Promoting Fashion Culture

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developing fashion promotion strategies, designing fashion campaigns, transmitting ..... platforms such as websites, social networking sites, blogs and other emerging social ...... image and beauty standards (Szmigielska & Viren 2012, pp.
Promoting Fashion Culture: Understanding the Role of Cultural Intermediaries An exploratory research based in the United Kingdom, Bangladesh and Australia

Khandker Tarek ID No. 19767935

Dissertation submitted as partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Master of Communications and Media Studies Degree Supervised by:

Dr. Angela Mak

School of Media, Film and Journalism Faculty of Arts Monash University, Australia

May 2015

Table of Contents: ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................................................I STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP ................................................................................................................III ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................................................................................. IV DEDICATION ................................................................................................................................................ V LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................................................... VI LIST OF TABLES....................................................................................................................................... VII LIST OF IMAGE SETS ............................................................................................................................. VIII LIST OF APPENDIXES .............................................................................................................................. IX 1.0 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................... 1 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................................................................... 5 2.1 EXTRINSIC REASONS: THE 5PS MODEL IN FASHION MARKETING................................................................ 5 2.2 INTRINSIC INTEREST: CULTURAL INTERMEDIARIES IN FASHION PROMOTION .............................................. 7 2.3 THE GUIDING FRAMEWORK: CIRCUIT OF CULTURE MODEL ......................................................................... 9 2.4 THE FIVE MOMENTS IN CONJUNCTION WITH THE 5PS MARKETING MODEL AND CMS THEORIES ............. 11 2.5 THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS (RQS)........................................................................................................... 17 3.0 METHODS ............................................................................................................................................. 18 4.0 FINDINGS .............................................................................................................................................. 24 4.1 FASHION PROMOTION MECHANISM AND ACTIVITIES PRACTISED BY CULTURAL INTERMEDIARIES (RQ1) . 24 4.2 TRANSFORMATION OF SOCIO-CULTURAL VALUES BY THE CULTURAL INTERMEDIARIES INTO FASHION ADVERTISING CAMPAIGNS (RQ2) .................................................................................................................... 30 4.3 THE TENSIONS EXPERIENCED BY THE FASHION COMPANIES: CONFLICTING VALUES AND ISSUES TO MEET THE TRENDS OF CONSUMER EXPECTATIONS (RQ3) ....................................................................................... 39 5.0 DISCUSSION ........................................................................................................................................ 48 REFERENCE LIST ...................................................................................................................................... 58 APPENDIX 1: INTERVIEW GUIDE ........................................................................................................... 69 APPENDIX 2: PHOTOS OF FIELD STUDY ............................................................................................. 74 APPENDIX 3: IMAGE SOURCES ............................................................................................................. 76

Abstract Fashion culture, although apparently seems like all about glamour, is in fact a significant research area that demands in-depth analysis. It, in reality, is not only about models and celebrities as seen in media, but also about the common people and the common cultural values of their societies. That is why fashion industries worldwide utilise the respective socio-cultural values to appeal to the consumers by developing relevant fashion promotion campaigns. In reality, promoting the fashion culture is not a standalone practice, rather a process where a range of cultural intermediaries interact. In that context, an in-depth analysis of the intermediaries and their roles in fashion promotion is an area largely overlooked by the past researchers. To fill this gap, this research aims to critically understand the current practices by the intermediaries in fashion promotion. As the prevailing socio-cultural values significantly influence fashion, the research also aims to explore how those values are transformed in the relevant promotional processes. The tensions and conflicts, to accommodate the emerging cultural perspectives, are also covered in that regard. For this research, the Circuit of Culture model has been used as the guiding framework to merge the theoretical aspects with their practical implications. Some other relevant communications and media theories are also taken into consideration, as appropriate. To explore the research aims a triangulation of elite in-depth interviews, field study and content analysis has been done. For a global view, three different countries have been selected for the study: the United Kingdom, Bangladesh and Australia. The purposive and snowball sampling methods are used to conduct the in-depth interviews with the fashion experts in each country. Different fashion trade-fairs and expos are also visited as a part of the field study in addition to scrutinising the media contents relevant to the research aims. The research reveals a set of cultural intermediaries namely the fashion marketers, fashion ad agencies, media channels and fashion models/celebrities, who are key influencers in the fashion promotion culture. The roles they play respectively are developing fashion promotion strategies, designing fashion campaigns, transmitting i

the campaigns to the consumers and influencing the fashion industry through emotional appeals. The research also finds significant level of socio-cultural value transformation in the promotional process that relates to the democratisation of fashion, Youth Culture, environmental consciousness, human relations, ethnic markets and the high culture. The research further reveals that the transformation process initiates tensions and conflicts in some relevant aspects such as the ethical practices of fashion brands, the rapid expansion of digital media, the emergence of visual-only fashion ads, the moral issues of idealised body image projection and the increasing purchasing power of the youth. Through the in-depth analytical process, this research concludes by proposing a new conceptual model for future research. The proposed model can be used as an analytical tool to examine how the tensions and conflicts, arising from socio-cultural values, are absorbed, processed and released by the relevant cultural intermediaries towards more effective promotion of the fashion culture.

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Statement of Authorship This dissertation is my own work containing, to the best of my knowledge and belief, no material published or written by another person except as referred to in the text. None of the material submitted as part of this dissertation has been accepted for the award of the any other degree or diploma in any tertiary institution.

Signed: __________________________________ Dated: _____________

As supervisor of Khandker Tarek I confirm that the work submitted in this dissertation has, to the best of my knowledge, been carried out by the student named above, and is worthy of examination.

Signed: __________________________________ Dated: _____________

Supervisor’s name: _________________________________

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Acknowledgments I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor Dr. Angela Mak for her expert direction and continuous encouragement that made this thesis a reality. Extending my sincere thanks to all the interviewees and field-study respondents from the UK, Bangladesh and Australia who were not only kind enough to dedicate their time but also were very passionate to get involved in the discussion process to share their views on their beloved field of fashion promotion. Grateful to Dr. Mark Gibson, Dr. Tony Moore and other respected academicians at Monash Australia, who always extend their support to encourage research works. Thanks to Upal, Khaled, Natasha and Efa. Also, recognising humbly all my clients and colleagues of my passionate advertising career – the work environment helped me to explore the exciting world of advertising from the bottom of my heart! With special thanks to Bonny, Bell and Suhag for their association in beloved Australia. Sincere thanks to Sebastian Borutta of Monash Clayton Library for the suggestions on referencing.

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Dedication In loving memory of dad, Abu Taher Khandker

And, to my mom.

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List of figures Figure 1: The process of making fashion manifestation by cultural intermediaries. .................. 9

Figure 2: Merging the 5 moments of the Circuit of Culture model with the 5Ps of Marketing along with the relevant communications and media theories...................................................... 16

Figure 3: The sampling method of the research............................................................................ 22

Figure 4 (Proposed conceptual model): The Adaptation Model of Cultural Tensions/Conflicts in fashion promotion........................................................................................................................... 55

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List of Tables

Table 1: Current cultural practice and perspective by the cultural intermediaries in the fashion promotion activities .............................................................................................................. 30

Table 2: The socio-cultural values, their transformation process and the relevant cultural intermediaries in the context............................................................................................................. 39

Table 3: Tensions and conflicts arising from the emerging trends in fashion culture .............. 47

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List of Image Sets

Image Set 1: Selected photos of interviews and field studies for the research ........................ 23 Image Set 2: Fashion web stores reflecting a new form of media’s intermediation ................. 27

Image Set 3: The prevalence of democratic model and celebrity creation ............................... 29 Image Set 4: Democratisation of fashion expression – a new trend .......................................... 31

Image Set 5: CSR initiatives of the fashion brands ...................................................................... 34

Image Set 6: Fantasy based characters in the fashion promotion culture ................................ 36

Image Set 7: Use of multicultural models in fashion ..................................................................... 38 Image Set 8: Campaigns against ‘sweatshops’ in fashion outsourcing ..................................... 41

Image Set 9: Facebook pages of fashion brands with millions of followers .............................. 42

Image Set 10: Examples of visual/textual clue based intermediation of promotion................. 43

Image Set 11: Promotion of idealised body image in media ....................................................... 45

Image Set 12: Examples of web based campaign initiatives targeting at the youth ................ 46

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List of Appendixes

Appendix 1: Interview Guide............................................................................................................. 69

Appendix 2: Photos of field study .................................................................................................... 74

Appendix 3: Image sources .............................................................................................................. 76

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1.0 Introduction Fashion culture, although seems like a glamour-driven ‘ad hoc’ hype at first instance, is quite an in-depth area of study in reality for centuries that attracted numerous scholars to analyse its origin and prevalence (Green, Lewis & Jirousek 2013, p. 72). In that regard it is, indeed, thought-provoking the way scholars have identified that ‘human beings’ are naturally ‘one of the most unadorned’ species of the world without any attractive appearance or natural glitter (Lancioni 1973, p. 130). The depth of this brilliant understanding connects to the fact that many other creatures in the nature, unlike human beings, inherent stunning striped patterns and/or beautiful spots in their bodies to portray naturally fashionable appearances. We, the humans, have uniquely overcome this weakness by utilising our abilities to make and wear clothing items and accessories to define our own fashion identities (Hines, Cheng & Grime 2007, pp. 230-231). This interesting prelude re-establishes the fact that the existence and prevalence of fashion culture for people date back to the beginning of civilisation enabling them to ‘construct their own meanings’ (Johnson 2002, pp. 471-472; Kaiser 2012, p. 20). Since then fashion has been continuously influencing human societies around the world by reflecting respective ‘cultural meanings and values’ (Lipovetsky 2007, p. 27). Over the time, with the changes of socio-cultural and technological elements, the nature of this influence has changed but the core philosophy of fashion’s existence and pervasiveness remained more or less the same. In that line, to understand how ubiquitous fashion culture and promotion is nowadays, we need to consider today’s dynamic cultural atmosphere that is continuously being shaped by various forces. Human race today is living in a ‘global village’ backed up by the interactive elements of cultural intermediaries, including the media environment, where people ‘participate and collaborate’ to create and spread newer cultural trends (McQuarrie, Miller & Phillips 2013, pp. 136-137; Rheingold 2012, p. 54). This has led to the mass democratisation of fashion manifestation where people can express their ‘emotional and contextual clues’ in regards to their fashion choices by utilising the elements of the cultural intermediaries (Ford 2013, p. 410). Fashion consumers today are ‘authors of their own lives’ and the fashion marketers globally respond to their needs by introducing newer trends (Crewe 2013, p. 762). Renowned 1

fast fashion brands like H&M, Forever 21, GAP, French Connection, Pull & Bear and Zara are some of the real-life examples of these trends that are increasingly attracting fashion consumers resulting in double digit growth of sales and hundreds of new stores worldwide (NPR Group 2013, para. 4-7). Statistical data of 2012-2014 shows that the fashion market size, in billion dollars, of the major fashion hubs are quite significant such as China $150, USA $225, EU $350, India $45, Japan $110, Australia $25, Canada $30 and Russia $40 (Statista 2012a, para. 2). The same data source mentions that by the year 2025 the global fashion market size will be doubled making it an industry of $2110 billion dollar. This growth clearly demonstrates the continuing prevalence of the fashion culture and fashion products globally, which demands an in-depth understanding. In that line, in the course of the analysis, the current study focuses on some of the existing research works in the cultural studies discipline to understand the current scholarly development and the possible gaps to fill there. For example, there are few region specific research works to understand how fashion consumers express their consumption behaviour based on cultural discourses (Craig & Diana 1997, p. 15). Some other studies focus on the influence of cultural intermediaries to promote specialised fashion products, such as fur/silk based items, in specific markets (Rantisi 2014, pp. 955-956). Similar works were found where cross-cultural fashion promotion is explored such as creating a fusion of Eastern-Western fashion trends in the dominant fashion markets as France, United Kingdom and USA (Twigg 2012, p. 1030; Villette & Hardill 2010, pp. 461-462). Some other research focused solely on the gender issues and relevant body image projection practices in the cultural context (Mears 2010, pp. 21-22; Molloy & Larner 2010, pp. 361-362). While each of these existing studies theoretically focuses on different aspects of the cultural intermediaries in fashion promotion, the current research attempts to get fashion marketers’ real-life in-depth views on those key issues. That way, it fills in an important gap in the knowledge base by linking the theoretical understandings with their practical implications in real-life situations. To start exploring the nature and mechanism of the production side of fashion culture, this research aims to understand the way fashion companies launch their promotional campaigns in the cultural context. In that regard, the current fashion 2

promotion activities and mechanisms practised by the cultural intermediaries across different markets are explored. The research also aims to analyse how the cultural intermediaries transform the socio-cultural values in fashion promotion activities. The creative fashion campaign development practices, which are highly influenced by the cultural values, are also covered here (Crewe 2013, p. 761; Yoganarasimhan 2012, p. 74). Another important aim of the study is to analyse the tensions and conflicts faced by the fashion marketers while dealing with the cultural intermediaries. Accordingly, some possible sources of tensions and conflicts are also focused as appropriate including, but not limited to, the democratisation of fashion, Youth Culture, environmental consciousness and high culture (Malin 2011, pp. 187-188; Polese & Blaszczyk 2012, p. 7). Considering the relevance of the ‘cultural construct’, the guiding conceptual framework of this study is the Circuit of Culture model (Du Gay 1997 cited in L’Etang 2008, pp. 215-216). The five discursive moments of this model, as regulation, representation, production, consumption and identity, directly link with the key aspects of the current qualitative research (Han & Zhang 2009, p. 396). The regulation moment of the model here is used to explore how socio-cultural values determine the acceptability of the fashion trends while the representation moment is used to understand how the meanings of the fashion culture are transmitted to the audience (Curtin & Gaither 2007, pp. 38-40). The production moment of the model refers to the process of developing fashion promotion campaigns that is influenced by the socio-cultural norms (Curtin & Gaither 2005, p. 100). The consumption moment here deals with the way fashion consumers decode the meaning of fashion in the given socio-cultural context (Han & Zhang 2009, p. 396). And, lastly, the identity moment here refers to the fashion companies in focus that launch promotional campaigns to engage consumers to form a ‘shared identity’ (Botan & Soto 1998, pp. 23-26; Curtin & Gaither 2005, p. 101). In addition to the Circuit of Culture model, few other relevant theories are also covered towards a holistic analysis. The Media Richness theory is used to analyse how emotional and contextual clues are transmitted to the fashion consumers (Ford 2013, p. 410). To understand how the fashion promotion culture is being re-shaped completely in the context of digital media scenario, the Theory of Participatory Media and the Theory of Media Ecology are referred to (Berthon et al. 2007, pp.40-41; 3

Scolari 2012, p. 205). The Theory of Network Effect is covered to understand how the social influences are re-shaping the fashion promotion culture broadly (Park, Chung & Lee 2012, pp. 358-359). To explore the CSR activities of the fashion companies the Social Contract Theory has been referred to (Jones, Comfort & Hillier 2012, pp. 119-120). In that broad analytical scenario, this thesis consists of the following chapters: Literature Review: This chapter examines the existing scholarly literatures to form a base for thorough understanding of the theoretical aspects of the study. The guiding theoretical framework of the Circuit of Culture model is also narrated in details here. Methods: This chapter explains the methodologies used in the research process. It also explains why multiple methods have been used in the research for triangulation, which results in more accurate representation of the analysis. Findings: This chapter presents the detailed findings of the analysis by covering the multidimensional perspectives of the study. Discussion & Conclusion: Based on the findings of the research, in this chapter a detailed discussion has been provided for the readers to have a holistic understanding of the research topic with its future expansion possibilities. A new analytical model is also proposed here for future research. A conclusion has been drawn accordingly to portray a futuristic view of the current research topic.

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2.0 Literature Review Towards a more meaningful and focused conceptualisation, this chapter covers the key relevant literature to examine the role of cultural intermediaries in fashion promotion. Broadly speaking, research in fashion promotion has been analysed from two key perspectives: extrinsic reasons where the fashion brands are satisfying consumer needs, wants and demands through marketing practices and intrinsic interest from the socio-cultural approach where the cultural intermediaries are playing key influential roles in fashion promotion (Kotler 2011, pp. 132-133; Molloy & Larner 2010, pp. 362-363). The guiding theoretical framework, the Circuit of Culture model, is then thoroughly discussed in conjunction with the 5Ps model in marketing to amalgam the marketing and socio-cultural perspectives together (Curtin & Gaither, 2005; Du Gay 1997 cited in L’Etang, 2006). 2.1 Extrinsic reasons: The 5Ps model in fashion marketing Marketing scholar Philip Kotler defines marketing as the science and art of conceptualising, exploring, developing and delivering value to fulfil the needs and demands of a specifically targeted market at a profit (Kotler et al. 2013, pp. 4-9). In case of fashion marketing the same notions are equally applicable. The initial concept of the 4Ps of marketing (Product, Price, Place and Promotion), first developed by Kotler, therefore, forms the basis of fashion marketing also (Constantinides 2006, pp. 407-410; Kimmel 2010, pp. 7-10). In addition, some marketing experts have added another ‘P’ that refers to ‘People’, which also can now be considered as part and parcel of modern marketing practices (Kimmel 2010, pp. 10-11). In case of fashion marketing, regardless of target markets in different countries, all these 5Ps of marketing are essential to develop and implement successful marketing and promotional strategies (Ko & Megehee 2011, pp. 13961398; Woodside 2012, pp. 2-4). In that context, for fashion marketing, product refers to the actual physical item on offer by the fashion marketers for the targeted consumers. This can include the actual clothing item such as the trousers, t-shirts, skirts and gowns, for male and female fashion consumer groups. Price here refers to the actual sales price of fashion items in fashion stores and other web-based digital shops such as ecommerce based fashion websites (Kimmel 2010, pp. 7-10). Pricing includes both the regular price and promotional sales price in different sales periods. Place here is 5

where the fashion items are sold, which are the actual fashion stores where fashion items are displayed in a tangible manner for the consumers to practically touch and feel towards a purchase (Halaj & Brodrechtova 2014, pp. 37-40). In today’s digital era, the place component also refers to the e-commerce enabled websites where the images and videos of fashion items are catalogued for the web consumers to buy through electronic means (Thomas & Veloutsou 2011, pp. 21-22). In the same context, the promotion aspect of fashion marketing refers to the activities that fashion marketers undertake to promote and sell their products in a targeted market. Generally speaking, fashion promotion relies on media channels to reach the promotional messages to the targeted markets. Such media channels include the traditional ones such as TV, radio, newspaper and magazines or digital platforms such as websites, social networking sites, blogs and other emerging social media networks (Hollenbeck & Kaikati 2012, p. 396). The people aspect in fashion marketing refers to the areas of consumer interaction with the respective fashion marketers or salespeople (Kimmel 2010, pp. 10-11). When consumers visit fashion stores or interact with the representatives of web-based stores, their experience of dealing with the people of the company contributes to the overall marketing performances (Decarie 2010, p. 450; Song et al. 2013, pp. 456-457) In particular, the fashion promotional activities, whether to inform, persuade, remind or reinforce consumers, significantly involve in-depth references of market specific socio-cultural values and thus, directly relates to the current research (Kotler & Keller 2012, pp. 526-527; Luo & Jong 2012, pp. 605-606). Existing research on the work process of renowned international advertising agency networks such as Saatchi & Saatchi, Leo Burnett, O&M and Dentsu also have revealed that there exists widespread relevance of socio-cultural value transformation in the development mechanism of advertising campaigns (Ashley & Oliver 2010, pp. 118-121; Kowalkowski & Ruiz 2014, pp. 1026-1030). It re-establishes the fact that to understand fashion promotion critically it is very important to take into consideration the prevailing socio-cultural values of the market.

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2.2 Intrinsic interest: Cultural intermediaries in fashion promotion To start with, it is relevant to shed some light on the broad concept of cultural intermediaries and how that relates to the scope of the current research. Renowned sociologist Pierre Bourdieu has defined the term ‘cultural intermediaries’ as a set of existing and emerging agents and professions that reduce, through intermediation, the class distinctions by intensifying the absorption and consumption of a standard culture (Bourdieu 1992, pp. 2-5; Maguire & Matthews 2012, pp. 552-553). Empirically, cultural intermediaries contribute to facilitate the production, distribution and consumption of cultural practices, products and perspectives (Moor 2012, pp. 564568). For cultural intermediation, the viewpoints of cultural catchment and cultural content are also relevant. The cultural catchment, referring to the modifying agents that help broaden the construction or structure of a cultural item, facilitates the consumptions of the item’s cultural content (Maguire & Matthews 2010, pp. 407-408). In this multidimensional scenario, it is possible to directly link the cultural practices, products and perspectives to the fashion promotion activities in different markets around the world (Ekpo et al. 2015, pp. 120-121). In the broad diagram of cultural intermediaries, the cultural practices refer to the forms and arrangements of social interactions within a given cultural environment. For fashion promotion, it involves the established social norms and rituals, of popular culture and subculture, and their respective values that are embedded in the fashion promotion materials to engage the targeted consumers (Cassidy & Schijndel 2010, pp. 167-168). The notion of practice also refers to the generally accepted social interaction manners that are part and parcel of the fashion culture of a given society to create attachment, sometimes through social and national identities, with the consumers (Johnson & Lee 2012, pp. 115-116; Tsui 2013, pp. 593-594). Fashion marketers attempt to reflect the cultural practices as much as possible in all their 5Ps aspects of marketing so that the targeted fashion consumers get the feel of affinity with the brands. The cultural products, for fashion promotion, refer to the tangible formations of fashion items and the relevant advertising contents including the kind of visuals or music used there (Wallenberg 2013, p. 138). Fashion marketers attempt to develop and deliver fashion items in line with the broader socio-cultural values so that consumers can make their preferred social statements through those (Gibson 2014, pp. 190-192; Schor 2013, pp. 436-438). 7

The cultural perspective for fashion promotion refers to the broad philosophy, meanings, values and ethical business standards that trigger the cultural practices and cultural products (Beard 2008, pp. 450-451). For example, the Youth Culture, along with individual freedom and independence, is part of many developed societies, which is a philosophical point of view being reflected in their fashion culture as well (Cassidy & Schijndel 2010, pp. 167-168). Fashion marketers source the clues of their fashion advertising big-ideas from such philosophical perspectives related to the respective culture. The above discussion demonstrates how different aspects of cultural intermediaries are linked to the overall fashion promotion activities. From that broad understanding it becomes evident that the range of cultural intermediaries for fashion promotion includes a variety of cultural agents who work in collaboration (Mears 2010, pp. 2225; Parker 2014, pp. 583-585). These agents utilise cultural practices, products and perspectives to develop socio-culturally sensitive fashion promotion campaigns (Brook 2011, pp. 50-60). The relationship of cultural intermediaries and fashion promotion thus, is closely knitted in each and every country around the world. To summarise the essentiality of taking a socio-cultural approach to understand the role of cultural intermediaries in fashion promotion, a conceptual diagram is suggested next (see Figure 1) to depict the process of making fashion manifestation.

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Influenced by the 5Ps of Marketing.

Cultural Practices, which are embedded in fashion items and promotions as social norms.

Cultural Products, which refer to the tangible fashion items or their promotional materials.

Cultural intermediaries of fashion promotion (catchment/contents).

Fashion promotion culture

Cultural Perspectives, which are incorporated in developing fashion promotion concepts.

Influenced by frameworks such as Circuit of Culture model and other theories.

Figure 1: The process of making fashion manifestation by cultural intermediaries.

2.3 The guiding framework: Circuit of Culture model The guiding conceptual framework for this research is the Circuit of Culture model, which is one of the most prominent theoretical models in the arena of cultural studies (Han & Zhang 2009, p. 396; L’Etang 2008, pp. 215-216). A group of scholars, including Du Gay and Hall in 1997, in Great Britain developed this theoretical model to insert new perspectives on how cultural forms work (L’Etang 2006, p. 388). In reality, the Circuit model is a refined version of Hall’s previous Encoding-Decoding model developed in 1973 to offer a theoretical approach to analyse how media messages are produced, circulated and interpreted. His study was a breakthrough to show that media audiences decode or interpret the message not in a uniformed way, 9

rather in differentiated ways depending on the respective cultural backgrounds and personal experiences (Pillai 1992, pp. 221-222, Yousman 2013, pp. 198-202). Gradually, Hall extended his investigation by using Marx’s Circuit of Capitalism as guiding model to outline the formulation of a continuous circuit of productiondistribution-production (Curtin & Gaither 2005, pp. 97-99). In the later years, the initial model proved to be able to accommodate added multidimensional social and cultural factors and thus, the circuit concept was extended to make a complete and contemporary model for cultural analysis (Yousman 2013, pp. 198-202). The final version of the Circuit of Culture model includes five interrelated aspects, which are referred to as five moments, that, when taken together, formulate a sort of circuit by which any cultural form can be analysed (L’Etang 2006, p. 388). The five moments, as outlined in the model, refer to representation, production, consumption, identity and regulation (see full description in section 2.4). These moments are interrelated to form theoretical bases to develop analytical processes in regards to the broad culture where conflicts and differences are prominent (Curtin & Gaither 2005, pp. 97-99). The model merges critical cultural and post-modern contexts to converge institutional and situated elements to accept the prominence of identity, difference and power in deviating practice. In reality, in any socio-cultural analysis each moment of the circuit has a very important relationship with another moment. To analyse any cultural perspective, practice and product all the five moments and their articulation need to be taken into consideration, along with their interconnection, towards their meaningful unities (Han & Zhang 2009, p. 396). For the current study this particular theoretical model is the most appropriate for multiple reasons. As mentioned, the Circuit of Culture model is established as the most prominent theoretical framework for analysing any study in the field of cultural studies including researches on advertising and public relations at an international level (Orgad 2011, pp. 377-378). As the aims of the current study involve analysing the transformation process of socio-cultural values in fashion promotion, it actually is a research work in the arena of cultural studies and thus, directly relates to the model (Hansen & Andersen 2013, pp. 6-7; Rocamora 2011, pp. 409-410). In addition, this study also aims to understand how fashion marketers adopt and utilise cultural 10

variations and trends for promotion in media and how other cultural intermediaries influence the entire fashion promotional process, which require in-depth sociocultural analysis that can be governed by the Circuit of Culture model (Attenborough 2011, pp. 659-661; Collins 2011, pp. 290-291; Crewe 2013, p. 761). 2.4 The five moments in conjunction with the 5Ps marketing model and CMS theories To establish the applicability of the Circuit of Culture model for this study in a stronger way, each moment of the model here is linked with different aspects of the 5Ps model of fashion marketing, as discussed. Alongside, any relevant media theory also is referred to, as applicable, for establishing the effectiveness of the model for this particular study. Regulation moment and Product/Place: The regulation moment of the Circuit of Culture model consists of the controls on cultural activities that can include the formal laws and policies as well as the informal social norms and cultural trends (Han & Zhang 2009, p. 396). This moment creates the context that governs what is acceptable and what is not in the given cultural aspect. It links to the area of fashion promotion culture, through the socio-cultural values and norms, to send signals to the target consumers on what are the acceptable fashion expressions and trends in the given context (Curtin & Gaither 2007, pp. 38-40). Government regulations on campaign content guidelines are also included in this moment. From the 5Ps of marketing model, the same regulation moment relates to the product and place aspects where there exist conflicting views on fashion branding and promotion. For fashion product manufacturing, marketers focus on the cost considerations and thus, explore the low cost sourcing options. In contemporary time, mass consumers have become aware of the unfair working conditions in the developing countries such as Bangladesh which is why new authoritative regulations are in practice. Accordingly, fashion marketers need to ensure that ‘products’ are manufactured in fair working conditions of the workers in the ‘places’ where the factories are located (Kozlowski, Bardecki & Searcy 2012, pp. 18-19). Recent collapse of an entire factory building in Bangladesh that used to manufacture clothing items for the renowned global brands contributed to the implementation of such regulations. The collapse killed over 1000 clothing workers and thus, 11

consumers and government agencies worldwide have become vocal on the regulation issues (Taplin 2014, pp. 73-74). From established theory point of views in this regard, the Social Contract Theory and the Theory of Network Effect are related to understand the responsible fashion marketing and promotional activities that are influenced by the socio-cultural values (Jones, Comfort & Hillier 2012, pp. 119-120). The Social Contract Theory in this regard depicts that morality of people consists in the set of regulations and shared values that general society members would accept on the ground that others also accept those regulations (Cava & Myer 2006, pp. 264-268). In addition, the Theory of Network Effect provides valuable insights here to reflect how the cultural influences of the regulation moment are articulated throughout the society in a networked pattern (Park, Chung & Lee 2012, pp. 358-359). Production moment and Product/Promotion: The moment of production bounds the procedure by which the creators of a cultural product infuse their offers by encoding specific meaning. In simple words, this moment refers to the process through which a cultural product comes into being (Han & Zhang 2009, pp. 396-397). For fashion promotion, the production moment refers to the process of conceptualisation and developing the actual fashion item where social and cultural meanings are encoded through the chosen style, colour and fabric of the item. All other accessories relevant to the fashion item, such as packaging, tags and labels, also contribute to the production moment as product related meanings are encoded here by utilising social and cultural values (Pedersen & Gwozdz 2014, pp. 246-247). From the 5Ps of marketing, this aspect refers to the product and promotion part where social and cultural meanings are inserted in the product and its promotional campaigns for greater consumer affinity (Kotler et al. 2013, pp. 4-9). The Media Richness Theory and the Theory of Network Effect are relevant here to understand how the designs of product and its promotion enrich the consumer experiences and also how the decoded meanings are spread among them (Ignatow & Williams 2011, pp. 62-64; Park, Chung & Lee 2012, pp. 358-359). Considering the emerging prevalence of digital media, the implication of the Media Richness Theory in this context is also significant where socio-cultural clues are shared with

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consumers through rich media contents as interactive websites and high definition videos (Ford 2013, p. 410; Kaplan & Haenlein 2010, p. 61). Representation moment and Promotion: The representation moment of the Circuit of Culture model refers to the discursive process by which cultural meaning is produced and given a firm structure or shape. In other words, it is the form that an object takes by encoding the meanings in it through signs and symbols (Champ 2008, pp. 87-88). It is relevant here to mention that meaning is not inherent in any cultural product; rather meanings are constructed through commonly held social and cultural contexts (Curtin & Gaither 2007, pp. 38-40). In case of fashion promotion culture the representation moment has synergy with the production moment where marketers encode meanings in the content and format of the promotional materials. The way fashion promotion contents are developed to encode persuasive meanings through textual and visual representation of creative themes is also included in the representation moment (Littlejohn & Foss 2005, pp. 101-117). In the 5Ps marketing scenario, the representation moment relates to the promotion component where symbols, images and slogans are represented in media to construct relevant meanings. From theoretical perspective, McLuhan’s Channel Expansion Theory is relevant here to show how technological change is redefining the representation of fashion promotional contents in the media (Scolari 2012, p. 205). In that regard, the Theory of Participatory Media and Langer’s Symbol Theory are also relevant to understand how marketers utilise the media environment nowadays to represent the connotative and denotative meanings of their campaigns (Berthon et al. 2007, pp. 40-41; Carlson & Zmud 1994, pp. 280-284; Puntoni, Schroeder & Ritson 2010, p. 56). In the digital media era, where content consumers are, at the same time, content producers, the Theory of Participatory Media indeed has special significance in the fashion promotion culture where end-consumers are active participants to define innovations in fashion communication (Lilley, Grodzinsky & Gumbus 2012, p. 82). Consumption moment and People/Promotion: The consumption moment refers to the process how message is decoded by the audience, where they create their own meanings by utilising the cultural practices and perspectives (Carvalho & Burgess 2005, pp. 1458-1459). Research has shown that the consumers refer to 13

their own semantic network of meanings while decoding any encoded cultural object or concept (Littlejohn & Foss 2005, pp. 101-117). This notion links with the fact that the production moment creates a series of possibilities to decode meaning and it largely depends on the consumption moment to explore how the audiences absorb the meanings by their value filtration procedure (Puntoni, Schroeder & Ritson 2010, p. 56). For fashion promotion culture, the consumption moment refers to the way how fashion consumers decode the embedded meaning in the fashion item itself and in its promotional campaigns that portray creative themes. In the 5Ps marketing diagram the consumption moment refers to the people and promotion aspect to show how consumers view fashion nowadays as well as their prevailing expectations on the fashion manufacturing personnel in regards to ethical practices. The Action Assembly Theory and the Social Contract Theory are relevant here to understand the cognition aspect of the personnel involved in the fashion promotion where demanding issues like CSR are presented for consumption by the global consumer pool (Jones, Comfort & Hillier 2012, pp. 119-120; Taylor et al. 2012, pp. 150-151). In this era of globalisation, when the fashion cultural trends are consumed by audiences worldwide, especially for multinational fashion brands, the Global Consumer Culture Theory also steps in the scenario with its relevance to expand the theoretical understandings (Carpenter et al. 2012, pp. 412-414). Identity moment and Product/Price: Once the meaning is constructed, the identity moment refers to the process through which individual or group identities are formed out of the cultural product or perspective being portrayed (Champ 2008, pp. 87-88). The identity moment offers the consumers a common platform to belong with their respective socio-cultural values and perspectives (Han & Zhang 2009, pp. 396-397). In case of the fashion promotion culture, the identity moment refers to the fashion companies or their individual brands that unite a set of targeted consumers who, through their brand preferences, form a common identity. This identity aspect also covers the respective brand values that are able to create both functional and emotional appeals to the consumers to make them brand loyal (Kotler et al. 2013, pp. 4-9). In case of promotional campaigns, the fashion brands utilise creative advertising themes to promote various lifestyle aspects, which are also part of the identity moment (Inoue & Kent 2014, pp. 623-624). Consumers who like the creative

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approaches of the fashion companies share some common preference patterns that unite them in the context of the relevant socio-cultural values. In the 5Ps diagram of marketing, the identity moment refers to the product and price aspects to show how fashion companies develop specific products and set the prices to establish varied brand identities for the consumers (e.g. fast street fashion vs. luxury fashion). Such identity establishment process relies on the long-term sociocultural understanding of the target segment of the fashion market that ultimately contribute to create brand loyalty and equity by engaging the consumers in appealing ways (Kotler et al. 2013, pp. 4-9). The relevant theories here are the Action Assembly Theory and the Global Consumer Culture Theory, as already discussed in details, to understand the cognitive and behavioural aspects of the identity formation process (Littlejohn & Foss 2005, p. 115; Taylor et al. 2012, pp. 150-151). Based on the discussions, this study suggests a complex model of the five moments of the Circuit of Culture model along with the 5Ps of marketing, where relevant theories are also considered (see Figure 2).

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Product & Place of 5Ps of Marketing Regulation moment Relevant theories: Social Contract Theory Theory of Network Effect

Product & Promotion of 5Ps of Marketing Production moment Relevant theories: Media Richness Theory and the Theory of Network Effect

Product & Price of 5Ps of Marketing Identity moment

Tensions/conflicts in cultural transformation

Relevant theories: Action Assembly Theory and Global Consumer Culture Theory

People & Promotion of 5Ps of Marketing Promotion of 5Ps of Marketing Representat ion moment Relevant theories: Participatory Media and Langer’s Symbol Theory Channel Expansion Theory

Consumption moment Relevant theories: Action Assembly Theory, Global Consumer Culture Theory and Social Contact Theory

Figure 2: Merging the 5 moments of the Circuit of Culture model with the 5Ps of Marketing along with the relevant communications and media theories. It is relevant here to mention that this conceptual framework of Circuit of Culture model was used in many other cultural and marketing research projects including the popular research case of the Starbucks in the Forbidden City in China (Han & Zhang 2009, pp. 396-397). In that case researchers used the model successfully to analyse why the international coffee brand Starbuck’s had to shut down its outlet in China’s cultural heritage place simply because it was identified as a foreign culture posing threat for the local culture. Each of the five moments was utilised in that analysis to 16

show how cultural meanings and produced, represented and consumed by the mass people that form a base to create identity to influence the regulation. Such successful previous examples of implementing the Circuit of Culture model as a holistic analytical tool indicate its effective and efficient applicability for the current research as well. 2.5 The research questions (RQs) Based on the discussions so far, the thesis now moves to the subsequent chapters to explore the key Research Questions (RQs) as follows: RQ1: What are the current fashion promotion activities and mechanisms practised by cultural intermediaries across different markets, according to the Circuit of Culture model? RQ2: To what extent do cultural intermediaries transform socio-cultural values into fashion advertising campaigns? RQ3: What are the tensions and conflicts that the fashion companies experience in this broad context while promoting the fashion culture in today's globalised world?

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3.0 Methods In order to provide a comprehensive analysis, this qualitative research used a triangulation of elite in-depth interviews, field study and content analysis to critically understand the influences of the cultural intermediaries in fashion promotion in the three selected countries (DiStaso & Bortree 2012, pp. 511-512). The in-depth interviews, semi-structured and flexible in nature, were conducted among the fashion professionals and academicians. Some of them are opinion leaders in their respective societies and have appeared in the national media to share their views on fashion industries. The purposive sampling method was used to initially contact the fashion experts by analysing their professional profiles and research involvements, which required significant content analysis beforehand to know details about them (Rinallo et al. 2013, pp. 425-427; Tse 2014, pp. 30-31). The process then led to snowball sampling where the first set of experts gradually referred to other experts in the same area of fashion promotion activities (Cohen & Arieli 2011, pp. 424-425; Krysik & Finn 2013, pp. 163-164). As the elite fashion professionals interviewed are key influencers to direct the fashion trends in their respective markets, each in-depth interview session took approximately two hours to get adequate views for further analysis (Ko & Megehee 2012, pp. 1395-1396; Park & Curwen 2013, pp. 18-20). The snowball sampling method was specifically very helpful to deal with the samples of small and trustworthy subsets to conduct the interviews effectively, efficiently and in a single-handed manner (Baltar & Brunet 2012, pp. 58-60; Heckathorn 2011, pp. 356-357; Runfola & Guercini 2012, pp. 191192). To be more specific, the fashion experts interviewed were either industry based fashion marketing professionals (e.g. fashion marketing managers or advertising agency personnel) or were fashion academicians (e.g. senior lecturers or associate professors in different universities). The views of the fashion professionals offered industry

perspectives

while

the

views

of

the

academicians

offered

academic/research perspectives on the same set of research questions (Bill 2012, pp. 50-53; Ian 2012, p. 64). It created scopes of triangulation through which the findings could be analysed from multiple point-of-views (Junk 2013, pp. 87-90; Oleinik 2011, pp. 859-861). A total of 10 fashion professionals and 8 fashion

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academicians were interviewed, as key informants, from the three countries: the United Kingdom, Bangladesh and Australia. The reason for selecting these three countries is justified because it broadened the scope of the study by enabling it to fetch insights from three different continents as Europe, Asia and Australia, where each has its unique fashion aspects in the global market (Polese & Blaszczyk 2012, p. 7). For example, the reports from BBC mentioned the British fashion industry as one of the ‘biggest players’ in the world that sets newer fashion trends globally (BBC 2012, para. 2-5). Same way, the Australian fashion industry also contributes to enrich the world fashion trends through its unique cultural practice and articulation (Teunissen 2011, p. 160). On the other hand, Bangladesh is now the second largest supplier of fashion clothing items in the world to manufacture for leading fashion brands that are available in the UK and Australia markets as well (Taplin 2014, pp. 251-252). So, selecting these three countries, which are interlinked in the supply chain, enabled the study to fetch valuable opinions of the influential fashion gatekeepers to reflect the global perspectives in the given context (Tse 2014, p. 68; Vahasantanen & Saarinen 2012, pp. 494-495). Accordingly, the broad contextual topics of the in-depth sessions included an understanding of the roles played by the cultural intermediaries in fashion promotion; the mechanisms of monitoring socio-cultural values for fashion campaigns; the process of transforming the values for effective consumer engagement; the system of developing actual promotional contents; the nature of the media’s influence in the given context; the protocols of selecting and portraying models in the campaigns and the monitoring process of the social impacts of the overall promotional practices. Each interview session concluded by discussing the emerging and challenging future trends in the fashion culture where the relevant tensions and conflicts, as faced by the fashion industry, were explained in details by the respondents. During the in-depth sessions, a guide was followed to ensure that all the respondents understand the ethical and privacy aspects, as applicable (Dalton & Ortegren 2011, pp. 73-75; Illenberger & Flotterod 2012, pp. 701-702). An explanatory note was also attached to the email invitation to portray a more systematic approach of the interview process (Hoskins & White 2012, pp. 179-180).

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All respondents shared their frank views and most of them asked not to mention the name of the actual companies or brands they work for in the final thesis. This was due to their corporate policies and also to protect business secrets to some extent. In that line, while analysing the interview data the identities of the personnel are not mentioned anywhere, only the qualitative views are analysed from the notes taken during the interviews. Some interviews were audio recorded, as permitted, which was later referred to while compiling the views. While most of the fashion experts were interviewed face-to-face, some of them were interviewed over phone and through web-based video chats. The exploratory and qualitative interview data was then analysed to identify and categorise the patterns and themes found from the varied views of the experts (Gyarmathy et al. 2014, pp. 71-72). The interview notes and recorded files were referred to for clarity and applicability of the findings in light of the literature reviews and the content analysis that were studied beforehand and also during the analysis phase. The content analysis in this regard included studying the websites and annual reports of the fashion companies to understand their viewpoints from a more theoretical aspect. Websites of leading fashion brands were studied to find how they undertake their promotional campaigns and perform their social responsibilities. In some of the in-depth session, the respondents advised to check specific contents in the web for further clarification on their views. In those cases, those sources were later analysed that included the Facebook pages of selected fashion brands, some specific campaign examples available in the web, some fashion campaign images on Instagram and also some organisational websites that advocate for CSR practices of the fashion brands in developing countries. In addition to conducting the interviews in the selected countries, opportunities were explored to visit relevant fashion exhibitions and fairs in those locations to broaden the research understanding level. Specifically, The London Textile Fair in the UK, The Dhaka Denim Expo in Bangladesh and The Australian Sourcing Fair in Australia were visited. In these events, fashion marketers typically set up their stalls and the casual discussions with them offered field level opinions on the fashion trends (Rinallo, Borghini & Golfetto 2010, pp. 249-250). Informal surveys and participatory 20

observations were conducted in these events to match the principles and practices in the given research context (Clark et al. 2009, pp. 345-347). Considering the overall non-probability sampling nature of the study, each interview and participatory observation source was carefully chosen to ensure that there is an accurate representation of the population (Chibba & Rundquist 2009, p. 336). The purposive sampling method was used in the fashion fairs and expos by doing an onspot analysis of the personnel of the fashion stalls to determine their relevance to the current research study (Taylor & Boasson 2014, p. 419). For example, only readymade garments stalls were selected by purposefully avoiding the stalls of the raw fabric or accessory suppliers to discuss consumer fashion issues. Unlike the in-depth interviews, the casual discussions with the fashion fair personnel were very short and only the relevant RQs, based on their operations, were asked. Such informal setting of asking questions provided more spontaneous answers and accordingly, notes were taken immediately on the research log-book for later analysis. The standalone views from the field level surveys and observations were then analysed in light of the in-depth interviews to find the similarities and dissimilarities between what is said from the desk and what happens in the field, as appropriate. This added unique values for the triangulation to ‘substantiate the findings’ and to establish the reliability of the study by cross-verification of the information and views received (Cresswell 2007, pp. 25-35; Lindlof & Taylor 2002, pp. 10-15; Wellard et al. 2013, p. 1938).

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The research methods, as discussed, are presented in a diagram (see Figure 3) towards a more meaningful understanding.

In-depth Interview sessions through Purposive and Snowball Sampling.

Fashion academicians

Fashion professionals

Triangulation

Content Analysis of fashion brands in their websites and in the mass media in general.

Fashion trade shows and expos for field-study based on purposive sampling.

Figure 3: The sampling method of the research

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Some photos from the interview sessions and fashion expos are also presented here (see Image Set 1) across different countries. (More photos in Appendix 2)

Image Set 1: Selected photos of interviews and field studies for the research

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4.0 Findings To answer the research questions, the findings from the in-depth interviews and content analysis created an analytical platform to understand both the ‘industry structures’ and ‘industry players’ in the fashion promotion culture (Lee & Ostberg 2013, p. 132). In addition, the field study conducted in the fashion events added new dimensions to the findings and helped in the triangulation process (Cresswell 2007, pp. 25-35). 4.1 Fashion promotion mechanism and activities practised by cultural intermediaries (RQ1) The study revealed that the cultural intermediaries in regards to fashion promotion in the selected markets consist of the fashion professionals (marketers and academicians), fashion ad agencies, media channels and fashion models including the celebrities. The theoretical discussions during the interviews with the fashion experts re-assured that these professionals are part of the broad cultural catchment to act as modifying agents to facilitate the cultural intermediation process (Maguire & Matthews 2010, pp. 407-408; Parker 2014, pp. 583-585). A. Fashion marketing professionals as cultural intermediaries The study found that fashion marketing directors and managers constitute the key set of cultural intermediaries to organise the practice of the fashion promotion activities. A marketing executive of a fashion brand based in the UK replied, ‘Yes, you can level us as cultural (intermediaries), our practice is to shape the fashion ads to respond to the needs of the place (market)’. Content analysis on fashion marketing also found that in many cases, fashion academicians, who are, at the same time, brand consultants for renowned fashion companies, play vital roles in the intermediation process as well (Bill 2012, pp. 50-53). In the intermediation process, in light of the identity, production and representation moments of the Circuit of Culture model, these cultural agents were found to provide key strategic directions for producing and launching the fashion promotion campaigns (Allender & Richards 2012, pp. 324-325; Lee et al. 2014, p. 2156). In addition, as revealed in the content analysis, Research & Development (R&D) activities for the campaigns also form part of the cultural intermediation. London based fashion academician and consultant told, ‘Many companies now have 24

research based Insight Departments simply to understand the consumer insight which can be on cultural, social or on purely marketing (issues)’ B. Fashion advertising agencies as cultural intermediaries In addition to fashion marketing professionals, the independent fashion advertising agencies also are significantly important cultural intermediaries in the broad fashion promotion spectrum, as was found in the relevant content analysis. UK based fashion academician explained that the practice of fashion brands to outsource promotional campaigns from the independent advertising agencies is quite prominent worldwide (Maringe & Mourad 2012, pp. 3-7). This amplifies the hidden influence of the agencies in the intermediation process where, as per the production and representation moments of the Circuit of Culture model, they produce ad contents from behind the scene as independent entities. Many fashion experts referred to the examples of various global brands from different industries that have adopted the trend of outsourcing advertising services from ad agencies (Parekh & Diaz 2013, p. 6). A London based fashion marketer explained why they chose to employ ad agencies, 'Specialised ad agencies are focused on their work, more creative and dynamic – so, we outsource (from them) for better brand building’. The ad agencies, while developing fashion campaigns, extensively monitor the socio-cultural trends to represent the consumer insights in campaign contents, which once again relates to the representation moment of the Circuit of Culture model (Park, Lee & Morgan 2011, pp. 472-475). Some respondents believed that the ad agency business is about conceptualising and selling ideas based on socio-cultural values that influence the consumers towards the intended purchases. One boutique ad agency executive from Melbourne said, ‘We don’t need to run big offices, (we) know the culture and sell ideas’. Furthermore, as per the relevant content analysis, it was found that there are informal setups in the fashion promotion industry, where freelance copywriters, visualisers, photographers, video editors and music composers form a team to work on different fashion campaign projects. An Australian fashion designer mentioned, ‘All my (fashion) photographs are done by a freelancer and then the graphic designer 25

works on that - (who is also) a freelancer…that’s how we work these days and it’s efficient’. C. Media as cultural intermediaries Content analysis of the websites of renowned media organisations revealed that the mechanism and practice of media’s intermediation in fashion promotion culture varies significantly from country to country. The in-depth sessions in this regard found that in the British and Australian markets the media practice has already made its shift from the traditional media such as TV or magazine to the digital media such as websites and blogs (Hollenbeck & Kaikati 2012, p. 396). A London based fashion manager replied, ‘Now it is digital first, we start our campaigns from digital and then if needed go to the traditional’. Another fashion executive from Australia added, ‘It is interesting that it was all traditional (media) even few years ago. And now all digital…’ A fashion academician based in London further explained that this trend has fundamentally changed the media practices to influence the fashion promotion culture, which relates to the regulation, representation and consumption moments of the Circuit of Culture model. From academic perspective, her reply in this regard related to the McLuhan’s Channel Expansion Theory also (Scolari 2012, p. 205). As per the content analysis of the fashion advertising in the web, one similarity was found in all three countries in the process of utilising media for the campaigns. In each of these markets there are professional media planners and buyers who place campaigns in media on behalf of their clients such as the fashion companies. A fashion academician and researcher from Australia explained, ‘They (media planning and buying agencies) can also be considered as cultural intermediaries for your research, they are emerging intermediaries’. During the in-depth sessions and field study at the fashion events, the e-commerce based web media also came into discussion repeatedly as a new media practice for fashion promotion. Respondents from the UK and Australia mentioned that web media based fashion stores are increasingly gaining popularity as they are very convenient with amazing interactive features to engage in dialogues with the consumers directly. Many fashion professionals shared that they are opening newer 26

web stores to meet the emerging consumer demands. They added that such technology-based development is influencing many other socio-cultural aspects for the consumers, which, from a broader perspective, can be seen as a new form of media’s cultural intermediation. Fashion academicians from Bangladesh mentioned that developing countries (like Bangladesh) will gradually pick these new trends as well in the near future. During the discussion reference of some real life fashion e-stores were made. A compilation of snapshots from those are presented here for a more practical understanding (see Image Set 2).

Image Set 2: Fashion web stores reflecting a new form of media’s intermediation (Image sources in Appendix 3)

Respondents also shared that they are increasingly having less control over the information about their own brands in the digital media, which relates to the regulation and consumption moments of the Circuit of Culture model to some extent (Kaplan & Haenlein 2010, p. 60). A London based fashion house executive with 27

overseas offices in France and Italy explained, ‘They (consumers) can post anything they like – good and bad about our items…they are free to express (their) liking and disliking…they have all the control’. A fashion academician in Australia added that these trends of co-creating contents by the consumers relate to the established theories such as the Theory of Participatory Media and the Network Effect theory (Ruane & Wallace 2013, pp. 322-323). The marketers agreed that such open media platforms, in reality, are forcing their overall operational culture to be more sincere, honest and ethical. D. Fashion models and celebrities as cultural intermediaries Models (including celebrities) are viewed by the fashion marketers in general as very powerful cultural intermediaries to influence the audience, as was revealed in the indepth discussions. Manchester based fashion academician further explained, ‘Showing models and their beauties are like showing dreams to the audience; they think they will be like them one day…that’s a dream…dreams motivate people to live’. Some other respondents from Australia and Bangladesh also agreed with this notion. In light of the representation, identity and consumption moments of the Circuit of Culture model, it was also revealed in the interviews that in order to engage audiences effectively fashion brands need to find innovative ways of utilising the models/celebrities. A significant number of respondents from all three countries agreed that hiring a celebrity and putting his/her photo in the campaign is very oldfashioned these days. London based fashion agency director added, ‘The influence of celebrities is much broader and more creativity here means more promotion’. The prevalence of democratic model and celebrity creation culture of fashion promotion was also frequently discussed by the respondents in general. This topic was also extensively found in the relevant content analysis. Fashion academicians explained that in many instances in today’s digital era an ordinary consumer can become a model by posting a video of his/her fashion choice that goes viral (CurridHalkett 2010, p. 197). The increasing trend of fashion blog celebrity also was discussed repeatedly in the in-depth sessions that synced with the relevant content analysis (Marshall 2010, p. 36; McQuarrie, Miller & Phillips 2013, pp. 136-137). The respondents in general mentioned about few real-life examples of web based 28

interactive platforms where users can share their fashion photos to express their fashion styles in democratic ways. Few snapshots from those real-life examples are presented here for a holistic understanding (see Image Set 3).

Image Set 3: The prevalence of democratic model and celebrity creation (Image sources in Appendix 3)

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A summary of the discussed cultural intermediaries and their cultural practices and perspectives is presented in Table 1. Cultural intermediaries Fashion marketing professionals

Cultural practice/perspective for fashion promotion in reference of the Circuit model Intermediates the needs and wants of the fashion consumers to develop promotional strategies. Relates to Circuit of Culture model’s identity, production and representation moments in general. Fashion ad agencies Provides creative advertising solutions to the fashion brands through the intermediation of the socio-cultural values. Production and representation moments involved. Media channels Intermediation takes place through transmitting the fashion promotion contents to the targeted audience. Regulation, representation and consumption moments related. Fashion models and Intermediation takes place by influencing the celebrities consumers with the ‘dream factor’. Representation, identity and consumption moments are related broadly. Table 1: Current cultural practice and perspective by the cultural intermediaries in the fashion promotion activities

4.2 Transformation of socio-cultural values by the cultural intermediaries into fashion advertising campaigns (RQ2) All the respondents recognised the massive effects of the social and cultural elements that are transformed into appealing fashion advertising campaigns by the relevant cultural intermediaries. Such transformation process was found to be common across all three countries, which implies that these are global trends across all cultures. Some common trends in that regard are narrated here. A. Democratisation of fashion: Manifestation of individuality Respondents form all three countries referred to the democratisation of fashion expression when talking about socio-cultural value transformation in fashion promotion, which relates to the identity and consumption moments of the Circuit of Culture model. In simple words they referred to the prevailing practice, based on social media networks like Facebook and YouTube, where individuals are free to promote their own fashion cultures (Ford 2013, p. 410). Marketing manager of an 30

export oriented fashion house based in Bangladesh further explained, ‘Expression of individuality is pre-existing…now it’s Internet (digital media) that’s spreading it everywhere’. Another fashion consultant based in Melbourne mentioned that it is the interactive digital media that is making the fashion expression process increasingly democratic where consumers can upload their individual fashion profiles. Content analysis in this regard found that the digital media is playing the role of the key intermediary to transform the values. Almost all the fashion professionals interviewed agreed that they welcome such cultural practice. Many of them nowadays include options of digital interactivity in their traditional campaigns by opening relevant Facebook pages or YouTube channels. UK based fashion agency director mentioned, ‘That is how now almost all fashion ads have the Facebook, YouTube and Instagram logo signs placed at the corner’. Few real-life examples, such as fashion brands’ official Facebook/YouTube pages and specific fashion consumer web review platforms came into discussion, some of which are presented here (see Image Set 4).

Image Set 4: Democratisation of fashion expression – a new trend (Image sources in Appendix 3)

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B. Youth Culture and Fast Fashion: Leading the way Respondents from all the three countries mentioned of the shared symbolic systems among the younger generation, which was also revealed through the content analysis of the trendy fashion promotion websites. Manchester based fashion academician and consultant commented, 'They (the youth) set the trend, (they are) showing us new trends'. The respondents agreed that it is the youth culture, spread across the globe, which is driving the fashion marketers to develop items and also to find innovative ways to promote them (Taylor et al. 2012). A respondent from Bangladesh who oversees the operation of a dozen fashion stores shared that many of their items that were initially developed for the youth were later became popular among the elders. ‘We did not expect that sales of that line (product item) will be so high, others (elders) are buying as well’, he exclaimed. Field study in the major fashion markets showed that the fashion models and celebrities are the prominent intermediaries to transform the values of this culture into fashion promotion. This relates to the representation and identity moments of the Circuit of Culture model. Content analysis and discussion with fashion professionals in this regard revealed that marketers hire youth-popular fashion models and celebrities to promote fashion items that are targeted to zeal with the youth cultures. Fashion marketers, the media and celebrities in general are also important cultural intermediaries in this regard who take part in the transformation process equally. C. Environmental consciousness: An emerging culture of CSR Content analysis on the CSR of fashion brands revealed the contemporary trend of environmental consciousness among the consumers while choosing the fashion brands (Gupta & Hodges 2012, p. 229). Melbourne based fashion store manager said, 'They (consumers) now know where to look for to see where it is made, they care (of the environmental impacts of the production)'. From Bangladesh the CEO of a giant fashion manufacturing company mentioned, 'How we dispose our chemical waste is a matter of media interest now. So, we have to be perfect (to dispose in an environmentally friendly way)'. The fashion academicians viewed this new trend as an added aspect of the social and cultural value transformation process, which

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relates to the regulation and representation moments of the Circuit of Culture model (Kozlowski, Bardecki & Searcy 2012, pp. 18-19). According to many respondents, end consumers now know that most fashion brands outsource their manufacturing in developing countries like Bangladesh, India and China. Content analysis of the ethical fashion promotion advocacy websites in this regard revealed that consumers are very concerned these days to make sure that the product they buy were made by workers who were paid well. Fashion academicians from Bangladesh and the UK repeatedly mentioned that the recent collapse of an entire factory building in Bangladesh has made the global media and consumer pools very aware in this regard. In regards to environmental consciousness it was revealed in the interviews that marketers and consumers of UK and Australia in general are more conscious than that of Bangladesh. A fashion academician from Bangladesh commented on this, ‘Developing countries adopt from the developed countries, so yes – Bangladesh is also becoming aware of the environmental impacts’. The interviewees at various stages of the discussion mentioned about some real-life cases in this regard like the fashion brand GAP and H&M’s adaptation of global CSR policies to work in collaboration with labour right organisations in developing countries (Gap Inc., 2014, para. 3-4). Given the nature of value transformation, the fashion marketers and the media are the key intermediaries in this scenario. Media increases the consumer awareness level in this regard which, in turn, makes the marketers more proactive to take initiatives. Few real-life examples, as was discussed in the interviews, are presented here (see Image Set 5).

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Image Set 5: CSR initiatives of the fashion brands (Image sources in Appendix 3)

D. Urbanisation and human relations: Emerging trends with increased acceptability Some of the fashion marketers referred to the contemporary socio-cultural aspects of human relations in the urban society that are being transformed into fashion promotion campaigns. Few fashion marketers shared their experiences where they considered the human relationship aspects such as same sex relationships and cross-cultural couple relationships as part of the transformation processes, which was also revealed in the content analysis (Mustanski et al. 2015, pp. 220-221). UK based fashion ad agency director mentioned, 'it (same-sex relationship) is getting more acceptance, we target them as well'. In some cases, the fashion marketers replied that they are employing specialised research agencies to get the insights of the emerging influences of the human relations aspects in fashion consumption and promotion. 34

Some fashion marketers interviewed in the UK industry mentioned that many creative themes of fashion advertising are implying these emerging trends nowadays. Relevant content analysis in this regard also offered similar views that these trends are increasingly getting acceptance in the global cultural scenario. However, no respondent from the Bangladesh market mentioned about this trend. Content analysis on Bangladesh society in this regard revealed that it is a comparatively conservative market and thus, not yet open to such ideas. A fashion marketing executive from Bangladesh replied, ‘No, that’s not part of our culture’. Most respondents also indicated that the socio-cultural values associated with the notion of urbanisation are closely related with the acceptance of such human relationship aspects. Based on the views of the expert fashion academicians, it was revealed that such new cultural trends get acceptability in the most urbanised part of a country first from where it spreads to other areas. In these scenarios the media and relevant models were found as key cultural intermediaries to transform the related socio-cultural values to be communicated through the fashion promotional contents. Relevant content analysis in this regard showed that many celebrity personalities actively promote these values in media that are sponsored by different renowned fashion brands. This implies that it is the brands that utilise the media and models to insert new transformational values in the society in the intermediation process, which relates to the identity, representation and consumption moments of the Circuit of Culture model. E. High culture and popular culture: Artists’ involvements in fashion Respondents from all three countries, while discussing the transformation process, mentioned about the influence of the socio-cultural values related to the high-culture and popular-culture. Relevant content analysis of different innovative fashion projects found that elite art activities prevailing in the societies do influence the fashion culture by providing inspiration for the fashion designers. A fashion agency manager from London in this regard mentioned, ‘Look at what Louis Vuitton brand is doing today – they are using themes of popular artists…that’s also a transformation of culture in fashion. Isn’t it?’ Similar response was found in Bangladesh where fashion experts mentioned about the top end creative artists of the country who are 35

playing influential roles in transforming fashion values. The influence of popular culture was also mentioned by the respondents where celebrity endorsements are vital. One fashion retailer from Bangladesh told, ‘Pop culture celebrity (endorsement) boosts sales of our fashion brands sharply’. In the Circuit of Culture model these aspects broadly relates to the moments of production, representation and consumption. In this cultural scenario, the ad agencies, the media and also the models/celebrities act as effective cultural intermediaries. Respondents also mentioned about the emerging fashion trends that are being adopted form the popular fairy tale based contemporary movies. Examples of fairy tale classics Oz the great and powerful, Twilight series and Final Fantasy were mentioned in this regard, some of which are presented here as reference (see Image Set 6).

Image Set 6: Fantasy based characters in the fashion promotion culture (Image sources in Appendix 3)

F. Ethnic groups: Emerging markets with unique socio-cultural values Respondents from multicultural markets such as Australia and the UK mentioned that they are increasingly transforming socio-cultural values for the ethnic minority groups. Interesting comment was received from central London based fashion promotion personnel when he talked about the ethnic group of women in the UK who hide their outfits in public for religious reasons. The executive commented, ‘They (the 36

religious outfitters) hide their outfit completely while they are in public but that does not mean they are not wearing good fashion brands underneath their Burqa (which is the gown to hide their outfit)’. The fashion marketers who sell fashion products to such culturally diversified groups mentioned that they need to significantly customise their advertising big ideas, by transforming respective socio-cultural values, to fit into this consumer group. The respondents also mentioned that during ethnic festival seasons, the transformation process is reflected in the store decoration as well. One fashion marketing executive from London replied, ‘During major festive seasons of ethnic groups, our stores adjacent to their localities are decorated accordingly’. Some respondents mentioned about using a mixture of models from different ethnic groups such as Asian, Oriental, Caucasian and African so that this mix can equally be accepted in culturally diversified markets like the UK and Australia. These aspects clearly relate to the identity and representation moments of the Circuit of Culture model. The marketers, the ad agencies and the media in general are acting as key cultural intermediaries in this aspect. Some relevant fashion ads are presented in that regard to extend the understanding (see Image Set 7).

37

Image Set 7: Use of multicultural models in fashion (Image sources in Appendix 3)

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A summary of the major socio-cultural values and how they are transformed into fashion promotion campaigns is presented in Table 2 (detailed implication of these on the framework of the Circuit of Culture model is explained in Chapter 5). Socio-cultural values Democratic expression of individual fashion

The transformation process

Key cultural intermediaries Fashion marketers and media Fashion marketers, transforming the values by ad agencies and the opening newer interactive media. platforms so that consumers can express their individuality.

Youth Culture and Fast Fashion

Values transformed in the Fashion models and fashion item development and celebrities. its promotional campaigns.

Environmental consciousness

Values transformed in the Marketers and the fashion campaigns and in the media. CSR activities of the brands.

Urbanisation and Human Relations

Value transformation reflected Media and models. in the promotional campaigns both in the mainstream and niche media.

High culture and popular culture

Values of high and popular Marketers, ad culture are transformed into agencies, models and the product development media. process along with the promotion campaigns.

Ethnic groups

Transformed in the promotional campaigns.

Marketers, ad agencies and media.

Table 2: The socio-cultural values, their transformation process and the relevant cultural intermediaries in the context

4.3 The tensions experienced by the fashion companies: Conflicting values and issues to meet the trends of consumer expectations (RQ3) Insights from the interviews and field studies revealed that fashion companies are increasingly facing newer dimensions of marketing practices influenced by the emerging socio-cultural values. Web based content analysis in this regard found 39

significant level of tensions in promoting new fashion trends in today’s globalised world where socio-cultural values are acquiring newer dimensions very fast. The prevailing tension and conflicts arise from the intense efforts of the fashion companies to meet the customer expectations by satisfying respective business objectives. New cultural trends are increasingly throwing new challenges in this context, which are discussed next. A. Low cost sourcing: Manufacturing component of the fashion items Content analysis of fashion outsourcing news articles found that countries around the world are now working more elaborately towards successful production of fashion items. Some respondents of in-depth sessions and the field study explained it further that the production components of fashion items are moving to Asian countries where the production cost is lower. Expert fashion academicians from all three countries, in light of the regulation and representation moments of the Circuit of Culture model, further explained that this trend will create wider platforms for fashion brands to utilise resources from around the world to build fashion brands that will be more global in nature. UK based fashion retailer that outsources from Bangladesh and China mentioned, ‘European made is better in quality - right, but the production costs are very low in Asia.’ In this context, there are increasing tensions as outsourcing fashion products from developing countries comes with lot of CSR activities that need to be monitored at remote locations. Also, the increasing awareness of global consumers in this regard puts added pressure on the fashion marketers to conduct business in a more channelling environment, as was found in the content analysis of the fashion CSR based websites. A respondent form Melbourne in this regard mentioned about the recent social media campaign in Australia that encouraged consumers to know where the products that they buy are manufactured. Web content analysis in this regard repeatedly referred to the documentary titled ‘Made in Bangladesh’ that focuses on the hazardous working conditions in the developing countries from where fashion items are outsourced.

40

Respondents both at the interview and in field study mentioned about the emerging consumer awareness in this regard against the ‘sweatshops’ in developing countries where garments workers are sometimes deprived of a fair working conditions.

Examples of some recent consumer protest was mentioned in this regard that took place in all the major fashion hubs of the world including London, New York, Sydney and Tokyo. Some reference images in that regard, as was discussed in the interviews, are presented here (see Image Set 8)

Image Set 8: Campaigns against ‘sweatshops’ in fashion outsourcing (Image sources in Appendix 3)

B. Digital media: A holistic shift The fashion professionals from all three markets mentioned that the digital media is becoming the primary mode of interaction with the consumers in the fashion industry globally. Relevant content analysis in this regard also found that the latest trend of digital media and the interactive platform it offers are significantly changing the way how fashion brands carry on their promotional activities in every aspect. 41

On the same issue, to highlight the rapid acceptability of digital media, a fashion researcher based in Australia mentioned in the interview, ‘Look at the Facebook page of Levi’s – they have 21 million followers. Believe it?’ Some snapshots from the Official Facebook pages of some fashion brands are presented here to reflect the reality in this context (see Image Set 9).

Image Set 9: Facebook pages of fashion brands with millions of followers (Image sources in Appendix 3)

Interviews specifically conducted among the fashion ad agencies revealed that the tension and the conflict of practice in this regards arise because many fashion marketers are finding the traditional way of promotion obsolete now. An ad agency in the UK with major fashion brands in their portfolio mentioned, ‘We are changing our focus, we are going digital’. Fashion experts from all the markets concluded that this shift of focus from traditional to digital media is a big challenge for the fashion marketers today and in the near future. In the Circuit of Culture model these trends are involved with the production, consumption and representation moments.

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C. Visual clue based fashion campaigns: Attempt to preserve the meanings It was a common response in all three countries that fashion advertising is becoming very global with no words and only visuals in their campaigns. While being prompted further, respondents explained that this is to ensure that no meaning is mistranslated. This is a very interesting finding in multicultural countries like Australia and the UK where any advertising message in English language can be interpreted in different ways by different consumers based on their understanding level. Visualonly fashion ads with minimum text solve this problem. From fashion promotion point of view this poses challenge and thus, creates tension for the fashion marketers to critically develop only visual based creative ads. UK based fashion professional commented in this regard, ‘Only visual based ads making all fashion brands a metoo one, the challenge is high’. Snapshot of some of the visual clue based campaigns are presented here for clarification (see Image Set 10).

Image Set 10: Examples of visual/textual clue based intermediation of promotion (Image sources in Appendix 3)

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In the context of the Bangladesh market also it was revealed that choreography oriented visual based fashion ads are in practice where the expression of the model and the presentation of the outfit attempt to communicate the meanings. Field study conducted among the fashion fairs and expos in these markets revealed that it is a new trend that is emerging at a fast pace involving the production, representation and consumption moments of the Circuit of Culture model. D. Idealised body image projection: Emerging new views In terms of the standardised body image and beauty definitions of fashion brands in media, a significant portion of respondents believed that in the future the stereotyped notion of body image and beauty perceptions will become more liberal. UK based modelling expert who has worked for few global fashion brands explained that in the future, consumers in general will be more open to accept all sorts of body images in media as ideal. One Australian fashion academician in this regard mentioned the example of Dove brand’s campaign that already advocates for more liberal definitions of beauty in women. Content analysis of relevant advocacy websites also revealed that it is now a generally held view for the society to break the circle of portraying idealised body image and beauty standards (Szmigielska & Viren 2012, pp. 114-115). London based fashion agency director mentioned, ‘Not even 1% of the audience will have a catwalk figure, yet the culture is (as such that) people like to see them on stage’. In reference of the regulation and representation moments of the Circuit of Culture model it was revealed that tension and conflict arise in this scenario to blend marketers’ moral decisions with the expectations of the consumers. In-depth sessions found that fashion marketers, on one hand, feel that it is important to accept and portray average size models; on the other hand they need to balance it with consumer expectations because focusing only on internal moral issues may cause not showing what the consumers expect to see in the media. Manchester based fashion expert added the same ‘dream factor’ here and explained, ‘Thin and slim body image motivates the audience to dream of becoming like that. It’s an inspiration in one sense’. Such dual perspective definitely makes this issue a possible source of value conflict for the fashion industry in general. Reference of 44

relevant content analysis was made during the interview session, some of which are presented here (see Image Set 11).

Image Set 11: Promotion of idealised body image in media (Image sources in Appendix 3)

E. Increasing purchasing power of the youth: A new perspective Respondents in general referred to the contemporary trend of increasing purchasing power among the younger generations when it comes to fashion items. Research based content analysis in this regard also found that in the future the younger generations will have more purchasing power for fashion items. A fashion store manager based in Bangladesh mentioned, ‘Young customers of 15/16 years old nowadays come for shopping on their own, not with parents, (but) with friends’.

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Based on the production and identity moments of the Circuit of Culture model, there exist tensions in this regard to find out newer production mechanism of promotional contents that will be able to target the young purchasers more effectively. Content analysis in this regard revealed that fashion marketers globally are also facing the challenge in this regard to find new media channels to reach the youth consumers by putting relevant promotional contents there. Respondents, especially from Australia and the UK, mentioned about web based youth fashion promotion activities where simple web banners or hyperlinked ad contents are used to attract the youth segments. In these cases, based on the same production and identity moments, marketers utilise the right image and textual clues to produce the contents so that the youth segment can identify themselves with the fashion items being promoted. Fashion academicians from the respective countries explained that such niche approaches by the marketers are fostering the trend of increasing purchasing power of the youth. Relevant content analysis in the media also revealed similar aspects in this regard, some of which were discussed during the interview process and are presented here as reference (see Image Set 12).

Image Set 12: Examples of web based campaign initiatives targeting at the youth (Image sources in Appendix 3)

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In addition to the trends, as discussed, some other emerging aspects that came into discussion repeatedly include the rise of metrosexual male fashions, usage of digitally modified model images in campaign and the increasing influence of the fashion blogs in the fashion promotion culture. All these pose their respective tension and value conflicts for the fashion marketers. It was revealed in all three countries that many fashion marketers are not yet ready to respond to these new trends in full-swing. However, fashion academicians concluded in general that in the near future fashion industry globally will be more aware of these trends and will respond accordingly. A summary of the emerging trends and the related tensions and conflict is presented in Table 3. Fashion promotion trends

Arising tensions and conflicts

A. Low cost sourcing

Relevant moments of the Circuit Model Fashion brands are forced to be Regulation and more ethical in their outsourcing representation. practices by following effective CSRs.

B. Increasing prevalence of digital media

To adjust the overall promotional Production, practices of the brand to fit into the consumption and new age media environment. representation.

C. Visual-only fashion campaigns

Communicate creative themes in Production, fashion promotion effectively. representation and Facing the challenge of standing consumption. out.

D. Idealised body image projection

Fashion marketers need to deal with Representation the moral standard point of view to and regulation. portray liberal body image and at the same time need to meet customers’ expectations.

E. Increasing purchasing power of the youth

Marketers need to develop and implement fast-changing promotional mechanisms to target the emerging markets.

Production and Identity.

Table 3: Tensions and conflicts arising from the emerging trends in fashion culture

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5.0 Discussion The outcome of the current research, through its multidimensional and multi-regional approach, offers supplementary insights to existing research and relevant literature of the same context. The discussion section undertakes a logical and conclusive analysis of the findings of the study to link these back to the theoretical frameworks to derive newer insights and perspectives that can be transformed to scopes for further research. Towards that end, here the detailed findings of the study are also interpreted and explained by referring back to the respective Research Questions (RQs). Implications for RQ1: In regards to the RQ1, it was revealed in the study that a set of cultural intermediaries are acting as the key influencers in the broad fashion promotion culture in all the three countries. These include fashion professionals (marketers and academicians),

fashion

ad

agencies,

media

professionals

and

fashion

models/celebrities. The key tasks performed by these intermediaries are respectively, developing fashion promotion strategies by analysing consumer needs; providing holistic advertising support to the fashion companies; transmitting the promotional contents to the audience, and motivating the consumers in the promotional process through the expressed or implied endorsements of the models/celebrities. From the five moments of the guiding framework of the Circuit of Culture model, the cultural intermediation by the fashion marketing professionals in this regard link with the identity, production and representation moments where persuasive campaigns are encoded with cultural meanings to represent their companies or brands to form identity bases for the consumers (Phillips & Mcquarrie 2010, pp. 368-370; Moor 2012, pp. 564-568). On the same note, it is also analysed that the roles of the fashion ad agencies relate to the production and representation moments of the model (Han & Zhang 2009). The trend shows that such organised effort of independent cultural intermediaries can identify themselves as originators of specific cultural practices and perspectives to deliver the cultural products in terms of creative fashion campaign contents.

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The media environment in this context relates to the regulation, representation and consumption moments of the Circuit of Culture model. In all the markets there exist both formal and informal rules and regulations that influence the media channels to operate in specific ways (Curtin & Gaither 2007, pp. 38-40). Also, the promotional contents of the fashion campaigns are indeed represented in the media through creative expressions of text and visuals (Littlejohn & Foss 2005, pp. 101-117). The consumption moment is related here because it is the media that provides the audience clues to decode the meanings of the fashion campaigns that are highly driven by the socio-cultural values (Carvalho & Burgess 2005, pp. 1458-1459). In the same research context, the intermediation of the model and celebrity relates to the representation, identity and consumption moments. Models and celebrities represent promotional themes in the media that offer a common platform of association for the target markets to identify themselves with a sense of group belongingness (Carvalho & Burgess 2005; Pedersen & Gwozdz 2014). The aspect of consumption here is related because the meanings of the promotional campaigns, as transmitted by the models/celebrities, are ultimately consumed by the fashion consumers. From a theoretical point of view, the current practices by the cultural intermediaries, as listed, involve prominent media theories such as Langer’s Symbol Theory, McLuhan’s Channel Expansion Theory, The Theory of Network Effect, Media Richness Theory and The Theory of Participatory Media. Based on the analysis of the research, it can be summarised that the Symbol Theory in the fashion promotion culture is related to explore the encoding and decoding of fashion promotion contents in media while the Participatory Media Theory is related to analyse the interactive platform where consumers are increasingly engaging with the fashion brands, especially in the digital media (Ford 2013, p. 410; Rocamora 2011, pp. 409-410). The Media Richness and Channel Expansion theories relate to this discussion as the campaign communication process relies on the nature of the rich contents that can dramatically influence the consumer engagement processes (Carlson & Zmud 1994, pp. 280-284; Ford 2013, p. 410).

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Considering the fact that the rapid development of the technology has altered the consumer interaction mechanism significantly, McLuhan’s Media Ecology theory also relates here (Scolari 2012, p. 205). To decode the socio-cultural influences of value transmission in the society, the Theory of Network Effect is also useful in this context (Park, Chung & Lee 2012, pp. 358-359). The relevance of the 5Ps model of marketing is also justified here because in the amalgamation process of the fashion marketing practices with the influences of the socio-cultural values, the product, place, price, promotion and place aspects of marketing are all involved (Kotler et al. 2013, pp. 4-9). Further research can be carried out to extend the core idea into broader perspective to develop a complex model of marketing mix (5Ps) and the five moments of the Circuit of Culture model. In that advanced level research, it is possible to project a concrete pattern of platform that can be used to analyse other research works that significantly involve marketing and socio-cultural values from a cultural practice point of view. Implications for RQ2: Referring to the RQ2 in this context, it was revealed that in the process of intermediation, the relevant socio-cultural values are transformed. The key trend of values found in the study are: the democratisation of fashion expressions; the Youth Culture and Fast Fashion; environmental consciousness in fashion consumption; urbanisation and human relations; high culture and artists’ involvement in fashion designs and the emerging markets of the ethnic groups in the fashion industry. In regards to the values associated with the democratic expression of fashion, it was revealed that fashion marketers and media environment are acting as key influencers in the transformation process by opening newer interactive platforms so that consumers can express their individuality. The consumption and identity moments of the Circuit of Culture model are relevant here because the reflection of the associated values for creating fashion identity can be found through the process how audience consumes the fashion campaign contents. From theoretical point of view, it relates to the theory of Participatory Media and the Media Richness theory to

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provide the interactive platform with rich media contents for the fashion promotion culture (Ford 2013, p. 410; Rocamora 2011, pp. 409-410). For the values of the Youth Culture, the transformation process involves developing the actual fashion items and its promotional campaigns where the fashion marketers (along with fashion designers) and the models/celebrities are key influencers. In the Circuit of Culture model it relates to the representation and identity moments where marketers represent relevant specific contents to the target markets to form a unique identity base (Curtin & Gaither 2007). Here the Youth Culture driven consumers are identified by their choice of fashion products (along with price) that create a point of differentiation related to creating identity (Han & Zhang 2009). In the environmental consciousness aspect, the relevant values are transformed in the fashion campaign contents and in the CSR activities of the fashion brands. The regulation and representation moments of the Circuit of Culture model are applicable here that deals with the existing policies and norms of environmental consciousness (Han & Zhang 2009). The Social Contract Theory, which refers to the generally accepted shared values in terms of the CSRs, is also relevant in this context (Cava & Myer 2006). For the values related to the urbanisation and human relationship aspects, the transformation is reflected in the promotional campaigns both in the mainstream and niche media. It links with the identity, representation and consumption moments of the Circuit of Culture model as here specific cultural meanings are represented through the value transformation process to be decoded by a specific set of consumers (Phillips & Mcquarrie 2010, pp. 368-370). For the value transformation associated with the high-culture and artists’ involvements, the transformation is found in the actual product development process along with its promotional campaigns. The production, representation and consumption moments link to this broad spectrum to produce media contents in ways that represent the signifying socio-cultural values that are consumed by the target audience to reflect the proper de-construction of the meanings (Carvalho & Burgess 2005; Pedersen & Gwozdz 2014).

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For the values relevant to the socio-cultural aspects of satisfying the needs of the emerging ethnic markets, the transformation can be found in the actual fashion product development and placement activities. The identity and representation moments of the Circuit of Culture model are closely related here as the ethnic groups form their unique identities based on the relevant socio-cultural values that are represented in the ethnic market-based fashion promotional campaigns (Phillips & Mcquarrie 2010, pp. 368-370). Implications for RQ3: In the context of the RQ3, the study found some possible sources of tension and conflicts faced by the fashion marketers and other relevant cultural intermediaries at a global level. These tensions and conflicts are influencing the fashion promotion culture significantly by redefining the relevant socio-cultural values that are creating new demands of the fashion consumers. Among these new trends the prominent ones include: the increasing pressure on the fashion marketers to follow strict guidelines and CSRs while outsourcing; the rapid expansion of the digital media; visual-only fashion campaigns; the existing and emerging trends of idealised body image projection in fashion promotion; and the trend of the rising purchasing power of the youths in the fashion industry. The tension and conflicts arise from the environmental consciousness and relevant CSRs of the fashion brands because in this scenario fashion marketers are forced to be more ethical in their outsourcing practices by following effective CSRs. Accordingly, these aspects refer to the regulation and representation moments of the Circuit of Culture model (Han & Zhang 2009). The tensions for the marketers to deal with the rapid expansion of the digital media arise to cope up with the new form of interactive consumer involvements that rely on the two-way communication platforms. This puts the marketers in a conflicting situation to merge their existing practices in the traditional media with the new age digital media. In the Circuit of Culture model it relates to the production, representation and consumption moments (Carvalho & Burgess 2005; Pedersen & Gwozdz 2014). For the new media the marketers need to construct new campaign contents to represent their brands in such ways that will be consumed by the audience in the increasingly challenging two-way communication environment. It is 52

important here to further analyse that in that two-way communication platform, consumers are also co-creators of the campaign contents and thus, the consumption moment has become multidimensional (Lilley, Grodzinsky & Gumbus 2012, p. 82). This also creates tensions/conflicts for the marketers. The trend of visual clue based fashion campaigns are creating tensions and conflicts because here the marketers are increasingly forced to develop promotional contents in a subtle way where the scopes of standing out in the crowd is very challenging. In regards to the Circuit of Culture model the moments of the production, representation and consumption are related here to develop the visual based ads to represent the creative themes of the brands very effectively (Curtin & Gaither 2007). In regards to the idealised body image projection in the fashion campaigns fashion marketers are in a conflicting situation to balance between their moral judgements of more liberal approaches (such as showing average or plus size models) and the expectations of the consumers. As the study revealed, only focusing on the moral issue might not meet consumers’ expectations. In the Circuit of Culture model this aspect refers to the representation and regulation moments (Han & Zhang 2009; Pedersen & Gwozdz 2014). New formal regulations in regards to body image projection can influence the campaign production procedure that will ultimately determine how the audiences consume the contents in this context. To deal with the increasing purchasing power of the youth, the marketers actually deal with the tensions associated with developing new markets and new promotional campaigns that can effectively utilise the increasing purchasing power of the youth. In the Circuit of Culture model it relates to the production and identity moments (Carvalho & Burgess 2005; Han & Zhang 2009). Fashion marketers need to produce campaigns to represent the appropriate themes with which the young consumers can form their identities. The findings and relevant insights, as discussed, can be put together to form a proposed conceptual model diagram that can be taken to the next level of research work. This proposed model, titled as ‘The Adaptation Model of Cultural Tensions and Conflicts in Fashion Promotion’, attempts to explore the way how fashion marketers absorb, process and release the relevant tensions and value conflicts arising from the broad socio-cultural environment. 53

The model starts with the sources of the tension and value conflicts, as covered in the findings chapter. Fashion marketers absorb a potential tension or conflict from the source by keeping in mind the marketing goals and principles so that business objectives are met. Once the tension/conflict is absorbed, marketers refer to the relevant socio-cultural value transformation processes to find the most effective course of action. Referring to the socio-cultural values is important here because at the heart of any tension/conflict there remain the needs and wants of the consumers who are highly influenced by these values. Accordingly, as put in sequence in the flow diagram next, marketers adjust the required aspects of their marketing drive to release the tension/conflict in a productive way. If the tension is released successfully then it will lead to new set of marketing activities such as new products, new campaigns or new pricing. If the tension is not released, then that remains as a source of tension/conflict for future action by the marketers. In many cases, depending upon the marketing goals and principles, marketers can afford to ignore any of the tensions/conflicts. The proposed conceptual model is presented here in a diagram form (see Figure 4).

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Source of tension and conflicts, such as: New trends New consumption patterns New markets New media New CSR New body image reflection

Socio-cultural values also contribute to the source.

Tension / conflicts absorbed keeping in mind the marketing goals.

Socio-Cultural values utilised through the five moments of the Circuit model.

Adjustment made in the respective 5Ps of marketing.

Remains as the source of tension/conflict for future action.

Tension released? Conflict resolved?

No

Yes

New marketing practice/perspectiv e such as new products, new campaigns and new pricing strategies.

Figure 4 (Proposed conceptual model): The Adaptation Model of Cultural Tensions/Conflicts in fashion promotion An example from the findings chapter can be mentioned here briefly for easy understanding of the proposed model. In regards to the tension/conflict arising from the CSR activities of outsourcing, at first the fashion marketers need to absorb the need of it by considering its marketing impacts such as representing themselves as ethical practitioners. Then, to react accordingly, the marketers adjust their marketing efforts such as introducing environmentally friendly fashion items, for example. While doing so, marketers need to extensively focus on the relevant socio-cultural values so that consumers’ expectations can be met in line with those values. If the tension is released, it will then lead to a new set of environmentally friendly fashion products and fashion campaigns. If the tension is not met for any reason, then the issue remains as a source of tension/conflict for later action or no action depending upon the situation. The proposed model needs to be explored further through more developed research work in the long run that involves both marketing and cultural perspectives of fashion 55

promotion. Few suggested future research works that can be carried out by utilising this proposed conceptual model include examining exclusively the CSR perspectives of the fashion brands both at regional and global levels, analysing the impacts of celebrities in fashion promotion and exploring the influence of the fashion bloggers in the broad fashion promotion spectrum. The significance of the current research involves such structured development of conceptual models/processes through which other relevant studies can be conducted. The research also significantly merges the theoretical understandings with their practical implications, which has made it more realistic. As the research included three different countries in three continents of the world, it offered a global perspective, which also increases its significance in this context. The main limitation of the current research is its broad focus to reveal the generalised aspects of the roles of the cultural intermediaries in fashion promotion. In the future, any specific aspect of this broad research can be explored in a more focused way. Another limitation is the exclusive qualitative nature of it where no quantitative data has been collected and analysed. This scope can be explored in future research projects where quantitative data on consumer demographics, fashion sales figures and fashion marketing/CSR budgets can be added for a broader understanding. To conclude this thesis, it can be mentioned that the broad atmosphere of the cultural intermediaries to influence fashion promotion activities is, indeed, very complex and dynamic where the relevant socio-cultural values are ever changing. This is especially true in today’s digital media based globalised world where any new invention becomes old very fast, which is applicable for the fashion industry as well (Thomas & Veloutsou 2011, pp. 21-22). In that context, how the cultural intermediaries keep on influencing the fashion promotion in the coming days largely will depend on the settlement of a complex set of variables that are interrelated. For example, there is no doubt that the Internet based fashion promotion/sales is a totally new phenomenon where fashion experts are still trying to work out its possible future trends (Blazic 2011, p. 42). Any new development in this regard holds the power to dramatically change the economic, social and cultural aspects of the global consumers, which, in turn, will add newer dimensions to the roles of cultural 56

intermediaries in fashion promotion (Jenkins 2008, pp. 3-4; Ritzer, Dean & Jurgenson 2012, p. 379). Along with these, the roles of government/non-government entities are also impactful to determine the future of the fashion culture. Also related here are the challenges created by all the emerging trends, as discussed, to create constant tension and value conflicts for the fashion industry. So, in this complex environment progressive fashion professionals need to constantly patronize innovative fashion research projects to track the changing roles of the cultural intermediaries in the process of promoting the broad fashion culture.

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Appendix 1: Interview Guide The research interview documents including the explanatory notes and reference letter as provided by Monash University

Research thesis: Invitation to fashion marketers and fashion promoters (including ad agencies) RE: Promoting fashion culture: Understanding the role of cultural intermediaries Dear Sir/Madam, We are currently conducting a study on examining the impacts of cultural intermediaries on fashion promotion, which specifically focus on the production side of developing the promotional materials (e.g. developing fashion marketing and advertising campaigns). As you are experienced in such practice, we would hope that you are able to participate the interview via face-to-face, phone or email at your convenience. Your individual responses will only be used anonymously. Your opinions are important for us to understand how the fashion promotion activities are undertaken and how these impact the consumers in general. Our project is endorsed by Monash University. We will be able to provide you a copy of the published paper upon request. We sincerely appreciate your help. Please do not hesitate to contact us should you require any additional information on the project. Thank you for your time. We wish you and your employees a lovely time.

Sincerely,

Dr. Angela Mak, Senior Lecturer and Discipline Head of Public Relations Tel: +61 3 9904 7244 | Email: [email protected] KhandkerTarek, Student researcher (currently in London for survey) Tel: +61 0424979191| Email: [email protected] EXPLANATORY STATEMENT 69

Project: Promoting fashion culture: Understanding the role of cultural intermediaries Khandker Tarek Research Student Master of Communications and Media Studies, Faculty of Arts, Monash University, Australia. Phone: +61 3 99047244 Email: [email protected] You are invited to take part in this study. Please read this Explanatory Statement in full before deciding whether or not to participate in this research. If you would like further information regarding any aspect of this project, you are encouraged to contact the researchers via the phone numbers or email addresses listed above. What does the research involve? The aim of the study is to examine the role of fashion marketers as cultural intermediaries in the promotional culture in both developed and developing markets. The study attempts to understand how specific issues related to fashion promotion are tackled by fashion marketers such as generating advertising ‘big idea’, portraying ideal body image, measuring social impacts of campaigns and designing campaigns targeted at male vs. female consumers. By participating the interview (45-60 minutes), you’ll be asked to share your expert views/opinions on these issues. Why were you chosen for this research? The study sample is drawn from those professionals who are experienced in fashion marketing across the continents of Europe, Asia and Australia. Consenting to participate in the project and withdrawing from the research Your consent will be received by signing the form and returning it to the researcher, prior to the interview. Your participation in this study is voluntary and you may choose not to participate. You can withdraw the study at any time during the interview. Refusal to participate or withdraw from this interview is possible to withdraw data once you have answered any of the questions. Possible benefits and risks to participants To get a holistic understanding of how fashion marketing trends are emerging in this new era with insights on how newer socio-cultural dimensions are influencing fashion marketing, how body image is perceived and what are its social consequences, how fashion marketing differs for male vs. female groups and how the macro fashion environment is different in developed vs. developing countries. You will be asked to answer questions that directly relate to your work experience driven expert views. There will be no personal questions and none of the information 70

will be shared with anyone else. The risks to your physical, emotional, social, professional, or financial well-being are considered to be very minimal. Confidentiality To help protect your confidentiality, the interview transcript will not contain information that will personally identify you without your permission. Your name and other identifying information of your working organization will not be reported and each completed interview will be coded with a sequence number. Storage of data All data are to be stored in a password protected electronic format. Only the researchers for this study will have access to the records. We will keep the data and documents for five years upon completion of this study. Use of data for other purposes The results of this study will be used for scholarly purposes and serve as preliminary results for a PhD application. Only aggregate de-identified data may be used for other projects where ethics approval has been granted. Results A copy of the published article will be given upon request. Complaints Should you have any concerns or complaints about the conduct of the project, you are welcome to contact the Executive Officer, Monash University Human Research Ethics Committee (MUHREC). Executive Officer Monash University Human Research Ethics Committee (MUHREC) Room 111, Building 3e Research Office Monash University VIC 3800, Australia. Tel: +61 3 9905 2052 99053831

Email : [email protected]

Fax: +61 3

Thank you very much. Khandker Tarek

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Summary of the Interview Questions: Section 1: INTRODUCTION 1. How long have you been working in the fashion industry (in marketing, advertising, sales or related positions)? 2. What is your job scope? 3. Please give us an idea on how you develop marketing / advertising campaigns – do you have in-house facilities or you outsource the strategic planning and creative contents? (For example, if you are a marketer you can employ advertising agencies; if you are an advertising agency you still can outsource the creative solutions). Section 2: FASHION PROMOTION 4. A. Based on your experience, what sorts of social and cultural elements (for example, social norms/rituals, friends/family values, cultural diversities, cultural trends etc.) have been transformed into fashion advertising campaigns? B. For your fashion brand(s) how do you do these transformations? Please share some examples. 5. A. How do you observe the influences of the social and cultural factors relevant to your fashion brand and its consumers? (For example: you do your own research or you employ research agencies or are there any other way). B. How do you monitor the promotional campaigns of your brand(s) during the campaign (to make sure the campaign is placed in the media rightly) and after the campaign (to monitor the effectiveness of the campaign)? 6. A. For the promotional campaigns of your fashion brand(s), how do you generate the ‘big idea’? In other word, how do you come up with or approve the main creative theme for your advertising campaigns? Please share your expert views with some real life campaign examples targeted at male and female groups separately. B. Are those creative concepts in line with the corporate identity of your company? C. How do you customize the big idea in different markets to be cultural specific? 7. A. Once the ‘big idea’ is generated and the campaign developed accordingly, how do you utilise the media to reach those to your target consumers? Please narrate the process with some real life examples. B. Any difference of approach to reach male vs. female consumer groups? C. How do you utilise traditional media (TV/Magazine ads, News Releases etc.) and web based digital media (web based ads, peer-to-peer network, Social Networking Sites such as Facebook, Twitter, YouTube etc.) to promote the culture of your fashion brand(s)? Please narrate with some real life examples for both traditional and digital media. D. How do you think these communication efforts (in both traditional and digital media) shape the fashion culture as a whole? Any real life example of your brand(s) to share in this regard?

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8. A. We know that for fashion marketing the selection of model is very important. How do you select the right models for your brand? Please share with some real life examples targeted at both male and female consumers separately. B. Are there any conflicts or controversies in your market to target your fashion products at male and female consumer groups? C. Please tell us in general how fashion marketing is different for male and female consumer groups. 9. A. As you are aware of, ‘metrosexual’ men are a new consumer group. How do you promote such culture to young male consumers? B. How do you utilise media to promote ‘metrosexual’ culture to young male consumers? Please share a real life example, if any. Please start typing your answer here and take as much space as you need…. 10. A. What do you think of the social impacts of your work in promotional culture in the fashion industry (for example, how society is influenced, what social values are changing, how society is reacting etc.)? B. How your promotional works influence consumers to perceive an idealised body image and to adopt specific consumption behaviours? How do you tackle these issues to be a socially responsible fashion brand? C. Have you faced any issue in the past in this regard? Please provide us with some real life examples. 11. A. As an expert industry professional, how do you see the fashion industry 5 years down the line? B. What significant changes in terms of fashion marketing and brand culture you are expecting based on your own experience and understanding? 12. Now that you have a detailed idea regarding the objective of this study, would you like to share anything else that can enrich the study? Any value added suggestion based on your experience that will be helpful for this study?

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Appendix 2: Photos of field study Some selected photos in regards to the in-depth sessions and field studies in different countries.

London Textile Fair 2014/15 to talk to the participating fashion retailers there.

In-depth interview sessions.

Field studies.

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Field studies.

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Appendix 3: Image sources Most of the images used in this thesis were referred by different respondents during the in-depth sessions and field study. Based on those references and, afterwards, based on the content analysis these images were sourced mostly form the web media. Few respondents also shared some images directly. Given this spontaneous approach of sourcing these images, the sources for all of them are not known. Some URLs are mentioned here that relate to some of the sources for the images. http://www.shelikes.com/ http://www.zara.com/ http://www.hm.com/us/ http://stylebubble.co.uk/ http://lookbook.nu/ http://prabalgurung.com/about/ http://www.vogue.com.au/. http://www.elle.com/ http://www.glamourmagazine.co.uk/?international http://www.instyle.com/ http://www.flare.com/ http://nymag.com http://www.harpersbazaar.com/fashion/

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