caribou reproduction and plant growth (Post et al. .... Human populations are growing quickly near borders of many reserves .... example, the Burmese python (Python bivittatus) has led to a dramatic decline ... in the Florida Everglades NP.
Protected Areas under Threat Trra Cano, Gnecr. K. CHlnr-cs, DsNa-f. Cr-rNr,-fasoN ll.rccro, ALsxaNoRa M. WErr-1. eNo CenolyN Wurtpssr-r-
Aprotected area (PA) is dehned as "an area of land and/or sea especially dedicated to protection and n'raintenance of biologlcal diversity, and of natural and associated cultural resources, and managed through legal or other effective means." Protected areas have been established to achieve several goals including the preservation oi specics. conscrvation of gcnetic diversity. prest rvrtion of wilderness and natural and cultural fbatures, providing fbr tourism and recreation, supporting the sustainable use of resources, promoting education, and maintaining environmental services and cultural attributes. According to the World Database on Protected Areas. the number of terrestrial PAs is at least rz5,ooo, covering about 17 million kmt and more than rz.7 percent of global terrestrial area, although many of these PAs are multiple-Llse areas (tab1e 6.r). From a biological standpoint, the e{lbctiver-ress of PAs as a conservation tool depends on its ability to incorporate biodiversity and to buftbr plant and animal populations against anthropogenic fbrces (e.g., Brr-rner et al. zoor). Plant and animal populations inside PAs are not immune to these fbrces and are under threat everywhere. For example, mammal popr-rlations in
DOI: ro.5876
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species with irradequate prote ctioll biodiversity within PAs and leaving many their current rall€les out of PAs' (Hole et a1. zoog). h'ven if specles do shift
existingPAsmayprovidesuitablecoloniza[jonhabitatforsuchspecies.For bird species fbund that local colexample, a study o1l r39 Tanzaniatl savallna .].o
onizationeventswereexplainedbychangesinclimatesuitability'ar-rdthat coionizationpref-ererrtiallyo..u,."dinPAs(Bea1eetal.zor3).inthel]rrited species exhibiting northward range Kir-rgdom, nut Ulttl "nd i*o butterfll' results are lurther supported .rplnrio,1, prefbrentially colonized PAs; these percent of those surveyed 256 irrverttbtntt specie s wherein 98
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Altjtudinalshiftshavealsobeendocumentedindiversetaxonomicgfoups range shilts fiom 6 r m to rI m within PAs, with species showing ;rverage
upaltitudinalgradientsperdecade.lnYosemiteNationalPark(NP),United have changed over the past ce'rtury' with States, smalr mammz.Ll distributions in their upper-elevation limits (Moritz et over half showing arr upward shifi that increased temperature zoo8). Tingley and colleagues (zorz) found
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causedupwardshiftsinbirdsintheSierraNevadawhereasincreasedprecipitationledtodownwarc]shifts,resultinginaheterogelleousmixofavian PAs are often situated on mounrange shifts within this region l''ortunately tainsidesthatwillber-reiitspe.ieswhoserangescontracttohigherlatitudes' in species interactions through changes lncreasing temperatures may afI-ect have heet-r docor temporal m:ismatches' Changes in phenology phenology
umentedincerrtralarrdsouthernAfiicar-rPAswhereplantseasollalityhas increasedinresponsetochangesinrainlhll(Pettorellietal'zorz).InWest mortality and reduced increased caribou (Rongi|br taran.lus.) calf Greenland,
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calfproductionwefeattributedtoatrophicmismatchbetweenthetirrringof cariboureproductionandplarrtgrowth(Postetalzoo8)'Forcertainspecies' anincreaseintemperaturewillbelethal,whilefbrothersitwillirrcrease glowlh,InPeialaraNaturalPark,centralSpair-r,increasesintemperature fungus' a disease that has have driven the growth of the chytridiomycete al zooT)' numerous amphibian species (Bosch et killed
Duetodiffererrcesinresponseratestoclimatechange'speciesinPAsmay leading to changes or gain prey, predators, pollinators' or competitors' of novel (nonanalog) commLlin interspecific interactions and formation our understanding remains largely thenities (see figure 6.t). Nor-retheless, uncertainty regarding ecosystem and oretical as there is a large degree of
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. n t tt c r a o tt c a ),n", n n u. ",o, tnerica's rtca's Atlantic Atlatrtic Foresr Forest show show
of genetic g.r--,.ti., diversiry diver"it-, ;,,-, 1. in indivir :19"]o:'.'tss zoio) Furrh er,."
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directly relared to the patchcs' degree of isoiation (opdan'i r99r). In addition, extirpatior-r of the Ibcrian lynx (Lynx pardinu-s.1over rhe Iast rhirty_five vears has been 1i.ked to reduced immigratior-r due to habitat fiagmert:rtion is
iRodriguez and Delibes zoo;). speciHt' ctlccrs of isolari'rr and riagmcrtaliorr on species rrt, idiosyrrcrarrr. and dillicult ro predict. Even withi. the carnivore guild, isolarior.r can have dissimil.r eflects o' diflbrent species: isolation of pAs in the
northern Rocky o, grizzly bears than on w'lves (Cdnts rupus.. which have large r home ranges ard superiordispersal abilities compared to bears (carroll et al. zoo,1). Time sir-rce iso_ lation also plays an irnportant role in determining biodiversity remaining in Mountair:r region
of the United
States has had a greater impact
popularions
requiring larger areas will disappear ,rnly slowiy Iuman populations are gror.'u'ing quickly near borclers of many reserves iZommers and MacDorald zorz), rhough whether this growth is significa'tly greater than in orher rural areas is disputed (-loppa ar-rd piirff zoro). popuration grou'th near PA borders may be a resurt of migrants bci'g "pushed,, i^to areas near feserves due to lack of resources elsewhere, especially arable PAs, as
I
land
l"fiontier engulf-ment"). Alternarively,, peopre may move ro rhese areas to fbatures of the pA, such as job opportunities in ecotourism, clean watcr, or the very fesources that are beirg protected, aithough rhere is less evidence fbr this. wharever rhe cause of populnrio', growth, increasing populati.'r pressure ar reserve borders, whe' cor-rpred because they are atrracted
ll'ith climate disruption, may exacerrbate pA iscliation and other threats to these areas-
Protected area downgradir.rg, dowr.rsizing, and degazettemenr (pADDD) is a developing rhrear ro pAs (Mascia pADDD and pailler lor the exrraction al1ow
zor).
of
usuallv occLrrs
resources fbr human needs, such as recen[ ,o "tro.,, oil drilllng in the Arctic Narional wirdrifb Refr-rge. I' Brazil, an increase
PADDD evenrs is attributed r. increased demand fbr electricity throughout Amazonia. Masci:r and corleagues (zor4) identified 543 instances of pADDD across 5z counrries in the last century some conservationrsts see PADDD as a positive conservation stratelay because funds can in
from poorly perfbrn'iing pas,
be reailocatecl
but PADDD doesn't necessarily occur in such reserves. If conservation embraces pADDD, it may be easier lor pAs to be downgraded or degaze*ed fbr resource extraction without any correspond ing
conservation benefit.
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06
Prot.ct€(l Aretts rmtler
increasingly rxcept fbr Caribbean )oses an
hrle a meta-analysis ed
that the majority
ln non-PAs, PAs are raction activities. In 1 percent of natural mar.rce of individual rng Nature Reserve
Threttt
9r
The lucrative trade in wildlif-e fbr luxury markets involves large volumes of animals. Between zooo and 2oo5, more than 6.7 n-rillion live birds, 7.9 nil lion live reptiles, and 3o miliion reptile skins were rraded globally. Because it is often impossible to determine il ;rn animal is wild-caught or captive bred, species listed by the IUCN (lnrernarional Union fbr Conservarion of Nature) as Critically Endangered or on CITES (Convention on Inrernarional in Er-rdangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) Appendix I can still be easily bought and sold in certain pet markets. Ilrom zooz to 2ood in Italy,
Trade
degradation due to
oflrcials confiscated the eqr-rivalent ol 13 percent of the world's remaining wild Egyptian tortoise (.'fcstutLt kleinmanni) populatior-r from pet rraders.
itres increased after
Fashionable, and ofien illegal, wildlif-e items such as
:spite an increase Lues
I3).
to decline,
in
with
In a PA complex
nporranr habitat
for
primary fbrest has
:
ts
lbr activities such
:ction, and charcoal rest loss.
Secondary
activities have cons.
Selective logging,
lead
to forest degra-
that
s
on organisms
,
protected Danum
vely logged lbrests ecies
richness than
ivory can resuk in rhe dramatic decline or loss of species lrom PAs. For exan-rple, over the past 40 vears elephant (Loxotlonta africdna) populations ir-r West and Central Afiican PAs
liophy hunting is a valuable industry fbr many counrries. In sub-Saharan Africa, trophy hunting annually brings in over szoo million in gross revenue lrom at least r8,5oo hunters, while 4i,ooo to 5o,ooo fbreign hunters vrsit Eurasian countries, contributing s4o million to $5o million each year. However, trophy hunting can have negative el1-ects on wildlife populations in PAs when quotas are set unsustainably high. For example , ir-r East Africa overharvestilrg of leopard s (.Par,thera partlw) and lions (.Panthera lco) has led to their decline ir-r PAs (Packer et al. zorr), and sport hunring of bighorn sheep
in North America has caused a significant decline in ram body weight and horn size (Coltman et al. zoo3). Bushmeat consumprion occurs on a vast sca1e. For exan-ip1e, the extraction of man'imal br-rshmeat (,.Oyis
is a
r medicine, luxury
are
luxury rend on traditional redlcine and
ion g1obal trade )resents
of
the largest
canadcnrls)
from the Congo basin is an estimated 4.9 billion kg/year, while 15o million kg are extracted from the Amazon anrrually (Fa et al. zooz). Bushmeat hunting
: and inside PAs on
J. Increased global
have declined by 33 and Z6 percenr respectively, largely due to rhe demand
fbr ivory (Bouch6 et al. zorr).
severe threat to savanna ecosystems, too (e.g.,78,ooo-rro,ooo wildebeest poached in Serengeti NP anr-rually).
of extractiolr
can lead to negative consequences fbr species and within PAs, particularly during the Anthropocene. Large-bodied animal species are particul:rrly vuinerable because they have wide r.rnging behavior, a low rate of reproduction, and are specifically rargeted by hunters. Altered population structures can lead to reduced population growth rates and can result when wildlife exploitation disproporrionarely rargets individuals A11
types
ecosystems
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,r"ri"- | rhe ol pejeta conserv:rncv in rr--__^ ,_ r Kenya. *r, introduced. inrenrht. lbsr I n* *.,.,1^'",_-:"tttY''ncy invasive bLrsh
ruce genetic
''''.;;;./,6ni=nffi
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are
a ,
:If nmal exttnctions.
n
lil.llii#: ;1; n *f
I
:f
/ ;l'"'lhe
in pls For /':r'":ff
areas
umber
Arets utttler
Eucrea cliyinorumnr:stablishing'
,te-resistarlt
p.or..,.d
pr()tectetr
unpalatable, and
",
tF.'
:
*irm:H
.,
nt. ,orr1.
i;::**U;
:: : :
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5:;:::l
,n",.,". I invasiveplanrswithinpAs contributetothe.o.."o., .;;,;; ;;,;.,ffT;il:1i: ;:;:,'.,'1ff II ;::l: :,ii; lru ;.e.nc-tr.^^-. ;:,i:,il:lil1 rn ?' gener,rl. human 0.",,i around pAs .,. a',,pp.,I I il:J:"i',T.]li,l1i":" er.^ ;J:'i:.'i,T I ff ;::ff ::::, * :;f :f : ,- il';: : ::'1, : :: il :, ?I:is *: i tri"J :{iliiilT:T,:::::ilh;L:i*:F;1::::::ff":::,*T: ilffitri I ;".".,i1;i I ,,#5i:::::l'::'j:i::::*:*::i::i:+xis,ed wi,h wildlirb r.r,h.u r,rtr-J l-^--^ I u)andhave ,0,,,,1^::1.0.."*n,,i*;;';:T:L:r::ff;.J rand use.na.",ou...,,,,ir
il,l'j,ooll:il,1::::,li'_llljj;,il,.:11i:i'',,urbances,,io, "TH'
11is 'a:atrcdec.line
:
tntroduced I ,"'ctwuuLCCt
.
vestock grazinghas grazinghas been in environm"nti envjronmentrr J^.--^r--. a.g.narr,"", *.r..r'vestock l.ortages, .nd fb."g...n.in and arou'd pAs, and in.,,rci^^- ^r 1. i;",;;il1T,1'llJ.iilT,i'..,'l lJ",;.il1r:l',1':1,i,ff,,":i,:*::.:.:;;' especiallv in Arrica o,r" ,;":,'"n'ps that over 40 percenr""0 of e3 parks were
l::tl'n*"
;I I
",,;;;;. were
1,,0;- ;:'":::il':.i,:T= _,1_,., brdzurg can lncrease competition ffi,,?';T".*T'#:.::::,::1 for fbod. d"...;r. with I! wrldljfe {;ir-- ;;;::T$':H*,T::'T"H
o;..;;;
impJicated rmpJicated
ciry
,,;;;;,',,';;,: I .,rr.,"r"i. II ;:";t:i"d uu,aLrve
'ttus
;,;il
eclines
in
I
enui.onmenrar
nr in soil 11 and warer' deerad:r,^- Numerou;;;;:.;* cause l::]:t:availability "o *rr.., and "rl'..rr"
I ;iJ'HT"':Tlj::::1",':n betweet livestock densiry
; *,o-no"otship
and wircr
docunlented the nesa-
n,nd.:::ffHru;;::j::i'li'il: ;::lli:J:l::l.i:J"ii:"i ffi;: l'::ll1ili"T:*::1' Iil.J:ffi*]il:#fl*il j#fitrl of or
lntoney I ; rPlrdu
lor.u... For rs context deper.rdenr Fror example, example. wilt-l ,-,r*"r""#:jJrtJtock I however. rrn_,,r^r^^and _1 -u, cartle compete rhe dry seaso, fi,r fboJ durins *h.n .".,.,,,.]: """:':l:t ,1,i bur -nr",'nn,,.e each \rurL II quariry "t tn, o']1r'-'* rhe wer season other,s dier other's ;#ffi;Jln:::::::":,I'-:::'ce diei il;r;;;::;:"Hl"nce 1re1a :ought
rn
r
Invalive dant. Spatial parririoi, 'rvdsrve I ing of ot:wrldlifb wildlirb livestock m.\, r--^^- -1 -,o;;;; rpetition' jI rhis partirioninrand rivestock ;.;:::J:i"tant' -;;,;; arrhough may no,'u"'porr,brc in dry y.n.. r,roTperirion' d rc dens Mara Narional Reserve and adloinin,
;:x'fr / ;: n:*:iil::_ ij
93
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p'q svd 'sread dlua,trt rr"d ur eJU auo rsear r€ paruar,redxa sy6 "q, Jo &Fofeu aql q8noqrp leqt punoJ sapuy uerqulolo3 eql ur svd go dpnls luareJ e ta^a'&\oH '(oroz rtauorurs pue e:ro8a-r3) 5002 o1 rooz r.r"rr"d -o*r3 z7 ueql aroLu as'erfq dlrsuep aru ,^aes svd ueru-+v rsaa .(6002 LULUTd pu' 'uesualslrq] ,{auapy) lredrur uelunq Jo sle^el q8rq qlr_tr slseroJ ur pue .speor reau 's;ead d"rp ur sa:q aJolu qlr_4\ ,s:ead lsoru ur salJasal Jo luelJed oz lseal le ur PaJJnlfo seJq 'uoz'urv uErTrzeJB eqr uI 'sassEJS a.Lrse,tur
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pue saterurp
d:p or ,"8p" lr"roJ asner uer 'ur uotleluaur8eg pue uortelosl .sa:gduer papualeun uror.J tlnser uer ro svd olur pea'rds u'l puer dq'reau uo sarrc .a;nrrncr.r8e roJ puer Bur.rea' q8norqr ras srqr parelle seq aruanrJur ue.,nri rnq 3uo1
alinb sr slsaroJ lerrdo:r tro* ro3 le^rarur urnrar-erg Iernleu aqr 'slsaroJ prido.il ur pe^rasqo ueuo sr es€r lsrg eqr 'etrueJJnffo luanba;3 E a)uo se,tr lr eJaq,tt suor8e; uo;3 papnllxe uaaq s'q aJU aJarr'no ;o 'a-inleu ur uoluluoJun sr rr eJaq-^a suorleJol olul pepl,tlp ag u€r pue (r'9 a"rn8g) s:ead a,rg_d1ue.no.t roJ p"rr,r8or., Jla,ln uaaq ,."*nq Jo llnsa.r e se svd ur
seq serur8a; aJU IeJnleu Llrog suorler.r.ap pasodrur
0rg Jo learqt aq1 'seurr8ar elg relnrrlted ot asuods", ,r, p".opn" a^eq plro,l.t. aql punoJe ser:ads pue tre pue latE'l\ ,[os ]ualuor aprt:ed pue luarrlnu Jo llsJJe pue ernlrnrls relrqeg ralp d[Err]e..,erp osie uer drr.tr'e a;rc dlis.ra,rrp -orq uierure.., uel pu' arnlfnrls rualsdsore sadeqs rEqr eJuegrntrrpl"rr80l0r" p;ra,ttod e sI aJIg 'eJoU pue EunEJ elrleu;o-; satuanbasuof asJalpe a,teq daql le,raua' ur tnq a.r'e'au aq sde,uie lou paau ,f6 .rr 1rorr",oll Jo s13pg" aqt .snql dtrsrr lp tueld Fursearrur pue ps:adsrp paas Furtoruo-rd dg svd ol slgeuaq Pelladxaun apr.to.rd ua.ra deru ltotsa r.I .sertads Jotde; uretJat Jo drlsuap pue dtrs-ia,trp aqt peseerlui Vd uer^nra4 e ur Burze;B apier leql pa.e\oqs (rroz) uepsJEt\ pue eu€rd '(zroz '1e eloqg) la 1;ed aqr ur tuepunqe arour are,^ serol iqrai{ papoq-a8:e1 sea.raq.^a spare Ie:olsed ur tuepunqe aroru rre,^ saro^rqraq l-rEsg-LtIl,{\
cNv'ttt?,{\.or3DIU,)NItl,s.q.IuvHf ,ouvl
16
Protectetl Areds tntler
arge-bodied herbiiana and Marsden
l the diversity and
:vide unexpected ng plant diversity. live but in
general
Fire is a powerf'ul
maintain bio-
can
ucture and affbct 'ecies
around the
lhe threat of fire
lfire regimes has divided into rs been excluded n be
ttural fire-return tence has
altered
'land can spread d
fragmentation
q{ as can warmrres occurred r dry years, rey,
in
near
Christensen,
e more than zz )wever, a recent
of
the
majority
rad
significantly
ing thar PA borblands that are
aintaining regug have
reduced
up and woody : increased sus-
lload has built rin healthy fire
T'hredl
95
reglmes are now esrablished in many pAs, yet imprementing fire-friendly poli_ cres in PAs can be difficult when people live near pA boundaries and can be ar odds with species-focused approaches such as rhe US Endangered Species Acr.
\ atcr a\airabiriry wiil have rarge inrpacrs on pAs rhis century worldu'ide water demand grows. Already, excessive warer use means that many major rivers run dry during a[ or parts of their I)ecreasinq
as
dry seasons. These include the Ganges in South Asia, the Nile in Africa, and the colorado River in the United Srares. Many pAs acr as dry-season water sources fbr wirdlifb and massive die-o{Ii due to water shortages have been docume'ted
fbr
a
wide range of taxonomic groups in pAs, ircluding migrating birds in Kramath
wildlifb Reuge (NwR) ("water Shorrage Bramed for Massive Bird Die-off At Norcal wiidlifb Refuge" zorz), piiion pines (prnzs cdarrs; in Neu,, Mexico (Breshears et a1. zoo8), and mammals in the south Aliican Kalahari Gemsbok NP (Krrighr 1995) some of which are exacerbated by pA isolation. Sometimes artificial waterhoies can mitigate these proble-. ,o rimited " extent' certain PAs have already been strongly impacted by anthropogenic water use. For example, overdrawing river water for irrigation and cattle watering outside Ruaha Np, Tanzania, has caused the Great Ruaha River ro become seasonalry dry shifting rhe ecosysteni fiom a rraditionaty wertropical to a dry-tropical zone (Mtahiko et ar. zoo6). In Serengeti NB the Mara River, a vital source of waier to rhis ecosysrem, has decreased its flow by 6g percent in the last fbrty years as a resurr of defbrestation of the Mau Forest National
Kenya as well as increased extraction
in
of water upstream (Gereta et
ar. zoog).
Damming also alters water frow inside pAs and can destroy aquatic habitats. Analysis of a cenrury of hydrologic records from thirry or.,. No.th Amer_ ican rivers revealed flow decli.es fbr 67 percent of those measured. These rivers provide water fbr a large number of North American pAs as confirmed by a rafr of studies in this regior-r (table 6.2). Decrease in flow resurrs
from a combination of urbanlzation, irrigation, damming, and reduced snow pack due to climate cha'ge. Already, reductions in s',ow pack as a result of warming have red to decreases in seasonar water availabirity for PAs throughout the \^,estern United States. Rur-roff from agriculture and mining activilies pollutes watersheds and threatens rhe survival of wildlife within PAs. widespread use of fbrtiiizers, herbicides, and pesticides in agriculture has negarively impacted pAs such as Kruger, Keoradeo (in India), and Everglades Nps. pollution from agricultural systems can accererate
]ueuaSEuelu uorlEaJlaJ ) eruerIeJ aqt t€r{l >lsrJ e tngrJluor svd ul LusrJnol Sutqsrlgelsa roJ Ietr^ aq ol Surtn
ol
tuJLUuJe,{oF
enuue Surpaerxa sr
dltea;3
LusrJnol aJnlEu le
ro uortepa:d lsau ,raq8rq )I^ aJr1plr.4 'aidruexa rog redrur,u.o1 JAeq ol Luees Jn3 /1 1o. ta e1e3og; 1e
erunq q8iq d1a.r.rru1ar go IeJt uro{ ru oS 1)
ef ueq
sdN soDllou uErpEueJ tuoraJJrp aq uEf,
sanadg
lur;npo"rru r lo'Jol^EtlJq tlege dla,trte8au leurrue
eJlop ur llnseJ UEJ pue .o'sJar>ls d.rlunor-sso.rr
{
pue'uorsoJa PeseaJJuI l)arIp ol speel seltuteJ
?lErtsnv ur sPuart elqets rsr^
Jo Jaqunu
puE
Ielot ui
uortesrrer a]rlplr^\
'epr,laplro aJfoJ
A
seuoz
re-+
pLrE'uorle,rHnurur
rge:] uErunv aseeJlur o1a.1\ap
Suraq erE speor
)luEJneT pue 'Luasooc peo"r
dq panasrq Suraq safJnoseJ IEJa
)seeJJur
)srou sE
IIe,{\ Se Slunol
ag ot drolslq ul alls tsrg aqf Furag ueLLrO ur drenltues xd.rg uerqe,rv aqt qt1-arr 'uollrertxa se8 pue trrog lerrqt repun Io ere apr.lnplro.ll salrs a8elr.raH plro1\ OISEN0 loor aqt Jo-rauenb e ueql a:o4 .(rroz .lE .l to alBnEN enuwsvqclom snaato4ua3) asno;B a8es .ralea.r8 erll Jo seurlrap uorlelndod tuetgru8rs o1 pa1
e^eq pue (rroz arrt{.r,raiqqaH) (.snuorwarl
,nrlror)yg.
,.:p
e gnpuvtvt nltSuvy) noqrreJ -+o su'ralled uorre.i'rru rdn.rsp ,rrtr,orrr"";;;; ,roor*r*" ianJ IIS araq,r errraluv quoN ur uaes .aJIIp[^\
-soJ
.nred pue ,Er^rlog se8 pue FO
sE
,op".rrg
s]redrul dle,ruefiau uorlreJlxa
,r, sarrepunoq Vd ulr{t,ra\ paterol are dueru pue agol8 eqr .+o seere qtr.r_sartads tsour er{t auros deira,ro $lrolg Jo asaql llsaJog 3i) zuq ooo.ggg ellros Bur,ra,ror (sartr.Lrtte uorlleJlxa uoq.reto.rpdq
:"#il; . o
$nolq
-"r:;::"""t)
ldxa iro r o3 u o r 3a i
.
se8 pue IIo o8r dtarerurxo'rdde a:e a;aql
[,T",,ff :, :H:],nT H J:J:::, #
iH:L::::i
IIo Sn ol pnba dlq8nor ,iro alqera^orar Jo slerreq uo{Iq 69.t ,{Iarcuxxotdde are eraql 'EIselV ul U,4AN Jrlrrv aqt Jo uonres pau.\,\o dleJapag eql ul .svd punoJe pue ur saperap Buruol ur aseJJlul ru-lA
se8 pue
pue uortJ€Jlxa pue uorle:oldxa
Iro Jo sla^al peluaparard,rr_, p"1r"d, seq sianJ uo eJuErIeU Irsso-+ .(rroz .le la uosua,Lr,g) uozewv uerlnJad eLIt ur uorlelseroJap ruanbasqns pue drr-tlrre Sururtu peseerrur ua^rrp a.teq sarr.rd p103 pqo13 pue'(ercz 3uep18uepery) ersauopul ,lseroc olrer{es ri>lnB patraro-rd eql ur Sututru p8alp ue,tr:p r^eq ieoJ 3o sarr.rd q?rg drr.opre Fururtu llr.nn oor os 'sasearrur sr'relu urerral roJ pu'ruep ieqo1' sy '(zioz 1addr1$ zuDI ooz dg ezrs aAJaseJ aql petrnpeJ 'eruezuel 'e^Jeseu aur'D snoras ur Sururru LunrueJn JoJ esuaJrl e 'aldUexa 'ro;1 'sualsdsoJa sualearqr Suiu*u JoJ svd 30 Surzrsu,Lrop pue luaLualtaze8ap'uorlrppe u1 .(966r .le ured) la sapads prrq puE .atErqal -re^ul 'LIsg uI saullf,ap are^as ot pel aro arlrdd F,rrrrrrord Jo pIJe Jo r.u uorllrlu E "qr'*,rrJ "rr"^ -Jo asearal uea'rrsdn IErueprf,Je eql ,ured5 ur rualsdsora otoJ aql uJ .peal pue f.rnr.raru .rruasJ€ qsJeuJ eulJenlse parraloJd ,Eueuoc e
se qtrns
sleJluraqJ
SIAAalJerllel
gll.,!\ spar{sJalE,AA oleurlupluoJ JO uef sartr^rlle Sururtu ruo,rg s8utlret pue a8eure.ig .sy4'dueur punore ro ur srnlro (dllsuatur :oge1 q8rq pue uorleziuei{)aLu sla^ai _uo1 dq pazrrarf,EreLl, Jo p;aunu) Sururtu alers_lleurs .(..s
uI seuilf,ap
Iroa eql uror.J patsriap
"::;r"r*. i{pre1-ra3 adorng uo pJratuaf, uorl -uelle qrn'' Hlr^ 'dtrsra'rrporq uerEaJril pue "tqr, 'l'rrq€q do.rlsap ,salrnos rare^A ernilod slpds Fururu IeluaprrrE pue svd punore Burunu p8aip pue pHa.1
? uorlfnJlsuol peoH uortre;lxa se8 pue po
q,u uor1n11od pue uorl )
ol
pe>rull ueaq ser{ pue srua]sds
'satrads Jel€-llqsag snoreLunu
ralel\qsa{ ur uorlerrqdor3na
Ilesg.I_tHA\ONV,ttts.\\,ot3DIU.xNI.tt.s:r.IuvHf
.olJVl
q6
'd. to declirres
protct:tt,Ll
I
j\reds undtr
T.hrcttt 97 in I d.t1r1.; li-o6 11.,. W,rrld II list due to a sig'ificanr reducion i' sizc ror o' ;;;;';,;,:,.::l],tierirase I (osti t al zorr) ,,6 rH'rr) ng spills porlute p()tiute I 1:':-:.:.1::::" Road corrstrut.tiUtr through PAs result in habirar tt:n n,,"r., I uo,,.'-rd proll'tio.r .rnd desrruc*,h,l.,,tPgtadingvehicle speeds llin f result in *..rr..,.,ndr,t, ..oun* as w.eil as noisc, ,,r'ttt"nt"o ll]",i':tt,":.", n,*n r'bo. f on As .r"n'.'n'r e
ro.'-i,'
f eiar rcsource: i,crcascs .,1;';:l.l:;:::':fi:''
'.']1
;H:: / 5:: I:.j::i_::,*li: srrra.,,emarsh marsh ,.. are,r,eing
il',l:il
|f
.sruaritre
j:
"
pr.b,
en
r
i, in...u.inl1,,
li;i;5
comp.omise soli:ti.n.
t,T:,i::
rl th. o..iir" .t u.,",',i";",;*^.:':l:'d 0.,.,,,0* i.;.,;,lT:;,Tj:j:T:::",:,Tjj:,ij:.ii:
,ona., ,oads
m'ol acid I in., .,,r,. hunr.rrr tr.rliic. ,lru."rhr,i,.,t t,f 's in fish. rhr.cats ii,,m ii. 1.ror,.ct, erploirarr,,n, inu..- | immi 'cars ,t'"::::].i- enbctiueness zerrcment and pAs and or PAs of adjacent bui il"T1:''#,,:i::j:"3:il'l.i:d"'"J zones. worrdrryicre, oo"^ bur: ",,.-.n,'",''-o I ier nrr...;tJffirr""ess npl-e I iiccnse t'ial rise jtt ,orrcorrsumprive uitdrire rccre.,ri,,n n,,.1 rrarur.c-DdSed ;,;,,;.,:;".":,']]tourisrn :-:1:t':(figure 6.r) edihe ed ihe reserv. I ,,, wirh positive t..,-,.r, with ,n LuLal in I ,,-.,, ,o,ot number rrencrs nr,,,-,t-,"r | of rri.-it,.-.. ,lo:::o visitors^ in 1 ^- 1 Africa, Orrr, ,,"rrr-, llon
o,"'o'rasra and Norrh America ililJ'ffi'.j i egar i' g 1,,.,,,,, / ;::l::::11:t: j:;:ii,:Tff ..":T;:? lli"t:::r:":' *u *o, : ng zor.i . and :" T:Iil;j.::::l I crs.d crosiorr. : : l*iT *i ;T:i i:: .,'ra ;u-., m in
i
jncr
J subsequenr
'
I oil'and
ll
::1".,,J,i;;""..,;rT,:'-"'j|,:[,, can result in dccrcasccr calr,reslrr lI/ and d.cre,.oJ ::
gas J
iilTi
neg'rlrvcil ailcct:'tttimals
/ .i;i:.::."
bv
il.;";,,.j:T:.-ili,,::Tr.:r;:
prant ^r^--* diversirv
in pAs by
;:,,flllii;::::
.i
r,'r".,, o'.r.L,,
.,'"T'n.l;.Tpring causes soiJ contpaclion
car-rsing
di...-,,,ro.r.lity, :rJtering animar
it'';;;:,:'-;:,:re d .e,e ;;;,;,:,;::;:;
i*i* j:..ffi fl+i:i:#, # ii Flli*iti .,on.u ror ro.' I ;Jlij'::tl,n*,1 ,l],i'l':0".'(5o-4oo : [::rr I/ *:':, r.lari rn r\maz()n,
I
rrl
m rrom ,,,,'.1 u, predario' RogrJa reri:ges I i,.;,;;;:'"t:;.."*J*:;::::..1,:.rJTff;.li:: these ,,.n, ",.,,'",,r
szone.t orest;
' a'rd
many
|
ro have to* i,,,rpn.,
.lr;;rr.
detrir.nenral
ef*bcrs orr r'r ildlifc p't )pul.rriors. I F'r.r'npl, . *"ai,,t", ' .,, ,,llil. rbraging.;.r""., ,1,,,"u in birds ,,,,,d .,n.,... g"1 / ;;--. ',.p,,1;,:j,]],j::':];l:j,"'ces where fos ancl Samson ,
,qss). 1 re, narlrre rourism ,. ."".^,]l]il.iil^ttt::t'.t.lBorle birion,per vear in spending, / ,,..;;.;..ffiilJ:,.,,ljlli:il:]0:l.r;r #1::;: / :::l;: *vernn']enr .on,..u,,::,l'"r"'.ff:'il:,11":;i.::;:::,'-:::o:'"':'il J1*:I i:::;l l;:l*:;,T,:y,i;:,r:-ll$li .T[:;;';::: ],.: :I:;;l:"il; e conservatio' of :xlraction, i :xrraction'
u,r?angtfer
forvtobe
i|
I
wildliib, although th... i, .,,;".,;:.j,i#;:l]r]llf;j*::::::.::,;
,; risk rhar rhat the r.elia'ce r.eri,,...o ^r- ..^-. -. rccre.rri,r management
n-right divert resour...,
r.il
other ,'.'anagement
lo0-)
-r6ltzitogtt/6, 918!.oi :l()(l
Sur,rto;8 ur8aq teqt saart pa^r1 lrtto.rE Ierlrur qElsa
pue uorleulturaF
auolaq ol lueld aLIl roJ
ro JJuBqlntsrp '.rr8 e
p
lJUr
,{p-rcr-u
le sapeds .reqto Burtad
Pul dq eler8rut sapads rueld aSot
ureuar tou dlqeqord p,tr lou
re.l:qta3ot paJlnfJo eAEq
ol punoj sartads ,sr TELII .serl ro11 '(oz6r
surldog) d;ntuac
rala raq8rq ot ro (186r sr,teg) )re,l qlJou aaolu ol alqe aJa,{\ rsaql Srrrrnq .sLUJE,\\ aleurlll ) JalooJ
ol aloru ol patradxe
JlELullJ Jo altns € uI aIoJ Jrour
lJoN 'JuJlolsrald eql elurs xo{ eluapr^r ar{l uo pasefl
o, sn s^,,oiie 'alaldruorur
'sat8alells
uorleldepp
-nrcrr^- -. r,",.:li?::H::ffi:, jlil:"f:,I;r1,,yooe
o,
u,;rq
'ssareqrauoN
rng peoJq sr srsdleue ,no or'1r,""1,',1::t]j::"rar r'nq sd,rr s.r e . u,,, r o, ep ue.^^d,. .ii:: l,: :?, I!]f,]:,y,:lii:.,i1 "p,," i, ui alduexa ro'; se te-tr Ir^il Jo t,'";" ," rirns 'pallil'o e^eq a.tr pr,i,*r*a aleq a.r\ areH .r"r"*q, dueru a.re r
o"raqr
q8noqrJe svd ol stearqt d"1
t{'i::J':i",ffiil:
-ods
i:Tl:':fl,qerauln^
Frrr8ueqr
e '(r e a,rn's)
sa,1,.,,1re
Bura,rasuo, ," *rrr".oe are svd ,"u, 'euHJ pue ,etssnd ,setrJeruv,r:t";,r:tft?il"j;::il]
,
s1'red) o
o
atuorp.rrr
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:J;,
ui srnrJo (d1uo
arueu ur lr"a r"a"o i, tr"r".,.]rlut rq or su rrn s r,o r Io n po,,o ., "r::,: ", ",,* "^;rtr"H1.;ff :: jHl* J::?J:i^ l, :::"-:'d"'n**o ;; ;,,,,, o, s'r{,r rrruof, 1;e d. ldo d o
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a
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ot palllu{ sr dpnls .rraqr arq,4A .sre'eueru
rut'oou
ro solduexa 'svd asaurrl3
aruauadxa rrer pue .srua8e leuorleuralur Jo r.r"*"F"u".,r -r. u.r,;r;;;ttue 's1'red laded 'lrrt]uor -oad 'Sulpun; 'uorlralas 1:ed-aid alrs :luarua'",rn*
"''
.roreru xrs paglruapr
1roo.; ,,,y pue rurf .auarJir"ri#:;:ri,::'r:TJJfi:H: -uo) ol leeJql Ieuorlppe ue paJeprsuof aq ueJ tuarua8eueru Jood .serlr^rlJe
I't-jS3J IH,\\ ONH ..1.ll:rr,r\ ,OIDI)tU .)INi-t] .]^g,tUVHl .O]lVl
g6
