PUBLIC PERSONNEL ADMINISTRATION

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responsibilities, civil service, administrative agencies and institutions, and personnel policy of the government of Bangladesh. This section provides an overview ...
ASIAN JOURNAL OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION VOL.14 NO.l (JUNE 1992): 25-45

PUBLIC PERSONNEL ADMINISTRATION: TRADITION, PROBLEMS AND ISSUES IN BANGLADESH Ahmed ShafiquI Huque and Firowz Ahmed Introduction Public Personnel Administration (PPA) is an important element of all administrative systems. While some form of PPA was obviously necessary and present in ancient civilizations, it is extremely difficult to relate the experiences in these civilizations with the modern variant of PPA. Changes in the nature of states as well as new dimensions in the system of production and in the patterns of international relations have all contributed to the current state of PPA.1 Not only have these factors combined to produce a new and distinct pattern of PPA, they have also led to the emergence of new problems in the administration of personnel. In postcolonial societies in particular, these problems, combined with the existing social, cultural, political and economic situation, have acquired an immensely complex nature. Consequently, PPA has generally failed to achieve its objectives. Drawing on the experience in the field of PPA, this paper seeks to examine the basic problems of PPA to assess their impact on the administrative system of Bangladesh. The discussion is organized into two sections. One section deals with the theoretical formulations of PPA and the economic forces that have prompted such conceptualizations. This part is based on the experience of the United States of America which

Ahmed ShafiquI Huque is Principal Lecturer at the Department of Public and Social Administration, City Polytechnic of Hong Kong; Firowz Ahmed is Assistant Professor at the Department of Public Administration, University of Dhaka.

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occupies a leading position in the capitalist world and also exerts a major influence in the socio-economic dynamics of many developing states including Bangladesh. The second section seeks to analyze PPA in Bangladesh from the standpoints of history, culture, politics and society to identify some basic problemsPPA: Growth and Theoretical Formulations Any attempt at understanding PPA must begin with a couple of assumptions. These assumptions areintimateryrelatedtothe subjectveexpanations as well as the objective and situational background of the development of PPA. First, theoretically PPA draws heavily from the field of management, and both these disciplines are rooted in "non-public administration." Therefore PPA, as we know it, is an outgrowth of non-public administration.2 Secondly, in an applied sense, administration is directly dependent on the social system as well as the system of production prevalent in the society. The first assumption indicates the theroretical position of PPA, while the second reflects the conflict situation that exists in the environment. It must be remembered that complexities and dysfunctions are likely to occur if theoretical advancements are not consistent with the developments in the system of production. PPA may be considered from two interrelated points of view: theory and application. Both must be considered in the light of environmental factors to attain a proper understanding of the process. The practice of PPA has evolved in a continuum from the Classical Management theory, through shifting emphases on Behaviouralism, Systems theory to Contingency theory. Additionally - and this is perhaps more relevant to the discussion - there is a need to consider the historical background of the evolution of PPA. This aspect is also related to the background of social evolution. "The development of modern management thought and practice can be traced by examining the evolution of societies as they have passed from pre-industrial economic structure."3 The same applies to PPA. There appears to be a correlation between a complicated system of production and the progress of the techniques of administration.

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Administration, or more specifically management, began as a spontaneous process, with hardly any trace of planning. Some semblance of planning became noticeable with the advent of systematic agricultural activities. It developed in phases along with the transformation of feudal society. These phases are categorized as pre-industrial societies where the practice of managment was consistent with the simple system of production. Daniel Wren observed that two themes [which] dominated in preindustrial society [were] (1) people had a relatively parochial view of the role that managers could play in the organization and (2) the prevailing culture viewed profit making unfavourably.4 It should be noted that although profit-motive is derided in most cultures, the concept has been the key factor in many efforts aimed at the improvement of administration. Later, the erosion of feudal society, the development of industrial society, the industrial revolution, and the capitalist mode of production led to new issues and problems in the field of administration. The history of modern administrative and management thought and theories is related to these developments. Specialization came to be recognized in other areas as well as management, and the administration of personnel was a byproduct of these circumstances. S tiff competition in the world market, the rise in the number of destitutes across the world, the frustration among industrial labourers, and other inherent weaknesses of the capitalist system added to the importance of PPA. The introduction of Scientific Management, Behaviouralism and the formulation of Systems and Contingency theories are related to this background. There are ample reasons to doubt that an objective situation for Behavioural scientists like Elton Mayo would have prevailed had the Russian Revolution not preceeded the Great Depression in the United States.5 The general Systems theory formulated in the area of the natural sciences provided the prospects of introducing such a theory for organizations. "The shaping of the globe into a single, coherent system - built on exploitation - is the first and foremost product of the pursuit of the volarization of capital."6 In the same way, competition over markets (which even led to the outbreak of two World Wars) has produced a Contingency theory based on Social Darwinism.7

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Looking at the American experience, it can be said that in the initial years, PPA did not assume any concrete form. Most of the basic issues were still in disorder, and remained dependent mainly on patronage and the spoils system. Laissez-faire economy was encouraged as the state adopted a policy of minimum interference. There was little concern for the provision of employment opportunities for the public. On the other hand, private enterprises offered employment to a larger number of citizens. The situation began to change towards the end of the nineteenth century. Discontent was becoming evident against the spoils system and demands were voiced for entry into the public service based on democratic principles. The two reasons which had contributed to such demands were the increasing rate of unemployment, and the need to make American administration more dynamic by recruiting efficient public personnel on the basis of merit and open competition. An unfortunate incident in 1881 influenced the turn of events in these directions in spite of reservations within the government about accepting changes in the area of PPA. President Garfield of the USA was shot by a dissatisfied job-seeker and those in favour of change who "took a moralistic tone to begin with were suddenly able to equate the spoils system with murder."8 Eventually, the Pendleton Act was adopted in 1883 to provide for the establishment of the United States Civil Service Commission. This event can be identified as the beginning of modern PPA in the United States. However, the organization of "Public" Personnel Administration had to depend primarily on "Private" Personnel Administration. The literature on recruitment, selection, promotion, training, transfer , compensation, separation and other such concepts had to be borrowed from personnel administration as it was practised in private organizations. There are various aspects related to PPA in the United States which are useful for the understanding of this issue in developing countries. First, Personnel Administration has developed in conjunction with socioeconomic forces along with the growth of capitalistic industries. This has influenced the formulation of theories of Personnel Administration. Secondly, there are similarities in "public" and "private" personnel

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administration that may have resulted from the nature of the state and the system of production. Consequently, public administration and private management complement one another. And thirdly, as a captialist country, the United States does have certain elements which are essential for the expansion and maintenance of markets across the world. The development of PPA has also been influenced by these elements. However, American scholars are still taking stock of problems that seem to exist in the area of PPA. These have been summed up by Donald Klingner who found the emergence of PPA to be so sudden and rapid that there was little scope for the development of a sound theoretical base. This explains the reliance on "private" personnel management. Klingner noticed attempts to eliminate political discretion in personnel administration by utilizing laws, rules and regulations. He also detected a general neglect of personnel management by academicians who consider it to be the realm of practitioners.9 Consequently, personnel functions suffer from a lack of conceptual framework and continuity among different phases. The result is an emphasis on techniques with little attention to their cumulative impact on public employees. Moreover PPA, generally considered to be value-free, operates in a political atmosphere. These problems of PPA are quite relevant to the situation in Bangladesh, to which we now turn. Bangladesh: Historical and Traditional Dimensions An analysis of the situation in Bangladesh must begin with a consideration of the position of the country in the international political and economic order as well as its internal environment. At first glance, it appears that Bangladesh possesses a framework of PPA which has been developed largely on the basis of the system prevailing in the United States, and which was initally packaged in the form of technical assistance. At the same time, a long period of British rule, 1757 to 1947 A.D., has left its imprint on administrative structures and processes on the subcontinent. But it is not unreasonable to expect that the most profound influence has resulted from the ancient tradition of public administration that prevailed

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in this area before external interventions dislocated the system. Unfortunately, the tradition has been destroyed so effectively that there is little trace of ancient thoughts and values in the present system of administration in Bangladesh. Nevertheless, a brief overview of the administrative process will be helpful to comprehend the current state of personnel administration in Bangladesh. It cannot be said that much of the early traditions have been passed on to the present system of PPA in Bangladesh. None of the theoretical or applied considerations from the Vedic age (1500-1000 B.C.) can be found, nor has there been any transfer of ideas during the reign of the Buddhist and early Muslim rulers (approximately 750 A.D.-1130 A.D. and 1199 A.D.-1533 A.D.) But the indigenous ancient systems of administration have contributed to a world-view-based culture. Although there have been philosophical diversities and breakdowns in the administrative systems, the cultural background survives. In Bangladesh, the administrators cannot be considered in isolation from this culture although, in practice, PPA is conducted along the lines of the British-Indian tradition. The industrial revolution and growth of the capitalist system in Britain led to the colonization of many parts of the world. The process affected the normal system of production in the colonized countries. Combined with the capitalistic hegemony, colonizaton stunted the growth of indigenous industries. Thus, the Indian subcontinent was deprived of the experience of the growth of dynamic private enterprise. Colonization also obstructed the prospects of developing personnel administration theories on the basis of indigenous conditions. Since PPA has developed in isolation from the existing system of production, the continuity and consistency between private and public personnel administration that are noticeable in Britain and the United States cannot be found in Bangladesh. Moreover, the system was originally established to suit the convenience of imperialist and capitalist interests. The system did undergo periodic internal adjustments to serve the interests of colonial powers and their supporters among local elites, but it did not allow for philosophical or qualitative changes. Policies were formulated and sources of personnel

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were cultivated with imperialist interests in mind. One consequence of such acts was the establishment of educational institutions which were substantially different from indigenous traditional schools. This brought about a totally alien system of education which was aimed mainly at supplying personnel for colonial administrative services. This was the principal reason behind the establishment of the Fort William College and Presidency College in Calcutta, which were the predecessors to modern educational institutions on the Indian subcontinent. While the administrative system did acquire a definite shape in the British period, PPA did not attain a similar level of stability. Administrative elites, devoid of political direction, kept on pressing for a strong position for themselves in the name of the Indianization of the civil service. The rulers acceded to such demands and made changes in the administrative structure and personnel administration, but not at the risk of jeopardizing their own interests. The East India Charter Act, 1793 prohibited the appoinment of Indians to senior posts in the civil service. The Charter Act of 1833 did away with this provision, but the change could not be implemented due to the system of patronage that was prevalent at the time. The system of open competition for recruitment was adopted in The Government of India Act, 1853. But this step was more a response to the demands of the Ox-Bridge fellowship winners than to those of educated Indians seeking public employment. The concession to demands for appointment to the civil service as a democratic right did not bring about the desired results. The tests were held in London, and no Indian could be appointed for several years. Some could not afford the trip, and others were discouraged by religious restrictions on sea travel, age bar or general backwardness in education. Two specific demands were voiced towards the end of the nineteenth century for the Indianization of the civil service. Political supporters of the colonial rulers who received the benefit of British education asked that: (1) the recruitment tests be held in London and India simultaneously; and (2) the age limit for participating in the tests be raised.10 As a result, The Government ofIndia Act, 1870 provided for the appointment of Indians through nomination. Later, the Act of1879 stipulated thatone-

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fifth of the positions must be filled by nomination from among the Indians.x l But none of these acts could appease the educated Indians, nor were the circumstances conducive to their appeasement. Up to 1871, only four Indians succeeded in entering the higher civil service, and none of them was nominated.12 Since non-political efforts to include Indians in the higher civil service did not bring about the expectedresults, the demands were later put forward in the form of a political platform. The first political party in India - the Indian National Congress - was founded in 1885. In its first meeting, speakers criticized the process of nomination to the civil service as "humiliating", and called for the government's acceptance of the two specific demands voiced earlier. The government responded by forming the Aitchison Commission in 1886. The Commission recommended raising the age limit, but rejected the call for holding tests simultaneously at two locations.13 A number of changes were recommended in the service structure by the Aitchison Commission, and the practice of appointment through promotion was adopted for provinical services. Obviously, the history of British-Indian PPA is simply one of Indianization. The trend continued up to the end of British rule in India in the 1940s and contributed to a number of features of PPA that are now noticeable in Bangladesh. These can be summarized as follows: (1) PPA has not been based on the indigenous system of production, nor has it been adjusted to the changes that have taken place in society over time. It has rather been directly related to the British imperialist system of production; (2) The administrative system has sought to obstruct, rather than develop, the indigenous system of production. Self-reliance of agriculture-based villages has been destroyed through major changes in the land system. At the same time, all possibilities of industrial progress have been subverted; (3) PPA has concerned itself mainly with controversies over the issue of recruitment and selection for many years, while other equally important issues have been neglected; (4) Principles of PPA adopted for the British capitalist industrial system have not been adopted to suit the Indian situation; and 32

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(5) PPA has been operating as a closed system and, in practice, has been isolated from the society as a whole. It should be noted that under colonial rule, conflicts inherent in PPA did not arise from administrative ideals; neither were they manifestations of conflicts between imperialist and indigenous systems of production. On the contrary, these conflicts stemmed from the expectations of local allies of the imperialist forces for more facilities. It must also be mentioned that the British felt the need to Indianize the civil service in its own interest, particularly following the First World War. Industrial development in some European countries gave rise to competition at the international level among capitalist forces as they tried to capture markets. Naturally, the British sought to strengthen their own position in the colonies. For this purpose, they tried to win over native administrators and political elites by granting them various concessions. Thus, PPA in the British period may be viewed as the product of conflicts inherent in world capitalism as well as among opportunists and indigenous elites. The First World War failed to bring about a long-term equilibrium in the capitalist world. Thus, the Second World War was destined to affect the political geopgraphy of the world. New nations were born across the globe including the Indian subcontinent, and indigenous elites constituted the forces that came to power and prominence after these changes. They were supported by local industrial entrepreneurs who expected the support to be mutual. But the ruling elites failed, in most cases, to provide opportunities for adequate development of the system of production. At the same time, they were unable to ensure uninterrupted growth of indigenous industries. Two explanations can be put forward for such failures. First, the rulers of newly independent countries were practically oblivious to or unconcerned about the ills of world capitalism. Secondly, the economy of most of these new states was crippled by their total dependence on external assitance. Governements were unable to proceed with industrial production or expansion. Similar failures were evident in the case of private industrial production. Consequently, PPA could not develop in conjuction with the changes in the system of production in new states.

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The termination of British rule in 1947 ushered in a period of Pakistani colonial rule. PPA, historically based on the British colonial tradition, began to be tinged by inputs from American scholars and experts through advice and programmes of technical assistance as Pakistan developed very good relations with the United States. But the results continued to be the same. The prospects of developing PPA on the basis of indigenous culture were still not explored. Private sector development was encouraged in Pakistan, but this sector was complimentary to the world capitalist system and, therefore, did not allow PPA to develop spontaneously. PPA was not approached from a comprehensive point of view either in the public or the private sector. As a result, PPA continued to suffer from similar problems and shortcomings although the situation was expected to change after the departure of the British colonial rulers. Issues and Problems in Bangladesh : Contemporary Dimensions Bangladesh became independent in 1971 after a traumatic war of liberation. After the nationalist leaders came to power, there were expectations of major changes in several areas of personnel administration as these leaders had been very critical of the Pakistani system of administration. But due to a number of reasons, such changes have not materialized. The systems of production and administration have not yet been established on indigenous bases even after two decades of independence. Since the problems can no longer be attributed solely to colonial rule, an attempt should be made to identify other possible causes. It is clear that PPA has not made any progress. It remains infested with problems and is affected by a number of issues that have their roots in the legacy of colonial rule. But there are other causes related to the culture, state, constitutional responsibilities, civil service, administrative agencies and institutions, and personnel policy of the government of Bangladesh. This section provides an overview of the issues and problems of PPA in Bangladesh.

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Nature of the State Bangladesh inherited a number of problems from Pakistan at the time of independence, and some of them were in the area of public administration. The country has constantly suffered from poverty and instability. It has been under intermittent military rule for long periods since independence, and brief periods of democratic and civilian rule enjoyed by the country can best be described as one-party rule. One constant feature is the disagreements and controversies on various issues among the key actors in the system. These include: the form of government (parliamentary or presidential), nature of the economy (socialist, capitalist or mixed), and development strategies. The lack of an ideological stand on the part of the government adds to the confusion. Commissions are constituted for drawing detailed programmes to bring about major changes in the system. But the social background of the members appointed to such Commissions do not seem to be consistent with the tasks to which they are assigned. Moreover, the dominance of the civil-military bureaucracy is so strong that recommendations affecting the position of these groups are often not implemented. For instance, recommendations made by the Administrative and Services Reorganization Committee (1972) could not be implemented, while those of the Pay and Services Commission (1976) were implemented with certain modifications.14 There is a lack of consensus on many vital issues, and popular opinion and demands are not taken into consideration in the making of crucial decisions. The legislature has always been dominated by the ruling party and laws are enacted with total disregard to the sentiments of the opposition members in the Parliament. Even elections are no longer considered as indicators of the popularity of the elected as rigging is very common. The stand of the government on various matters of national and international importance is not clear. Contradictory positions seem to be favoured at different times, depending on the convenience of the ruling elite. As a result, it is extremely difficult to predict the decisions and actions taken by the government. A chaotic and confusing situation

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prevails, both under civilian as well as military rule. Thus, the nature of the state has not allowed a consistent development of programmes and policies in any area. This state of affairs inevitably has an even more adverse effect on PPA which has always been neglected. Historical and Cultural Traditions Historically, PPA in Bangladesh has been influenced by divergent traditions. In the past, the area had been subjected to rule by feudal chiefs, independent kings, landlords, and representatives of the rulers at Delhi and Islamabad as well as Great Britain. Naturally, public administration was organized in different ways to suit the needs of the rulers, while those of the public and the country were neglected. The system became more organized during the Mughal period (1576-1707 A.D.), but it was aimed mainly at the setting up of an efficient machinery in Bengal for the collection of revenue. Later, the British rulers continued the colonial practice of administration in relation to personnel, further organizing the system. But most of the changes resulted from developments and demands made in Great Britain, and not according to indigenous needs. The net effect has been a PPA system which was established without consideration of all factors essential to its sound development. Culturally, the region has been influenced by brief periods of independence followed by long periods of domination by external powers. The topography and climate have been very favourable to cultivation, and the abundance of crops has contributed to a peaceful atmosphere. But it also led to repeated attempts to colonize the area by foreign powers. Colonial rulers enforced rigid systems that were not responsive to public needs. They emphasized loyalty to procedures and unquestioned obedience in the system of PPA. Consequently, the PPA system in Bangladesh has not developed the capacity to respond to the needs of the public and the administrators or to changes in the environment. In the post-independence period, Bangladesh ran into several problems. Prevalent economic and social conditions contributed to a large extent to the process. The state could not recover fully from the damages

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incurred in the liberation war. Moreover, due to repeated shocks in the political system, the situation deteriorated. A high percentage of unemployment continued while the country suffered from a shortage of skilled manpower. Resources for experiments and research in the area of PPA were not available, and all governments that came to power demonstrated their preference to accord priority to other areas. Huge amounts of money from the national exchequer as well as foreign assistance were spent on development projects and building of physical infrastructures, while the crucial task of PPA continued to be neglected. Constitutional Responsibility and the Failure of the Private Sector One of the constitutional responsibilities of the Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh is the provision of employment to the public.15 The private sector in Bangladesh has not developed adequately to absorb a large section of the employables. Therefore, the government must assume this formidable responsibility which is discharged in a disjointed manner. One example is the Food-for-Works programme which is aimed at providing agricultural labourers with employment.16 The employables produced by the educational institutions are provided for in a haphazard manner through occasional recruitment to the civil service and other nationalized organizations and agencies. Increased emphasis is now placed on large-scale recruitment exercises for the armed forces and other paramilitary services. But these attempts do not serve the needs of the country, and represent only unsystematic and inadequate efforts to maintain the equilibrium of the system. The pressure on the system is very strong, while little is done to provide employment to the large number of employables. Consequently, a healthy system of PPA has not been able to take an institutional shape. Conflicts within the Public Service There are a number of controversies within the service which contribute to the problems of PPA in Bangladesh. Conflicts between specialists and

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generalists are commonplace in all countries of the world, although the mainifestations may vary. The tradition of public administration in Bangladesh has always been biased in favour of the generalists. They have held and exercised more power, while the specialists have been given authority only on technical matters. The latter group is dissatisfied since technical competence is not given adequate weight and they are unable to perform duties in the best way. They feel that major administrative decisions pertaining to technical matters require a substantial degree of experitse in the related field, and this is not appreciated by the generalists who wield a considerable amount ofpower. Consequently in 1985, a joint platform of engineers, agricultural specialists and physicians launched a movement for bringing about changes that would place the specialists in better positions and allow decisions to be made with adequate input from the technical personnel. The professionals went on strike from November 22,1985. Several resigned from their jobs, while fourteen were dismissed by the government in this confrontation. Abstention from work by the professionals resulted in serious disruptions in administration, particularly at the hospitals. Early in 1986, the President of Bangladesh intervened, reinstated the dismissed professionals, and instituted a Committee for considering the demands of the professionals. Chaired by the Deputy Chief Martial Law Administrator and Chiefof Naval Staff, the Committee included the incumbent Ministers of Health, Agriculture, Land Administration and Land Reforms, and Labour and Social Welfare. The move of the government succeeded in stemming the momentum of the movement. Subsequent political unrest (1987-90) and change of government (199091) dominated the national agenda in the following years, and the issue has remained unresolved. There are other divisions, although not always apparent, among the public servants in Bangladesh. Immediately after independence, officials who participated in the freedom movement received a bonus of "two years seniority" and were given preferential treatment over the non-freedom fighters for their services towards the independence of the country. They were able to get rapid promotions and soon came to occupy crucial positions in important administrative agencies. The non-freedom fighter

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officials rallied and were able to regain their position since they outnumbered the freedom fighters. The decline of enthusiasm over the liberation war as time went by also helped their cause. The conflict between these two groups affected PPA in Bangladesh for a long time, and continues to add to conflicts that arise in other areas. A related issue is the conflict between the members of the former Civil Service of Pakistan (CSP) and officers belonging to the other services. The CSP officers constituted the highest level of public service in pre-independence Bangladesh and occupied the most powerful positions in th government. After independence, the government looked to these officers for leadership in the public service. Unfortunately, the attitudes and practices of the pre-independence period persisted, even though they were not consistent with the needs of the new state. Moreover, the CSP officers expected certain privileges due to their position, experience and perceived superiority in comparison to the other public officials. Naturally, this resulted in resentment among the other officials and add to the number of conflicts within the service. An example of the confused, attempt to resolve such conflicts was the organization of the Senior Services Pool in 1979 "to constitute a new apex cadre of senior officials of proven quality drawn from all branches of the civil service on the basis of merit and ability to be tested in an objective manner."17 This resulted in a sense of resentment among the non-cadre civil servants. After almost a decade and a change of government, a cabinet Sub-Committee was constituted to examine the issue. Consequently, the Senior Services Pool was abolished in 1989. This tendency by governments to "undo" the deeds of previous rulers obstructs the development of policy. A recent development in the public service of Bangladesh is an increase in the appointment and deputation of armed services personnel to civil administrative positions.18 Officers are not ready to accept these infiltrators from outside the public service, and there are resentments against such deputations, expecially from those who feel that such actions may lead to obstructions in their progress through the hierarchy. The conduct of PPA becomes extremely difficult with such diverse kinds of division and fragmentation along different lines.

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Dispersal of Authority and Responsibility PPA in Bangladesh is conducted under the supervision of a number of authorities. The Ministry of Establishment (ME) is the principal agency performing this task. The ME is responsible for most of the activities related to personnel administration including formulation of recruitment policies, staffing, training, promotion, compensation, discipline and general supervision of all such activities. But the ME is dependent and linked intimately with a number of other ministries and agencies which collaborate to accomplish the functions associated with PPA. The Bangladesh Public Service Commission advertises vacancies, conducts tests for the selection of certain categories of civil servants and submits a list of eligible and available applicants to the ME. The Ministry of Finance oversees its own cadre of finance services and is instrumental in determining overall salary policy. The Ministry of Law and Justice is also a participant in the process of PPA. It oversees PPA from a judicial point of view, and must be consulted on legal aspects of personnel administration by all ministries and divisions. Additionally, the offices of the President and the Prime Minister are parties to the process of PPA as certain appointments, promotions and terminations must be approved and endorsed by the head of state or government. Thus, the authority to organize and operate PPA in Bangladesh is dispersed among various agencies and offices. This results in overlapping jurisdictions and, sometimes, crucial decisions are delayed. Complications arise frequently as all the agencies involved in the process cannot be coordinated very effectively. Dispersal of authority and decision-making power on personnel matters appears to be a major problem in the organization of PPA in Bangladesh. Lack of a Pragmatic Personnel Policy Most of the problems mentioned earlier can be linked to one deficiency in the administrative system of Bangladesh - the absence of a practical personnel policy. As already discussed, the historical and colonial

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tradition of Bangladesh did not allow the development of a suitable personnel policy and post-independence rulers have accorded more importance to other areas. During the colonial period, cosmetic changes were made in the interest of the colonial rulers and long-term projections were not even contemplated as the intention was simply to extract and transfer resources. Later, post-independence needs were not considered and PPA remained in a disorganized state. Over the years, incremental changes have been made to resolve problems as they crop up. But an allencompassing, realistic and public-oriented personnel policy has not been developed. Consequently, the country suffers from discrepancies and inconsistencies in a number of areas. All the bodies constituted for reform and reorganization have lamented the lack of, and suggested the need for, a personnel policy. They have, however, been unable to put forward concrete proposals in this regard. The principal cause is that reforms have not been attempted under a stable political system. Immediately after independence, the objective was to transform a provincial administrative system into a national one. Subsequent attempts were made generally after takeover by the military, and the exercises were aimed at pointing out the defects of the previous regime, thereby establishing excuses for overthrowing civilian governments. Members of such bodies recommending reforms were drawn from experts sympathetic to the regime in power, and there was no comprehension or consideration of the relationship between the system of production and personnel administration. For example, the Administrative and Services Reorganization Committee (1972) seemed eager to take steps consistent with the ideology preached by the government, but there was no attempt to implement the recommendations by the regime, which was not sure of its ideological stand. Most of the other attempts at reform ended in revision of pay scales, or other minor changes. The Committee for Administrative Reform and Reorganization (1982) ended up with recommendations for major changes in the area of local government, while suggesting minor changes for public and personnel administration. The issues raised in this article have their impact on particular aspects of PPA in Bangladesh. Recruitment to the public service through

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a central agency such as the Public Service Commission can be supported in the interest of maintaining uniform standards, facilitating the tasks of administering tests and evaluating applicants and, indeed, economy of scale. But such an arrangement also bears the danger of overlooking the needs of particular agencies and positions as well as the importance of concentrating evaluation in the hands of a small number of examiners to offset the variations that may occur among a large number of examiners. Thus, it is necessary to reconsider the merits of recruitment by a central agency against departmental authority over recruitment. The area of training for public service is also affected. There are no fixed rules for the assessment of training needs and for the identification of personnel who must improve their skills or remedy their defects through a systematic process of learning. Moreover, questions can be raised about the relevance of training that is imparted to the public sevants, and how it is utilized in the performance of their duties. Due to the nature of the system, training opportunities are awarded selectively to individuals who are favoured by the ruling group. A similar situation prevails in the areas of promotion and transfer. Promotions are not always consistent with performance and there are frequent allegations that officials get promoted without possessing the required qualifications or achieving an excellent record of performance on the job. Similarly, transfers are made or viewed more as punishments and rewards rather than as opportunities to broaden the horizon of knowledge of the official or to place an individual in a position where he or she will be more effective. The nature of the state and the society is reflected in the area of pay and compensation. Owing to the absence of a concrete manpower plan, among other things, the government's control over the job market is minimal. The unplanned growth of the public sector has resulted in a situation where there are rampant discrepancies in pay and allowances between the public and private sectors. Salaries for qualified personnel are much higher in the private sector. Consequently, the government has to settle for employees willing to take a chance to appear for public service examinations. They are promised only a chance to sit for an examination and, if successful, to be offered employment on an unknown date (since 42

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examinations are postponed) and at an unknown place (that is, the agency and location of appointment) for a fixed salary, which cannot be raised to attract the most deserving or extraordinary employee.19 Even at the end of service, there are complications and delays in settling pension and other claims.20 Thus, PPA in Bangladesh must operate from a disadvantageous position in terms of attracting and retaining the best talents by offering competitive terms and conditions of service. The practice of collective bargaining can serve as an invaluable aid to the process of PPA. It provides a channel for the presentation of the demands of public employees to management. But the independence of Bangladesh was followed, within a few years, by the adoption of a singleparty system, and thereafter Bangladesh has remained essentially a singleparty dominated system. The Bangladesh Awami League, the Bangladesh Nationalist Party and the Jatiya Party have successively dominated the political scene since independence, and have not allowed a second political party to play a significant role during their rule. This has affected the process of collective bargaining as the labour fronts of these political parties have dominated the negotiations. Therefore, the political system is not conducive to the execution of PPA functions in the most effective manner. Collective bargaining in the public service is profoundly influenced by political considerations and does not serve the interests of public employees. Rather it seeks to protect the interests of a few powerful people who have developed links with the ruling elites. Thus, the issues of conflict and controversy prevailing in the area of PPA in Bangladesh manifest themselves in the form of problems. Ramifications become evident in such areas as recruitment, training, promotion and transfer of public employees. Complications arise in the determination of pay and compensation and even after retirement. It can be said that the problems are multiplied due to the combined effect of historical, cultural, political, social and environmental factors. Observations To sum up, PPA has suffered generally from neglect. It is an area which has not been taken seriously by scholars, even though it is an essential 43

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component of the system of public administration. This shortcoming is reflected in the state of PPA. Although efforts are made to understand the process by drawing upon knowledge in other areas of study, these are still not adequate for the comprehension and development of an effective process of PPA. The situation in Bangladesh is even more complicated. The country is confronted with problems in many areas including PPA. While some problems stem from the non-development of theories on PPA, others are related to the particular situation prevailing in Bangladesh. These can be attributed to the history of long colonial rule, the nature of the postindependence political system as well as social, economic and cultural factors. The country has not been able to recover fully from the traumas of the liberation war, nor from post-independence blows to the stability of the system. The tradition of a group of personnel isolated from society seems to appeal to the rulers who do not display preference for a change in attitudes. The development of PPA in isolation from the society and its needs has shaped the relationship between the public and the civil service. The prime need seems to be a comprehensive rethinking on PPA in Bangladesh. There must be an assessment of the needs of the time, expectations of the public and civil servants and determination of priorities on the part of the government. Most of the problems can be dealt with, as a beginning, by developing a comprehensive, relevant and concrete personnel policy for the country. Unless PPA is recognized as an important element of the administrative system and a serious, result-oriented personnel policy is formulated, the problems will continue to impede the process of smooth public administration in Bangladesh.

NOTES 1. L. Megginson, Personnel and Human Resources Administration (Homewood, Illinois : R.D. Irwin, 1977), pp. 46-61. 2. W. Whitman, "Preface," in D.E. Klingner, Public Personnel Management: Contexts and Strategies (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1980), p. ix. 3. M J Gannon, Management • An Integrated Framework (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1977), p. 8.

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4. See D. Wren, The Evolution of Management Thought, 3rd ed. (New York: Wiley, 1987). 5. F.E. Kast and J.E. Rosenzweig, Organization and Management, A Systems and Contingency Approach (New York: McGraw Hill, 1979). pp. 32-36. 6. H. Addo et al., Development as Social Transformation' Reflection on the Global Problematique (London: Hodder, 1985), p. 3. 7. Kast and Rosenzweig, Organization and Management. 8. J.M. Shafritz, A.C. Hyde and D.H. Rosenbloom, Personnel Management in Government: Politics and Process (New York: Marcel Dekker, 1981), p. 8. 9. D. Klingner, Public Personnel Management, p. 5. 10. M. A. Chaudhuri, The Civil Service in Pakistan (Dhaka: National Institute of Public Administration, 1969), p. 20. 11. A. Ahmed, Role ofHigher Civil Servants in Pakistan (Dhaka: National Institute of Public Administration, 1968), p. 44. 12. For details, see L.C.C. O'Malley, The IndianCivil Service (1601-1930) (London: Frank Cass, 1931). 13. M.M. Khan, Bureaucratic Self-Preservation • Failure ofMajor Administrative Reform Efforts in the Civil Service of Pakistan (Dhaka: University of Dhaka, 1980), p. 86. 14. See M.M. Khan, "Politics of Administrative Reform and Reorganization in Bangladesh," Public Administration and Development 7 (4, December 1987) : 351-62. 15. Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh, Constitution of the People's Republic of Bangladesh (Dhaka: Bangladesh Government Press, 1972), Article 15B. 16. The Food-for-Works programme is basically a relief-oriented programme that became popular following floods and famine in the early 1970s in Bangladesh. It provides the rural poor and unemployed with the opportunity to take part in the construction of physical infrastructures that can be accomplished with unskilled labour. The surplus labour is used to execute public works projects. The workers are compensated with wheat. Through this programme, a largenumberofjobs are created in the rural areas forunskilled workers, particularly agricultural workers in the season of high unemployment. 17. S.G. Ahmed, Public Personnel Administration in Bangladesh (Dhaka: University of Dhaka, 1986), p. 172. 18. S.S. Islam, Bangladesh: State and Economic Strategy (Dhaka: University Press Limited, 1988), p. 164; and A.S. Huqueand M.Y. Akhter, "Militarisation and Opposition in Bangladesh: Parliamentary Approval and Public Reaction," The Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics 27 (2, July 1989), p. 175. 19. Examinations for recruitment to the public service have not been held regularly in Bangladesh. There have been postponements of examinations and delays in the publication of results, as well as prolonged waits before appointments could be made. It has not been possible to hold the examinations at regular intervals. 20. Such complaints are very common in Bangladesh. Letters to the editor are published in newspapers frequently describing the plight of pensioners and asking for intervention by higher authorities. The final settlement of the accounts of a retired public official may take a few years and, in some instances, much longer. Meanwhile, the person has to suffer due to delay on the part of the administration which he or she has served for years.

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