really needed. 2. Food shortages, either by a decline in extensive livestock farming or because of the strict sanitary and veterinary regulations introduced in most countries after the mad cow´s disease (or both) The 4 European vultures rely largely on domestic animals for survival, especially sheep and goats (although where present deer and other wild ungulates are also important). The decrease or the total abandonment of traditional farming practices is a great problem. Agricultural intensification and ‘rationalization’, often driven by EU and national subsidies, result in the decline in the numbers of extensively farmed livestock, and in the disappearance of the more traditional farming methods. These usually maintain high biological diversity, including good populations of rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), land tortoises (Testudo sp.), susliks (Spermophillus citellus) and insects that play an important role in the Egyptian Vulture diet. 80


Furthermore, free ranging livestock that die in these more traditional systems are/were often left in the fields for carrion-eating birds and mammals to dispose of them; those carcasses represent an important food source for all vultures. However, the detection of variant (vCJD) and new variant (nvCJD) CreutzfeldtJakob disease in humans, which was acquired from cattle infected by bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), led to EU sanitary legislation (Regulation EC 1774/2002) that greatly restricted the use of animal by-products that were not intended for human consumption (Donazar et al 2009). Thus, all carcasses of domestic animals had to be collected from farms and transformed or destroyed in authorized plants. In Spain alone, since 2006 supplementary feeding points for vultures, supplied by intensive farming, have also greatly diminished (80%) as a consequence of sanitary regulations (Cortes-Avizanda et al, 2010). 3. Habitat alterations/loss/deterioration This includes threats such as forest fires (for the black vulture - even though recent evidence suggests that fires are important for this species to clear dense forest. The number of breeding pairs in a colony destroyed by fire in Sierra Pelada has actually doubled following the fire, Iñigo Fajardo, pers. comm.). Habitat degradation in mountain areas because of development such as roads, dams, ski resorts, etc., has caused irreversible habitat loss and also disturbance for bearded vultures. In addition, habitat deterioration that leads to a decline in wild ungulates and marmots could be a problem, especially where there is a shortage of domestic stock. Habitat alteration/loss/deterioration may have been a stronger threat in the 90s. The implementation and management of the N2000 network in EU countries has, to a large extent, solved some of the problems that were rampant in the second half of the 20th century. Given that current evidence suggests that adult mortality seems to be the main problem for vulture populations - in all population viability studies, mortality has been proven to have much more influence than productivity (Donazar, 1993), poisoning (the only one of the three critical overall threats that causes direct mortality) seems to be, generally, and at local, regional and national level, the main threat to contend with. On this note, I suggest that collision with wind farms, a problem that was considered as lesser in the 90s, when the majority of these international species action plans were developed, has probably become a more significant threat, at least locally. Indeed, mortality due to collisions with wind farms has significantly accelerated the extinction risk of the Andalusian population of Egyptian vulture (Carrete et al, 2009). Electrocution also may be a locally important problem, particularly for the Egyptian vulture and the griffon vulture, but solutions do

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exist to correct problem poles and lines, through a variety of means (insulation, substitution of killer poles, burying of the line, markers against collision - see Haas et al, 2005), as long as NGOs, utilities and Governments cooperate effectively. Poisoning seems indeed to be the main culprit -and the main priority for targeted action - in the European vulture conservation scene. Contrary to popular belief, poisoning is not a Mediterranean speciality - it occurs even in northern Europe. But since vultures are mostly confined to the Mediterranean countries, it is here that poisoning mostly impacts on these 4 species. Poisoning is a complex, multifaceted and diverse topic that needs careful and detailed consideration and study. Nevertheless, for the purposes of this conference, I will try to highlight some of the more general issues related to this topic. - All vulture species (including the four European ones) are dramatically affected by poisoning, globally it a very big issue for Egyptian vulture and Bearded vulture, and locally a relevant limiting factor for all species. - In some cases, the evolution-trends of the populations of a species can be closely correlated with poison. The graph below shows how the Andalucian population of black vulture is totally reactive to poisoning incidents

Fig. 1 - Andalusian population of Black vulture. Poison became illegal in 1983. Antipoisoning campaign started in 2004. Three arrows on the right indicate known cases of poisoning of Black vultures in Andalucia. Data from Junta de Andalucia.

- The real magnitude of the problem for many local populations is still far from known, as poisoning incidents are often hard to identify, and 82


diagnose accurately. Birds may die away from the laced carcass, and cause of death of many birds found dead in the countryside rests unknown because there is no routine system of post-mortem analysis and diagnosis. Furthermore, it is estimated that only between 5-15% of the poisoned incidents are detected (WWF 2008). - In Europe there are lots of ongoing specific projects and programmes (notably several LIFE projects) and many more in preparation, but these often lack continent-wide coordination - nevertheless they are indeed a great step in the right direction and have introduced significant improvements at regional or national level - An accurate diagnosis across Europe is still not available - this has been done in some countries (e.g. see the excellent summary for Spain in the technical study “Substancias que provocan el envenenamiento de la fauna Silvestre, LIFE+ Venenos). Because there is no Europeanwide view, the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) has recently established a working group to work on this matter. - In endemic/traditional areas the occurrence of poisoning seems to be stable in general terms, though there is an apparent increase in nontraditional areas (e.g. Greece). However, it is clear it is still widespread - a map of Andalucia showing confirmed incidents between 2004-2011

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shows just this (Fajardo & Martin 2009, pages 164-165): - Often there is still confusion in concepts (direct poisoning vs. “ghost poisoning”). Ghost poisoning in particular is very poorly documented. There is some evidence this is a problem in some vultures. Lead accumulation in bones of Egyptian vultures (with higher incidence on males and increasing with age), originated in hunting ammunition, altering ossification and potentially leading to higher fracture probability (Gangoso et al 2008). - Dealing with poison requires a change in mentality for all: poison in the Mediterranean areas is probably impossible to wipe out completely (so it is important to define tolerance levels). - Main weaknesses and obstacles for effective anti-poisoning work: a) it is often underestimated, b) enforcement agencies are not properly trained, and protocols and standard procedures do not exist; c) capacity and funding to deal with the problem are often non existent. - There are though solutions for dealing with direct poisoning, and some good best practice examples. An effective anti-poisoning campaign always revolves around: a) Development of national action plans, national databases, protocols and capacity to deal with poison (e.g. good practice in Spain) b) Information campaigns, poison hotlines, etc. c) Adequate legislation and regulations. This should include good transposition into national law of the EU Directive 2009/128/EC about good use of phytosanitary products, and adoption both in the EU and at national level of better regulation for the use of biocides (especially of rodenticides of second generation - anticoagulants). These anticoagulants have been the focus of recent concern and work, as they seem to be substituting the illegal carbamates. Because they are legally sold, it is very hard to combat their illegal use. d) Enforcement, enforcement, enforcement! This is crucial. In this respect, the dog teams used in Spain have proved very effective. These use specially trained dogs to detect poisoned baits, and their use in the field has proved to have a powerful dissuasive effect on local populations. This also involves the persecution of the illegal trade in banned substances. e) Custodial sentences. Equally crucial. Current experience (e.g. from Andalucia) shows that incidence of poisoning decreases after custodial sentences are given. This requires that the chain of investigation is done properly so a good judicial case is built 84


up, which requires specialized forensic and investigative teams, and trained staff. In Andalucia, there was a 95% increase in custodial sentences related with poisoning cases after an anti-poisoning plan was implemented (Iñigo Fajardo, pers. comm.). A new approach now being explored in Andalucia, with promising results, involves barring convicted poisoners from receiving EU and national subsidies for their farming operations. - When a proper anti-poisoning campaign is implemented, results do appear. In Andalucia again (at European level, one of the best cases of a solid antipoisoning policy), the estimated incidence of poisoning, as measured by detected cases (poisoned baits), has declined by between 40 and 50% between 2004 and 2011 (Fajardo & Martin, 2009). Similarly, the number of individuals of a number of threatened species found poisoned has decreased – see graphs below (data from Junta de Andalucia).

5

Conclusions - T hreats to the 4 European vultures are well known and more or less the same everywhere - Threats causing direct adult mortality seem to be key - Poison is the critical one. Electrocution and wind farms may be locally important, at least for some species. - Poison, poison, poison! This is the most important, and urgent threat to vultures in Europe 85


- Poison is a huge topic, complex and difficult. Needs a multidisciplinary approach, and government/judicial engagement, and adequate funding. - It is a long road, but vulture conservationists need to start somewhere! - There is hope and good practice (e.g. Andalucia) References de la Bodega Zugasti, D 2012. Estudio sobre las sustancias que provocan el envenenamiento de fauna silvestre. SEO/BirdLife, Madrid Carrete, M., J. Sánchez-Zapata , J. Benítez, M. Lobón & J. Donázar 2009. Large scale risk-assessment of wind-farms on population viability of a globally endangered long-lived raptor. Biol. Conserv. Cortes-Avizanda, A , M. & J. A. Donazar, J. A. 2010. Managing supplementary feeding for avian scavengers: guidelines for optimal design using ecological criteria. Biol. Conserv. 143, 1707-1715. Donazar, J. A, 1993. Los buitres ibéricos, biología y conservación. Ed. Reyero Donazar, J. A.,Margalida, A., Carrete, M. & J. A. Sanchez-Zapata. 2009. Too sanitary for vultures. Science 326, 664 Ecologistas en acción, 2009. Casos graves de envenenamiento de fauna silvestre en España (enero de 2006-abril de 2009). Informe. http://www. ecologistasenaccion.org/spip.php?article8092 Fajardo, I & A. Martin, 2009. Annual reports. Consejeria de Medio Ambiente. Junta de Andalucia Gangoso L., P. Álvarez-Lloret, A. Rodríguez-Navarro, R. Mateo, F. Hiraldo, J. Donázar 2008. Long-term effects of lead poisoning on bone mineralization in vultures exposed to ammunition sources. Env. Pollu. 157, no 2, pp 569-574 Green, R. E. et al. 2004. Diclofenac poisoning as a cause of vulture population declines across the Indian subcontinent. J. Appl. Ecol. 41, 793800 D. Haas, M. Nipkow, G. Fiedler, R. Schneider, W. Haas & B. Schürenberg 2005. Protecting birds from powerlines. NABU Heredia, B. 1996. Action plan for the Cinereous Vulture (Aegypius monachus) in Europe. In: Heredia, B.; Rose, L.; Painter, M. (ed.), Globally 86


threatened birds in Europe: action plans, pp. 147-158. Council of Europe, and BirdLife International, Strasbourg Heredia, R. & B. Heredia, 1999. European Union Species Action Plan for the Lammergeier (Gypaetus barbatus) in European Union Action Plans for 8 Priority Birds Species - Lammergeier, EU Iñigo A., Barov B., Orhun C., Gallo-Orsi U. 2008. Action plan for the EgyptianVulture Neophron percnopterus in the European Union. Lemus, J. A.; Blanco, G.; Grande, J.; Arroyo, B.; García-Montijano, M; Martínez, F. 2008. Antibiotics threaten wildlife: circulating quinolone residues and disease in avian scavengers. PLoS ONE: 1-6. Slotta-Bachmayr, L., R. Bögel, and A Camiña Cardenal. 2004. The Eurasian Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus fulvus); in Europe and the Mediterranean: status report and action plan. East European/Mediterranean Vulture Working Group. WWF/Adena, 2008. El veneno en España (1990-2005). Análisis del problema, incidencia y causas. Propuestas de WWF/Adena

Scientists observing the Griffon vulture colony at Episkopi cliffs, Cyprus © BirdLife Cyprus

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Legal Measures to protect vultures in Europe Clairie Papazoglou Executive Director, BirdLife Cyprus Contact details: [email protected]

Summary All four species of vultures regularly occurring in Europe are protected by a number of legislative instruments. Most important for the EU 27 countries is the Birds Directive which protects the species, their eggs and nests, and requires Member States to classify and protect the most important sites for the species as Special Protection Areas. The number of sites protected for vultures in the EU is discussed. Other instruments include the Bern Convention, the Bonn Convention and the Raptor Memorandum of Understanding, all of which protect vultures in different ways in different geographical areas. Finally, all vulture species are covered by the CITES Convention and the equivalent EU Regulation. This Convention covers any movement of live or dead animals within the EU and between the EU and other countries, and sets requirements for checks to be made and conditions to be met before movement. Finally, the national legislation needs to be considered as it can be tougher depending on national priorities. 1 Background There are four widely occurring vulture species in Europe, the Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus, Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus, Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus and Cinereous Vulture Aegypius monachus. All four of these species have unfavourable conservation status, like a lot of raptors and all covered by the main legislative instruments in Europe. The main legislative instruments in Europe are: the EU Birds Directive (2009/147/EC), the Bern Convention, the CMS Bonn Convention, the Raptor MOU under the CMS-Bonn Convention, CITES and national law provisions. 2 EU Birds Directive Directive 2009/147/EC on the Conservation of wild birds, known as the Birds Directive, was adopted in 1979 and codified in 2009. It is the most powerful legislative tool available to all EU countries for the protection of vultures and all 88


four species of vultures are listed in Annex I of the Directive. Annex I, includes species in danger of extinction, vulnerable and rare species and other species requiring particular attention, with particular attention to wetland species. Article 4 of the Birds Directive requires Member States to classify Special Protection Areas (SPAs) for those species listed on Annex I of the Directive and to take special conservation measures for the protection of those species. Other obligations arising from the EU Birds Directive are the protection of the species, their nests, eggs, and the individual, as well as obligations for monitoring and reporting. Sites classified under the Birds Directive are called Special Protection Areas (SPAs) and the Member State is obliged to keep those at Favourable Conservation Status by taking measures for their protection and setting Conservation Objectives. Member States are also required to monitor, take action and manage sites to achieve or maintain their Favourable Conservation Status and finally, they are required to prevent the degradation of those sites. Sites classified under the Birds Directive, belong to the EU Network of sites called Natura 2000. All sites belonging to this network are also protected from damaging development through the application of Article 6 of the EU Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC) which applies for both SPAs and sites designated under the Habitats Directive. Article 6, sets the procedure by which developments that may affect negatively Natura 2000 sites, should be assessed in order to prevent damage or degradation to the sites’ Conservation Objectives. The procedure to be followed is called Appropriate Assessment and is a powerful tool for protecting sites and the species living in them. The EU has published numerous guidance documents on how to apply the procedure. Under the Appropriate Assessment in order for planning permission to be granted, the test has to show that no significant damage to the conservation objectives of the site will take place and the integrity of the site will be protected. Article 6, paragraph 4, provides for some exceptions in cases of Overriding Public Interest, but in call cases compensation measures need to be agreed and implemented. 3 SPAs for vultures in Europe The question of how to select SPAs in a country has been a long debated one and one that has led to a lot of caselaw from the European Court of Justice. Most Member States have used a combination of own data and data from the Important Bird Areas Programme (IBAs) of BirdLife International, that identifies important sites for birds on the basis of international, standardised, agreed criteria and has been accepted by the Court of Justice as a valid list of sites to 89


be classified as SPAs by a Member State in the absence of other scientific data. BirdLife partners in the EU Member States that have those four species of vultures regularly occurring in their territories have identified IBAs that meet criteria for them. Table 1 presents an analytic table of distribution of IBAs that meet criteria per vulture species. Table 1. Number of IBAs identified meeting criteria for vultures in Europe per species of vulture.

Species

Important Bird Areas with qualifying

Griffon Vulture

125

Bearded Vulture

84

Egyptian Vulture

141

Cinereous Vulture

68

Analytically those IBAs are distributed as follows: Table 2. Number of IBAs meeting criteria per vulture species per country in Europe. Country

Griffon

Cinereous

Bearded

Egyptian

Spain

54

27

21

58

Portugal

6

4

-

8

France

7

1

13

7

Italy

1

-

-

5

Greece

14

4

12

10

Cyprus

5

-

-

-

Bulgaria

2

3

-

9

Other European countries

36

29

38

44

Total

125

68

84

141

A comparison of Sites identified as IBAs for Vultures and sites classified as SPAs for vultures in the EU is presented in Table 3. The larger number of the SPAs is due to the fact that some IBAs might be covered by multiple SPAs, smaller in size than the IBA. 90


Table 3: Comparison of sites on Natura 2000 viewer designated for each species of Vulture in the EU and corresponding number of sites identified as IBAs for the same species.

Species

Sites on Natura 2000 Viewer for vultures in the EU

Important Bird Areas with qualifying

Griffon Vulture

674

125

Bearded Vulture

264

84

Egyptian Vulture

615

141

Cinereous Vulture

136

68

Table 4: Number of Natura 2000 sites designated per vulture species in EU countries (Natura 2000 Viewer).

Country

Griffon

Cinereous

Bearded

Egyptian

Spain

397

82

107

369

Portugal

15

11

-

12

France

41

9

46

39

Italy

60

3

65

60

Austria

-

-

8

-

Greece

100

20

38

81

Cyprus

20

2

-

-

Bulgaria Other countries Total

26

9

-

50

15

-

-

3

674

136

264

615

4 Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats: The Bern Convention The Bern Convention, adopted in 1979 is a binding instrument for the protection of the natural heritage of Europe, and extends to some states in Africa. The Secretariat of the Convention sits at the Council of Europe headquarters in Strasbourg. Currently there are 51 contracting parties to the Bern Convention

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and although a European Convention there are some signatories also from Africa, which are not members of the Council of Europe. The Bern Convention is a precursor to Birds and Habitats Directive of the EU. Its aims are to conserve wild flora and fauna and their natural habitats and to promote participation and representation in the environmental debate, monitoring and, participation to some extent in the decision-making process. The Convention places a particular importance on the need to protect endangered natural habitats and endangered vulnerable species, including migratory species. It requires signatory states to protect habitats, sites and species, and establishes the Emerald Network. In the EU, the Emerald Network is implemented through the Natura 2000 Network. It requires signatory states to monitor the situation on the ground and to report to the Convention and finally it has a system of complaints and case files through which it puts pressure on countries to abide by the Convention requirements. All four vulture species are listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention, the Appendix that lists the protected fauna species. Signatories are required to take measures to protect the species (its nests and eggs), including from exploitation, and the sites where the species occurs. 5 The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals: The CMS or Bonn Convention The Bonn Convention was adopted in 1979 and is an intergovernmental Treaty adopted under the aegis of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), which aims to conserve all terrestrial, aquatic and avian migratory species. It is a global Convention. Today there are 118 parties to the Convention, from Africa, Europe, Asia, Central and South America and Oceania. Of the four vulture species one, Neophron percnopterus is listed in Appendix I of the Convention, which includes those species considered to be in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant proportion of their range. The other three species are listed in Appendix II of the Convention, which is where all species with unfavourable conservation status that need or would significantly benefit from international cooperation are listed. The Convention acts as a framework convention and encourages the agreement of global or regional Agreements or Memoranda of Understanding for tackling specific groups of species or problems.

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6 The CMS Raptor MoU The Raptor Conservation Memorandum of Understanding (MoU), under the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) was signed in 2008 and since then 42 signatories have signed it (41 Range States and the European Union). There are also three co-operating Partners that have signed the MoU, the CMS Secretariat, BirdLife International and the International Association for Falconry and Conservation of Birds of Prey. The MoU recognizes the threats faced by birds of prey across the range states and identifies a series of urgent actions that are necessary for their protection. It requires signatories to prepare national strategies for the conservation of raptors in their territories. Of the four vulture species, three are listed in Annex I of the Raptor MoU. The only one not listed is the Bearded Vulture, which is not really migratory. Table 5 presents a summary of the protection status under the different instruments discussed. Table 5: Summary of protection for the four species of vulture under the different legislative instruments. Species

Birds Directive (2009/147/EC)

Berne Convention

Emerald Network

CMS Bonn Convention

CMS Raptor MoU

Griffon Vulture

Annex I

Annex II

Yes

Annex II

Annex I

Bearded Vulture

Annex I

Annex II

Yes

Annex II

-

Egyptian Vulture

Annex I

Annex II

Yes

Annex I

Annex I

Cinereous Vulture

Annex I

Annex II

Yes

Annex II

Annex I

7 The Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna - the CITES Convention The Convention was signed in 1973 and has been ratified by the EU. The EU has adopted its own Regulations for CITES, which incorporate the requirements of the Convention and add some extra restrictions. The EU Regulation 338/97 is the main Regulation but there are additional ones and 93


implementing ones, all Regulations are on the Commission website. All vulture species are listed on Annex A of the EU Regulation. They need import and export permits to be imported/exported to/from the EU and the competent authorities need to be satisfied that the appropriate conditions for keeping the birds in captivity are met. Rules are tougher for importing or exporting birds from or to outside the EU. Movement within the Community requires fewer checks. 8 National Law Of course it’s important to take into account the National law of each country, which can be stricter than any international law depending on the country’s priorities. The National law of Cyprus 152(I)/2003 mentions the Griffon Vulture as a specially threatened species and offers special protection. Literature Birds Directive introduction: [viewed 22 May 2013] http://ec.europa.eu/ environment/nature/legislation/birdsdirective/index_en.htm The text of the Directive: [viewed 22 May 2013] http://eur-lex.europa.eu/ LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2010:020:0007:0025:EN:PDF The Habitats Directive: [viewed 22 May 2013] http://ec.europa.eu/ environment/nature/legislation/habitatsdirective/index_en.htm Guidance on Article 6 of the Habitats Directive-Appropriate Assessment: [viewed 22 May 2013] http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/natura2000/ management/guidance_en.htm#art6 List of IBAs in Europe for each species/per country-Searchable Database (BirdLife International Data zone): [viewed 22 May 2013] http://www. birdlife.org/datazone/site/search Natura 2000 viewer: [viewed 22 May 2013] http://natura2000.eea.europa. eu/# The Bern Convention: [viewed 22 May 2013] http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/ cultureheritage/nature/bern/default_en.asp The text of the Bern Convention: [viewed 22 May 2013] http://conventions. coe.int/Treaty/en/Treaties/Html/104.htm The Bonn Convention: [viewed 22 May 2013] http://www.cms.int/about/ intro.htm

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Birds of Prey - Raptor MoU: [viewed 22 May 2013] http://www.cms.int/ species/raptors/index.htm CITES Convention: [viewed 22 May 2013] http://ec.europa.eu/environment/ cites/legislation_en.htm

The holding cage at Agios Giannis, Cyprus © Clairie Papazoglou

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Assessing morbidity and mortality in vulture populations Panos Azmanis DVM, Dr.med.vet Resident European College of Zoological Medicine (Avian), University of Leipzig, Germany Contact details: [email protected]

Abstract The main causes of vulture decline in Balkans, Cyprus and Asia were identified as poisoning, veterinary drug residues, collisions (wind turbines, electricity poles) & food shortage. Data obtained largely by targeted ornithological field studies (telemetry, wind park monitoring), but only few complete veterinary studies exist. Proposed IUCN veterinary guidelines and pre-planned complete veterinary actions are rarely implemented in vulture conservation projects. Ignorance, lack of planning, interdisciplinary cooperation, infrastructure, interest, funding and trained vet personnel are the main obstacles. For a reliable mortality assessment all possible samples/data have to be state-ofthe-art gained, preserved and processed. More precisely valuable veterinary data has to be retrieved by individual casualties (dead or injured), planed field captures (maximization of biomedical sampling), minimal invasive sampling, environment, human activities and public health. In all cases tailor-made medical protocols have to be implemented. Intra (different veterinary specialties) and interdisciplinary (biologists-veterinarians, chemists, epidemiologists other) cooperation is imperative for a reliable interpretation and conclusion of the health status and the mortality causes of a wild population. Population health monitoring has a preventative role. Long term, homogeneous data collection and careful retrospective analysis is important to produce scientific veterinary data which could be useful in judicial procedures (e.g. poisoning), lobbying, fund raising, education and strategic planning. The role of the avian veterinarian is secondary but crucial for rare species conservation and therefore basic veterinary actions (sampling protocols, sample elaboration, rescue and preparedness plan) should be included in the project´s budget from the beginning. Main involvement areas are translocation/restocking activities, captive breeding, rescue/rehabilitation, epidemiology/public health, assessing mortality (wild population health) and as supporting expert in judicial, training, prevention procedures. 96


EU regulations for vulture feeding stations Sotiris Christofi Veterinary Officer, Department of Veterinary Services, Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Environment, Cyprus Contact details: [email protected]

Abstract The feeding of vultures in the European Union should be carried out in accordance with the animal by-products regulations. Those regulations allow the feeding of endangered species with certain animal material, under specific conditions and after approval by the competent authority of the Member State concerned. In this article, the details of the procedure to be followed are explained, and requirements of the legislation in the European Union are mentioned, with a reference to the relevant regulations. 1 Introduction Feeding of endangered species with animal material like whole dead bodies is controlled by EU regulations for “Animal By-products”. The regulations allow for the feeding of animal material to endangered or protected species of necrophagous birds and other species living in their natural habitat, for the promotion of biodiversity. In order to provide an adequate tool for the preservation of those species, that feeding practice is permitted by those Regulations, in accordance with conditions laid down to prevent the spread of diseases. The procedures take into account the natural consumption patterns of the species concerned as well as Community objectives for the promotion of biodiversity as referred to in the Communication from the Commission of 22 May 2006 entitled ‘Halting the loss of biodiversity by 2010 - and beyond’. 2 Legislation and procedures The legal base for the authorization of feeding to endangered or protected species of necrophagous birds and other species living in their natural habitat, for the promotion of biodiversity is found in the following two regulations:

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1) REGULATION (EC) No 1069/20091 OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 21 October 2009, laying down health rules as regards animal by-products and derived products not intended for human consumption and repealing Regulation (EC) No 1774/2002 (Animal by-products Regulation). The derogation is foreseen in Article 18 under the heading “Special feeding purposes”, 2) COMMISSION REGULATION (EU) No 142/20112 of 25 February 2011, implementing Regulation (EC) No 1069/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council laying down health rules as regards animal by-products and derived products not intended for human consumption and implementing Council Directive 97/78/EC as regards certain samples and items exempt from veterinary checks at the border under that Directive (Implementing Regulation). The procedure is described in article 14 under the heading “Feeding of certain species in and outside feeding stations and in zoos”. According to the Animal By-products Regulation animal by-products are classified into three categories which reflect the degree of risk that they pose to public and animal health, on the basis of risk assessments: i. Category 1, which includes the most risky materials that may pose risks for Transmittable Spongiform Encephalopathies (TSEs). They include dead wild animals or dead ruminants (cows, sheep and goats) which, at the time of disposal, contain Specified Risk Material (SRM) i.e. material like the brain, spinal cord etc.3 which are dangerous for transmitting Encephalopathies, ii.

Category 2, the materials of which are still considered risky, but less than category 1 and they include dead pigs, rabbits, poultry, which were not killed or did not die as a result of the presence or suspected presence of a disease communicable to humans or animals,

iii.

Category 3, which includes the least risky materials. They have the same safety level as food. It includes by-products from butcheries, slaughterhouses etc.

The competent authority may authorize the collection and use of Category 2 material, provided that it comes from animals which were not killed or did not die or suspected of dying from a communicable disease to humans or animals, and 1 2 3

OJ L 300, 14.11.2009, p. 1. OJ L 54, 26.2.2011, p. 1 Full list of SRM can be found in Regulation (EC) No 999/2001

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of Category 3, for feeding to endangered or protected species of necrophagous birds and other species living in their natural habitat, for the promotion of biodiversity. Furthermore, may authorize the use for feeding of the Category 1 material, like entire bodies or parts of dead animals containing specified risk material at the time of disposal, under more strict rules. These rules can be found in Regulation 142/2011 and are described in Annex VI, CHAPTER II. Section 2 of that chapter, lays down rules for feeding of certain species with category 1 material, in feeding stations and Section 3, lays down rules for feeding of wild animals with category 1 material, outside feeding stations. For Category 2 and 3 materials, the requirements are placed by the competent authority. When using feeding stations the material must be fed to species included in the list set in the Implementing Regulation. The competent authority grants authorisation if satisfied, on the basis of an assessment of the specific situation of the species concerned and their habitat, that the conservation status of the species will be improved. This authorization is immediately suspended in the case of a suspected or confirmed link to the spread of TSE, or non-compliance with any of the rules provided for in the Regulation. The feeding should not be used as an alternative way of disposal of fallen ruminants and an appropriate surveillance system for TSEs (Regulation 999/2001) should be in place (laboratory testing etc.). The operator shall dedicate an enclosed area to the feeding to which access is limited to endangered species (fences etc.), ensure that all eligible bovine animals and at least 4 % of eligible ovine and caprine animals intended to be used, are tested in the TSE monitoring programme carried out in accordance with Regulation (EC) No 999/2001. He must also keep records at least of the number, nature, estimated weight and origin of the carcases of the animals used for feeding, the date of the feeding, the location where feeding took place, the Commercial Documents which are described below, and if applicable, the results of the TSE tests. If Commercial Documents are used, they may be kept, instead of certain records required by the regulation provided that they include all relevant information. Records should be kept for a period of at least two years. In order to feed endangered species outside feeding stations, the competent authority must be firstly satisfied, on the basis of an assessment of the specific situation of the species concerned and their habitat, that the conservation status of the species will be improved. It must identify in the authorisation a geographically defined feeding zone where no intensive farming of animals occurs and also identify the holdings or herds within that zone. Moreover it must specify appropriate measures to prevent the transmission of TSE and of other transmissible diseases from the dead animals to humans or other animals. Such measures are targeted at the feeding patterns of the species to be

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conserved, seasonal feeding restrictions and movement restrictions for farmed animals. Other measures intended to control possible risks of transmission of a disease communicable to humans or animals can be furthermore taken, such as measures relating to species present in the feeding zone for the feeding of which the animal by-products are not used. The competent authority must also specify the responsibilities of persons or entities in the feeding zone that are assisting with the feeding or are responsible for farmed animals. Farmed animals in holdings or herds in the feeding zone must be under the regular surveillance of an official veterinarian, regarding the prevalence of TSE and of diseases transmissible to humans or animals. Where the feeding is carried out without the prior collection of the dead animals, an estimate of the likely mortality rate of farmed animals in the feeding zone and of the likely feeding requirements of the wild animals must be carried out, as a basis for the assessment of the potential risks of disease transmission. Again, feeding is immediately suspended in the case of a suspected or confirmed link to the spread of TSE, or a suspected or confirmed outbreak of a serious disease transmissible to humans or animals in a holding or herd, or in the case of non-compliance with any of the rules provided for in the Regulation. Before starting any operation the operator applies for the derogation to the competent authority. Any transportation of the materials should be done in accordance to annex VIII of reg. 142/2011. That annex requires that transporters are registered, use leak-proof vehicles or containers, cleaned and dried before and after use and labeled with specified category and the statement “Not for human consumption”. The load must be accompanied with a “Commercial Document” described in the same annex. That document must be produced at least in triplicate. The original must accompany the consignment to its final destination. The receiver must retain it. One copy is left to producer or owner of the animal by-product and one is given to the carrier. References Regulation (EC) No 1069/2009 Of The European Parliament and of the Council of 21 October 2009, laying down health rules as regards animal by-products and derived products not intended for human consumption and repealing Regulation (EC) No 1774/2002 Animal by-products Regulation, OJ L 300, 14.11.2009, p. 1. Commission Regulation (EU) No 142/2011 of 25 February 2011, implementing Regulation (EC) No 1069/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council laying down health rules as regards animal by-products 100


and derived products not intended for human consumption and implementing Council Directive 97/78/EC as regards certain samples and items exempt from veterinary checks at the border under that Directive (Implementing Regulation). The procedure is described in article 14 under the heading “Feeding of certain species in and outside feeding stations and in zoos”. OJ L 54, 26.2.2011, p. 1

The holding cage at Agios Giannis, Cyprus © Clairie Papazoglou

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Sanitation and supplementary feeding: a nationwide program to reduce poisoning and veterinary drugs exposure risks Ohad Hatzofe Division of Science & Conservation, Israel Nature & Parks Authority, Jerusalem, ISRAEL Contact details: [email protected]

Abstract Feeding sites were initially established in Israel in the late 1960’s in order to supply predators and carrion eating raptors, in the arid habitats, after the evacuation of the Bedouins’ heards from most of the Negev desert. Follow the decreasing vultures’ populations (Bearded, Lappet-faced, Griffon & Egyptian vultures) and the identification of the main factors for that decline (e.g., secondary poisoning and electrocutions), feeding sites were established in the Mediterranean habitat in order to attract the vultures away from possible poisoned carcasses and away from power lines. In the Mediterranean habitat these sites were well fenced in order to prevent the utilization of the carcasses by canids (wild: Wolves, Golden Jackals, Red foxes or stray dogs), Striped hyena and Wild boars. Analyzing the causes, the seasons and the locations of poisoning events of wildlife in Israel had revealed that the human-predator or pest species conflict should be mitigated in order to prevent those poisonings, and that law-enforcement or education alone do not achieve the proper results. In order to prevent human-predator conflict and to control populations of feral dogs and predators it is imperative to keep the carrying capacity of the ecosystem for those species. Carrying capacity is increased by improper disposal of carcasses that might also contain medications that can be as dangerous as pesticides for the health of vultures. Thus, the INPA established a program aimed to remove carcasses mainly from vultures’ foraging areas: carcasses of livestock that were treated with medications (antibiotics and NSAID) are being taken to cremation or covered so that raptors won’t have access to them while those that are free from chemicals are supplied to the carrion eating raptors.

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A network of more than 30 feeding sites is operated constantly throughout Israel with over 250 tons of livestock carcasses supplied annually. The Movement Ecology Labs’ researchers are conducting a study on the utilization of the feeding sites, the feeding preferences according to the presence and movement of tagged Griffon vultures and their breeding.

A welcoming event for the arrival of the first 6 Griffon vultures from Crete (26th of June 2012, Larnaca International airport) © M. Apostolidou

The Cyprus Minister of Interior, Ms. Eleni Mavrou welcoming the first Griffon vultures from Crete (26th of June 2012, Larnaca International airport) © M. Apostolidou 103


The role of extensive pastoralism in vulture conservation Patricia Mateo-Tomás Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos, IREC, CSICUCLM-JCCM, Ciudad Real, Spain Contact details: [email protected]

Summary Although livestock is mostly considered in a rather negative way regarding ecosystem conservation worldwide, some livestock practises could significantly contribute to nature conservation in some concrete cases. Among the wild species which can benefit from livestock presence, vultures are one of the groups more closely related to livestock rearing worldwide. As long as both Asian and European recent vulture conservation crisis have been mostly related to more intensive livestock practises, extensive pastoralism seems to be a much more sustainable alternative for scavenger conservation. Free-ranging livestock, much more difficult to control, would provide enough food to maintain healthy vulture populations. By maintaining carcass unpredictability, it simulates a more natural food source in terms of supporting the natural ecological processes related to carcass exploitation. Although there are also some negative impacts of extensive pastoralism on vultures (e.g. illegal poisoning), both the intensification and abandonment of grazing systems, and specially of more traditional practises, is expected to negatively influence vulture conservation. The areas abandoned by extensive pastoralism could be occupied by other activities (e.g. cropland, urbanisation) which would not provide alternative food sources for vultures. The intensification of grazing systems may result in a higher use of veterinary drugs together with changes in livestock breeds and/or species (e.g. from cows and sheep to pigs and poultry). To effectively halt the ongoing disappearance of extensive pastoralism, and specially of traditional practises, it is needed a legal framework integrating agricultural, environmental and rural development policies. These policies should focus on identifying and supporting those livestock rearing practises which provide clearly defined environmental public goods (e.g. biodiversity, water availability). Monitoring and evaluation of these policies is also fundamental to ensure their achievement. If we aim to preserve natural ecosystems with functional scavenger communities, further 104


research is needed on the complex relationship between extensive pastoralism and vultures. 1 Introduction Many different names are used to refer to extensive pastoralism as a livestock rearing system with a high reliance on natural resources and a low dependency on external inputs (Mateo-Tomás et al. in prep.). Some of these names include agro-pastoral, agro-silvo-pastoral, pastoral, grazing or pasture-based systems. Whatever the name we use to define these farming systems, they all have a key characteristic in common: the use of pastures as the basic natural resource to raise livestock. Pastures cover 26% of the Earth’s ice-free surface, supporting about 200 million pastoral households and herds of nearly a billion cattle, camelids, sheep, goats, horses, yaks, reindeer and other ungulates (MateoTomás et al. in prep.). Pastures play a role in global environmental change, influencing climate change or biodiversity conservation, something which has caught the public’s attention in recent decades (Steinfeld et al. 2006a; Bernués et al. 2011). In fact, livestock, including both extensive and intensive operations, is considered among the main threats to ecosystem integrity worldwide (Steinfeld et al. 2006b). It causes deforestation, soil compaction and erosion and threatens biodiversity, mainly through habitat loss and specially in developing countries. Livestock is also responsible for 18% of greenhouse gas emissions and for over 8% of global human water use (Steinfeld et al. 2006b). Nonetheless, although livestock is mostly considered in a rather negative way regarding ecosystem conservation worldwide, livestock-environment relationships are highly complex (Steinfeld et al., 2010; Mateo-Tomás & Olea submitted). Thus, livestock could significantly contribute to nature conservation in some concrete cases, mostly when regional scales are considered (Toutain et al., 2010; EFNCP, 2012). The decrease of extensive pastoralism can therefore have negative impacts on vegetation cover or water availability (Steinfeld et al., 2010), being also related to the conservation status of several wild species (Bergier & Cheyland 1980; Amar et al., 2010; Mateo-Tomás & Olea, 2010a; Steinfeld et al., 2010). When talking about livestock-dependent biodiversity, it is mandatory to talk about scavengers, and more concretely about vultures. Vultures are among the wild species more closely related to livestock worldwide (Sekercioglu et al., 2004). They have progressively increased their dependence on livestock as a primary food source in most world regions. This strong dependence has resulted from sharp - mainly human-induced - reductions of wild ungulate species combined with increasing livestock numbers (Mateo-Tomás et al. in prep.). The rapid negative impact of the veterinary drug Diclofenac on Asian vultures (Oaks 105


et al. 2004) is one the most famous examples of the current strong dependence of vultures on livestock. The consequences of the massive use of this drug has not only affected vulture conservation (Cuthbert et al., 2006; Ogada et al. 2012) but also ecosystem function and local socioeconomy in southeast Asia (Markandya et al. 2008). Similarly, in Europe, the management of the bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) crisis has negatively influenced scavenger conservation (Tella 2001). By reducing livestock carcass availability, the sanitary measures taken to control BSE have also caused several socioeconomic conflicts, e.g. conflicts with farmers due to vulture attacks to livestock (Margalida et al. 2011). These two vulture conservation crises have called both public and scientific attention on vultures in recent decades. Both crises have highlighted not only the close relationship of vultures with livestock, but also how deeply changes in livestock management can affect the conservation of these species and the ecosystems they inhabit (Mateo-Tomás 2009). 2 Extensive pastoralism and vultures As long as both the Asian and the European vulture conservation crises are mostly related to more intensive livestock practises, extensive pastoralism seems to be a much more sustainable alternative for the conservation not only of scavengers but also of many ecosystems (Mateo-Tomás 2009; Margalida et al. 2010). Although the information available on the interactions between vultures and grazing systems is still limited, free-ranging livestock, much more difficult to control (e.g. to collect dead animals), would provide enough food to maintain healthy vulture populations worldwide (Mateo-Tomás 2009; Olea & Mateo-Tomás 2009; Margalida et al. 2010). Additionally, by coexisting with wild ungulates in many regions, extensive pastoralism allows to maintain alternative food resources for vultures (Mateo-Tomás 2009; Mateo-Tomás & Olea 2010b). Thus, these vulture populations will be less dependent on variations in food quantity and quality due, for example, to sanitary regulations (e.g. those approved to control BSE; Tella 2001). Moreover, through maintaining certain carcass unpredictability, free-ranging livestock simulates a more natural food source for scavengers in terms of maintaining the ecological processes related to carcass exploitation (Sekercioglu et al. 2004; Mateo-Tomás 2009; Margalida et al. 2010). Temporally and spatially predictable resources such as those provided at feeding stations can negatively influence ecosystem equilibrium by favouring common (e.g. Griffon vulture Gyps fulvus) over scarcer, and often threatened species (e.g. Egyptian vulture Neophron percnopterus; Deygout et al. 2009; Cortés-Avizanda et al. 2012). This high resource predictability could also even modify, to a often unknown extent, species habits (Deygout et al. 2009; Olea & Mateo-Tomás 2009; Mateo-Tomás & Olea 2010b; Margalida et al. 106


2011). In extensive systems, the use of antibiotics and other veterinary drugs is generally lower than in intensive farming operations (Reid et al. 2010), reducing the risks associated with vultures feeding on medicated livestock (e.g. death, decreasing survival rates, Oaks et al. 2004). Extensive livestock practices can also have negative impacts on vulture conservation. Illegal poisoning of wildlife may be the most important conservation threat related to livestock presence in the field (Mateo-Tomás et al. 2012). The illegal use of poison in wild habitats is mainly due to retaliatory killing of wild predators preying on free-ranging livestock (Mateo-Tomás et al. 2012). This is an important threat to vultures, since they are more skilled at locating and first accessing the poisoned remains than terrestrial predators (Ruxton & Houston 2004). Thus, illegal poisoning is suggested to be the main cause of the current vulture declines in east Africa (Virani et al. 2011) as well as the main cause of the local extinction of many Griffon vulture populations in Europe during the past century (e.g. Romania, Cyprus,…; Mateo-Tomás et al. 2012; GYPAS 2013). Other potentially negative impacts of extensive livestock farming on vultures could be related to the use of veterinary drugs (although generally lower than in intensive farming; Reid et al. 2010; see above). Landscape changes due to overgrazing (e.g. vegetation encroachment) can also have a negative impact on vultures, making more difficult carcass location and access (Simmons et al. 2011). Nonetheless, most of these negative impacts of livestock on biodiversity (including vultures) are minimised when considering more traditional forms of extensive pastoralism such as, for example, transhumance (Ruiz & Ruiz 1986). These traditional grazing systems are characterised by variable stocking rates and, especially, by a high mobility of livestock flocks which prevents some of the most common negative impacts of extensive pastoralism on natural ecosystems (e.g. overgrazing; Olea & Mateo-Tomás 2011). Moreover, the labour-intensive management techniques employed by these systems (e.g. shepherds, dogs) cause minimal human-predator conflicts, reducing retaliatory activities such as poisoning (Olea & Mateo-Tomás 2009; Mateo-Tomás et al. 2012). The persistence of these traditional grazing activities is frequently highlighted as a key factor for the conservation of several vulture species in developed regions such as Europe. A strong relationship between vultures and transhumance has been proved for Griffon vultures in NW Spain (Olea & Mateo-Tomás 2009). It appears therefore that the ongoing disappearance of transhumance (Mateo-Tomás & Olea 2010c; Olea & Mateo-Tomás 2011) might have a negative influence on the conservation of this vulture species and even on other species, such as, for example, the endangered Egyptian vulture. In fact, the disappearance of transhumance in some regions of France 107


is considered as one of the main threats to Egyptian vulture conservation, causing a sharp reduction in food availability (Bergier & Cheyland 1980). Further evidence (Mateo-Tomás & Olea 2010a; Cabrera-García et al. 2012) suggests that this species may be heavily dependent on extensive small livestock farming practises (i.e. sheep and goat rearing). Other vulture species such as the Bearded vulture Gypaetus barbatus seems to be also related to mobile livestock flocks. Altitudinal movements of the species in Crete correspond to the seasonal distribution of sheep flocks and goat herds (Xirouchalis & Nikolakakis 2002). In Spain, the dehesa, a landscape highly dependent on the existence of transhuman flocks (Olea & Mateo-Tomás 2011), is a key habitat for the conservation of the Black vulture (Aegypius monachus; Carrete & Donázar 2005). 3 Future trends Most traditional grazing systems are currently threatened by either intensification or abandonment (Steinfeld et al. 2006b). Both trends are already occurring in many European High Nature Value (HNV) farmlands and are reported as the main drivers of change in agricultural landscapes (European Environment Agency 2010). They are responsible for “losses of distinctive biodiversity, among both domesticated and wild species, and of ecosystem services provided by managed landscapes” according to the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (2010). Regarding vulture conservation, the abandonment of traditional livestock practises will result in landscape changes (e.g. increasing forest and shrub coverage) which could reduce vulture accessibility to carcasses (Simmons et al. 2011). Although the initial food reduction due to livestock disappearance could be compensated by an increase in wild ungulate species, the abandonment of some areas by livestock could facilitate the development of cropland, urban or touristic areas which would not effectively provide alternative food sources for vultures (Mateo-Tomás et al. in prep.). The intensification of grazing systems, which will mainly consist of increasing stocking rates (Davies et al. 2010; MateoTomás & Olea submitted), could be expected to positively influence vultures through increasing food availability. However, this intensification will also result in a higher use of veterinary drugs (Reid et al. 2010), whose devastating effects on vultures are already known (Oaks et al. 2004; Ogada et al. 2012). Moreover, intensification will cause landscape modification through overgrazing (see above) and will promote changes in the main livestock species reared (MateoTomás & Olea submitted). Large-sized mammals such as cows and, specially, sheep and goats will be replaced by more profitable species, specially pigs and poultry, leading to more intensive farming (Steinfeld et al. 2010; Mateo-Tomás & Olea submitted).

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In looking for a more clear response to how the changes in grazing systems could affect vulture species, some results, in this case with the Egyptian vulture, show a maximum threshold above which, increasing extensive livestock density does not result in increasing habitat suitability for the species (Mateo-Tomás & Olea submitted). Although a similar response is probably not expected for the Griffon vulture (much more dependent on large carcasses than the Egyptian vulture) these results provide a promising starting point from which assessing the complex livestock-environment relationship in order to promote better sustainable grazing practises. Conservation managers can assess the sustainability of extensive pastoralism regarding its impact on other components of the ecosystem on the basis of the minimum requirements (e.g. stocking rate, livestock species) needed by livestock-dependent species such as the Egyptian vulture (Mateo-Tomás & Olea submitted). 4 Final recommendations Many policies are being designed and/or implemented to guarantee the conservation of agro-ecosystems that depend on traditional agricultural practises (e.g. Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) in Europe; Cooper et al., 2009; Reid et al., 2010; EFNCP, 2012). The complexity of the agro-pastoral systems and the factors that affect their sustainability (e.g. use of resources, degree of intensification, economic and social issues) make it difficult to state what is sustainable with respect to ecosystem conservation (Cooper et al., 2009; Steinfeld et al. 2010; Bernués et al. 2011). Broadly speaking, more sustainable grazing practises are characterised by highly variable, generally low, stocking rates, high mobility of the flocks and labour-intensive management (Bernués et al. 2011). All these factors make it necessary to consider these grazing systems not only in terms of environmental indicators (e.g. livestock-dependent species, land use, etc.) but also of socio-economic demands (e.g. markets). Thus, it is necessary to use a multidisciplinary approach to find the right balance between efficient animal production and environmental performance (Mateo-Tomás et al. in prep.). Considering vulture conservation, it is urgent to deal with the changes experienced by the extensive livestock sector since they will have important consequences for vulture conservation (see above; Olea & Mateo-Tomás 2009; Mateo-Tomás & Olea 2010a). It is therefore needed to effectively halt the ongoing loss of extensive pastoralism, especially of traditional practices. A legal framework integrating agricultural, environmental and rural development policies is needed to reverse the intensification or abandonment of these grazing systems (Mateo-Tomás et al. in prep.). These policies should focus on improving the implementation of effective measures to support realistically 109


sustainable agro-pastoral systems. It is critical to identify and support those farms really providing clearly defined environmental public goods of interest (e.g. biodiversity, cultural landscape, resilience to fire, water availability; Cooper et al. 2009). Monitoring and evaluation of the impact of these policies is also fundamental to ensure the logical achievement and implementation of these policies (Cooper et al. 2009; Bernués et al. 2011). If we aim to preserve natural ecosystems with functional scavenger communities, further research should be developed to better understand the complex relationship between vultures and extensive pastoralism (Mateo-Tomás & Olea submitted). Acknowledgements Thanks to S. Xirouchakis for inviting me to this workshop and C. Charalambous for his assistance. All the information included in this presentation is part of several works on which I am working with Dr. Pedro P. Olea. I want also to thank J.A. Donázar and A. Margalida who asked me to coordinate a work on the impact of agro-grazing practises on vultures. It has been developed with P.P. Olea, P.C. Benson, A. Bernúes and S. Lambertucci. This work has been partially funded by Junta de Castilla y León under project IEU001A10-2. I was supported by a postdoctoral grant funded by Junta de Comunidades de Castilla-La Mancha and Fondo Social Europeo. References Amar, A., Davies, J., Meek, E., Williams, J., Knight, A. & Redpath, S. (2010). Long-term impact of changes in sheep Ovis aries densities on the breeding output of the hen harrier Circus cyaneus. Journal of Applied Ecology, 48, 220-227. Bergier, P. & Cheylan, G. (1980) Statut, succès de reproduction et alimentation du vautour pernoptére Neophron percnopterus en France Mediterranéenne. Alauda, 48, 75-97. Bernúes, A., Ruiz, R., Olaizola, A., Villalba, D. & Casasús, I. (2011) Sustainability of pasture-based livestock farming systems in the European Mediterranean context: synergies and trade-offs. Livestock Science, 139, 44-57. Cabrera-García, M.E., Mateo-Tomás, P. & Olea, P.P. (2012) Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus Linnaeus) diet in the Cantabrian Mountains. Poster. Spanish Ornithological Congress. Vitoria, Spain. 6 December 2012. Carrete, M. & Donázar, J.A. (2005) Application of central-place foraging theory shows the importance of Mediterranean dehesas for the conservation 110


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Griffon vultures from Crete at the holding cage of Agios Giannis, Cyprus © Dave and Jan Walker

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Population viability analysis (case studies, software) for Griffon vultures John M Halley Department of Biological Applications and Technology, University of Ioannina, Greece Contact details: [email protected]

Summary Newly established colonies, such as the griffon vulture colony on Cyprus are subject to the special problems of small populations. These include the risk of extinction from demographic stochasticity or Allee effects and the loss of genetic diversity due to inbreeding. For the Cyprus colony important decisions will include the number of colonies and their relative size and whether the population is supplemented by immigrants from elsewhere continuously or in stages. In the control of these problems, population viability analysis and population modeling can play an important role in assisting management decisions by identifying which strategies involve the greatest risk of extinction or loss of genetic diversity. 1 Introduction Small populations are associated with special problems. While “small” can mean different things, in our current context it typically means populations with less than 100 individuals. There are two main problems associated with small populations. One is the increased danger of extinction and the other is the loss of genetic diversity[1]. The smallness of a population cause it to become extinct purely by chance. There are essentially four important factors that threaten a small population. (a) Environmental stochasticity reflects random changes in vital rates. This may arise from a changing environment, either the abiotic one (weather etc) or the biotic environment (epidemics, predators). (b) Demographic stochasticity. This is the randomness associated with the fact that the population is made of discrete individuals. For example while the average sex ratio is 50:50, the actual ratio for a given 10 births might be 7:3 or more skewed. Demographic stochasticity is the main mechanism driving loss of genetic richness in small populations because each gene is subject separately to chance extinction (c) Allée effects. There is strong evidence that some populations suffer greater mortality or lower fecundity if they are small, leading to an extinction vortex [2]. 115


(d) Fragmentation. If populations are small, fragmentation is a problem because the sub-populations suffer more seriously from mechanisms (b) and (c). Two examples illustrate the particular problems faced by small populations (and the managers of those populations). North American Heath Hen (Tympanychus cupido cupido) This species was once common in North America and remained widespread in the Eastern USA until the end of the 18th century. However, it was an attractive target for hunters being large, slow and edible. In addition, it suffered extra pressure from habitat loss and persecution by domestic cats. By 1830, the species was so reduced that it remained common only on the island of Martha’s Vineyard. By the close of the 19th century even here only 50 birds remained, so a reserve was established in 1908. At first things went well and by 1915 the population had recovered to 2000. However, 1916 was a bitterly cold winter. This attracted many natural predators, such as hawks, into the vicinity, decimating the population. That year too, a large part of the nesting habitat was destroyed by fire. Finally, there was an outbreak of avian influenza. The population never recovered from this triple shock and by 1928 only 13 birds remained and only two of these were female. By 1930 the species was down to its last individual which died in 1932. Northern Elephant Seal (Mirounga angustirostrus) This species came close to extinction in the second half of the 19th century [3]. It was hunted mainly for blubber, the hunting being most intense between 1810 and 1860. The last major hunt was in 1884 and by the close of the decade commercial hunting has ceased. An expedition from the Smithsonian in 1892 found 8 (killing 7) and by 1900 the species was thought extinct. However, in 1922 a colony of 500 was discovered on Guadalupe Island. Under protection, this colony thrived and by 1990 had passed 100,000. It is currently back to the IUCN “Least concern” category. Even so, in its genes the species carries the signature of its former crisis, having an extremely low genetic variability. The species has only two mitochondrial haplotypes and in its nuclear DNA its heterozygosity is virtually undetectable. Why did the Heath hen go extinct but not the Northern elephant seal? There are many individual answers to this, considering the above stories. Overall, we can say that the elephant seal was lucky while the heath hen was unlucky. From an a priori perspective, we cannot foresee the fate of small populations deterministically. Chance events can cause the extinction of 116


small populations even if they are well managed (like the heath hen) or the survival of others even without positive intervention (like the elephant seal). Nevertheless, good management can minimize the probability of extinction and of genetic impoverishment though we cannot be certain of success. 2 Special Issues for the Griffon vultures in Cyprus The Cyprus vulture project is similar to many others involving small populations of vultures. In Europe these birds suffered persecution by humans until the 20th century. In recent decades, along with growing awareness of the importance of the environment, , public opinion has become more positive. Nowadays sightings of large birds of prey or vultures are highly prized and can significantly increase the ecotouristic value of any touristic destination. Reintroduction projects have become more common [4]. Although some negative opinions remain, these tend to be localised. Vultures are now being reintroduced to their original ranges where they had become locally extinct, such as in the Alps [5]. But along with this good news, there are emerging threats for these new vulture populations in Europe, mainly illegal poisoning. Most illegal poisoning of vultures is accidental, the poison being directed at other species such as foxes. This problem is unlikely to go away soon, so the aim is to establish viable colonies, or reinforce existing ones, in the presence of such hazards. There are many and various problems with reintroduction [4]. But the purpose of this paper is to look at the population dynamic aspects of small populations that are the focus of Population Viability Analysis (PVA). The two outcomes that we wish to avoid are extinction of the population or dramatic loss of its genetic diversity. The ideal outcome is a healthy, selfsustaining population of vultures that is a source of new individuals for other populations. In Cyprus, the colony will be subject to most of the issues faced elsewhere in Europe but with local variations. Various decisions will need to be made regarding the number of colonies and the tempo of reintroduction the role of supplemental feeding and so on. Population modeling and PVA can play a significant role in planning and executing these reintroductions. 3 The use of simulation models in PVA When managing small populations and assessing whether there is a high probability of extinction, there are some features common to all small populations that can drive a population towards extinction or away from it. Population Viability Analysis (PVA) is the systematic use of these features to make predictions about the likelihood of extinction for a population. Numerous computer packages have been produced for PVA. All of these packages estimate the probability 117


of extinction, expected mean population and other measures on the basis of demographic parameters, expected environmental conditions and the proposed management scenario. Threats to Small-Populations A series of simulations using the author’s own PVA software [3] illustrates the two threats faced by small populations: extinction and genetic impoverishment. Figure 1 shows the result of a simulation experiment with 100 runs of a population with an intrinsic growth rate of (a) r=-0.1 with an initial population of 100 and of (b) r=+0.1 with an initial population of 10. In the first case, the population is declining and the demographic parameters ensure that extinction is certain. This could be considered as a model of a population in some sort of “sink” area where the species is unsustainable due to lack of resources, hunting pressure etc. However, although the ultimate outcome is certain, the time of extinction ranges from 25 to 70 years, the actual time of extinction is very uncertain. Even more interesting is the graph for the 2nd case. Here, the demographic parameters say that the species should survive, having a strong positive growth rate. However, even so, the population starting with 10 individuals goes extinct in 40% of cases. In both cases the maximum age was 22 years. The wobbles on the population curve, prominent in (a) for time