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Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE July 2009 ISSN 1302-6488 Volume: 10 Number: 3

From the Editor-in-Chief Prof. Dr. Ugur DEMIRAY…….....…………..……………………...……..……………………….4-8

Notes for Editor Self-Efficacy Of Formally and Non-Formally Trained Public Sector Teachers Muhammad Nadeem ANWAR University of Sargodha, PAKISTAN…………...……..…..…..……..………...………………9-22 Changes of Learners‘ Socio-Economic Context After Completing A Professional Education from Bangladesh Open University A. K. M. Iftekhar KHALID, BANGLADESH……………………...……………………………23-31 Use of Convergent Mobile Technologies For Sustainable Economic Transformation in the Lives of Small Farmers In Rural India C. S. H. N. Murthy Institute of Management Studies INDIA …………………….……………...........………32-41 Articles THE TURKISH JOURNAL ON ONLINE EDUCATION: A Content Analysis Colin LATCHEM, Open learning consultant, AUSTRALIA….....…....…..……….………42-54 A COMPARATIVE SURVEY ON MIND MAPPING TOOLS Avgoustos A. TSINAKOS, T.E.I. of Kavala, Ag. GREECE Thanasis BALAFOUTIS, University of the Aegean, Samos, GREECE………………….55-67 E-LEARNING AND THE GLOBAL DIVIDE: The Challenges Facing Distance Education in Africa Bamidele A. OJO, Fairleigh Dickinson University. Nj. USA……………….……………68-79 CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION IN LEARNING: The Changing Roles OF ICT Mehmet KESIM, Anadolu University, Open Education Faculty, TURKEY……………80-88

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Technology And Teaching In Post-Modern Environments Or Rhetoric Negotiations of Education Geir HAUGSBAKK, Lillehammer University College, Lillehammer, NORWAY……………………………………………………………………..….89-104 A Simulation On Teaching Volhard Method Celal BAYRAK, Hacettepe University Nilgün SECKEN, Hacettepe University Funda OZCAN OZTURK, Ankara University Evrim URAL ALSAN, Hacettepe University Ankara, TURKEY..……………......…...105-116 Comparative Perspectives of Study Strategies Among High And Low Achievers Distance Learning Students Muhammad Imran YOUSUF Pir Mehr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture University, PAKISTAN..……..….…….........…117-126 Explaining Academic Achievement in Secondary Teacher Training Programme Through Distance Mode Mamta GARG & Sudesh GAKHAR, Panjab University, Chandigarh, INDIA..……127-144 Ethical and Value Sensitization Through Open and Distance Learning Pathaneni SIVASWAROOP, IGNOU INDIA..……..….……....……..….…….......……145-154 A Framework for Intelligent Voice-Enabled E-Education Systems Azeta A. A., Ayo C. K., Ikhu-Omoregbe N. A. Atayero A. A. Covenant University, Ota, NIGERIA..……..….……....……..….……155-168 Development and Implementation Of A Bioinformatics Online Distance Education Learning Tool in Africa Oluwagbemi Olugbenga OLUSEUN Covenant University, NIGERIA..……..….……....……..….…….……....……..….……169-177 Legal Foundations, Pedagogical Challenges, And Technological Constraints of Distance Education In Indonesia Aminudin ZUHAIRI., Andayani & Dwi Astuti APRIJANI Universitas Terbuka, INDONESIA..……..……....……..….…….……....……..….……178-192

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Facilitators' Perception of Interactions in an Online Learning Program Hasan CALISKAN, Anadolu University, TURKEY..……….......................………….193-203 A Proposal of Framework for Professional Development of Turkish Teachers With Respect To Information And Communication Technologies Işıl KABAKÇI, Anadolu University, Eskisehir, TURKEY.........................………….204-216 The Epistemological Beliefs of Distance Education Students Meral GUVEN, Anadolu University, Eskisehir, TURKEY.........................………….217-246 Reviews DIGITAL SIMULATIONS FOR IMPROVING EDUCATION: Learning Through Artificial Teaching Environments Edited by Gibson, David, Reviewed by Özlem OZAN Faculty of Education, Eskişehir Osmangazi University, Eskisehir-TURKEY…….247-251 EFFECTIVE BLENDED LEARNING PRACTICES: Evidence-based Perspectives in ICT-facilitated Education Edited by Elizabeth Stacey and Philippa Gerbic, Reviewed by Reviewed by Yasin OZARSLAN Faculty of Education, Eskisehir Osmangazi University, Eskisehir-TURKEY…….252-254 THE CHALLENGES FOR MARKETING DISTANCE EDUCATION IN ONLINE ENVIRONMENT An Integrated Approach Reviewed by Natalija LEPKOVA.....................…………..........................………….255-259

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Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE July 2009 ISSN 1302-6488 Volume: 10 Number: 3 From the Editor

Greetings Dear readers of TOJDE, TOJDE is appeared on your screen now. This is the third issue ue of the year 2009 and 10th anniversary of TOJDE as Volume 10, Number: 3. In this issue it is published three notes for Editor, 15 articles, 3 book reviews. And this time, 30 authors from 10 different countries are placed in TOJDE. These published articles are from Australia, Bangladesh, Greece, India, Indonesia, Norway, Nigeria, Pakistan, Turkey and USA The first Notes for editor arrived from Pakistan on ―Self-Efficacy Of Formally And NonFormally Trained Public Sector Teachers‖ from University of Sargodha, written by Dr. Muhammad Nadeem ANWAR. IN his paper he compares the formally and non-formally trained in-service public sector teachers‘ Self-efficacy by based on Five hypotheses which were developed describing no difference in the self-efficacy of formally and non-formally trained teachers to influence decision making, influence school resources, instructional self-efficacy, disciplinary self-efficacy and create positive school climate. The second notes for editor is titled as Changes of Learners‘ Socio-Economic Context After Completing A Professional Education From Bangladesh Open University which is written by A. K. M. Iftekhar KHALID, from Bangladesh Open University. In his paper, he tries to elevate the morale of the organizations like BOU in involving more effort for expanding the organization and also to understand how successful these organization in imparting the knowledge and skill and how effectively the students are able to use those knowledge and skill in their professional life which in turn affects the learners‘ income and social esteem. T ―Use Of Convergent Mobile Technologies For Sustainable Economic Transformation In The Lives Of Small Farmers In Rural India‖ is the third paper for ―Notes for Editor‖ section of TOJDE‘s in this issue. It has written by C.S.H.N.Murthy, Professor in Journalism and Mass Communication from Institute of Management Studies, India. An article points out that a visualization of such an optimistic design of use of convergent mobile technologies. The first article is from Australia which on ―Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education‖ approaches its tenth year, it seemed appropriate to assess to what extent its original goals had been achieved by conducting a content analysis of the Notes for Editors and articles in the issues of appearing between January 2000 and October 2008. This content explores that the majority of articles were from Asian countries, with Turkey providing the greatest number of contributions. There were also many papers from the Middle East, Africa, South America, USA, Eastern and Western Europe, and Australia. These articles covered a very wide range of topics and while the quality varied, there has been a appreciable improvement in the research and reporting since the journal‘s inception. Some of the papers, presenting non-Western perspectives, are particularly illuminating. The earlier articles tended to be descriptive or theoretical, but the more recent papers have been quantitative-experimental and qualitativedescriptive studies into distance education and e-learning needs, policies, procedures, practices and outcomes. 4

The Second article is on ―A Comparative Survey On Mind Mapping Tools‖, written by Dr. Avgoustos A. TSINAKOS and Thanasis BALAFOUTIS from Greece. As you remember Avgoustos A. TSINAKOS is one of the TOJDE editors since 2004. In their paper they are trying to investigate different user profiles and to identify various axes for comparison among mind mapping tools that are suitable for a specific user profile, describe each axis and then analyze each tool. The third articles are from USA.The third one is on ―E-Learning and The Global Divide: The Challenges Facing Distance Education in Africa‖, written by Dr. Bamidele A. OJO from School of Political & International Studies, Fairleigh Dickinson University. Nj. USA. He concludes that the crisis within African societies constitutes a serious challenge to the implementation of and the effectiveness of distance education in Africa and therefore contributes to the widening of the digital divide rather than reducing it. The 4th articles arrived from Turkey which is prepared on ―CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION IN LEARNING: The Changing Roles OF ICT‖, written by professor Mehmet Kesim Anadolu University, Open Education Faculty, Eskisehir, TURKEY. In his study, he Concludes that As social changes take place towards a digital society, preestablished social connections have also been transferred and somewhat transformed into the digital domain. Society has been shifted into virtual communities by these technologies, and has managed to expand and develop even further by doing so. The fifth article came from Norway and written on Technology And Teaching In PostModern Environments-Or Rhetoric Negotiations of Education, by Geir HAUGSBAKK, from Faculty of Social Sciences, Lillehammer University College, NORWAY. He mentioned in his article that developments concerning technology and education during recent decades can most adequately be understood as a rhetorically based negotiation between two basic, antagonistic positions. The first position is grounded in perspectives of ―the industrial society‖, the other one in notions of ―the learning society‖, Then, tendencies described in the article are presented as overall trends within education, but the use of new technology to a large extent seems to be connected to new and more flexible educational methods and elements of distance education. The sixth article which is entitled as ―A Simulation On Teaching Volhard Method‖, chemistry education and written by Celal BAYRAK, Nilgün SECKEN, Funda OZCAN OZTURK and Evrim URAL ALSAN,Ankara, TURKEY. In their paper focused on study, a computer assisted teaching material has been developed for tertiary level. This material has been planned to use in Analytical Chemistry Course content in the subject of quantitative methods. This teaching material has been developed by using Flash program and consisted of animations and simulations related to the quantitative determination of chloride by Volhard Method. Even though the quantitative determination of chloride by Volhard Method could be conducted in the laboratory setting, this experiment has been prepared by using simulations to give students the opportunity to repeat the experiment steps when they want, to control the each step, observing the changes on the equivalence point better via Volhard method.

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“Comparative Perspectives of Study Strategies Among High And Low Achievers Distance Learning Students‖, send by Dr. Muhammad Imran YOUSUF, from the Division of Continuing Education Pir Mehr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture University, Rawalpindi, Pakistan. In his paper aimed that better understanding and draw perceptions of low and high achiever distance learners about their study patterns. The study indicates the areas where significant difference is found among low and high achievers of Allama Iqbal Open University, Pakistan through a self developed questionnaire covering their preferred study location, study times, number of hours spent on study, the difficulties affecting their study patterns and the organization of study strategies in comparative perspective. The eight and ninth article is came from India. The eight one is titled as ―Explaining Academic Achievement In Secondary Teacher Training Programme Through Distance Mode‖, written by Dr. Mamta GARG and Dr. Sudesh GAKHAR. Their paper is focused on that budgeting time, conditions for study and interpersonal relations ser ve as strong predictors of success in teacher training may be considered both by the teacher educators and guidance workers in the field to enable the distance trainees to restructure their physical environment whether at home or elsewhere for study rather than to wait for the availability of conducive environment. The 9th article is by Pathaneni SIVASWAROOP from IGNOU Regional Centre, Nagpur, INDIAon Ethical And Value Sensitization Through Open And Distance Learning. The study defens that spreading of Ethics and Values in the Society is an inherent activity of Education system. Distance Education (DE) being the latest form of Education, it is quite natural that DE also has to spread Ethics and Values in the Society. Some characteristic features of DE facilitate its role in this activity. Next and the eleventh articles are from Nigeria. The tent article written on A Framework For Intelligent Voice-Enabled E-Education Systems by Azeta A. A.; Ayo C. K.; Ikhu-Omoregbe N. A. and Atayero A. A. from College of Science and Technology Covenant University, Ota, NIGERIA. Their paper presents a framework for an intelligent voice-enabled e-Education application and an adaptation of the framework for the development of a prototype Course Registration and Examination (CourseRegExamOnline) module. This study is a preliminary report of an ongoing eEducation project containing the following modules: enrollment, course registration and examination, enquiries/information, messaging/collaboration, e-Learning and library. The eleventh article arrived from Nigeria too which is written by Oluwagbemi Olugbenga OLUSEUN on ―Development and Implementation of A Bioinformatics Online Distance Education Learning Tool in Africa‖. His research work based on instrumental in elucidating the need for a suitable implementation platform for bioinformatics education in parts of the African continent that are less aware of this innovative and interesting field. The aim of this research work was to disseminate the basic knowledge and applications of bioinformatics to these parts of the African continent.

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The article is which numbered as 12, from Indonesia. Article is entitled as ―Legal Foundations, Pedagogical Challenges, And Technological Constraints of Distance Education in Indonesia‖ from Universitas Terbuka, INDONESIA, written by Aminudin ZUHAIRI, Andayani and Dwi Astuti APRIJANI. Their paper reports legal foundations, pedagogical challenges, and technological constraints of distance education in Indonesia. Legal reform and policy changes in education have taken place recently in Indonesia, including the ratification of new Laws and regulations in education. These changes have effects on distance education as part of the effort to meet the right to education for its citizens. Distance education is expected to respond to challenges in effective implementation of lifelong learning. Despite some constraints, technology is used in distance education to enhance the implementation of the right to education. The thirteenth article is from Anadolu University, the communication Faculty on ―Facilitators' Perception of Interactions in an Online Learning Program‖ which is written by Hasan CALISKAN, Anadolu University, and Eskisehir, TURKEY. He mentioned in his article that this is not surprising because one of the most important factors in learning appears to be interaction among learners and interaction between instructor and learners. No matter how learning takes place, interaction has always been of great importance so that an effective learning can occur. The article 14 is again from Anadolu University, Turkey. It is titled as ―A Proposal of Framework For Professional Development of Turkish Teachers With Respect To Information and Communication Technologies‖. Her paper disused on professional development programs for teachers addressing Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) are either inefficient or far from being productive. The reasons behind the inefficiency of such professional development activities are considered as the incompatibility between the level of training and teachers‘ ICT skills, and the lack of active use of ICTs by teachers in the teaching and learning processes. Bearing this problem in mind, the current study aims at proposing a framework for organizing professional development activities for Turkish teachers regarding ICTs with an emphasis on teachers‘ ICT-related needs, competencies and levels of technology use. The last article is about ―The Epistemological Beliefs Of Distance Education Students‖, which written by Meral GUVEN, Faculty of Education The Department of Educational Sciences, Anadolu University, TURKEY. She aims with her study to determine the epistemological beliefs of the students attending to pre-school education and English language teaching departments in distance education, besides it was attempted to investigate these beliefs in terms of certain variables, namely, gender, department and grade that the students attend, and their academic achievement level, lastly the education level of their parents. The first Book review is on DIGITAL SIMULATIONS FOR IMPROVING EDUCATION: Learning Through Artificial Teaching Environments, which edited by Gibson, David, and published by Information Science Reference, Hershey. It is reviewed by Ozlem OZAN, Faculty of Education, Eskisehir Osmangazi University, and Eskisehir, TURKEY. She points out that this book offers trainers and educators the information and perspective about instructional simulations. What is simulation? What is the underlying considerations designing instructional simulation? How could simulation be used for improving teaching and learning? What are the case studies? How are graduate students engaged on teams to create new games? 7

The second reviewed book is titled as EFFECTIVE BLENDED LEARNING PRACTICES: Evidence-based Perspectives in ICT-facilitated Education Edited by Elizabeth Stacey and Philippa Gerbic and reviewed by Yasin OZARSLAN, Eskisehir Osmangazi University, and Eskisehir, TURKEY. He mentioned that this book provide research perspectives on a range of blended learning issues and contexts and discuss implications for teaching and learning. The book also links its research to practice through its discussion of pedagogy and recommendations for blended learning practices. The third book review belogsto me and my colleague Dr. N. Serdar Sever. The book is titled as THE CHALLENGES FOR MARKETING DISTANCE EDUCATION IN ONLINE ENVIRONMENTAn Integrated Approach reviewed by Reviewed by Natalija LEPKOVA, from Lithuania. LITHUANIA The book is purposed of role of marketing and to understand trends in the field and customer needs in a global marketplace. In this case the customers are students and they could be called as a ―kings‖ of the market. This is a challenge with online learning because the field is in a constant state of development. Marketing online education programs is becoming more of a necessity as global competition increases. To be on time and in a right place-this is the target of distance learning marketing. This book is written by 37 authors wrote 22 chapters from different 17 universities in 6 countries. Dear readers, you can reach us online either directly at http://tojde.anadolu.edu.tr or by visiting Anadolu University homepage at http://www.anadolu.edu.tr from English version, clicking on Scientific Research button and than go to the Referred Journals. To receive further information and to send your recommendations and remarks, or to submit articles for consideration, please contact TOJDE Secretariat at the below address or e-mail us to [email protected] Hope to stay in touch and meeting in our next Issue, 1st of October 2009 Cordially, Prof. Dr. Ugur Demiray Editor-in-Chief Anadolu University Yunusemre Campus 26470-Eskisehir TURKEY Tel: +90 222 335 0581 ext. 2521 or 2522 GSM: +90 542 232 21 167 Fax: +90 222 320 4520 or Emails: [email protected] or [email protected] URL: http://home.anadolu.edu.tr/~udemiray URL: http://tojde.anadolu.edu.tr

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Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE July 2009 ISSN 1302-6488 Volume: 10 Number: 3 Notes for Editor-1

SELF-EFFICACY OF FORMALLY AND NON-FORMALLY TRAINED PUBLIC SECTOR TEACHERS Dr. Muhammad Nadeem ANWAR Assistant Professor (Education) University of Sargodha, PAKISTAN ABSTRACT The main objective of the study was to compare the formally and non-formally trained in-service public sector teachers‘ Self-efficacy. Five hypotheses were developed describing no difference in the self-efficacy of formally and non-formally trained teachers to influence decision making, influence school resources, instructional self-efficacy, disciplinary self-efficacy and create positive school climate. Teacher Efficacy Instrument (TSES) developed by Bandura (2001) consisting of thirty 9-point items was used in the study. 342 formally trained and 255 non-formally trained respondents‘ questionnaires were received out of 1500 mailed. The analysis of data revealed that the formally trained public sector teachers are high in their self-efficacy on all the five categories: to influence decision making, to influence school resources, instructional self-efficacy, disciplinary self-efficacy and self-efficacy to create positive school climate. Keywords: Self-Efficacy, Non-Formally Trained; in-service public sector teachers‘ INTRODUCTION Human development is the basis for national and economic development, and education is key to human development. Reform efforts have been enforced in every country through mandates and regulations to improve education to prepare all students to compete in a global society (Ahearn, 2002; Darling- Hammond, 2004; Hipp, 1996; Olson, 2002). Therefore, every country seeks to ensure that its investment in education is effectively targeted and efficiently utilized. But it cannot be orchestrated without committed and high efficacious teachers because studies have shown a positive correlation between teachers‘ perceived self-efficacy and student achievement. So, teachers are now finding it necessary to reflect on teaching practices, as well as knowledge and pedagogy in an effort to better meet the needs of students (Darling-Hammond & McLaughlin, 1995). The task of the development of cognitive competencies rests heavily on the talents and self-efficacy of teachers (Bandura, 1997). Efficacy beliefs refer to judgments regarding the ability to perform actions required to achieve desired outcomes (Bandura, 1977, 1986, 1997).

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Teacher efficacy has long been identified as a crucial construct in the research on teachers and teaching therefore, it has been considered as integral to the practice of education. Teacher efficacy refers to ―the teacher‘s belief in his or her capability to

organize and execute courses of action required to successfully accomplishing a specific teaching task in a particular context‖ (Tschannen-Moran, Woolfolk Hoy, & Hoy, 1998, p. 233). TEACHER EFFICACY Tschannen-Moran, Woolfolk Hoy, & Hoy (1998) discussed and determine a definition and conceptual meaning of the teacher efficacy construct. Guskey and Passaro (1994) interpreted teacher efficacy from a locus of control foundation as proposed by Rotter (1966) in contrast to those (e.g., Tschannen-Moran et. al., 1998) who favour an understanding of this construct based on the work of Bandura‘s (1977) social cognitive theory. The current work is grounded in Bandura‘s (1977) social cognitive theory of selfefficacy, which has come to play a dominant role in the teacher efficacy literature. Bandura (1993) presents the construct of self-efficacy as the beliefs one has about his or her ability to perform the actions required to achieve specific outcomes. This construct is expected to serve as the key mediator between knowledge and action. For instance, teacher efficacy plays a key role in the setting goals and it tells how motivated teachers are to create a positive learning environment, how much effort they expend in teaching students, and how teachers react when faced with difficult situations (Bandura, 1993). Based on the works of Bandura, Pajares (1992) concluded that beliefs are the best indicators of the decisions individuals make throughout their lives. Thus, it follows that teachers‘ beliefs about their personal teaching abilities are a key indicator of teacher behavior, decisions, and classroom organization. Therefore, in the teaching context, teacher efficacy is expected to affect the goals teachers identify for the learning context as well as to guide the amounts of effort and persistence given to the task. Pajares (1992) also remarked that while much research has been done on how teachers think. ―Sense of Personal Efficacy‖ is a thinking intervening variable influencing teachers‘ actions, consequent student actions and learning success. In fact, ―Teacher Efficacy" research has demonstrated the relationship between the teacher‘s ―Self-efficacy‖ perceptions and the quality of teachers‘ interactive performance (Gibson & Dembo, 1984). Teacher efficacy has been found to be related to such variables as student achievement ( Anderson, Greene, & Loewen, 1988), student motivation (Midgley, Feldlaufer, & Eccles, 1989), teachers‘ willingness to adapt innovations (Smylie, 1988), teacher effectiveness ( Gibson & Dembo, 1984; Woolfolk & Hoy, 1990), and teacher stress (Parkay, Greenwood, Olejnik, & Proller, 1988). The relationship between efficacy and experience is more positive. For example, Gorrell and Dhamadasa (1994) found that Sri Lankan teachers have distinctly different levels of efficacy for particular tasks, however, were found to have higher efficacy for classroom management, organization of instruction, and having a positive impact on students. Cambell (1996) found higher efficacy among teachers who were experienced, older, and who had higher education. In another somewhat more complicated study by Bandura and others, represented by the figure below, it is important to see that efficacy beliefs have both direct 10 and indirect (through raising personal goals) effects on achievement.

Tt is the numbers above the lines connecting the variables shown indicate correlation between the variables. For example, the correlation between self-regulated learning and self-efficacy for academic achievement is .5 1; between self-efficacy for academic achievement and student‘s grade goals is .36 and so on. Guskey (1987) reported that there is a significant positive correlation between teacher efficacy and responsibility for student success and failure. He stated that the positive and negative outcomes indicate different dimensions, and independent from each other in causing effects on sense of efficacy. Formal and Non-formal Systems of Teacher Education in Pakistan: A Comparison To acquire the skills, knowledge and values, two well-known worldwide modes of education system are formal and non-formal systems of education. Coombs and Ahmad (1973) stated that by formal education, we refer, of course, to the hierarchically structured, graded ―educational system‖, running from primary school through the university and including in addition to general academic studies, a variety of specialized programmes and institutions for all technical professional training.Formal education means organization of education through institutional infrastructure like schools, colleges and universities, etc. It involves sequential learning structure, which are graded and standardized leading to certification to achieve predetermined objectives in terms of some desirable changes in learners (UNESCO, 1986). Whereas UNESCO (1986) stated that non-formal system differs from formal system in the sense that it takes place outside the traditional framework of the formal system. However, like formal system, non-formal system is organized and has predetermined objectives. It also has certain sequential learning structures which are not necessarily graded.

While formal education is rigid and is characterized by uniformity to a large extent, the hallmark of non-formal system is its flexibility in terms of time and duration 11 of learning, content, methodology of instruction and evaluation procedures.

According to Commonwealth (1993), in Pakistan, there are different programs of teacher training offered in colleges, Institutes and Departments of Education for the training of primary school teachers, secondary school teachers and supervisors, as Colleges of Education for Elementary Teachers offer two main training programs; the Primary Teaching Certificate (PTC) and the Certificate in Teaching (CT). There are two main training programs offered for secondary school teachers in colleges of Education: a one-year B.Ed programme (14 + 1 model) and a three-year B.A./B.Sc. + B.Ed programme (12 + 3 model). Supervisors and administrators are trained in the Institutes of Education and Research and Departments of Education in the universities. These Institutes/Departments offer B.Ed leading to M.Ed, M. Phil. and Ph.D. degrees. Moreover, various other factors of formal system like overcrowded classrooms, high rate of increasing population, lack of basic educational and physical facilities, high drop out rate, poor quality of education, due to which major population is deprived of availing chances to be enrolled in schools, colleges, and universities. Khan (1986) stated that the demand for education in the developing world, through the formal system, has consistently overrun its resources in Pakistan, such an alternative system commonly known as non-formal system or distance learning model is successfully being used by Allama Iqbal Open University, a multi-media, multilevel, multi-method teaching institution. Sewart et al., (1983) presented a non-formal model as shown below: Pakistan‘s model of non-formal system, a distance and non-formal teacher education model, has been successfully used by AIOU with its system of reaching the preserve and in-service teachers at their homes or work places and the concept of openness. Implying life long education, the AIOU is filling the gaps left by formal system and taking teacher education to the area and groups enable to benefit from the formal system of education. There are different programs of teacher training offered through non-formal system is for the training of primary school teachers, secondary school teachers and educational administrators. Pre-service and/or in-service teachers are offered training programs; like Primary Teaching Certificate (PTC), Certificate in Teaching (CT), Bachelor of Education (B.Ed), Matster Education (M.Ed), and Master of Education (M.A Education). Non-formal system of education also striving for supplying research orientated teachers by offering M. Phil. and Ph.D. degrees in teacher education.

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Gorrell & Hwang (1995, p. 101) have argued that there is a research trend towards ―understanding teaching and teacher education in terms of teacher efficacy beliefs.‖ They suggested that teacher efficacy is an important topic for comparative studies. Therefore, this study provides a comparison of the self-efficacy of teachers got their professional education from formal and non-formal teacher preparation programs and working in Government high schools in Pakistan. OBJECTIVE The main objective of the study was to find-out the significant differences in the inservice teachers‘ efficacy that passed their professional bachelor degree (B.Ed.) from formal or non-formal teacher education systems. HYPOTHESIS On the basis of Bandura‘s Self-efficacy instrument, following null hypothesis has been formulated for present study: H1: H2:

There is no significant difference between formal professional graduate (B.Ed.) in-service teachers‘ influence decision making. There is no significant difference between formal professional graduate (B.Ed.) in-service teachers‘ influence school resources.

and non-formal passed in the self-efficacy to and non-formal passed in the self-efficacy to

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H3: H4: H5:

There is no significant difference between formal and non-formal passed professional graduate (B.Ed.) in-service teachers‘ in the instructional selfefficacy. There is no significant difference between formal and non-formal passed professional graduate (B.Ed.) in-service teachers‘ in the disciplinary selfefficacy. There is no significant difference between formal and non-formal passed professional graduate (B.Ed.) in-service teachers‘ in the self-efficacy to create positive school climate.

METHODOLOGY Population All bachelor degree (B.Ed.) holders from formal or non-formal teacher education programs working Government Schools in Punjab Province. Sample The total sample was consisted of 1000 in-service teachers. Out of which 500 teachers are graduate from formal and 500 are graduate from non-formal system of teacher education programs. Instrument Many researchers presented different types of instruments for measuring teachers‘ self efficacy, for instant, first one is the Teacher Efficacy Scale developed by Gibson and Dembo (1984). It is a 30-item 6-point Likert scale ranging from ―strongly disagree‖ to ―strongly agree.‖ Through factor analysis of 208 elementary teachers‘ responses, they reported a two factor model that accounted for 28.8% of the total variance. Gibson and Dembo noted that Factor 1 represents a teacher‘s sense of personal teaching efficacy, and corresponds to Bandura‘s self-efficacy dimension. On the other hand, the second dimension stands for teacher‘s sense of teaching efficacy, and corresponds to Bandura‘s outcome expectancy dimension. They called these dimensions ―personal teaching efficacy‖ and ―general teaching efficacy‖ respectively. They presented internal consistency reliability alpha coefficients of 0.78 for personal teaching efficacy, 0.75 for the general teaching efficacy, and 0.79 for the total 16 items. They recommended the use of the revised scale of 16-20 items for further research. There are other instruments that are adapted based on Gibson and Dembo measure for specific subjects-matter. One of them is the Science Teaching Efficacy Belief Instrument (STEBI), developed by Riggs and Enochs (1990). Results of factor analysis yielded two uncorrelated factors, personal science teaching efficacy and science teaching outcome expectancy. The other one is in the context of special education. Coladarci and Breton (1997) developed a 30-item 6-point instrument. Principal component analysis of the data yielded two factors, resource teacher‘s sense of personal efficacy and general efficacy, accounting for roughly 28% of the total item variance. Another instrument was developed by Emmer and Hickman (1990) in order to assess teacher efficacy for particularly classroom management. The resulting 36-item instrument has three factors: efficacy for classroom management and discipline, external influences, and personal teaching efficacy.

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Although the Gibson and Dembo instrument has been widely used or adapted, there are still both conceptual and statistical problems (Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998). Bandura developed his own teacher efficacy instrument and same has been used in this study without making any amendment and change. The instrument consists of 30-items and the index have seven dimensions: efficacy to influence decision making (2-items), efficacy to influence school resources (1-item), instructional self-efficacy (9-items), disciplinary self-efficacy (3-items), efficacy to enlist parental involvement (3-items), efficacy to enlist community involvement (4-items), and efficacy to create a positive school climate (8-items). Each item is measured on a 9-point scale anchored by the following: ―nothing, very little, some influence, quite a bit, a great deal‖ (Bandura, 2001). Procedure 250 Government High Schools were randomly selected from Punjab province in the Pakistan. 6 Questionnaires were mailed to headmasters of each sample school along with request to cooperate in the study and hand out 3 questionnaires to those teachers who had been passed their professional bachelor degree (B.Ed.) from Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad, and 3 to those teachers who had been passed their professional bachelor degree (B.Ed.) from any formal university. Respondents were assured of keeping their responses confidential by a letter explaining the nature and general aim of the study. Self addresses envelop that accompanied with stamps also mailed to each headmaster. Follow up of mailing were used to increase the return rate. In this way 1500 questionnaires were mailed and 813 were received back, out of which 677 were proper filled in and considered useful for the analysis. Among them 255 were those who had been passed their professional bachelor degree (B.Ed.) Allama Iqbal Open University and rest i-e 342 were those have got B.Ed from other than Allama Iqbal Open University. SCORING AND ANALYSIS Scoring was done as per instruction given in the instrument developed by Bandura (2001) in which each item is measured on a 9-point scale anchored by: ―nothing, very little, some influence, quite a bit, a great deal‖ and raw scores were tabulated. The focus of this study is on score of the individual teachers. The analysis was performing on the individual teacher mean scores for each instrument and seven dimension wise. t-test along with Mean and SDs has been used for testing the hypothesis. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS The main objective of the study was to find out the significant differences in the inservice teachers‘ efficacy that passed their professional bachelor degree (B.Ed.) from formal or non-formal teacher education systems. The mean scores were used to identify the level of self efficacy of teachers and to compare the sub-sample variation. The values of standard deviation were used to measure the spread or dispersion of scores in the distribution (Garret, 1979). The t-test was calculated to test the significant difference in the means of the sub-sample of each variable. To test the validity of hypothesis, the mean of the teacher‘s self efficacy score was calculated and presented in Table: 1 to 6.

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Table: 1 Comparison of formal and non-formal in-service teacher‘s efficacy regarding to influence decision making Systems of Education Formal

Sample Size 342

Mean

S.D

11.22

4.05

Non-formal df = 595

255

10.54

Mean difference

SEm

t

0.68 0.32 2.11 3.78 Table: value at 0.05 = 1.960

Table: 1 indicates the significance difference between formal and non-formal passed professional graduate (B.Ed) in-service teachers‘ in the self-efficacy to influence decision making (t = 2.11, p < 0.05). Also the mean difference (i-e 0.68) shows that the in-service teachers who got professional degree (B.Ed) from formal system of teacher education exhibit somewhat high level of self efficacy to influence decision making. Table: 2 Comparison of formal and non-formal teachers‘ efficacy to influence school resources Systems of Education Formal

Sample Size 342

Mean

S.D

5.44

1.80

Non-formal

255

5.11

1.90

df = 595

Mean difference

SEm

0.33

0.15

t 2.17

Table: value at 0.05 = 1.960

Table: 2 indicates the significance difference between formal and non-formal passed professional graduate (B.Ed) in-service teachers‘ in the self-efficacy to influence school resources (t = 2.17, p < 0.05). Also the mean difference (i-e 0.33) shows that the in-service teachers who got professional degree (B.Ed) from formal system of teacher education exhibit a little bit high level of self efficacy to influence school resources. Table: 3 Comparison of formal and non-formal teachers‘ instructional self-efficacy Systems of Education Formal

Sample Size 342

Mean

S.D

47.08

22.17

Non-formal

255

41.00

22.49

df = 595

Mean difference

SEm

6.08

1.84

t 3.28

Table: value at 0.05 = 1.960

16

Table: 3 indicates the significance difference between formal and non-formal passed professional graduate (B.Ed.) in-service teachers‘ in instructional self-efficacy (t = 3.28, p < 0.05). Also the mean difference (i-e 6.08) shows that the in-service teachers who got professional degree (B.Ed.) from formal system of teacher education exhibit very high level of instruction self efficacy. Table: 4 Comparison of formal and non-formal teachers‘ disciplinary self-efficacy Systems of Education Formal

Sample Size 342

Mean

S.D

14.59

6.98

Non-formal

255

13.45

6.15

df = 595

Mean difference

SEm

1.14

0.53

t 2.10

Table: value at 0.05 = 1.960

Table: 4 indicates the significance difference between formal and non-formal passed professional graduate (B.Ed.) in-service teachers‘ in the disciplinary self-efficacy (t = 2.10, p < 0.05). Also the mean difference (i-e 1.14) is showing that the in-service teachers who got professional degree (B.Ed.) from formal system of education exhibit high level of disciplinary self efficacy. Table: 5 Comparison of formal and non-formal teachers‘ efficacy to create positive school climate Systems of Education Formal

Sample Size 342

Mean

S.D

34.77

19.17

Non-formal

255

31.46

16.23

df = 595

Mean difference

SEm

3.31

1.45

t 2.27

Table: value at 0.05 = 1.960

Table: 5 indicates the significance difference between formal and non-formal passed professional graduate (B.Ed) in-service teachers‘ in the self-efficacy to create positive school climate (t = 2.27, p < 0.05). Also the mean difference (i-e 3.31) shows that the in-service teachers who got professional degree (B.Ed) from formal system of education exhibit high level of self efficacy in creating positive school climate. Table: 6 indicates the overall significance difference between formal and non-formal passed professional graduate (B.Ed) in-service teachers‘ in the self-efficacy (t = 2.05, p < 0.05). Also the mean difference (i-e 10.60) is showing that the in-service teachers who passed their professional degree (B.Ed) from formal system of teacher education exhibit extremely high level of self efficacy than those who passed their B.Ed from non-formal system of teacher education.

17

Table: 6 Comparison of formal and non-formal teachers‘ self efficacy Systems of Education Formal

Sample Size 342

Mean

S.D

186.09

59.18

Non-formal

255

175.49

64.81

df = 595

Mean difference

SEm

10.60

5.16

t 2.05

Table: value at 0.05 = 1.960

There are two teacher education systems in Pakistan: formal and non-formal. These systems have many differences; perhaps teachers are educated through graduate and post graduate programs. All of the teacher education programs throughout Pakistan are required to offer core coursework for teachers that is suggested by the Higher Education Commission. They are intended to educate prospective and/or inservice teachers for the schools. In present study, a comparative analysis has been made to study the significant differences in the self efficacy of formal and non-formal passed professional graduate (B.Ed) in-service teachers. It was seen that all the null hypotheses have been rejected, therefore, in-service teachers who passed their professional graduate (B.Ed) from formal teacher education system have stronger self efficacy than those who did professional graduation (B.Ed) from non-formal system of teacher education. There were also significant differences on the responses to different aspects in the teacher‘s efficacy scale. For example, in-service teachers, passed their professional graduation (B.Ed) from formal system of teachers education had significantly higher teaching selfefficacy on themselves for influence decision making (Table: 1), influence school resources (Table: 2), instructional (Table: 3), disciplinary self-efficacy (Table: 4) and create positive school climate (Table: 5). Overall, comparison shows that the selfefficacy of in-service teachers got B.Ed degree from formal system of teacher education is at higher level in comparison of their peer who got passed their B.Ed from non-formal system (Table: 6). In-service teachers who passed their B.Ed from non-formal system of teacher education, on the other hand, had lower score on teachers self efficacy scale. There may be various reasons for this difference. Every system as an organization has its own culture and it is possible that some statements in the questionnaire are not suiTable: when applied to differing cultural perspectives. Similarly, Lin and Gorell (2001) suggested that the concept of teacher‘s efficacy may be culturally oriented and thus need to be carefully examined when applied in different cultures. Another reason of such a difference may be the coursework that teachers in both systems are required to complete. In terms of the amount and the type of courses, there are not clear differences between the two programs. However, pedagogical courses in the teacher education program of the formal institutions may have some differences in terms of the goals and the learning experiences they provide.

18

This may result in less relevant understanding of the teaching issues by the teachers got their B.Ed degree from non-formal, which in turn may bring about lower efficacy. Interaction with teachers on regular basis enhances and updated the knowledge of learners and creates competencies in them. One of the reasons of such a difference may be lack of interaction of students with teachers. Ramzan (2002) suggested that teacher education enhances and updated the knowledge and competencies of teachers.Lack of incentives, encouragement, guidance and cooperation are the key causes of failure of teacher education. Student teachers were not being properly guided and assisted which is very crucial for improving the status of teacher education. Joseph (1989) stated that teacher trainers should provide help to student teachers to meet adequately the problems they will encounter as they approach maturity. Another reason of such a difference may be the inadequate arrangement for ppractice teaching that leads to helpful in creating confidence in teachers. Anees (2005) stated that in non-formal system of teacher education practical preparation of teachers is neglected during practice teaching because of short duration for adequate supervision. Pre-service teachers' conceptions of their workplace may also contribute to their personal efficacy beliefs. These beliefs are partly formed through student teaching experiences. Some researchers have suggested that fieldwork may influence sense of efficacy (Huniker and Madison, 1997; Ramey-Gassert et al., 1996, Crowther & Cannon, 1998). Both of the samples investigated in this study had completed the student teaching experiences with different atmosphere and regulations. IMPLICATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS The issue of teachers‘ efficacy is of importance as teacher preparation programs throughout the world attempt to address shortages of qualified, competent teachers. In the field of education, monitoring and reacting to the issue of efficacy seems to be one way in which teacher preparation programs are evaluating the structure of programs. There is an immediate need for qualified and innovative instruction as governments attempt to insure that a pool of scientists, engineers and computer specialists are trained for business and academic research and citizens are provided and retain.It is conceivable that the successful implementation of teacher education programs may depend on teachers' self-efficacy, that is, their personal beliefs regarding their ability to teach and their ability to produce positive outcomes. Therefore, teachers‘ self efficacy gives a measure of the sense of how the teachers perceived their strengths and preparedness as potential teachers. Due to the vital role teachers will play in educating younger generation, teacher education programs need to evaluate efficacy levels of their teacher education students and begin to find ways to enhance their efficacy regarding teaching. Then these teacher education programs can begin to launch future teachers who are ready, willing, and able to meet the needs of their students. To help struggling in-service teachers with low self-efficacy, and get them to invest sufficient effort and persist on challenging tasks, teachers must systematically develop high self efficacy within them by:

19

   

linking new work to recent success, Reinforcing effort and persistence, Stressing peer modeling, and Teaching struggling learners to make facilitative.

As the world is becoming increasingly globalized, it has become necessary for institutions to emphasize on field experiences, fostering technology literacy, and providing teaching methods for subject matter courses in order to increase their self efficacy towards teaching. The researcher considered that this is a general comparative study of formal and non-formal systems of teacher education. It is expected that this study will provide base for future researches. BIODATA and CONTACT ADDRESSES of AUTHORS Dr. Muhammad Nadeem ANWAR is working as Assistant Professor in Education, department of Education, University of Sargodha, Pakistan. He did M.Phil. in Education from Alllama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad, Pakistan and Ph.D. in Education from University Institute of Education & Research, UAAR. The main areas of his interest are Management, distance education, continuing education and teacher education. Assistant Professor Dr. Muhammad Nadeem ANWAR Department of Education, University of Sargodha, PAKISTAN Email: [email protected] REFERENCES Ahearn, E. M. (2000). Educational accountability: A synthesis of the literature and review of a balanced model of accountability. Final Report. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 439573). Anderson, R., Greene, M., & Loewen, P. (1988). Relationships among teachers‘ and students‘ thinking skills, sense of efficacy, and student achievement. Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 34(2), 148-165. Aness, M. (2005). A Comparison of formal and non-formal systems of teacher education in Pakistan. [Unpublished] Ph.D. Thesis, University of Arid Agriculture, Rawalpindi, Pakistan. pp.55-65. Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavior change. Psychological Review, 84(9), 215. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W.H. Freeman & Company. Coladarci, T., & Breton, W. (1997). Teacher efficacy, supervision, and the special education resource-room teacher. Journal of Educational Research, 90(4), 230-239.

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Commonwealth Secretariat. 1993. Quality of Basic Education and Professional Development of Teachers. Paren and Stacy, London. pp.30-32. Crowther, D.T. & Cannon, C.R. (1998). How much is enough? Preparing elementary science teachers through science practicum. In Proceedings of the Annual International Conference of the Association for the Education of Teachers in Science, Ruba, P. A., & Rye, J. A. (Eds.) Minneapolis: Association for the Education of Teachers in Science. Darling-Hammond L. (2004). Standards, accountability, and school reform. Teachers College Record, 106(6), 1047-1085. Darling-Hammond L. & McLaughlin M.W. (1995). Policies that support professional development in an era of reform. Phi Delta Kappan, 76(8), 597-604. Emmer, E., & Hickman, J. (1990, April). Teacher decision making as a function of efficacy, attribution, and reasoned action. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Boston. Gibson, S., & Dembo, M. (1984). Teacher efficacy: A construct validation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 569-582. Gorrell, J., & Dhamadasa, K.H. (1994). Perceived selfefficacy of preservice and inservice Sri Lankan Teachers. International Education. Gorrell, J., & Hwang, Y.S. (1995). A study of self-efficacy beliefs among preservice teachers in Korea. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 28, 101-105. Guskey, T. R. (1987). Context variables that affect measures of teacher efficacy. Journal of Educational Research, 81(1), 41-47. Guskey, T. R., & Passaro, P. D. (1994). Teacher efficacy: A study of construct dimensions. American Educational Research Journal, 31(3), 627-643. Hipp, K.A. (1996). Teacher efficacy: Influence of principal leadership behavior. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational research Association, New York. Huinker, D., & Madison, S.K. (1997). Preparing Efficacious elementary teachers in science and mathematics: The influence of methods courses. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 8, 107-126. Joseph, G. 1(989). ―The Emerging Model of Vocational Educational and Training‖. In: J.Burke (eds) Competency Based Educational and Training. The Falmer Press. Lewes, U.K. P.26. Khan, N. A. (1986). Pakistan‘s Model of Distance Education. Pakistan Education Journal, Ministry of Education, Islamabad. pp.50-51.

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Lin, H. & Gorrell, J. (2001). Expiatory analysis of pre-service teacher efficacy in Taiwan. Teaching and Teacher Education, 17, 623-635. Midgley, C., Feldlaufer, H., & Eccles, J. (1989). Change in teacher efficacy and student self- and task-related beliefs in mathematics during the transition to junior high school. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81, 247-258. Olson, L (2002). Schools discovering riches in data. Education Week, 21(40), 1-3. Pajares, F. (1992). Teachers' beliefs and educational research: Cleaning up a messy onstruct. Review of Educational Research, 62, 307-332. Parkay, F.W., Greenwood, G., Olejnik, S., & Proller, N. (1988). A study of the relationships among teacher efficacy, locus of control, and stress. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 21, 13-22. Ramzan, M. (2002). A Comparative Study of Teacher Education System of United State of America and Pakistan. [Unpublished] Ph.D. Thesis, University of Arid Agriculture, Rawalpindi, Pakistan. pp.1-214. Riggs, LM &.Enochs, L.G. (1990). Further development of an elementary science teaching efficacy belief instrument: A preservice elementary scale. School Science and Mathematics, 90, 694-706. Ramey-Gassert, L., Shroyer, M.G. & Staver,J.R.( 1996). A qualitative study of factors influencing science teaching self-efficacy of elementary level teachers. Science Education, 80, 283-315. Rotter, J. B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs, 80, 1-28. Sewart, D., D. Keegan, and B. Holmberg. (1983). Distance Education. Croom Helm, London. pp.16-22. Smylie, M. A. (1988). The enhancement function of staff development: organizational and psychological antecedents to individual teacher change. American Educational Research Journal, 25, 1-30. Tschannen-Moran,M., Woolfolk-Hoy, A & Hoy, W.K. (1998). Teacher Efficacy: Its Meaning and Measure. Review of Educational Research, 68, 202-48. UNESCO. (1986). Regional Seminar on Non-Formal Education Coordination and Complementarity. Regional Office for Asia and Pacific, Bangkok. P.1. Woolfolk, A. E., & Hoy, W. K. (1990). Prospective teachers‘ sense of efficacy and beliefs about control. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 81-91.

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Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE July 2009 ISSN 1302-6488 Volume: 10 Number: 3 Notes for Editor-2

CHANGES OF LEARNERS‘ SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONTEXT AFTER COMPLETING A PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION FROM BANGLADESH OPEN UNIVERSITY A. K. M. Iftekhar KHALID Assistant Director (Training) Training and Research Unit Bangladesh Open University, Gazipur-1705, BANGLADESH ABSTRACT Creating same opportunity in term of social and economic context for the learners of distance education as the students from conventional education is a challenging task since professional education through distance method is a new genre in Bangladesh. This genre of professional education starts successfully with the establishment of the Bangladesh Open University (BOU) in 1992. The university creates immense opportunities to study anytime and anywhere. This paper explains what social and economic changes happened to the students who completed a professional programme like B.Ag.Ed, MBA, CEMBA and CEMPA at the Bangladesh Open University. As BOU is the first and pioneer organization, which provides education in distance mode, a study has been necessary for BOU to know what contribution it provides to the nation in social and economic aspects. This paper should be able to elevate the morale of the organizations like BOU in involving more effort for expanding the organization and also to understand how successful these organization in imparting the knowledge and skill and how effectively the students are able to use those knowledge and skill in their professional life which in turn affects the learners‘ income and social esteem. The university has been established with aims to raise the standard of education and to give the people educational opportunities by democratizing education and to create a class of competent people by raising the standard of education of the people generally. The paper also shows how the professional programmes of BOU supports to achieve the Millennium Development Goals in Bangladesh. Keywords: Distance learning; Contribution; morale; esteem; standard; opportunities. INTRODUCTION Education through distance method was planned to be introduced in Asia during 1950, it was concern whether the distance learners would get the same evaluation and acceptance from the society and from the employers and whether this education would be able to change the socio-economic condition of the learners.

23

As the history of distance learning is not very old and distance learning has its roots in the correspondence education that developed in the United States, France, Germany and the United Kingdom in the mid 1800 (Horton, 2000). The reason of concern was felt since face to face traditional education had a long-term impression and people had a feeling that education meant teachers‘ centric education. Despite the apprehension, this essay shows you that professional education through distance learning in Bangladesh has an optimistic effect in changing learners‘ socio-economic condition and the concern over the education method is much minimized. This professional education also contributes to achieve Millennium Development Goals (MDG)s though these programmes were started earlier than MDG set up. Professional Education and Bangladesh Open University: Both long term and short term professional education and training bring changes into human beings. Since professional education targets at an individual‘s systematic development of knowledge, skills and attitudes to perform organizational tasks and functions, people expect a kind of expertise after completion of a professional course. The expectation was primarily from traditional institute or university. The same level of recognition is crucial for those learners who participated and completed a professional course from Bangladesh Open University (BOU). The history of this university is young and this university has been operating its programmes since 1992. Before establishing this university, there was a distance learning institute called Bangladesh Institute of Distance Education (BIDE) established in 1985 which was turned into Bangladesh Open University through Bangladesh Open University Act, 1992. The aim of establishing BOU is to provide education for the less privileged and dropout students. However, establishment of the university does not accord or share the sense as Mr. Linden of Asian Development Bank while writing about distance learning acceptance in the marketplace apprehended about distance education as there is a general view

that distance education is for the dropouts or people who have otherwise failed (pp.9).

As such, this was a concern for me to know whether the students of BOU would not be offered the same recognition as those of the traditional public or private universities in Bangladesh. Some other researchers did conduct one or two research works like this however those didn‘t only concentrate only social and economic factors of programme completed students. Those research works evaluate and cover its tutorial services, tutors quality, effectiveness of the programme, and what changes happened after a completion of professional course. Thus, the information of this paper depends on my own research on Contribution of Professional Courses on Changing Socio-Economic Condition to Learners of Bangladesh Open University, however I reviewed those research work too. Perspective of Introducing Distance Learning: Distance education system starts while the traditional education systems in several Asian and Pacific countries are not suitable in several cases like technological expertise needed for rural transformation or extension workers lack training in skills of teaching adults to meet challenge of economic growth (Sharma, pp 47). However, education aims at individual development and development is a process of structural chance in the economic, political, social and cultural domain (Sharma, pp 45) the concern. Education infuses new knowledge and skills that an individual can view a same thing with a different light. 24

Professional education from distance system should bring the desired changes, because education targets to transfer information and know how technologies from a media to an individual through a course. Professional Education delivered by BOU: BOU has been delivering Master of Business Administration (MBA) from 1998, Commonwealth Executive Master of Business Administration (CEMBA) from 2000, Commonwealth Executive Master of Public Administration (CEMPA) from 2000, Bachelor of Agriculture Education (B. Ag. Ed) from 1996, Master of Education(M. Ed), Bachelor of Education (B. Ed), Development of Youth Programme (DYDP) and other programmes. These programmes directly are related to the job market or selfdevelopment. Completing these courses should enlighten the learners and boost up their moral in finding a new job or start a business. NECESSITY OF THE RESEARCH The credibility of BOU programmes is definitely an essential factor that Mr. Rumble pointed out wide skepticism and criticism (pp.170-171) when School of Business initially started MBA programme with standard traditional text used in universities of Dhaka and Chittagong. Mr. Rumble says,‖ The BOU will need to address the criticism robustly, by pointing that its engagement in these activities is both justified in its own right and has no deleterious effect of the quality of what it is doing at the higher education The sustainability of professional programmes partly depends on the ability to develop learners‘ capacity to develop themselves while they are undertaking the programmes and eventually the programme completion definitely impact their socio-economic status or structure. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY To analyze the changes of learners‘ socio-economic context after completing a professional education from Bangladesh Open University, the research targeted to communicate those learners who finished a profession course like MBA, CEMBA/CEMPA and B.Ag.Ed. Programmes. Three stages were in the research. One was to find the addresses of the learners, second was to collect data and finally was to explain the collected data. In this research, I collected data from primary and secondary sources. I visited the learners who lived in Chittagong, Dhaka and Rajshahi districts. The numbers of informants were 40 who were divided on four different programmes. 13 informants were from MBA programme, 19 informants were from CEMBA/CEMPA programme and 08 informants were from B.Ag.Ed programme. Interviews were taken on based on questionnaire and unstructured method. Though the focal points which I tried to keep in view while collecting information were social and economic factors other than course completion facilities, difficulties or their opinion about tutorial service or services from the university offered during the programme. The latter things came whenever I talked about the course in detail to make the informants comfortable with me and gradually I started to focus on main purpose. Those information might be important fro the university. However, I eliminated those information for keeping a direct eye on the focal points of my research. The following paragraphs bear the information of social and economic achievement the informants gained from the professional courses of BOU. 25

Presentation of Data To analyze changes of socio-economic status of the learners, it is imperative to know what learners were doing before or during studying at Bangladesh Open University. The Table: 1 explains the informants‘ occupation during studying B.Ag.Ed.,MBA, CEMBA/CEMPA at BOU. Difference between Table: 1 and Table: 2 would provide the understanding of what professional education of BOU had actually done in changing the learners‘ lives. Table: 1 Occupation of the informants during studying BOU The number of Informant 2 6 5 4 3 2 1 9 8

Main occupation Government Service Private Service Banker Engineer House Wife Business Farming Student Unemployed

Programme Wise Informants‘ Number 1 MBA, 1 CEMBA/CEMPA 2 MBA, 4 CEMBA/CEMPA 2 MBA, 3 CEMBA/CEMPA 2 MBA, 2 CEMBA/CEMPA 1 CEMBA/CEMPA, 2 B.Ag.Ed 1 MBA, 1 B.Ag.Ed 1 B.Ag.Ed 3 MBA, 4 CEMBA/CEMPA, 2 B.Ag.Ed 2 MBA, 4 CEMBA/CEMPA, 2 B.Ag.Ed

The Table: 2 below summarize informants‘ present occupation after completion of a professional programme from BOU. Almost 47.5% informants who were housewife, students or unemployed join to the workforce and they became businessmen, started farming of their own after completion of a programme from the university. The research data says that completing a programme from BOU has a positive impact and these programmes have brought learners‘ competence for becoming self-employed or getting a job or switch over to a new job. Table: 2 Occupation of the informants after completing a programme from BOU The number of Informant 5 8 10 4 1 4 4 -----

Main occupation Government Service Private Service Banker Engineer House Wife Business Farming Student Unemployed

Programme Completed 2 MBA, 3 CEMBA/CEMPA 4 MBA, 8 CEMBA/CEMPA 4 MBA, 6 CEMBA/CEMPA 2 MBA, 2 CEMBA/CEMBA 1 B.Ag.Ed 1 MBA, 3 B.Ag.Ed 4 B.Ag.Ed -----

Bosworth says, ―Most people seem to assess the outcomes of training in terms of student success.

26

The forms of assessment vary, from the formal examinations of MBA courses to statements that the course was deemed successful if the firm was still in business at a given time after the completion of the course‖(pp.122). The data of table 2 presents the successful story in which all informants are involved in the process of earning money. Education and Money are related to elevate one‘s social status.

9 8 7 6 MBA

5

CEMBA

4

B.Ag.Ed

3 2 1 0 Tk.1000 - > Tk.4000

Tk.4000 - > Tk.8000

Tk.8000 - > Tk.12000

>Tk.12000

Chart: 1 Increase of month income in BDT (Bangladeshi Currency) after completion of a programme The Chart: 1 shows that the informants were benefited from doing a professional course from BOU. This chart also demonstrates ―if one accepts that different salaries are exact measure of each individual‘s contribution to the social product, the comparison of ―rates of return‖ (Debeauvais, 1974). This indicates that BOU has started to return service to society and to state which already lot of money for the development of BOU. The change also relates with individual‘s career and future prospect. Simultaneously, an expectation came into the individual learners that he or she deserved raise in position. In such implication, the informants replied with an affirmative gesture, ―if you achieve expertise, know-how technology and competence, promotion at least in private sector is a natural consequence and in my case, I can assure that CEMBA programme offered by BOU is very worthy for imparting knowledge and information about developing individual‘s proficiency and ability‖. Those who are working in government sector got 1 or 2 increment on their salary and they are getting more opportunity in involving money earning project after the usual office hour or on holidays. In the private sectors, the informants got the more rise in salary. Thus, chart-1 displays a picture of income variation.

27

12 10 8 MBA 6

CEMBA/CEMPA B.Ag.Ed

4 2 0 Promotion

Service

Starting a business or farming

Other Income Raising Provision

Chart: 2 Promotion and other opportunities after completion of a programme Since the research was enthusiastically related with economic condition, I tried to find out difference happened in term of creating new opportunity and promotion in the job. Chart-2 presents the informants‘ success indicators using the programme they achieve from BOU. It could be inferred that the programmes of BOU are offered in the way it should be. One bright perspective is that none of informants did show any sign of frustration as he/she did a course in distance method. One of the informants told while she appeared for job interview as marketing manager, the employers tried to know the depth of her knowledge and asked her on the basis of case study. She also said that the primary concern of the interview board was to know whether she had the marketing knowledge and skill. Even they were not concerned about the method of learning. Other informant, who tried for a position of project manager, was asked about project evaluation and implementation related question. He faced the interview confidently. In both cases, they were appointed to the jobs, they sought for. Discussion on the Informants While talking to the informants, one factor was always introduced whether the informants felt a respect for the course which he/she finished. This aspect actually is influenced or comes into being when other people in the society admire him/her for completing the course or when the educational programme. One informant who did MBA programme from BOU told that he gained much knowledge from the programme and I thought I could manage a new job if he wanted. I asked the housewife why she was not working outside the household. She replied that she had to manage my family; however she gained skill from the B.Ag.Ed. Programme, so she was experimenting her on gardening for flower and fruit on the roof top of her house which might bring financial prospect for her family. One informant said the employers thought about the course contents of professional academic programmes of BOU are upgrading students‘ knowledge, skill and brighten their future prospect. He added the courses, CEMBA/CEMPA, which was actually programmed developed by Commonwealth of Learning (COL) got recognition to the learners as well as to the employer. 28

Even the courses were successful in raising learners‘ income and ultimately social esteem. As education, position at job, individual‘s income and social status are all related factors in gaining organizational and social respect. Contribution to Millennium Development Goals from Bangladesh Perspective: The study explains that students who completed professional programmes have been able to raise their economic as well as social status which in turn to eradicate poverty and contribute in empowering women since the financial condition is very much inevitable to change women in family and in society. When women informants were asked about their roles in their respective family, they said ‗‘if we can query after our household matter and family expenses since we ourselves are earning our livelihood‖. Before the completion of the programme, most of the informants didn‘t ask or even bother with financial matter as the bread earners were male population of their family. The reason of providing those information which comply with the MDG is that BOU works in the same line. The obligatory duty of the Bangladesh Open University is to enhance the skill of manpower intended for the total welfare of the country and economic advancement for development (Tarafdar, 2007). CONCLUSION Human Resource Development is a crucial aspect of education and also is a consequential phase of an academic programme. This research demonstrates education through open and distance method has been able to bring change in HR Development. The indicator is that the programme completed student didn‘t show any sign of weakness or regretting and they have the confidence level of holding duties and responsibilities for their jobs as other employees who completed their professional courses from other public or private universities of Bangladesh. Thus, Professional courses through distance education of Bangladesh Open University have the same impact on occurring changes relating to socio-economic aspects of learners as other public or private universities who delivers education through conventional method. The study also says distance education can contribute for the betterment of individuals and the society as well since the learners got new job or started a business, generated increment in salary, had promotion and made them feel socially high or superior after completing a professional course from Bangladesh Open University. BIODATA and COTACT ADDRESSES of AUTHOR I, A.K.M. Iftekhar KHALID, am working as Assistant Director (Training) at Training and Research Section in Bangladesh Open University since 10 May 2005. I am responsible for maintaining international communication. On every week or in a month, there are some issues like writing something which incorporates with international policy and decision making. I am also responsible for looking after study leave and duty leave for higher studies, training, seminar, conference in home and abroad. So, I have to communicate the national and international organizing bodies.

29

Data Collection for Open and Distance Learning and eLearning researches and writing reports for those research works are additional jobs I usually do. Previously, I was a faculty of NIIT, an IT institute based on Delhi, India for more than four years. I usually taught programming language and networking. A. K. M. Iftekhar KHALID Assistant Director (Training) Training and Research Unit Bangladesh Open University, Gazipur-1705, BANGLADESH Phone PBX Direct Fax Cell Email Website

: : : : : :

+88-02-9291101-4Ext.580 +88-02-9291112 +88-02-9291130 +88-01717-179646 [email protected] http://www.wikieducator.org/user:akmkhalid

REFERENCES Asian Development Bank (ADB). (1987). Summary of Proceedings, pp-3-40, Proceedings of the Regional Seminar on Distance Education, 26 November-3 December 1986, Bangkok, Thailand, Distance Education in Asia and the Pacific, Volume 1, Manila, Philippines

Bangladesh Gazette (1992). Bangladesh Parliament: The Act No: 38 of 1992. Bosworth P. D. (1991). Open Learning (Issues in Education), pp-122, Biddles Ltd. Guildford, UK. BOU Website: http://www.bou.edu.bd visited date 30 April 2008 Debeauvais, M. (1974). The Contribution of the Economics of Education to Aid Policies: A Critical Comment, pp-33-47, Education and Development Reconsidered (The Bellagio Conference Papers), Ford Foundation/Rockefeller Foundation, ed. F. Champion Ward, Praeger Publishers, New York, USA. Francis, J. (1974). Method, National Research and Development Capabilities in Education, pp-127-149, Education and Development Reconsidered (The Bellagio Conference Papers), Ford Foundation/Rockefeller Foundation, ed. F. Champion Ward, Praeger Publishers, New York, USA. Horton, W. (2000). Designing Web-Based Training, pp-3-16, Willey, New York, USA Rumble, G. (1999). The Bangladesh Open University: Mission and Promise, Higher Education Through Open and Distance Learning, ed. Keith Harry, London and New York, Routledge. Sharma, M. (1987). Issues in Distance Education, pp-45-56, Proceedings of the Regional Seminar on Distance Education, 26 November-3 December 1986, Bangkok, Thailand, Distance Education in Asia and the Pacific, Volume 1, Asian Development Bank (ADB), Manila, Philippines, 1987. 30

Tarafdar, Md. Monjur-e-Khoda. (2007). Efficacy of BOU Programmes on Socioeconomic Context to meet the mission statement (Research Work), Bengali Version Published in 2007, (English Version Yet to be Published). UN Website: http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals visited date 30 April 2008 Wikipedia Website: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladesh_Open_University visited date 30 April 2008.

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Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE July 2009 ISSN 1302-6488 Volume: 10 Number: 3 Notes for Editor-3

USE OF CONVERGENT MOBILE TECHNOLOGIES FOR SUSTAINABLE ECONOMIC TRANSFORMATION IN THE LIVES OF SMALL FARMERS IN RURAL INDIA C.S.H.N.Murthy Ph.D Professor in Journalism and Mass Communication Institute of Management Studies A-8B,Sector 62 Noida UP 201301 INDIA ABSTRACT The continuous rise in the number of suicides among Indian rural based farmers is not solely due to lack of funds or failure of crops or huge amount of interests on debts. Many a time the farmers are in daze triggered by the panic and fear both of which are due to lack of information backed by appropriate technologies. Lack of information about the appropriate crop patterns the farmers should choose depending on the market demands and remunerative prices, availability of water, supply of seeds for sowing, proper knowledge of the use of manures and ways to avoid over use of pesticides--did contribute to the ever increasing number of suicides in the regions of Vidharbha and Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. The Government machinery comprising Agricultural extension officers, backed by the Agricultural programs on Radio and TV could hardly meet the information required for these farmers affected with the compounding problems. Use of convergent mobile technologies with the internet and e-mail facilities is the need of the hour. The latest data drawn from the IMRB survey (The I-Cube 2007) indicated that internet usage in India has grown by more than 11 times over the last seven years. The internet expansion is seen moving down from the metros to towns with population less than half a million with the number of users up by 69 times since 2007. In the last two years, 2005 and 2006, on an average 4.5 million new mobile subscribers were added every month. Convergent mobile technologies with wide range of mobiles and packages being available now hold the promise of offering basic literacy and numeracy skills accessible to the small farmers in India, besides a lot of information concerning the availability of loans at lower interest through banks and self-help groups, crop patterns, remunerative prices for the produce, export norms for the crops, emarketing and e-commerce, etc, The paper outlines a visualization of such an optimistic design of use of convergent mobile technologies. Key words:

Convergent Mobile Technologies, basic literacy skills and numeracy skills, self help groups, crop patterns, e-marketing, e-commerce, climatic factors, remunerative prices.

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INTRODUCTION The Indian agricultural scenario turned bad to worse in the last one decade. The number of suicides of small-scale farmers and marginal-scale farmers has been steadily rising over years, constantly hovering around 4000-5000 a year in certain States like Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Nearly 29,000 farmers committed suicide in Maharashtra between 1997-2005, according to official sources.(Sainath,P: 2007). According to Sainath ( a world renowned journalist, Raman Megasasay Award winner for 2007 and currently Editor for the Rural Affairs in The Hindu News daily published from Chennai, India), out of 150,000 farmers who killed themselves across the country during the period 19972005, almost every fifth one was from Vidharbha, the eastern region of Maharashtra State of India. ―It is 105 per cent increase in farm suicides in those nine years. More than 19,000 of those farmer suicides occurred from 2001 onwards‘, added Sainath. The data are based on the analysis done on farm suicides by K. Nagaraj of the Madras Institute of Development Studies (MIDS). Professor Nagaraj has carried out the above analysis using the data with the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB), and Ministry of Home Affairs, from 1997 to 2005. ‗Professor Nagaraj‘s study shows that of the almost 150,000 farm suicides in India between 1997 and 2005, over 89,000 occurred in just four States: Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Madhya Pradesh (including Chhattisgarh)‘, says Sainath (2007:p 13). Importantly, Maharashtra accounts for a third of all farm suicides within these Big Four States. ―This State,‖ says Professor Nagaraj, ―could be called ―the graveyard yard of the farmers‖ In terms of percentage; Andhra Pradesh saw more than 127 per cent of farmer suicides during the same period. The above data show that there existed a high annual compound growth rate of suicides both for Andhra Pradesh (7.6%) and Maharashtra (13.7%). It also indicates that if current conditions continue to prevail next six years, these percentages might double. Important Causes-Diagnosed Four important reasons could be diagnosed for such high percentage of suicides.    

Debt –trap ii. Crop failure iii. Lack of support price from the Government, and iv. Government‘s apathy towards agricultural sector (Sainath, 2007).

As a result of these four major causes, many side effects of distress flowed in: the health of the farmers and their families got affected, farmers couldn‘t discharge their family responsibilities like performing the marriages of their children, massive migrations started from their villages to urban centers to work as construction workers, the overnight turned into child-laborers throwing their education to winds at once.

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According to National Sample Survey‘s situational report on farmer households, the average expenditure of farm households is rupees 17 a month (less than half the exchange value of a dollar in Indian currency. A USD is equal to nearly 39 rupees currently). The wages of the agricultural laborer had not gone up beyond a US dollar (rupees 39-40) in a decade which led to a situation where India had fallen from the 124th to 128th position in the world human development index in the last 15 years (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_Human_Development_Index). According to Sainath (2008), in the post globalization, about 82% farm households landed in the debt trap. The state is withdrawing from its investment into agriculture, which was earlier 14.5 per cent of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) to 5.9% in the recent years. As a result the farming sector‘s contribution to nation‘s real GDP has gone down from an estimated 3.6 % to 1.5% which result had even horrified the Government presently headed by a noted economist and the Prime Minister Manmohan Singh. Recently, the UNDP representative to India, Maxine Olson, (2007) releasing the UNDP Report on Climate Change, warned India that, ― terms of trade and changing rainfall patterns on account of climate change could result in drops in agricultural productivity, directly affecting 60 per cent of the population, which relied on the farm sector‖. Lack of support price for the farmers‘ produce for major crops like rice or paddy, wheat, sugar cane, cotton, corms, Red chilies, Oils, etc or lack of appropriate e-marketing strategies is another issue of concern and a major force for committing the suicides. Amrita Chaudhry‘s report (Indian Express, Nov 19, 2007: http://www.indianexpress.com/printerFriendly/240746.html ) brings out live the force behind such suicides more vividly than ever. Government‘s Flawed Approach To Agricultural Sector Further. Government‘s apathy, both at the center and at the States, towards the agricultural sector left the entire farming community in the lurch and perennial depravation. The United Progressive Alliance (UPA) which came into power in 2004 announced a package –Vidharbha package-- two years later in 2006 (July) for the farmers who committed suicide in Vidharbha, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. (http://pmindia.nic.in/press_rel_01jul2k6-1.pdf). It was first ever attempt by any government to address the problems of the farmers at national level. Nevertheless, the Government‘s bureaucratic definitions of suicides and the causes of suicides for granting relief under the package played foul with the ground realities. Further, the government has not yet implemented the Swaminathan (a noted agricultural scientist and formerly Director of International Rice Research Institute, Philippines, Manila) Committee‗s Report on Minimum Support Prices (2006). The perennial grievance of the farmers is that they are not getting minimum support price from the government itself. The knowledge of e-marketing and e-commerce in the wider context of globalization is still elusive to the small Indian farmers and short term vegetable growers (Murthy, 2008a). Murthy (2008a, b) suggested a number of e-marketing strategies with the expanding infrastructure, telecommunications and mobile technologies in keeping with the concepts of Singhal and Rogers (2003) and the World Congress on Communication for Development (2006).

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The World Congress on Communication for Development (held at Italy between Oct 25-27, 2006) identified 13 important projects, which can be executed with distinct development communication approaches and means within the organization working at distinct societal and geographic levels (2006: p7). While dealing with ―How to reduce India‘s rural distress‖, Daniel J Gustafson, Representative of India for Food and Agricultural Organization, wrote that, ‗….The third emerging area is promotion of experience and knowledge sharing particularly by those who historically have not participated in UN-sponsored forums. An example is the UN‘s Solution Exchange initiative that connects for problem solving through email groups and periodic meetings. Another example is the interaction between farmer groups in India and Kenya. Each side has complementary strengths and experience in micro-credit and in taking on agricultural improvement through group learning experiences. Putting them together opens up technical cooperation in an exciting new way. This approach also applies to work by NGOs on dry land agriculture in the Deccan Plateau and a new South Asian partnership with National Dairy Development Board for pro-poor livestock development‖ (Daniel J Gustafson: 2006). The present study, aims at exploring some alternative designs and strategies at low cost through convergent mobile technologies that go a long way in supporting the farmers to address some of their problems—crop failures, debt traps, efficient planning and marketing, etc. The present paper thus aligns itself with the participatory model (Freire, P: 1983, Mefalopulos P, 2005) which otherwise broadens the diffusion model (Rogers, E.M, 1962, 1976) and encompasses all the four laterals of the Communication for development. DEFINITIONS OF MAIN TERMS IN THE DISCOURSE: Media, Convergence and Mobile Technologies In the present paper, the term, ‗media‘ extends beyond the meaning of ‗traditional media‘ (like print media or electronic media like Radio and TV). In fact today the term ‗media‘ became extensive and pervasive in its connotation with new media or alternate media emerging as main competitors to the traditional media (Flew, T: 2002). Here in this paper the term ‗media‘ covers even telecommunications including satellite technology which is the bottom line of support for all new media such as internet (e-learning) and cable television, teleconferencing and videoconferencing (Murthy 2008a). The term ‗convergence‘ defined as the one ‗technologically coming together of two or more distinct entities or phenomena‘. Convergence is increasingly prevalent in the IT world; in this context the term refers to the combination of two or more different technologies in a single device. Taking pictures with a cell phone and surfing the Web on a television are two of the most common examples of this trend. Convergence may influence consumers to accept new technologies. Computer- television convergence is already underway with WebTV, which pipes the World Wide Web to a slightlymodified TV set with a set- top box from an ordinary phone line and provides a degree of interactivity new media rely on digital technologies, allowing for previously separate media to converge. Media convergence is defined as a phenomenon of new media and this can be explained as a digital media.

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―The idea of ‗new media‘ captures both the development of unique forms of digital media, and the remaking of more traditional media forms to adopt and adapt to the new media technologies." Convergence captures development futures from old media to new media. The most prominent example of media convergence is the Internet, whereby the technology for video and audio streaming is rapidly evolving. The term convergence is disputed, with critics such as Lev Manovich (2001) pointing out that the 'old' medium of ‗film‘ could be seen as the convergence of written text (titles and credits), photography, animation and audio recording. Mobile technologies are satellite and cable based. Cell phones and internet connected telecommunications fall under mobile technologies. TWIN TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS—A PREREQUISITE In order for achieving the sustainable economic transformation in rural India a combination of telecommunications (including satellite services) with electrification of Indian villages (with appropriate power supply) is an important pre-requisite (MSERVE INDIA, Aug 1-2, 2007) Complete Rural Electrification by 2012 As of now India is still a power deficit country. Recently Government of India (http://www.i4donline.net/nov07/contentasp) under 11th plan, tried to push forward the electrification of rural India under Rajiv Gandhi Grammeena Vidutikaran Yojana (RGGVY). The plan envisaged complete rural electrification of India by 2012 in order to provide power on demand in any village of India. However, out of the 120,000 villages so far 40,000 villages were provided with the power. Under the new scheme habitations with a population of 100 even would be provided with the power.(Sujay M, 2008) Earlier this limit was 300 people per hamlet. It is also mandated that all such villages, which are brought under RGGVY scheme, would be provided an uninterrupted power supply for minimum 6-8 hours a day. Further free connection would be provided for the families under the Below Poverty Line (BPL) with an income limit of Rs 2,200/- per month (apply 50USD). The earlier limit was Rs. 1,500 (35-40 USD apply). If the Government of India could go in for the Nuclear Deal which is hanging fire due to the hurdles posed by the Leftist groups of the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) the realization of above target is not impossible. However, even if the nuclear deal does not get through the possibility of country achieving this cannot be ruled out at the current economic growth with 8.5 to 9 GDP each quarter, averaging to 7.5 to 8 GDP annually. (http://www.thehindu.com/2008/02/13/stories/2008021355021500.htm). Widening Internet And Telecommunications According to a latest report published in Times of India (Oct 22, 2007), ‗the Internet usage in India has grown more than 11 times over the last seven years. The boom is being driven not by metros, but by smaller and non-metro towns, where the number of users has risen by a whopping 69 times and 33 times respectively since 2000‘. The report further says that the number of users has grown in all socio-economic categories, as well as in all metros and non-metro towns. The report further added that the number of users as grown in all social categories in all metros and nonmetros. Though the 8 metros still stand out highest in figures, the growth has been the fastest in the smaller and non-metro towns.

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According to the report the small towns have the second largest number of total users. The findings published in the Times of India are the results of the survey conducted by e-technology group of IMRB International. The I –cube 2007 survey conducted across 30 cities and towns covering 35,000 people. The IMRB survey noted that the highest number of people use net for e-mail and information search. More than 7.5 million people in India use the e-mail as their basic mode of communication (Rangaswami, N; 2007). The above study has taken into consideration of internet users through cybercafés only. However, the boom in telecommunications coupled with mobile phones based on satellite communication net work today has made it possible to access internet, email and chat or conferencing right one one‘s mobile or personal computer cum television. In fact, as one can read into the analysis of suicidal cases being recorded by the Government, there are many suicides which fall into the category other than debt traps. Crop related failures, remunerative prices and financial inputs (such as loans—both long term and short term) are the ones which the information technologies could efficiently address. In this context mobile technologies could be very handy at the rural level. According to a study of Keval J Kumar and Amos O Thomas (2006), mobile telephone services have become so cheap now that mobile subscriptions have outpaced fixed line connections; in 2005 and 2006. On an average 4.5 million new mobile subscribers were added every month. The rapid spurt in tele-density has been exceeded only by China. Cellular communication technology is the fastest growing one in the continent of Africa. UNIQUE FEATURES OF MOBILE PHONES Its light weight, portability, user-friendly and fairly inexpensive features would make it accessible to every category of society, rich and poor alike. It combines the characteristics of the traditional and the new media. It can comprise traditional media such as recorded music, photography, cinema, radio, television and the press and uses the new media to extend its storage, processing and distribution capacities (as quoted by Van Dyke, 2005 in Kumar and Thomas, 2006). According to Kumar and Thomas, ‗the boundary between the cellular phone as a medium of interpersonal communication and as a mass medium for the distribution of Short Message Service (SMS), web pages, videos and games is dissolving‖. Mobile telephony is gradually merging with mobile computing. In fact mobile telephony has the power of empowering individuals and groups; it is interpersonal, immediate and extremely convenient. It has the potential to contribute to the new public sphere. (Kumar and Thomas 2006) . Use of Mobile Technologies for Sustainable Economic Transformation in the lives of rural farmers Use of mobile technologies for the empowerment of depraved social groups is not something new phenomenon. Recently the IIT Bombay had developed a farmer friendly soft ware where registered farmers can have their queries answered on a mobile phone without having to go to a kiosk or cyber-café. Earlier, the IIT Bombay developed a multilingual portal called AQUA (All Questions Answered).

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Farmers can now ask questions on crops or livestock in SMS either in Marathi or Hindi or English. They can also seek information in advance and across it later in the offline mode. As a pilot project, the IIT Bombay has also installed three dozen weather – cum-disease forecasting stations in and around Nashik and farmers are alerted via SMS about a probable crop diseases or rainfall likely to hit the crops with the implications and possible precautions. (Mihika B, 2007) Mauren and Da Silva (2007) developed a pedagogical design for digital inclusion in the rural areas for farmers and the construction network of cognitive development and social capital (Learning Projects of Lea Fagundes). Galit and Michal (2007) carried out a pilot case study which aims to examine how socio-cultural and situated learning aspects are reflected in learning experiences within a novel mobile learning environment, Math4Mobile, a cellular application for mathematics learning. The study obviously laid foundation for imparting basic mathematical skills to the illiterate farmers of rural areas through mobile technology. In another study Renee etal studied the social and political challenges related to the implementation of ICT-Kiosk projects for rural development in India. In fact, the widening of telephone net work and lowering of telephone rates way back in 1999-2004 during the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) governance itself revolutionized the rural economy. Many unemployed youth, physically challenged and senior citizens got telephone connections in the rural India under self-employment schemes. In another study of far reaching consequences, Paul and Tapan (2007) showed that use of mobile technologies and information systems on the rural front reduced the inefficiency and enhanced the supply chains. Indrani etal (2007) offered a design that would enable even illiterate farmers and rural artisans, besides vocational groups, to use the interface which is a text free one. Reuben (2007) conclusively showed how mobile phones and economic development are interlinked in one of the most important industries—fishing industry—in India. Hengyuan etal (2007) proved that though innovations stem from the developed world, they are fast embraced in developing countries. Sudip Aryal (2007) developed a comprehensive pilot project for rural transformation of Nepal by establishing community information centers. Types of Mobile Services available in India As mentioned earlier that India has undergone a wonderful technological advancement in satellite communications and telecommunications is beyond any dispute. The existing mobile technologies and mobile services, besides mobile phones themselves, became quite cheaper. A mobile is available at a cost of 20-30 USD or 750-800 rupees. The two types of Mobiles—both Groupe special Mobil (GSM) and Code Division Multiple Access system (CDMA) –are available in India. Where as Nokia garners about 40% of total mobile sector consumption in GSM mobile technology, it too offers a mobile phone with SMS and phone book, chat, conferencing, calculator facilities, etc at a cost of 25 USD. Nokia offers mobiles with radio, MP 3 player and camera at the price of 100 USD with color screen also. In CDMA category, TATA Telecom and Reliance Telecom offer localized mobile handsets with roaming facility entire country. They are much cheaper than the GSM version of Noakia, Samsung and Erickson. All these mobiles are having single sim card facility only and the mobile number has restricted use in terms of tariff and roaming services.

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Of late mobiles with GSM and CDMA with twin sim cards are also coming up quite handy with multimedia in puts such as internet, radio, television, scanner and camera too. Yet, they are not very costly (150-200 USD). There are many cellular services like IDEA, AIRTEL, BSNL, VODAFONE etc which are offering very low packages as low as free life long incoming call facility. They are also offering the services at costs as low as 10-1000 and above also. There are top up and recharge facilities. CONCLUSIONS In spite of rapid advancement in technology and a spectrum of satellite services coupled with booming economy, the Indian farmers and weavers are committing suicides due to lack of appropriate technologies to integrate the Indian farming sector with the wider global marketing and planning systems. Firstly there is an immediate need to address the financial indebtedness of the small farmers and marginal farmers on realistic terms quite free from the jargon of complicated bureaucratic mind set with human face. To avoid recurrence of farming sector landing into crisis, an appropriate technological approach coupled with infrastructural facilities is the need of hour. The available convergent mobile technologies as described above would go a long way in alleviating the distress of the Indian farmers and help them compete with the global markets. Author‘s Note: This paper was presented at PCF 5th Conference held at University of London, July 13-17,2008, jointly organanized by Commonwealth of Learning (COL) and University of London. BIODATA and CCONTACT ADDRESSESS of AUTHOR C. S. H. N.MURTHY is presently working as an Assistant Professor (Reader) in Mass Communication at Amity School of Mass Communication, Amity University, Lucknow-Noida. He had earlier worked as an Assistant Professor in Media Technology and as Media Expert for the Ministry of Education, Government of Eritrea, Sub-Saharan Africa for two years (2003-2005) during which time he developed Media and ICT strategies for Formal, Non-formal, Vocational and Teacher Development Programs for the newly developing Eritrean Society. His original work on Media Education in Eritrean Education, became basis for Launching of Educational Television Channel, Teacher Development Programs for English through Radio and TV, Supporting Girls‘ Education through Bana radio. His papers on the above subjects were published in international journals. C.S.H.N.Murthy Ph.D Professor in Journalism and Mass Communication Institute of Management Studies A-8B,Sector 62 Noida UP 201301 INDIA Phone 0522-2721931-33. Mobile: 09956010619. Emails: [email protected] or [email protected]

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REFERENCES Abraham R (2006). Mobile Phones and Economic Development: Evidence from the Fishing industry in India. Paper Presented at IEEE Xplore Conference May. Chaudhry, A (2007). At farmers‘ meet, agricultural panel chief shoots from the hip. Indian Express Page 2. November 20. http://www.indianexpress.com/printerFriendly/240746.html Daniel J Gustafson, (2006). How to reduce India‘s rural distress. Deccan Chronicle in ―Meanwhile‖ Column Oct 31. (Karimnagar Edition). Friere P (1983). Pedagogy of the oppressed, Seaburg Press, New York. Galitz B and Michal Y (2007). Mobile Application for Mobile Learning. Paper presented at IADIS Conference, Algrave, Portugal, 7-9 Dec. Hengyuan Z, Ligang Y and Guisheng W (2006). How the Telecommunication Market in Developing countries that in Developed countries. Paper Presented at IEEE Xplore Conference May Indrani M , Sagar A and Toyama K (2006). Text Free User Interface for Illiterate and Semi-literate User. Paper Presented at IEEE Xplore Conference May Keval J. K and Thomas A.O. (2006). Telecommunications and Development: The Cellular Mobile ―Revolution‖ in India and China. Journal of Creative Communications, 1, 297. Mauren, P and Moreira, Da S. (2007). Taking of Conscience of the Digital inclusion as promotional of social and Cognitive Development in the Rural Area Paper presented at IADIS Conference, Algrave, Portugal, 7-9 Dec. Maxine, O. (2007) UNDP: help the poor cope with climate change risks. The Hindu Nov 28 as reported by P. Sunderarajan. http://www.thehindu.com/2007/11/28/stories/2007112861951700htm Mefalopulos, P. (2005). ―Communication for Sustainable Development: Applications and Challenges‖ in Hemer O and Tufter, T (Eds). Media, Communication and Social Change: Rethinking Communication for Development. Buenos Aires: CLASCO and Nordicom. Mihika, B. (2007). Crop Problems? Farmers can text IIT Bombay for answers. Indian Express. December 10. http://www.indianexpress.com/story/248582.html Mobile Technologies for development (2007). i4d, Nov 2007. http://www.i4donline.net/nov07/content asp Murthy C. S. H. N. (2008a). Designing E-Learning Programs for Rural Social Transformation and Poverty Reduction Turkish On line journal of Distance Education January. Article No.11.

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Murthy C. S. H. N. (2008b). Issues of Rural Development in Mainstream Journalism: An Analysis Digital Divide. Paper presented at National Seminar on Media and Rural Development – Challenges and Opportunities at Punjab Agricultural University. Ludhiana, February 18-19. Paul, S. J. and Tapan, S. P. (2006). Augmenting Rural Supply Chains with a Locationenhanced information System. Paper Presented at IEEE Xplore Conference May Rangaswami, N (2007) ICT for development and commerce: A case study of internet cafés in India. Paper presented at Proceedings of 9th International Conference on Social Implications of Computer in Developing Countries, Sao Paulo, Brazil May. Renee, K., Toyama, K. and Isha, R. (2006). Integrating Social Development and Financial Sustainability :Challenges of Rural Computer Kiosks in Kerala. Paper Presented at IEEE Xplore Conference May Rogers E. M. (1962). Diffusion of Innovations. New York Free Press. Rogers E. M. (1976). Communication and Development: Critical Perspectives. Beverly Hills. Sage. Sainath, P. (2008). Address entrenched structural inequalities, says Sainath. The Hindu, Feb 6 (Reported by Prakash Kamat.) http://www.thehindu.com/2008/02/06/stories/2008020659191300.htm Sainath, P. (2007). Maharashtra: ‗graveyard of farmers‘. OP-ED Page (Page 13). The Hindu, Nov 14. http://www.thehindu.com/2007/11/14/stories/2007111453091100.htm Singhal and Rogers (2003). The Mass Communication Revolution in India. Sage. Sudip, A. (2007). Rural Transformation by the establishment of community information centers in the rural areas of Nepal: A Pilot Project. UN ESCAP, 26 Sept. Sujay, M. (2008). Centre revamps rural electrification programme. http://www.thehindu.com/2008/02/13/stories/2008021355021500.htm The Hindu Feb 13. Swaminathan Committee Report on Minimum Support Prices (2006). Government of India, New Delhi. The World Congress on Communication for Development (2006). 25-27 Oct, Rome Italy.

UNDP (2008) Human Development Report 2007/2008 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_Human_Development_Index

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Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE July 2009 ISSN 1302-6488 Volume: 10 Number: 3 Article 1

THE TURKISH JOURNAL ON ONLINE EDUCATION: A Content Analysis Colin LATCHEM Open learning consultant, AUSTRALIA

ABSTRACT

As the ―Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education‖ approaches its tenth year, it seemed appropriate to assess to what extent its original goals had been achieved by conducting a content analysis of the Notes for Editors1 and articles in the issues of appearing between January 2000 and October 2008. The analysis involved determining the articles‘ countries of origin, sectors represented, and focus and frequency of the topics covered. It was found that the majority of articles were from Asian countries, with Turkey providing the greatest number of contributions. There were also many papers from the Middle East, Africa, South America, USA, Eastern and Western Europe, and Australia. These articles covered a very wide range of topics and while the quality varied, there has been a appreciable improvement in the research and reporting since the journal‘s inception. Some of the papers, presenting nonWestern perspectives, are particularly illuminating. The earlier articles tended to be descriptive or theoretical, but the more recent papers have been quantitativeexperimental and qualitative-descriptive studies into distance education and elearning needs, policies, procedures, practices and outcomes. Overall, the papers reveal a greater concern for teaching and learning than the technology per se. Some conclusions were drawn on the achievements of TOJDE and some possible future directions for the journal. Keywords:

Scholarly pupbilhing, scholarly journal, open access, tojde, Anadolu university, Turkey, distance education.

INTRODUCTION In the inaugural edition of the ―Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education‖ or TOJDE, the Editor in Chief, Professor Ugur Demiray of Anadolu University, stated that the journal would be scholarly and international in scope, and would open up new channels of communication on distance education in North Africa, the Middle East, the New Turkic Republics, Eastern Europe and the Baltic Republics. As TOJDE approaches its tenth year of publication, it seemed appropriate to assess the extent to which these goals had been met by conducting a content analysis of the 342 Notes for Editors and articles appearing in the 32 issues of TODJE between January 2000 and October 2008. The analysis involved determining the papers‘ countries of origin, sectors represented and focus and frequency of the topics. In the light of the findings, some conclusions were drawn on the achievements of TOJDE and some possible future directions for the journal.

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The following paper was unsolicited, but additional data were requested from the Editor-in Chief. THE TOJDE READERSHIP TOJDE was launched in January 2000, but the counter and web analyzing components were only added in early February, so there were no data for the number of hits in its first month. However, there were 177 hits in February, 318 in May 318, and in the ensuing months the number of hits went on doubling and in some cases tripling so that by December there had been a total of 5279 hits. Understandably, the greatest number of hits - 1,325 – was from Turkey. However, in its first year, TOJDE was also accessed by readers in Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Czech Republic, Cuba, Denmark, Egypt, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hong Kong, India, Israel, Italy, Japan, Malaysia, Mauritius, Mexico, Morocco, Netherlands, New Zealand, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, the South Pacific, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan, Ukraine, UK and USA. Most of these were from the education sector but there were also over 500 visits by commercial and non-profit providers. By the sixth issue in April, 2002, TOJDE had received about 17,000 visitors, including some from Barbados, Croatia, Indonesia, Ireland, Kuwait, Nepal, Trinidad and Tobago. TOJDE has not operated its own counter service for the past five years but it may be assumed that the numbers accessing the website continue to increase. TOJDE now subscribes to IndexCopernicus International whose bibliographic services include journal abstracting, ranking and calculating downloads. When TOJDE first subscribed to this service in 2005, its Index Copernicus Value (ICV) was 3.34 over 10. In 2008, its ICV was 5.76 over 9, an encouraging increase in its rating 2. In 2008, TOJDE also signed contracts with the Education Resources Information Centre (ERIC) 3 and EBSCOhost Electronic Journals Service4. The journal is also being considered for inclusion in the European Reference Index for the Humanities (ERIH) 5 which currently includes five distance and open education journals including the open access ―International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning‖ (IRRODL), and the ―Journal of Distance Education‖. At the time of writing, a Google search for TOJDE yielded 337,000 results. THE CONTRIBUTORS TO TOJDE In its first two years, TOJDE was only published twice a year, each volume containing only 6-8 articles. However, it was resolved by the TOJDE Steering Committee that journal should become quarterly and from 2002 onwards, it appeared in Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn editions. The number of articles per issue has also increased over time, the largest number to date being 20. The journal also features book reviews and news items but these are not included in this analysis. The journal sometimes has guest editors. The majority of the 342 articles appearing in the first nine volumes of TOJDE - 196 or 57% - came from Asian countries. Predictably, Turkey provided the greatest number of articles - 107 or 31%. There were also 23 articles from India, 18 from Malaysia, 12

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from Pakistan, 10 from Bangladesh, 6 from the Northern Cyprus Turkish Republic, 4 from Israel, 3 from Iran, 3 from Saudi Arabia, 2 from Indonesia, 2 from the Philippines, and one each from Bahrain, Hong Kong, Jordan, South Korea, Sri Lanka, and Thailand. The journal also published 28 articles from Africa – 17 from Nigeria, 3 from Egypt, 2 from Lesotho, and one each from Eritrea, Ethiopia, Ghana, South Africa, Swaziland and Uganda. South America contributed 4 articles - 2 from Brazil, 1 from Argentina, and 1 from Mexico. North America provided 56 articles - 43 coming from the USA and 13 from Canada. Europe contributed 44 articles - 17 from the UK, 8 from Greece, 3 from Norway, 2 from Finland, 2 from France, 2 from Germany and one each from Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Irish Republic, Italy, Lithuania, Moldavia, Romania, Slovenia and Switzerland. There were 14 articles from Australia. Such a range of countries of origin is impressive. Significantly, two-thirds of the articles were from non-Western countries. This is certainly commensurate with TOJDE‘s aim of developing new channels of communication in North Africa, the Middle East, New Turkic Republics, Eastern Europe and Baltic Republics. However, some countries targeted by the journal such as Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, Iraq and Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Azerbajan, Hungary, Poland, Croatia Bosnia, Estonia, Latvia and Ukraine, have yet to join the discourse. Most of the contributors were from the tertiary sector and their articles were concerned with distance education and e-learning in universities, polytechnics or colleges. Seven contributors were employees or consultants in the field of information and communication technology. Another 7 contributors were involved in the schools sector. Very few contributors addressed the issue of distance education and technology in non-formal adult and community education and only two or three were concerned with workplace training applications. The predominance of items from universities is understandable given their ‗publish or perish‘ culture and the fact that most researchers are employed in academe. It is important that TOJDE continues to enable academics to present their theory-driven research and scholarly discourse. However, the orginal aims were for TOJDE to share experiences in using distance education methodologies and technologies in all nonformal and formal settings, so it is important that the journal encourages more contributions on researching, developing, applying and evaluating distance education and e-learning in open schooling, non-formal adult and communication, workplace training and professional development. THE TOPICS ADDRESSED IN THE PAPERS In its Calls for Papers, TOJDE invites contributions on a very long list of topics: the economic, social and cultural dimensions of distance education; the pedagogical, political, philosophical, legal and ethical aspects; organizational and financial issues; the changing role of the teacher; staff training and professional development; program and material development; digital libraries and virtual universities; guidance and counselling; assessment, measurement, quality control and evaluation; technology and infrastructure; the future of distance education: distance education and globalization; Internet privacy and security; equity, justice and human rights; partnerships with industry; etc. 44

This listing was deemed to be too lengthy and detailed for a manually conducted content analysis, so it was decided to categorize the articles under 7 broad headings:        

Philosophy and theory Organization and costing Teaching and learning Course and courseware development Technology and media Evaluation and quality assurance Staff development Other

All of the articles were read through to establish under which category they were best entered. The titles alone were not sufficiently revealing. For example, one paper bore the title: ‗Effective change management strategies for embedding online learning within higher education and enabling the effective continuing professional development of its academic staff‘. With such a title, this paper could have come under any or indeed all of the above categories. However, upon reading this article, it was decided that it was most appropriately categorized as ‗Organization and costing‘. However, there was inevitably a degree of subjectivity in determining the prime focus of some papers, so the following quantitative findings must be treated with caution. Philosophy and Theory It is important that TOJDE encourages forward-thinking planners, managers and practitioners to engage in discourse on the philosophical and theoretical aspects of distance education and technology. Original perspectives, hypotheses and frameworks are needed to shape future thinking and practice and without such underpinnings, research in these fields will simply be descriptive or surveys without clear objectives. It was found that 31 articles or 9% could be categorized as philosophical or theoretical in that they gathered, summarized and analyzed ideas and issues, presented reasoned arguments or judgments, and aimed to persuade the readers of particular viewpoints on debatable topics. Three of these articles debated broad educational issues - productivist education versus contextual learning; lifelong learning and mentoring; and differences in learning styles. Three others argued for the adoption of blended learning; the use of knowledge management systems; and the need for socio-cultural responsiveness in distance education. The majority of the articles were concerned with issues arising through the adoption of e-learning. There were papers on applying the principles of Paolo Freire to e-learning; the nature of knowledge on the web; children in the Information Age; the nature of virtual learning environments; online learning and assessment; socialization in online learning,; e-training and achieving a life-work balance; and quality in e-training. Four of the articles were concerned with the global ramifications of distance education: three presented cases for conceptualizing distance education as global, collaborative, and experiential and constructivist; and one questioned whether the globalization of open and distance education would result in educational and cultural hegemony.

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Three articles discussed the potential of distance education in the developing world: to empower women in Africa; to provide continuing nutrition education; and to achieve rural social transformation and poverty reduction. One contributor wrote about the ethics of technology. Organization and Costing Enlightened leadership and sound planning, management and costing are called for in creating new or transforming existing systems and institutions and 33 or just under 10% of the articles addressed these issues. These mainly took the form of case studies of national or institutional systems, comparisons of educational systems in developed or developing nations, or suggestions on how provision might be achieved, for example through virtual institutions. A few of the articles discussed how distance education might be organized for non-formal adult and community learning in developing countries. One dealt with how distance education might be used to train employees in small to medium enterprises (SMEs). Three articles addressed the topic of leadership and change management and three dealt with finance - one examining the economics of distance education, one the costing of distance education, and one opportunity costing in distance education. Teaching and Learning Seventy-one or 20% of the papers examined teaching and learning issues in distance education and blended learning. However, many of the studies that were categorized and are discussed below under ‗course and courseware development‘ and ‗evaluation and quality assurance‘ were also concerned with teaching and learning processes and outcomes. Clearly, many contributors regard teaching and learning as at the heart of distance education and online learning. Most of the case studies and strategies discussed within this category concerned higher education. These articles ranged from teaching undergraduate science, language and information technology to developing research skills in graduate students. One article examined the design of virtual classrooms, another virtual education for inter-school learning, and yet another use of distance and online learning to train bank employees. The issues covered ranged far and wide. They included assessment and test generation; online examinations; web-based homework; supporting and mentoring the distance and online learner; creating virtual learning communities; collaborative online learning; and building motivational systems into distance education. The strategies described also varied: project-based learning for adult learners; casebased learning; creating a community of inquiry; the use of online discussion lists and messaging systems; synchronous and asynchronous computer mediated communication using WebCT, email, personal digital assistants (PDAs), blogging, and podcasting; and the role of computer simulations, web-based puzzles and games and fieldwork in distance education. The articles indicated that while there may be a wide variety of tools and instructional design models to choose from, the constants are the need for role changes in both teachers and learners, concern for individual and cultural differences, motivating and empowering the learners, providing a sense of social presence, and establishing the identities of the teacher in online learning environments.

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Course and Courseware Development As mentioned above, there was some overlap between the articles in this category and those listed under ‗teaching and learning‘ and ‗evaluation and quality control‘. However, 11 of the articles were specifically concerned with course and course materials development processes: using opensource software; how a university organized its courseware development; the use of a team approach to designing online programs; developing a legal education course; re-designing a course for blended learning; creating an e-learning program in the Igbo language in Nigeria, and so on. Technology and Media Again confirming that the contributors saw teaching and learning as paramount, only 32 or 9% of the articles came into this category. These reflected the changes and new developments in technology over the journal‘s lifespan. The earlier articles were concerned with such technologies as TV, radio, interactive radio, computer animation and videoconferencing. The more recent papers examined the new and emergent technologies such as digital broadcasting and interactive TV; Second Life; Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP); opensource courseware (OSS); PDAs; and Web 2/Web 3D platforms. There were also articles about performance support systems in Lotus Notes 6; educational uses of the Internet; factors influencing applications of technology; the appropriateness of different technologies to different cultural settings; automated essay scoring; the status of, and prospects for, e-learning in developing countries; distance education for mobile Internet users; tools for collaborative online learning; support tools for e-health programs; designing an elearning portal; learning management systems (LMSs) for mobile e-assessment; and automated categorization in digital libraries. Evaluation and Quality Assurance As befits a journal that states the aims of disseminating scientifically accurate reports on distance education, informing the profession, and ensuring quality, 140 or 41% of the articles were in the form of formative, summative, quantitative or qualitative empirical studies and/or concerned with quality assurance and continuous improvement. A considerable number reported on the characteristics, attitudes and experiences of distance or online learners. Many were concerned with the attitudes of undergraduate and graduate students towards distance education and online learning and the variables that shaped these. Others reported on the views of other stakeholders including high school pupils, health workers in non-government organizations, working adults and those returning to formal education. There were also studies into enrolment trends; matching students‘ characteristics and achievements; and the differences between the attitudes and satisfaction levels of on-campus and off-campus students. There were also graduate surveys and dropout studies; investigations into how female students coped with open learning; how gender influenced attitudes towards online learning; the causes of stress in students involved in interactive and collaborative learning; conventional university students‘ opinions of open university students; graduates‘ opinions on the usefulness of online careers guidance; and open school pupils‘ views on the merits of educational TV.

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As noted above, many of these articles were also concerned with assessing teaching processes and learning outcomes in applications ranging from an e-learning-based youth development course to pre- and in-service teacher training, and from teaching undergraduate science to educating parents about autism. There were also reports on staffs‘ and students‘ views on, and experiences with, distance and blended learning; comparisons between technology-based and face-toface teaching learning outcomes; assignment work and exam results; and interactivity and online problem-solving. There were also evaluations of multiple assessment measures; group work; collaborative learning using the Delphi Method; asynchronous paired learning in e-learning; online discussion in teachers‘ in-service training programs; and online and study centre support for the distance learner. Some of the evaluative studies focused more on technology – LMSs; Web 2.0 and the Internet; email; blogging; web-conferencing software; TV; radio; content management systems; learning objects; multimedia; games; computer simulations; mobile phones; podcasting, teachers‘ and administrators‘ utilization of technology; technology for in-service teacher training; etc.. There were also a few articles about the prospects for, and constraints on, distance education and online learning in developing countries, for example: to increase tertiary access for women in countries such as Pakistan and Ghana; to meet the extensive adult learning needs in Malaysia; the potential of e-exams in Nigeria; and the introduction of e-learning into university-level agricultural programs in Iran. Other topics covered were: eye contact in synchronous online discussion; social presence in videoconferencing; e-learning in the EU; the operation of a university‘s test and research unit; how a university applied QA to its course materials development and delivery; quality insurance in an open high school; creating communities of practice in Arabic cultures; PISA and uses of ICT; the prospects for converting a university into a learning organization; a comparison of the student support systems at Allama Iqbal Open University and the UK Open University; cultural inclusiveness in online learning; staffs‘ experience of teaching online; and course coordinators‘ and course writers‘ experiences in developing open and distance courseware. Staff Development Staff development and support are clearly important to ensure quality in pedagogy, instructional design and applications of distance education and online learning. There is as yet little provision for this in most Asian institutions and this fact was reflected in there being only 13 articles on this topic. Most of these were concerned with training university lecturers and tutors online. Of the remainder, one article discussed the use of distance and online learning for preservice teacher training; three dealt with online in-service training for teachers; and one was concerned with e-training for English language teachers. One article discussed the issue of whether staff development for distance education be should be top-down, bottom-up or peer-to-peer.

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Other 11 articles were judged to fall outside these main categories. Two reported on other e-journals and one on a recent distance education conference. One discussed the kinds of institutional support required by the ‗virtual professor‘, another a European language portfolio model, another e-libraries and e-books. Two dealt with marketing distance education, and one discussed the kinds of distance education research that would be required in the future. DISCUSSION Quality and Relevance Before discussing the quality of the TOJDE articles, it should be noted that some question the quality of much of the research into distance education and educational technology. Daniel (2002) observes that the growth in these fields has been paralleled by the growth of poorly conceived and trivial research. Laurillard (1994), Phipps and Merisotis (1999) and others complain that too many studies are inconclusive because they ignore the variables that can have such a significant effect in using new methodologies and technologies. Naidu (2003), Passi and Mishra (2003) and Robinson and Creed (2004) find that much of the research in the field is reiterative, features poor literature reviews, fails to establish convincing links between theory, research and practice, employs invalid and unreliable instruments, lacks quantitative and qualitative rigour, has measurement flaws, inadequate sample sizes and poor analyses, and offers little that is new, significant or generally applicable. So it is important that TOJDE strives for quality and advises potential authors against falling into these pitfalls. With so many Asian institutions involved in reforming education and training and employing open, distance and online learning in exciting and innovative ways, Asian research in these fields might be expected to enjoy a high profile in the international literature. However, Latchem and Jung (in press) find this not to be so. In 20042007, 17%-25% of the papers originally submitted to UK Open University‘s journal, ―Open Learning‖, were from Asia, but the acceptance rates of papers from the region varied between 4% and 10%. In 2006, the overall acceptance rate of papers in the ―British Journal of Educational Technology‖ was 22.7%. Papers from Hong Kong and South Korea fared quite well but only one of the 12 papers from China, 2 of the 12 papers from Singapore, 3 of the 10 papers from Malaysia, and 13 of the 7 papers from Taiwan were accepted. All of the contributions from Brunei Darussalam, the Philippines and Thailand were rejected. In 2003-2007, only 10 of the 45 articles from Southeast Asia, 8 of the 36 articles from East Asia, 4 of the 25 from South Asia and 4 of the 51 from West Asia submitted to the ―Australian Journal of Educational Technology‖ were accepted. The editor of the Australian journal, ―Distance Education‖, reports that the acceptance rate of Asian papers is close to zero unless western academics are giving a helping hand (Naidu, 2007). And less than 5% of the papers submitted from Asian countries were accepted for publication in the USA journal, ―Educational Technology Research and Development‖, compared with the overall acceptance rate of 12%.

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Research and scholarship in distance education and online learning are still nascent in many Asian countries and there is need to improve their quality, something which TOJDE can encourage. Quality is also all-important to the journal itself. With an increasing number of staff around the globe competing for tenure or promotion, there is strong competition to be published, and particularly in the more highly ranked journals. Because of the ‗Impact Factor‘ - the measure of citations to science and social science journals that is applied by appointment committees and quality assurance and accreditation agencies - authors may bypass journals that are not rated highly or deliver low citation rates. A number of Asian countries now have their own distance education journals and like TOJDE, they play and valuable role in diffusing findings and ideas. But it is also important that they aim for the same quality, credibility and status as the longerestablished international journals. It ill behoves any e-journal to be a ‗publisher of last resort‘. TOJDE aims to be a scholarly journal. It has a large and distinguished Editorial Board which includes some of the best-known names in the field. In its Call to Authors, it stresses that it requires manuscripts to be original, scientifically accurate, informative and coherent, of value to the profession, significant, timely, and consistent with the relevant literature. Manuscripts are subject to blind review by at least three members of the Editorial Review Board, and at the time of notification, authors may be asked to make revisions to meet the required standards. The acceptance rate is 65-70%. The quality of the articles in TOJDE varies. A few might be charitably described as ‗off message‘. However, there has been a considerable improvement in the depth and extent of the research and reporting over the years. The earlier articles tended to descriptive or theoretical. Now they tend to be quantitative-experimental and qualitative-descriptive studies examining needs, policies, procedures, practices and outcomes. An interest in technology is outweighed by concerns with teaching, learning and quality. There is little evidence of the formulaic pre- and post-test investigations undertaken by some Asian researchers. Some of the articles may be judged to be on a par with those in the better known and longer-established journals in the field. Some are particularly illuminating because they address topics from nonWestern perspectives. Cultural, socio-economic and technological circumstances can be different in Asia and so it is important that research and practice in distance, blended and online learning should not be over-reliant on Western theory and findings. Gunawardena (1999) suggests that research assumes an even greater importance in the developing world because of the north-south disparities in the production of knowledge. Spronk (2007) observes that a large pool of wisdom and accumulated experience in non-Western countries remains untapped. Altbach (2007) argues that knowledge production and dissemination should not be monopolized by the West and that Asia should be making a greater contribution to the world‘s knowledge network. Sinlarat (2007) observes that Asia needs to progress from being ‗a receiving culture‘ to ‗a producing culture‘ in regard to theory, research and practice. In these regards, TOJDE is performing an important role.

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Towards the Future There is a continuing need for researchers in distance education and e-learning to look beyond their immediate findings, dig ever deeper into the underlying symptoms and causes, arrive at conclusions and make recommendations that will inform practice or further research. Subjecting policies, procedures, processes and outcomes to rigorous research and public scrutiny may not always be easy in Asian contexts where organizations, roles and functions can be bound by tradition, consensus and harmony valued over individualism and candour, and criticism looked upon as unseemly. However, if the potentials of distance education and technology are to be fully realized, more robust research is needed to inform policies, improve understandings and practices, and assure quality. Some dramatic and significant educational changes and developments are occurring right across Asia. Governments are giving high priority to distance education and the region has the largest number of adult distance learners in the world, 7 of the world‘s mega-universities, over 70 open universities, and a large and growing number of dual-mode providers. E- and m-learning are being adopted in universities, schools, workplace training and non-formal adult and community education. The region contains some of the world‘s most advanced communications networks and the poorer nations are beginning to leapfrog the digital divide. Cyber universities and international consortia are entering the distance education market and Asian institutions are involved in transnational delivery. Innovations abound, ranging from virtual universities to SchoolNets, from classroom webquesting to distance education for literacy, and from using distance education for special education and gifted children to teaching prisoners to enhance their job prospects on release from jail. Research is needed in all of these areas and not simply in the higher education sector. It is to be hoped that TOJDE will seek to widen the range of articles even further. This content analysis has revealed a highly commendable breadth and variety in the articles published by TOJDE. But there are still many areas requiring more research: admission systems; recognition of prior informal learning; credit transfer; accreditation; quality assurance; gender and cultural differences; transnational distance education; and inter-institutional and inter-sector collaboration and consortia. All of this research needs to be ongoing – the word research after all means ‗search and search again‘. Circumstances are continually changing, there are always new depths and complexities to be explored and new knowledge is always throwing new light on assumptions and actions. So there is always need for more research. But rather than replicating others‘ studies - for example, into faculty and student acceptance of distance education and multimedia-based teaching and learning – contributors should be encouraged to seek out topics that are original, throw new light on Asian thinking, practices and achievements, and are more likely to appeal to reviewers, journal editors and international audiences. The editor of the ―British Journal of Educational Technology‖ offers some valuable advice: choose a topic that no-one else has working on, because that makes you the world expert.

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He also suggests that authors invite their colleagues or other mentors to critique their work and only submit this when everyone agrees that it is up to required standard (Rushby, 2007). Several TOJDE research papers have clearly benefitted from cross-institutional or international collaboration. Such collaboration enables all of the parties involved to gain new insights into the fields under investigation and the more experienced researchers and writers to mentor those new to the field. Such collaboration and mentoring can be south-south, not simply north-south. It is noted that very few articles admitted to failures or shortcomings. Things are bound to go wrong when undertaking new ventures in distance and blended learning, but as Rerup (2003) observes, there is as much to be learned from failure as success and failure should always be seen as a stepping stone, not a stumbling block. With the above points in mind, given its interest in the scholarship of distance education, TOJDE might consider mounting a special conference dedicated to researching in this field and/or organizing a workshop on this topic in conjunction with a major distance education conference. TOJDE makes its full-text peer-reviewed articles openly accessible. This is fully in keeping with the philosophy of open and equitable access to knowledge and information and using opensource courseware for educational development. Needing only one web-based copy for access by any number of readers anywhere in the world, TOJDE is cheaper for both its publishers and its readers. As an electronic journal, its articles can be as long as the content and presentation warrant. Print journals usually limit the number of words to 4-5,000. Some of TOJDE‘s articles are 12,000 words long. Readers seeking particular information, authors or articles can easily switch from one volume or number to another through the Past Issues links and use Google or Find buttons to immediately access key words, phrases or items they need. An increasing number of important journals now have no print editions, and academics are becoming more used to online-only publication6. Anderson (2008) observes that open access journals further the respectability of open access publishing and are not only more equitable, but result in higher citations as they are more widely read by readers in all parts of the world. The ―British Medical Journal‖ online (www.bmj.com) argues that research belongs online. Umpleby (2008) suggests that the Internet allows the creation of virtual research institutes whose members can collaboratively and simultaneously test theories and trial new approaches in different countries to establish whether concepts or approaches that work well in one context can be applied in others. So, should TOJDE, like distance education itself, become more interactive, make use of multimedia and be collaborative? Might it, for example, not only feature articles but blogs, podcasts and streaming video presentations and case studies? This would reflect the kinds of cross over shown in newspapers and journals using the Internet as platform for TV and TV and radio providers putting transcripts of their broadcasts online. And could it do more to enable distance educators to engage in the kinds of geographically distributed and multidisciplinary collaboration that are finding answers to important scientific and medical questions such as understanding and controlling SARS and AIDS?

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TOJDE is still a very young journal but is beginning to stand comparison with journals dating back to the 1980s. It has come a long way in realizing its aims in the last nine years -and still have greater heights to scale. Endnotes: 1

The Notes for Editors are occasional articles on a variety of topics and, unlike the papers in the Articles section, are not subject to the refereeing process. 2 How ICV is calculated is explained at http://journals.indexcopernicus.com/info.php 3 http://www.eric.ed.gov 4 http:// www.ebscohost.com 5 http://www.esf.org/research-areas/humanities/research-infrastructures-includingerih/erih-initial-lists.html 6 See http://journalseek.net/

BIODATA and CONTACT ADRESSES of AUTHOR Colin Latchem was formerly Head of the Teaching and Learning Group at Curtin University of Technology in Perth, Western Australia and is a past President of the Open and Distance Learning Association of Australia. Since retiring from full-time university work, he has been a visiting professor in Japan and Korea, has consulted and been a keynote speaker at international conferences in China, Fiji, Hong Kong, Indonesia, USA, Saudi Arabia, Turkey and other Asian countries and has researched and written extensively on open, distance and elearning. His latest book, ―Distance and blended learning: Opening up Asian education and training‘, co-authored with Insung Jung, ICU, Tokyo, will be published by Routledge in June 2009. Email: [email protected] REFERENCES Altbach, P.G. (2007) ‗Research universities in developing countries‘, in Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Education Research: New challenges in higher education, October 23-25, Seoul National University, pp. 3-38. Anderson, T. (2008) IRRODL updates, email to IRRODL subscribers from the Editor, December 3, 2008. Daniel, J. (2002) ‗Why research distance learning?‘ Address at the CRIDALA Conference, June 5-7, 2002, Hong Kong, http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/ev.phpURL_ID=5911&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html) Gunawardena, G.I.C. (1999) ‗Research and evaluation in open learning: the case of the Open University of Sri Lanka‘, in Conference Proceedings ( Case Studies A-G), 1st Pan Commonwealth Forum on Open Learning, 1-5 March 1999, Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam (http://www.col.org/forum/PCFpapers/Gunawardena2.pdf) Latchem, C. & Jung, I. (in press) Distance and Blended Learning: Opening up Asian education and training, Routledge, London and New York.

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Laurillard, D. (1994) ‗How can learning technologies improve learning?‘ Law Technology Journal, Vol. 3, No. 2 (http://www.law.warwick.ac.uk/ltj/3-2j.html) Naidu, S. (2003) ‗Research, scholarship and publishing in distance education: weaknesses, opportunities and challenges‘, Paper presented at Pan-Commonwealth Conference 2004, 4-8 July 2004, Dunedin, New Zealand. Naidu, S. (2007) Email to the author. Passi, B.K and Mishra, S (2003) ‗Selecting research areas and research design approaches in distance education: process-issues, The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, Vol. 5, No. 3 (http://www.irrodl.org/content/v5.3/passi-mishra.html) Phipps, R. and Merisotis, J. (1999) What's the Difference? A review of contemporary research on the effectiveness of distance learning in higher education, The Institute for Higher Education Policy, Washington DC (http://www.ihep.com/Pubs/PDF/Difference.pdf) Rerup, C. (2003.) ‗In the grey zone‘, Impact: Management Research in Action, Vol.11, No. 1, The Ivey Business School, The University of Western Ontario. Robinson, B. and Creed, C. (2004) ‗Moderators‘ report and summary of discussion: Pre Pan-Commonwealth Conference 2004 Virtual Conference‘ (http:www.col.org/programmes/conferences/virt_04rpts/pcf3research.htm with postings at http://hub.col.org.pcf3research) Rushby, N. (2007) Email to the author. Sinlarat, P. (2007) ‗Reglobalizing Thai higher education: the path for future‘, Paper presented at The 8th International Conference on Education Research, October 23-25 2007, Seoul National University. Spronk, B. (2007) ‗Culture, technology and making choices‘, in E.J. Burge (ed.) Flexible Higher Education: Reflections from expert experience, pp. 141-148, Open University Press / McGraw-Hill. Umpleby, S. (2008) Academic Globalization: The Growth of International Collaboration in Education and Research, Paper presented at the World University Forum, 31 January-2 February 2008, Davos.

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Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE July 2009 ISSN 1302-6488 Volume: 10 Number: 3 Article 2

A COMPARATIVE SURVEY ON MIND MAPPING TOOLS Avgoustos A. TSINAKOS Department of Industrial Informatics, T.E.I. of Kavala, Ag. Loukas 65404 Kavala GREECE Thanasis BALAFOUTIS Department of Information and Communication Systems Engineering, University of the Aegean, Karlovassi 83200, Samos, GREECE ABSTRACT Mind Mapping is an important technique that improves the way you takes notes, and enhances your creative problem solving. By using Mind Maps, you can quickly identify and understand the structure of a subject and the way that pieces of information fit together, as well as recording the raw facts contained in normal notes. It can also be used as complementary tools for knowledge construction and sharing. Their suitability as a pedagogical tool for education, e-learning and training, increases their importance. Also, in a world of information overload and businesses struggling to keep up with the place of change, knowledge workers need effective tools to organize, analyze, brainstorm and collaborate on ideas. In resent years, a wide variety of mind mapping software tools have been developed. An often question that comes up, due to this plethora of software tools, is ―which is the best mind mapping software?‖ Anyone who gives you an immediate answer either knows you and your mind mapping activities very well or their answer in not worth a lot. The ―best‖ depends so much on how you use mind maps. In this paper we are trying to investigate different user profiles and to identify various axes for comparison among mind mapping tools that are suitable for a specific user profile, describe each axis and then analyze each tool. Keywords: mind mapping tools, brainstorming, e-learning, survey. INTRODUCTION Mind mapping was firstly developed by Tony Buzan, a mathematician, psychologist and brain researcher, as a special technique for taking notes as briefly as possible whilst being interesting to the eye as possible. Since then, mind mapping turned out to be usable in many different ways other than just simple note taking. Some people use them for study, some for planning projects, some for organizing information, some for sparking ideas and facilitating brainstorming sessions, some for planning the writing of a report or blog.

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The method of mind mapping takes into account that the two halves of the human brain are performing different tasks. While the left side is mainly responsible for logic, words, arithmetic, linearity, sequences, analysis, lists, the right side of the brain mainly performs tasks like multidimensionality, imagination, emotion, color, rhythm, shapes, geometry and synthesis. Mind mapping uses both sides of the brain (Buzan, 1976), letting them work together and thus increases productivity and memory retention. This is accomplished by representing logical structures using an artistic spatial image that the individual creates. Thus, mind mapping connects imagination with structure and pictures with logic (Svantesson 1992, Marguilies, 1991). Mind maps are hierarchically structured. They are produced following the rules given below (T. Buzan & B. Buzan 1993, Hemmerich et al. 1994, Hugl 1995, Svantesson 1992):  





 

Use a large sheet of paper without lines in landscape format. Place the topic of the mind map in the centre of the paper. (The topic of the mind map should be displayed in an eye-catching way, preferably by a colored image. If a picture does not seem appropriate, the topic should be named by a well-chosen keyword. See figure 1) From the topic draw a main branch for each of the main ideas linked to the topic. Write keywords denoting the main ideas directly on the lines. Use printed letters. (The order of the branches is not important. If a special order is needed for understanding the topics, the branches may be numbered or ordered clockwise. If possible, only one word per line, preferably a noun, should be written down. As 90% of the worlds in texts are unnecessary, using a few meaningful keywords will be sufficient to remember the entire context.) Starting from the main branches you may draw further lines (subbranches) for secondary ideas (sub-topics) and so on. The order follows the principle: from the abstract to the concrete, from the general to the special. Use colors when drawing a mind map. Add images, sketches, symbols, such as little arrows, geometric figures, exclamation marks or question marks, as well as self-defined symbols to your map.

Mind maps can be used in many different situations. They are extremely useful for a variety of applications. Commonly, the following functions have been described for mind mapping in literature:

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Figure: 1 A mind map example    





To visualize human information exchange (e.g. workshops, project of staff meetings, brainstorm sessions and strategy sessions). To organize, reorganize and filter the thoughts and ideas that are collected. To analyze and structure the information, to identify relationships between key points. To improve knowledge management systems. The mind map can be used as a visual interface that contains information or external links. Latest software allows automatic build-up of the mind map by search engines and renewal of the content by refreshing. To produce and present information in a better way. Mind map can be automatically converted to other forms of communication, such as: web sites, presentations and email. To better manage the information for meetings, presentations, projects, proposals, research and contacts. Both in the preparation phase, the execution phase and the follow-up phase.

Finally, mind maps can be used for a large range of activities, including note-taking and reporting, brainstorming, clarifying of thoughts, summarizing, presentation, planning team building and group communication etc. In spite of its well-structured and ordered contents a mind map may sometimes, appear confusing. Mind maps are very individual graphic representations. As different people have different associations with the same topic they also draw different mind maps. The correct grasp of the relations represented in a mind map affords the right associations to the used key words.

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Hence, any mind map that someone wants to use should be drawn by that individual or group to which the individual belongs. In a mind map each main branch builds up a complex whole with its sub branches. Connections between the single aspects are not drawn in order to increase the clarity of the map. Thus, the relation in the mind map is probably incomplete. In this paper we make a detailed comparative survey of the main software tools that have been developed for mind mapping. We consider five mind mapping tools, FreeMind, NovaMind, OpenMind, XMIND and iMindMap. Firstly we describe the key features of the surveyed tools and then we try to compare them. The comparison is not done in a way to reveal the best mind mapping software. We are trying to make clear their similarities and differences, in order to guide users to find which tool fits better their profiles and needs. MIND MAPPING TOOLS OVERVIEW The usefulness of mind maps can be proved by the plethora of mind mapping software tools that are available in the market. For example, Aviz Thought Mapper, BrainMine, ConceptDraw MINDMAP4, Eminec MyMap, FreeMind, HeadCase, iMindMap, Inspiration, MapIt, MindCad Pyramin, MindChat, MindGeniuw, MindMappes, MindManager, MindPad, NovaMind, OpenMind SoftNeuron, VisiMap, VisualMind and XMind, are only a part of them. Due to space limitations, a complete review and comparison of all these tools was not achievable. So we focused on a representative subgroup of the available tools. In this section we overview five mind mapping tools. These are FreeMind, iMindMap, NovaMind, OpenMind, and XMIND. We briefly describe the main key features of each tool and we indicate the class of users for which each tool fits better. FreeMind FreeMind(http://freemind.sourceforge.net) is a premier free mind mapping software, licensed under GPL (GNU General Public License) written in Java. The recent development has hopefully turned it into high productivity tool. The presence of a simple and intuitive interface makes the application easy to use and understand. The entire process of creating, using and sharing mind maps is made in a very user friendly way. From a practical point of vie, it does allow users to try out a different way of structuring and visualizing content. By visualizing content and its various connections in a fluid way, users may be able to gain a better grasp of it all. All these characteristics have helped in increasing the popularity of the application. In the next paragraphs we describe the main features of this software as well as the current users for which this tool is a working solution. Freemind has an interesting set of useful features and essential properties. By using FreeMind, users can easily create mind maps with nodes. They can edit, format and apply patterns to a node by working with physical styles. They can also highlight nodes, using clouds, adding hyperlinks, icons and graphical links to the nodes. By a simple mouse click, they can create links to the local files in their system or any other web page.

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The software supports the ability of hide or display all the information below a selected node. HTML links can be stored in the nodes, including World Wide Web links and links to local files. It includes the possibility of copying nodes or styles of nodes, dragging and dropping of multiple selected nodes, dropping of texts or list of files from outside. It also supports smart copying and pasting. This feature helps in pasting of links from HTML or structuring the pasted content on the basis of the number of leading spaces in a line; pasting of lists of selected files. You can also export maps in HTML format. With this feature, the mind maps can be converted to a standard, hierarchical text structure. The File mode can be used to browse the files on a computer, seeing the folder structure as mind map. FreeMind exhibits low cost of risk of switching away to another mind mapping tool because it stores maps in XML format. If a user has a lot of maps created by FreeMind and wants to switch to another program, writing a conversion program should be easy, especially if that program features Visual Basic scripting facility. It also supports some advanced operations, like selecting multiple nodes, folding and navigating. The users can access detains regarding exporting and importing mind maps. They can use web applets; attach rich text and pictures in nodes. FreeMind is primary a tool for editing mind maps, but it is also designed to be able to view data coming from various data sources. A programmer has to write a mode for every data source, to make that specific data source available for viewing in FreeMind. It allows placing URIs, which get resolved by a WWW browser when activated. This can be seen as navigational link support to some extend. Its HTML export facility is not useful when talking about moving a hierarchy to navigational hypertext, because FreeMind only exports an outline view as a single HTML file. (Atzenbeck et al 2003) The potential user of this product can use it for a variety of purposes. FreeMind is suitable for keeping track of projects, including subtasks, state of subtasks, and time recording. It helps in managing information, including links to necessary files, executables, and source of information. A user, who wants to keep collections of small or middle sized notes with links on some area, will find it useful. Such a collection of notes is sometimes called a knowledge base. This tool can also guide users in writing essays and brainstorming their ideas, using colors to show which essays are open, completed, not yet started etc, using size of nodes to indicate size of essays. Database users, they will find it helpful because they can keep a small database of something with structure that is either very dynamic or not known in advance. Finally Internet users can be helped by maintaining commented internet favorites or bookmarks, with colors and fonts having the meaning they want (S. Kumar, 2006). iMindMap iMindMap (www.imindmap.com) is the first and official T. Buzan mind mapping software. It is the only software product that fully duplicates T. Buzan‘s renowned mind mapping techniques. In 2006, the Buzan organization decided to lunch its own mind mapping program – iMindMap – with an aim of creating a software environment that would closely mimic the process of creating hand drawn maps. In figure 2, can be seen a mind map created with iMindMap tool. It‘s easy to see the similarities with a hand written mind map. 59

In 2007, iMindMap2 was released, and it shows tremendous promise. It delivers on the promise of creating a more organic interface for creating mind maps, while also offering numerous features that should satisfy all but the most demanding businesspeople.

Figure: 2 Example of mind map created using iMindMap. iMindMap 2 offers a simple but well designed interface. You can easily place your central idea in the middle of the screen and add topics and subtopics by a simply way. iMindMap creates predefined branch shapes, but you can also switch to a hand-drawn branch mode if you want to get more creative. It also gives you access to an extensive selection of topic icons, plus an online library of nearly one million images, which you can utilize to enhance your map. Topics may contain nodes, as well as links to web pages and files. It also includes a full featured word processor that lets you create highly formatted text in the notes window.With the so called ―SpeedMapping mode‖, you can enter ideas into your map quickly, using only the keyboards. It also automatically reformats your map as new branches are added, ensuring that your branches stay well organized. It includes a Pen mode, which enables you to utilize the program on a Table PC, with an interactive whiteboard or on a PC with a graphic tablet input device. The program even gives you the option of displaying larger control points, which make it easier to select them when using a Table PC or whiteboard input device. In general Pen mode gets you even closer to the experience of hand writing a mind map. iMindMap has a powerful keyword search capability. This capability not only enables you to search for a specific word within the current map, but you can also do an expanded search that looks for it in all of the mind maps within a specified directory at your computer.

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The developer has wisely included a full complement of export options including the ability to export as image, document, web page, pdf or presentation file. In addition, you can copy your mind map to a clipboard and past it into another application – which represents a quick and easy way to share part or your entire mind map with others. Finally is supports cross-platform compatibility. Because it is built on Java technology, it can utilize on Windows-based PCs, Apple Macs and certain versions of Linux. iMindMap is suitable for use in schools and colleges and can be applied to any thinking task, actively engaging students of all ages in creative thinking, organizing and problem solving Its flexibility makes it suitable for any subject or theme and it can be used in whole class, group or individual settings to generate ideas, find inspired solutions, presents concepts and diagrams, analyze findings, summarize information, aid interaction between students in group work and in general improve memory recall of facts, words and images. It can also be used to manage effectively human resource tasks. For example, to facilitate employee appraisal schemes and to outline employee training and development programs. It facilitates communication between individuals, in the boardroom and across companies, by avoiding misunderstandings and settle disputes. NovaMind G. King and his team of developers are the creators of NovaMind tool (www.novamind.com). With the recent release, version 3.2, NovaMind incorporates dozens of productivity enhancing features. In the next paragraphs we will take a closer look at the most significant new and improved features of this promising mind mapping software application. The ―ribbon‖ toolbar is by far the most significant upgrade to this mind mapping program. It resembles the ―ribbon‖ toolbar that Microsoft recently introduced on its new Office 2007 suite of productivity applications. NovaMind is the first mind mapping software to offer this enhancement. It also supports the capability of the brainstorming mode, with which you can quickly enter a large number of ideas into your map, without the program getting away.A unique ―snap lines‖ feature helps you to vertically align branches to each other, and it helps you to create neatly arranged maps. You can also move and reshape your map branches with great deal of creative freedom. It supports enhanced right click functionality. When most programs display a text-based drop-down list when you right click on a map element, NovaMind‘s implementation is clearly much more visually oriented – perfectly appropriate for a mind mapping program. Concerning hyperlinks, NovaMind is enriched with the ability to attach multiple hyperlinks to a single branch. This feature makes it quite advantageous to business persons. Many mind mapping programs offer a full screen mode, which enables you to view your mind map with toolbars and other interface elements removed from the workspace. But the developers of NovaMind took this capability one step further. You can actually edit your map in full screen mode. This could be especially useful when you‘re working with a large or complex map. You can also create one parent map and multiple sub-maps, and maintain all of them in a single file.

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Another way that this software is interesting is the extensive set of options it offers for printing your mind maps. You can scale your printed map by percentage, make it to fit on one page or specify the number of pages high and wide you want it to print out. NovaMind is a generic mind mapping tools and can be user efficiently by students, teachers, it helps you organize topics for an agenda, to make fast and effective project planning and in general can be applied to any thinking task (King G. 2007). OpenMind MatchWare OpenMind (www.matchware.com), is a professional mind mapping software application that allows users to brainstorm and visualize ideas. It captures the full potential of mind map. Especially business edition provide users with a solid set of visual mapping tools that are very well suited to managing projects, plus numerous well designed features that make it a pleasure to use. In general, OpenMind has a simple and unique way to add branches sequentially at the current level of a map. Moreover, it enables users to insert a topic one level above the currently selected topic. It is also fast and easy to incorporate a picture into a central topic or add icons to any branch. It centralizes all of the icons for adding objects, such as hypertext links, file links and multimedia objects. Users can attach multiple objects per branch. Another valuable feature of OpenMind is the comments handling. Whenever a user adds a pop-up comment to a topic, it remains hidden from view, except for a small icon next to the topic. When mouse over this type of comment, a window pops up, displaying the text contained within your comment. The advanced functionality offered by Business Edition enables users to use it as a capable project management tool. They can attach detailed task information to individual map topics, including dates, priority levels and resources. If someone adds tasks and timeline information to a map topic, he can take advantage of the program‘s timeline view, which automatically displays a horizontal line with callouts for each task-related topic. This feature will probably be of interest to project managers. OpenMind has an effective way to develop business plans. Whenever a user develops a business plan alone or as a team, OpenMind has an effective way to outline and present an overview of the business strategy, marketing plans and brainstorming ideas. It has a big collection of templates that helps user to create easily new business plans. It lets you also to develop your mind map in 6 different views depending on the nature of data. The user can easily switch back and forth between views at any time while creating maps. With one-click export to Word and PowerPoint, OpenMind instantly converts business plans to a report or presentation. It even let you schedule the implementation of business plans using the built-in Gantt chart or timeline (a Gantt chart is a horizontal bar chart used to illustrate a project plan and to coordinate and track the progress of the individual tasks required to bring the project to completion).

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OpenMind is especially effective for performing SWOT analyses (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats), by simply creating a web of ideas on a mind map. It can also be used as a choice of federal, state and local law enforcement for gathering information and creating professional tilelines of accident and crime scene data. For educational purposes it can be used to create an outline for written documents such as essays or research papers. It supports detailed curriculum-aligned templates for Language Arts, the Sciences and Social studies. XMind XMind, (www.xmind.org) developed by Mongo Software of Beijing, China, is one of the newest entrants in the filed of mind mapping software, available for Mac, Windows and Linux. The latest iteration of XMind 2008, offers an impressive collection of well thought-out, easy to use features in a polished, professional user interface. The user interface consists of a large workspace, with toolbars and tabbed dialog boxes running down the right side of the screen. It supports an amazing variety of visual map types – everything from a traditional mind map and organization chart to a fishbone diagram (used to show cause and effect) and logic diagrams. XMind treats the attachments as topics, which means that any number of different properties can be assigned to them. Users can drag and drop files into the XMind workspace, attaching them to a topic or making them free floating. Attachments automatically travel with XMind files, making it easier to share maps with others. Audio notes can also be added quickly to a topic. They‘re saved in MP3 format, although currently there doesn‘t seem to be a way to extract audio notes. Another key feature of Xmind is the ability to utilize multiple layouts structures within the same map. Options include traditional mind mapping structures (map, left tree, logic charts, org charts) as well as 2D chart (analogous to a spreadsheet clipping). There are also features that enable users to take a ―snapshot‖ of part or all of the maps – an image that can then be loaded into another program. It is a fast way to pull map‘s content into another program, without having to export it. Concerning map connections, the users can create a set of free floating topics, and then make whatever connections between them that they desire. They are not constrained to having one central topic. Different from the traditional linear slide-shows which limits the imagination and creativity and makes meetings less participatory, Xmind introduces users to a brand new presentation style, perfectly combining point focus and holistic concept grasp, with fully customizability and interactivity. Xmind can be used for meeting, project, information and time management, in education and academy, for brainstorming, for note taking and collaboration. (Mango Du, 2007)

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COMPARISONS In this section, we identify various axes for comparison among the surveyed mind mapping tools, describe each axis and then analyze each tool. We didn‘t measure the quality of the described software application. However we categorized the representative key features in a systematic way. Our goal was to aid the future users to select the mind mapping tool that fits better to their needs. The selected axes for comparison was the supported operating system, the supported map formats, the topic, map and advanced features, the supported modes, the interface features, the integration with other applications and finally the supported export formats. In the previous section we described with details, for each software application, the supported key feature, but here we summarize the obtained results. Concerning operating system all the surveyed tools can be installed on Windows. OpenMind is not suitable for Mac and Linux users, and NovaMind is not supported only by Linux. Xmind has the richest capabilities on formatting maps, while Freemind supports only traditional maps. iMindMap and NovaMind does not support organizational and fishbone charts. OpenMind does not support fishbone maps. Regarding features, all the surveyed tools use markers, notes and hyperlinks. NovaMind and Xmind have the extra functionality of multiple links per branch. All of them support images as background or as objects on the maps. They also have wizards that guide users on map creation, and customizable branch shapes. iMindMap and NovaMind are more directed to freehand style. So they maintain freehand drawing tools. FreeMind is the only tool that is not embedded with the functionality to attach files on map. In general we could say that NovaMind is the tool with a real wide spread of attached features. OpenMind is a tool specialized on Windows operating system, so is the only one with full Microsoft Office Integration. XMind supports partially MS Office (Word and PowerPoint only). Map can be exported by all surveyed software tools as html web pages, as images and as XML files. FreeMind is the only tool that is not support PDF extraction. As expected, OpenMind is powered with MS office extraction capabilities. In the next table (Table: 1) we give detailed a mind mapping software comparison chart. Following the results, summarized on the above table, it is clear that none of the surveyed software tools outperforms others. We can say that each tool has useful and unique features and refers to a different class of potential users.

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Table: 1 Mind mapping software comparison chart Freemin d OPERATING SYSTEM Windows Mac OS X Linux MAP FORMAT SUPPORTED Traditional Directional Organizational charts Fishbone TOPIC FEATURES Map markers Customizable symbols Task related info Priority related info Call out topics Notes Hyperlinks Multiple links per branch Embedded attachments Topic numbering Topic boundaries MAP FEATURES Floating topics Background image Multi-page document Customizable branch shapes Freehand drawing tools Spell check Wizards Relationship lines Import images to maps ADVANCED FEATURES Review map with others Search topics INTEGRATION WITH MS OFFICE Word Excel PowerPoint Outlook MS Project Internet Explorer EXPORT FORMATS PDF Word PowerPoint Outlook MS Project HTML web page Image formats XML

iMindMa p

NovaMin d

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CONCLUSION In this paper we briefly surveyed five mind mapping tools (FreeMind, iMindMap, NovaMind, OpenMind, XMind), and compared their features. Initially we made an introduction to mind maps, explaining their characteristics and their usefulness in human information exchange. Next we made an overview, describing the key features of each surveyed software tool. We also described the class of users and the possible applications that fits better to each tool. Finally we summarized the key feature of each software application by comparing them on a set of various axes and we collected our results on a comparison chart (Table 1). Our objective was not to make a quality order or to reveal the ―best‖ software tool. Our goal was to notice the most representative key features of each tool, and to aid the future users to select the mind mapping tool that fits better to their needs. BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESSES OF AUTHORS Dr. Avgoustos. A. Tsinakos is Head of Department of Industrial Informatics, T.E.I. of Kavala (2006–to present) and Associate Professor, Department of Industrial Informatics, T.E.I. of Kavala. His education bacground based on BSc in Physics (1992), from the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece. MSc in Applied Artificial Intelligence (1993), from Computing Science Dept of University of Aberdeen in Scotland , under the ESF scholarship. MSc. thesis title: ―Implementation of SALT‖ , AGDDE(T) Advanced Graduate Diploma in Distance Education Technology (1999), form Athabasca University of Canada, MDE Master in Distance Education (2000), form Athabasca University of Canada .MDE thesis title: ―Developing a Student Model for Distance Education. Ph.D. degree on "Artificial Intelligence and Internet" (2002), from the Department of Applied Informatics in the University of Macedonia, Dr. Tsinakos has participated in thirteen projects acting as a coordinator and participated in more than 32 world/international/national conferences as invited speaker/presenter. He is also a member of the independent expert evaluators of the European Commission since 2006. Dr. Avgoustos. A. Tsinakos Department of Industrial Informatics T.E.I. of Kavala, Ag.Loukas 65404 Kavala, Greece tel: 0030 2310 891890 Tel /Fax 0030 2510 462359 E-mail: [email protected] URL: http://de.teikav.edu.gr/tsinakos/ or http://macedonia.uom.gr/~tsinakos

Thanasis Balafoutis was born in Athens, Greece in 1972. He received the Diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering from the University of Thrace, and the Master of Science in Information Management from the University of the Aegean. He is currently a PhD student at the Department of Information and Communication Systems, University of the Aegean. 66

His main research interests are in the field of Artificial Intelligence programming, knowledge representation, search and scheduling). He is also interested in applications of Artificial Intelligence in Education within e-learning. Thanasis has several publications in international conferences and journals. He was also a referee in international conferences (14th and 15th International Conferences in Principles and Practice of Constraint Programming, 2008 and 2009, Springer Lecture Notes in Computer Science) and a referee in the Book Recent Advances in Constraints 2008, also published by Springer. He is a member of the Technical Chamber of Greece and member of the Hellenic Artificial Intelligence Society (EETN). Thanasis BALAFOUTIS Department of Information and Communication Systems Engineering, University of the Aegean, Karlovassi 83200, Samos, GREECE [email protected] REFERENCES Claus Atzenbeck, et al, (2003). Investigating Structure Domain Interoperability. In:

Proceedings of the 3rd Workshop on Spatial Hypertext at the 14th Conference on Hypertext and Hypermedia, Nottingham, England. Buzan T. (1976). Use Both Sides of Your Brain. E.P. Dutton & Co, New York Buzan T. & Buzan B. (1993). The Mind Map Book. 2nd edn., BBC Books, London. Kumar S. (2006). Freemind User Guide Version 0.8.0

Hemmerich H. et al, (1994). Strategies for Life-Long Learning in Mathematics and Science in the Middle and High Schools Grades. Portsmouth: Heinemann. Hugl U. (1995). Qualitative Inhaltsanalyse und Betriebswirschaftlicher Verlag Dr. Th. Gabler GmbH.

Mind-Mapping.

Wiesbaden:

King G, (2007). NovaMind, Your Mind Mapping creativity enhancing tool. NavaMind User Guide. Mango Du, (2007). XMind 2008 pro, white paper. China. Margulies S, (1991). Mapping Inner Space: Learning and Teaching Mind Mapping, Zephyr, Tucson, AZ. Svantesson I, (1992). Mind Mapping und Gedachtnistraining. Bremen, GABAL

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Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE July 2009 ISSN 1302-6488 Volume: 10 Number: 3 Article 3

E-LEARNING AND THE GLOBAL DIVIDE: The Challenges Facing Distance Education in Africa Dr. Bamidele A. OJO Professor of Political Science & International Studies African Studies Program School of Political & International Studies Fairleigh Dickinson University. Nj. USA ABSTRACT This paper examines the question of distance education and its pivotal role in promoting social change and development in Africa. It also discussed within the context of the global digital divide and the ongoing need for collaborative effort at global education, the limitation imposed by the socio-economic and political environment on the continent. The paper in its findings conclude that the crisis within African societies constitutes a serious challenge to the implementation of and the effectiveness of distance education in Africa and therefore contributes to the widening of the digital divide rather than reducing it. Keywords: E-learning, distance education, Africa, global divide INTRODUCTION True to the words of James Martin, education which use to be regarded as something that ended when one‘s working life began, will in this new era, go on throughout life because adult education will be of vital importance. In his musing cited in Thorvaldsen (1980, p.9), he correctly speculated that the following decades will be characterized by an extremely rapid rate of change in which work and leisure activities will change. Many persons will learn two, three, or four careers in a lifetime as telecommunications, automation and later machine intelligence will cause entirely different work patterns. And that electronics will create both the need and the tools for lifelong learning. In fact his speculation was rather cautious considering the world of today with satellite communications, cellular phones, computer technology, software and hardware and much more. According to Alexander and Boud, all these have transformed education the way it used to be. The impact is therefore complete because it has changed the learner and what he or she is expected to learn and knowledge acquisition process. It has changed the teacher, the process of instruction and his or her own learning process as well and finally transformed the environment within which this knowledge will be put to use.

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The change since 1980s has been steady with ever increasing capability provided by multi-media capable computers accompanied by a reduced cost. The rapid growth of the internet has added a new dimension to the entire process because it provides possibilities for high quality education in an investment and entrepreneurial friendly environment. Interestingly, the rise of the new technology seem to coincided with a crisis of confidence in traditional education and an increasing demand for higher and continuing education that have not been adequately met by traditional educational institutions(Alexander and Boud (2001p.3). These observations, while they are true, continue to change as rapid and in tandem with the speed of technology as well. Our lives have all been transformed not only within the education section but within and between all sectors, within and between societies. But while the transformation within the process of learning and beyond might be true, it is important to establish the importance of education and its impact on societal development and for the purpose of this paper, an attempt will be made to examine distance education in Africa before and since the advent of the new technologies and the factors impacting the process thereof. In the process of our analysis, we will establish that the environment in the developing countries is an important variable in determining the success of distance education. It will also be established that, rather than reducing the global divide, the socio-economic and political conditions within which the process of distance education is taking place in Africa, widens the divide. In an effort to achieve these goals, this paper is divided and discussed under three themes; Distance education and E-learning; The Widening gap- the African experience and; the Challenges facing distance education in Africa. DISTANCE EDUCATION AND E-LEARNING Distance education started in the 1800s with individual pioneers using the latest technologies of the time such as the printing press and the post office, to reach distant students. The situation is no more different today whereby the technologies available are greatly enhancing the potential of distance education as well as the learner‘s experience. What has changed is the nature and speed of communication brought about by the technology in use. Distance education has transformed itself over the years by incorporating new technologies such as the radio and the television as well as the video, and more recently the computer, the electronic networks, the Internet, the world –wide- web (WWW), videoconferencing and satellite broadcasting. (Barbara Fillip, 2000).However, this transformation has not in any way changed the purpose of education in any of the societies of the developed and developing world. According to Govinda Shrestha, the purpose of education remain the same, because ―education has served as the main instrument for disseminating various accomplishment of human civilization and plays a crucial role in producing and transferring knowledge and skills in society‖ (Shrestha, 1997). The contribution of education to economic growth, the reduction of poverty and injustice and general awareness is well documented. And according to the World Bank, education is ―essential for civic order and citizenship and for sustained economic growth and the reduction of poverty (World bank, 1995: xi).

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In fact, education is also seen as ―one of the keys to social development and virtually every aspect of the quality of life‖ (ICPQL, 1996:170). This report by the Independent Commission for Population and Quality of Life (ICPQL) reaffirms the global acceptance of education as an important vehicle for social change and development. Distance Education: As an extension of traditional education process, distance education extends beyond the conventional educational environment and therefore needs special methods and vehicles for carrying it out. Starting from the correspondence studies in Shorthand in England initiated by Pitman in 1884 and the establishment of the first University of Correspondence teaching department at the University of Chicago in the 1880s by Harper and many other similar initiatives around the globe, to the present day explosion of e-learning and online education on the internet, distance education has come a long way. Distance education is described in many ways across the globe, from ―external‘ or ―off-campus study‖ to ‗correspondence education‖, ‗independent study‖, ‗home study‖ or ‗open learning or education‖. Whatever the term used to describe distance education, the central characteristics of the type of education is the separation of the learner from the teacher or instructor. Distance education is therefore an educational process ―in which someone removed in space and/or time, from the learner conducts a significant proportion of teaching‖ (Perryton 1992). According to Desmond Keegan (1986), distance education exhibits the following characteristics:     

the separation of teacher and learner, the planning and separation of materials under the influence of an educational organization, the use of technical media to unite teacher and learner, the provision of two-way communication, and the absence of the learning group.

Considering the debates (for or against) that seem to follow distance education from the beginning, there is an on going and rather increasing acceptance of the idea across the globe today. The reasons for this general acceptance are numerous and it includes among others, the fact that it fulfills some of the educational needs which conventional or campus-based educational system cannot address. For our purpose, we will not engage in the debate about its usefulness or acceptability because that aspect of the distance education debate has been extensively researched for decades (Cole, R.A. (2000), Minoli, D (1996), Willis, B. (1994), Harasim, L 1990), Castro, A. S. (1988) but it must be emphasized that, the acceptance of this educational process was also felt in developing as well as developed countries. Generally, we all see distance education as ―classrooms without walls…class size without limits… teaching that transcends space time so that teachers with valuable specialties and invaluable experience can reach students hundreds of miles away… and their students can reach back, to share questions and answers that make distance learning truly interactive‖(Minoli, 1996:8). Africa was not left out and for more than three decades now, many countries on the continent depended on ―offcampus‖, ―correspondence‖ or distance education as a means of reaching a substantial part of its population that might otherwise have been fallen outside the conventional educational system.

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The reason for the acceptance of distance education in Africa was characterized by Govinda Strestha as an effort to narrow the information and knowledge gaps between the information haves and information have-nots (Strestha, 1997). To some scholars (Beal, Dissanayake and Konoshima, 1986), the issue facing Africa was not about general acceptability of distance education but that of effective application of knowledge gained within conventional education system to solve societal problems. That was true then and very true today. It is the resulting inequities in the access to and distribution of knowledge and the weakness in the systems for accessing and applying knowledge that enabled the environment for the growing interest in distance education. Again, the focus of our analysis is not on the ―whys‖ and ―why not‖ of the general acceptability of distance education in Africa. For our purpose, we shall presume that distance education is generally accepted and it gained solid footing in many African countries for decades. Our objective is to identify its limitations and why it may have not improved the general educational goal as preconceived and the examination of the conditions that resulted in its ineffectiveness as an educational option in Africa today. THE WIDENING GAP-THE AFRICAN EXPERIENCE Interestingly, while over 80 institutions provide distance education services in Africa by the mid-1990s, the University of South Africa was the first Open University in the world in 1951, as a dedicated correspondence university (Jenkins, 1989). The Zambian National Correspondent College was established in 1964 and the Malawi Correspondence College in 1965. By the end of that decade many other countries such as Ethiopia have joined this special group of nations. Other areas in which African countries have introduced distance education has been in the areas of non formal education like health, agriculture, family planning, rural development and the environment. In this area, Botswana, Tanzania and Zambia lunched radio campaigns for public awareness and education on a massive scale. In the area of formal education distance education is used to enhance the quality of conventional education, through the use of broadcasting and correspondence courses. In addition to this, the adoption of satellite centers or study centers as part of the distance education programs is very common in many African countries today. In many developing countries, distance education has been used to pursue conventional educational ends because of the obvious advantages such as: 1) it is economic (school building and other facilities are not required, 2) flexibility (one can study in his/her own time, and 3) its operability over long distances (and it can cater for widely scattered student population) (Dodds, Peraton and Young, 1972:10). Another important characteristic of distance education infrastructure in Africa is that, like in many developing countries, it operates under some government department or ministry. For example, the following distance education institutions, received public funding and each with the exception of Kenya, is part of the ministry of education: 

Ethiopia- Distance education division responsible for senior secondary adult education operates from under the ministry of education,

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    

Kenya‘s school of distance studies responsible for teachers in-service operates from the University of Nairobi, Lesotho‘s distance teaching responsible for teacher‘s in-service operates from the literacy department of the ministry of education, Malawi‘s College of distance education responsible for secondary education operates from the ministry of education, Zambia‘s national correspondence college responsible for secondary education operates from the ministry of general education and Zimbabwe‘s teacher education course responsible for secondary literacy operates from the ministry of general education.

This arrangement was of tremendous advantage to early distance education programs in many countries in Africa. With Botswana, Kenya, South Africa and Zambia spearheading this process in the 1960s especially in the area of teacher training and secondary education, the other countries joined in later. According to Peraton (1992), by this period commonwealth Africa had thirty publicly funded distance teaching institutions. The fact that distance education took early roots in many African countries does not mean that all has been rosy ever since. There were many obstacles to effective distance education from the onset. This is not limited to the method of teaching and a learner‘s condition (physical and mental) but also to structural limitations as well. On the learner‘s side of the equation, there is;   

a lack of resources needed for meaningful development and sustenance of technology- based learning (Foks.1984), a lack of infrastructures to support modern technologies and, a lack of recurrent funding necessary to acquire or develop appropriate software and courseware on a continuous basis and maintain, service and replace the equipment. (Shrestha, 1997: III).

However, the environment within which these programs takes place is an important determinant of the level of success it is likely to achieve. The failure or the limitations experienced by distance education can therefore be divided into two broad categories:  

The political environment limitations and, socio-economic environment limitations.

Both the learners and instructors or teacher are affected by these environmental factors. Political Environmental Limitations Political environmental limitations are important factors conditioning the effectiveness of distance education in Africa. It includes the political situation in the country in which the program takes place. Political situation will include, political stability or instability, ethnic conflict or civil wars, absence of democracy and lack of effective state building and nation building. This also includes policy initiatives and the presence or absence of effective governmental infrastructures.

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We must remember that the policy of the government is as good as the government itself. No matter the lofty goals set by any government, if the government operates within a state that is incapable of effective governance or responsible policy initiative, ant attempt to carry out distance education policies will falter if not fail. With the nature of African state and its inability to effectively promote the interest of the individual, there has been in many cases a break down and decay of infrastructures. Many people blame the decay of educational infrastructures on ineffective and irresponsible governmental policies in Africa. The distance education sector is not spared these debilitating experiences. The ineffective structures of the state and the corruption within governments have led to political instability. This does have a direct impact on distance education as we have witnessed in the past two decades, the downward spiral in education initiatives in Africa. We have seen disproportional budgetary allocation of funds to prosecuting wars or defending or sustaining political power at the expense of building necessary foundation for growth in the society. Like many problems facing African countries today, the problem of ineffective distance education system can therefore be directly linked to the nature of the African state, which continues to perform under par. The problem of the state in Africa stems from the European incursion and the lack of survival of the pre-colonial state structures (Ojo. 2004). This situation led to the reordering of the socio-political and economic aspects of the society and the contradictions within post colonial state sin Africa. The predicament of the African state did not start at independence but began as a result of the African state‘s inability to defend itself, maintain its authority, and to protect its population during the colonial period. For instance, the colonial powers were not interested in state making and did not need any legitimacy or the approval of local populations and African states were therefore established as conduits for extracting resources. These states lacked legitimacy and cannot be described as states per se. As a result of this quasi-state situation, the colonial authority makes the ethnic groups the sole repository of power, loyalty and legitimacy. The ethnic groups therefore assumed a far more important role during the colonial state and continue to do so today. In order for the state to successfully develop the right condition within which to perform its functions, including the promotion of effective African centered education, it must be perceived by the population as the protector of their interests and in order for the state to sustain the process it must also establish a level of trust between itself and the people. This seemingly endless dance of death is compounded by global transformation which imposes additional stress on the legitimate authority of the state. The effective participation in the global environment, the use of new technologies which sometimes represent the dominance of the western ideas and values and the ability to promote sustainable growth in these societies, is impossible to attain because of the nature of the new African states. The African state is limited in its ability to compete. And it will be unfair to refer to the African state as being soft or weak or collapsed because it is a state in the process of being. It is in the process of re- inventing itself which is compromised by the changing nature of the global system and the speed of the change.

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Many Africanists contend that the current spate of global transformation is nothing but a re-colonization process that not only democratizes dis-empowerment but facilitates the sustenance of the status quo (Claude Ake, 1996). The question of nationhood has not been about how to define nation per se but how to effectively utilize the state to recreate or redefine itself as a representative of all. Sometimes it is difficult to perceive the problem because the African leadership has accepted the inevitable dominance of the ideas newly adopted from abroad or imposed by the previous colonial administrations. Normally a state develops its attributes over time, after it must have impressed its relevance and value in the memory of its citizens. No wonder it has taken the United States, United Kingdom or France, such a long time to be able to maintain the degree of democratic postures that they have assumed today. To illustrate this, we have just witnessed the election of Barack Obama as the 44 th President of the United States after over 220 years of independence. For the African state, the pre-colonial state was terminated by the colonial state, which represented a disconnection between the people that it dominated and had no interest in ever protecting them, except when its lucrative economic infrastructure was in danger. The succeeding post-colonial state lacks an history and has no connection to the pre-colonial state, except some values that was dynamic enough to resist the years of colonial domination. The post colonial state is therefore in flux, in a process of integrating a non- native value system and infrastructure, in an un-comprehensive domestic environment. Those institutions that have survived colonial domination exist in contradiction to newly adopted European values. The level of confusion is enormous and it undermines the successful assertion of the new state structure because of the lack of trust and disconnects resulting from the colonial experience. So when we condemn the African state for its ineffectiveness, we must understand the contradictions resulting in political instability were by-products of the colonial experience. But the reality is that these contradictions constitutes an obstacle to state-building and nation-building and therefore to an effective implementation of a distance education policy. Socio-economic Limitations The ability of the institutions to provide necessary tools for effective learning is handicapped by the nature of the government and the state itself but the individual learner is also a subject of socio–economic conditions as well. Poverty is a problem since many of the, learners do not have access to requisite educational materials. The state of public libraries and educational institutions is disturbing in Africa. The learner is poor and hence may not have the means to acquire the materials necessary and the government is so inept that it may not have the resources to make these materials available. In many of the African states, teachers and instructors are not adequately paid and could go for months without receiving salaries and are in many cases denied the opportunity to acquire up to date technology or share them with their professional colleagues because of lack of government incentives and opportunities. The infrastructures necessary for effective distance education such as constant electricity supply, accessible internet services and funding is absent. It is difficult to implement distance education in a situation where more than fifty percent of the population lives in darkness most of the time.

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It is difficult to carry out effective learning through the internet when the learner has to travel miles to internet cafes and still not guaranteed that there will be electricity when he or she gets there. The learner may not even have the money to buy enough ―internet-time‖ to undertake the require study. Distance education may cost less but in reality it is out of the reach of the average Africans because of the level of poverty and the lack of effective infrastructures necessary to deliver it. While the pressure for such facilities grew in the late eighties the resources for education generally in Africa began to decline. The distance education colleges, usually departments of ministries of education, suffered similar or often more stringent cuts as those suffered by their formal secondary school counterparts and the standard of their services declined (Dodds, 1994). Another problems associated with this, is that of effective policy control. This led to the mushrooming of many satellite campuses without adequate capability to conduct educational instructions talk less of issuing degrees. These study centers became an outlet for exploiting students by providing them inadequate instructions and offering certificates at the same time. The Nigerian University Commission in 2003 has to close down many satellite campuses and ordered many institutions to clean up their distance education programs and to meet requisite standards. CONCLUSION: The Challenges facing Distance Education in Africa The environmental situation presented above is very common in Africa and a political economy analysis of the African societies will lead us to the same conclusion, which is the place of Africa in the international economic system and the impact of colonialism and imperialism on contemporary African government and society. The distance education sector is not spared the same predicament. Many African countries have a problem of meeting the subsistence needs of their people including education. Ethnic strife, political unrest, food insecurity and droughts are major issues competing for Africa's meager development funds. Many villages and communities are without water and roads let alone electricity and telecommunications networks. Many Africans lack access to basic traditional media, such as newspapers, radio and television, let alone the internet and access to new technologies. Even in countries fortunate to have traditional media, such as newspapers, radio and television, these media seem to be underutilized and use most of the time to propagate leadership agenda which is to sustain them in power and may therefore be of little of no distance educational value. The challenges facing distance education in Africa is the recognition of the limitations imposed by the nature of the African state and how to deal with internal political strife, corruption and now HIV/AIDS. Distance education therefore occupies a minor place in overall African development strategies (Agunga, 1997).It must be recognized that in order to improve the situation in many African countries, the priority has to change. Education must continue to be seen as a way of promoting socio-political and economic development which will in turn allow the learners to take full advantages of the process.

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This will command a shift in priority that will allow the governments of Africa to expend a lot of resources in providing necessary infrastructure and funding for conventional and distance education. Political stability and progressive policy initiatives that will lay necessary foundation for development is important. Basic social amenities should be made available to everyone and in every corner of the country. This will allow the learners to take advantage of distance education to the fullest. New technologies should provide the necessary foundation for the effectiveness of government initiatives in all areas of the society. The government by providing these amenities will be able to combat poverty and corruption and therefore be able to inspire effective distance education within their countries. Other issue raised by the use of new technologies in Africa is that of the loss of cultural values. According to Agunga (1997) ―Will IT lead to a loss of cultural values for the developing world? when IT‘s objective is global integration of the marketplace. For example if the ultimate goal is to breakdown national markets leading to economic and political integration and if increasing concentration of media ownership leads to loss of local control or independence of the political economy, what about cultural values? Is integration or the tendency for people to be alike always better? What will happen to Third World cultural values, morality, traditions, and continuity in the 21st century when English becomes the global language? How will Third World culture, if there is such a thing, be served by the unopposed and unregulated global annexation of Third World media systems?‖ These are relevant questions that African policies on education need to address. But governments in Africa must find a way to take advantage of new technologies especially through distance education to promote and sustain its developmental programs. The first important step is for African governments to develop a clear policy on the use of technology in education and its potential in distance education. Ideally, this policy development exercise should be integrated with other related policy processes dealing with the information and communication infrastructure and applications in other sectors such as health and agriculture. This is particularly important if the concept of truly multipurpose tele-centers or community centers is to be implemented. In rural areas in particular, it would make more sense for all relevant sectors to work together on developing community access to ICTs for a multitude of purposes, rather than strictly for educational purposes or strictly for agricultural purposes. However, if community access is provided within an existing institution, that institution‘s primary objective might become the primary purpose of access. For example, if access is made available in a school, the teachers and students of that school might be the primary beneficiaries, with distance education students in the local area as potential secondary beneficiaries and additional services offered to the community might be ―educational‖ in nature. (Fillip, 2000) There are other structural issues that need to be in place for an effective distance education programs comparable to the one in the first world. Many of these countries must provide basic amenities needed for connectivity.

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In Africa, and especially in countries like Nigeria, it is difficult to find the wires that connect homes and businesses along the main roads, as it is in advanced countries of the west. By adopting wireless technology, less developed countries save a great deal of time and money by having to build a vast 'wired‖ infrastructure network. (Okpanku 2004). It is reassuring that many countries in Africa are opting for this wireless technology as a means of providing telecommunication and the internet. Okpanku also calls for fiber optic transmission, broadband and high speed data services at business premises, educational institutes and homes, which could be addressed by deploying a solid and dependable wireless ICT infrastructure. Limited access to new technologies like the Internet and broadband services has strongly constrained, according to him, the development of Nigerian information economy and as such the dire need for a sound option. The problem facing many African countries is not limited to education or distance education alone. It is vast and pervasive. It is structural as much as it is political and economical as much as it is social. It is therefore necessary to discuss the problems of distance education within context of the society in Africa and the role of the state in the developmental process. If the state is incapable of promoting the interest of its population because of its configuration, how can it be effective in putting in place and implementing a viable distance education program? The success of an educational agenda is a function of the environment within which it exists. The environment will enable or disenabled the attainment of its goals and in a competitive world, the African distance education agenda is incapable of reducing the gap between the developed and the developing world but by the constraints imposed by the environment may inevitably be contributing to the widening of the digital gap. BIODATA and CONTACT ADDRRESSES of AUTHORS Prof Ojo was appointed by former Nigerian President Obasanjo as chairman, governing council, Michael Imodu National Institute for Labor Studies(2005-2006) and was a former candidate for governor(Ekiti State) 2003 and 2007 under the ruling party(PDP) in Nigeria. Dr. Bamidele A. OJO Professor of Political Science & International Studies School of Political & International Studies African Studies Program Fairleigh Dickinson University. Nj. USA Tel: 12016922630 /Fax:12016929096 Email:[email protected] URL:http://alpha.fdu.edu/~ojo

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REFERENCES Agunga, R.(1997) The Politics of Distance Education In the Development of Africa, A

Keynote Address at the 12th African Educational Research Symposium on Politics and Education in Africa held at Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, February 21-22, 1997, from http://www.ncsu.edu/ncsu/aern/OSURAA.HTML

Claude Ake, (1996), Democracy And Development in Africa (Washington, DC: Brooking Institutions) Alexander, S and Boud, D(2001). ―Learners Still Learn from Experience When Online‖ in Stephenson, J(Ed) (2001).Teaching and Learning Online: Pedagogies for New Technologies (London, UK: Kogan Page) Beal, G. M, Dissanayake, W. & Konoshima, and S. (1986) (Ed) Knowledge Generation, Exchange and Utilization (London: Westview Press) Castro, A. S (1988). ―Teaching and Learning as communication: The Potentials and Current Applications of Computer-Mediated Communication Systems for Higher Level Education‖ in Higher Level Distance Education. Perspectives for International Cooperation and New Developments in Technology (Paris: UNESCO) Cole, R. A. (2000). Issues In Web-Based Pedagogy: A Critical Primer (Westport,CT: Greenwood Press) Dodds, A. (1994). "Distance Learning for Pre-tertiary Education in Africa." In M. Thorpe and D. Grugeon, eds., Open Learning in the Mainstream. Harlow: Longman Group, pp. 321–27. Dodds, T., Perraton, H., and Yung, M. (1972). One Year‘s Work: The International Extension College 1971-71(Cambridge, UK: International Extension College) Foks, J (1984). ICDE Bulletin (May) Fillip, B. (2000). Distance Education in Africa New Technologies and New Opportunities (Washington DC: JICA-USA /Japan International Cooperation Agency) Harasim, L. M. (1990). (Ed). Online Education: Perspectives on a New Environment (New York: Praeger)

ICPQL (Independent Commission for Population and Quality of Life) Report, 1996 Keegan, D. (1986). The Foundations of Distance Education (London: Croom Helm) Jenkins, J. (1989) ―Some Trends in Distance Education in Africa: An Examination of the past and Future Role of Distance Education as a Tool for National Development‖. Distance Education, 10(1), 41-63 Minoli, D. (1996). Distance Learning Technology and Applications (Norwood, MA: Artech House)

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Ojo, B. (2004). ―Africa‘s Triple Dilemma: The State, Democratization and the Challenges of Globalization‖ Globalization, 4:2 (2004) Okpanku, C. (2004) Wireless Broadband Solution: Bridging the Digital Divide in Nigeria, from http://www.gamji.com /11/23/04) Perraton, H. (1992). ―A Review of Distance Education.‖ In Murphy, P. and Zhiri, A. (Eds) Distance Education in Anglophone Africa (Washingtn DC: The World Bank Shrestha, G. (1997). Distance Education in Developing Countries (UNDP, February, 1997; from http://wwwundp.org/info21/public/distance/pb-dis7.html) Thorvaldsen, P. (1980). (Ed). From Books to Bytes: The Impact of Technology on Education. (Toronto, Canada: TV Ontario) Willis, R. (1994) (Ed). Distance Education: Strategies and Tools (Englewood Cliff, NJ: Educational Technology Publications) World Bank (1995). Priorities and Strategies for Education. (Washington DC: The World Bank)

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Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE July 2009 ISSN 1302-6488 Volume: 10 Number: 3 Article 4

CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION IN LEARNING: The Changing Roles OF ICT Mehmet KESIM Anadolu University Open Education Faculty Eskisehir, TURKEY

―Individuals from every corner of the flat world are being empowered. Globalization makes it possible for so many more people to plug and play, and you are going to see every color of the human rainbow take part.‖ Thomas Friedman ABSTRACT

(Friedman, 2005)

The notions of information, communication and technology constitute the underlying structure of the term ICT. While these elements have instigated change, the use of them has also incited change in a way that the notions of Innovation, Collaboration and Transformation have become keys to the application of ICTs. Similar to this new ICT triangle, the knowledge triangle addresses the issue of innovation as well. The knowledge triangle, consisting of education, research and innovation, is crucial to support personal and organizational development. The critical issue is that innovation intersects with both the new ICT triangle and the knowledge triangle. Any discussion regarding the relationship between the new ICT and knowledge would cover a very broad scope, including the relationships between education and society, and the interaction between knowledge and innovation. Under such circumstances, where such vast areas must be covered simultaneously; creativity, innovation and education will most likely be in the agenda of European education for a long time. As social changes take place towards a digital society, pre-established social connections have also been transferred and somewhat transformed into the digital domain. In this regard, e-learning seems to have a crucial role to succeed in keeping pace with the constant change. Keywords: Globalization; creativity; innovation; learning ecology; new ICT triangle; knowledge triangle. INTRODUCTION Thomas Friedman argues that globalization have flattened the world by reducing barriers among states, individuals and corporations. These words indicate the constant growth and expansion that is taking place, binding every aspect of the world we live in. Friedman (2005) states that globalization began in 1492, and henceforth can be identified in three consecutive yet distinct eras:

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Globalization 1.0: 1492-1800 This initial era of globalization reduced the world to a medium scale from the original large and vast state. Countries globalized during this era, in which aspects such as horsepower, wind power and steam power defined the significance and development prospects and methods of countries. Countries and their power were the major players of this era. Globalization 2.0: 1800-2000 The second era of globalization in Friedman's three step approach reduced the previously achieved ‗medium‘ state to a small size. The shrinking of this age was defined primarily by multinational companies, as they followed the suit of countries in their efforts in globalization. Considering the timeframe of this era, it can be deduced that developments such as the industrial revolution, development of new technologies and their rapid advancement in accordance with Moore‘s law as well as social and political restructuring to accommodate such developments made this era one of significant change. Globalization 3.0: 2000— The final stage of globalization shrinks the world from ‗small‘ to ‗tiny‘ in that a power shift took place, inducing power on an individual basis. This defining aspect of the final age of globalization can be attributed to the ability of a single person to have their voice heard globally, and in turn follow every aspect of global events. CREATIVITY The dictionary definition of the word ―creativity‖ is ―the ability to create‖ or ―the ability to produce something new through imaginative skill‖. Creativity is not only an innate ability or skill, but due to the habitual nature of it as a response to any given situation, it is a lifestyle, or an attitude towards life. While physical and biological similarity infers that everyone is capable of creativity, differences in personality, personal history and experiences as well as socio-cultural context simultaneously influence creativity. Due to these differences, creativity cannot be reduced to a single key element. The National Advisory Committee on Creative and Cultural Education (NACCCE) presents a definition of creativity as ―imaginative activity fashioned so as to produce outcomes that are both original and of value‖. This definition expresses five characteristics of creativity (Loveless, 2006, p.3):     

Using imagination A fashioning process Pursuing purpose Being original Judging value

These actions and approaches differentiate the problem solving aspects of creative individuals.

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INNOVATION The word ‗innovation‘ comes from the Latin word ‗innovare‘, meaning ‗to renew, restore‘ (Latin and English Dictionary, 1988). Most definitions of innovation can be related to one or more of six dimensions (Dolan, 2008, p.6):      

Newness Innovation object Stages in the innovation process Systemic effect Level of analysis Outcomes

Pedagogical Innovation In today‘s knowledge-based digital society, new and innovative learning approaches must be developed to ensure that both teachers and parents are supported throughout their curriculum via clear and applicable teaching guidelines and continuous teacher training. As such, pedagogically and didactically innovative approaches allow for better employment, self development and participation in the aforementioned transformed society through foreseeing future learning needs, skills and required competences. ICTs take part in this approach by their capability to support individual and personalized learning, in which learners are not merely recipients of knowledge but are knowledge builders as well (SEC 2008, 2629 final, p.11 ). Technological Innovation Together with the shift to a digital society, technological innovation has resulted in the ability to utilize various tools for the establishment of new learning environments. The shift to a digital society also brings the need for new production, distribution and access methods to digital resources. The advanced networking capabilities and personalization options of new technologies allow various tools such as phones, game consoles and media players to act as gateways to new mobile learning environments. The unification and convergence of digital media enable cross-platform interoperability with developments such as podcasts, digital TV and radio (SEC 2008, 2629 final, p.12). Organizational Innovation There is a current evolution taking place, in which schools are transforming into learning centers, universities into learning service providers, companies into learning organizations and cities and regions into learning support environments. The uses and impact of ICTs in education and training will also be compounded through organizational change, inciting growing e-maturity. Individuals that play a role in organizational and operational innovation such as learners, teachers and workers must be involved as collaborative approaches require innovative use of ICTs (SEC 2008, 2629 final, p.13). Innovation is a function of creativity and requires trust, openness and a spirit of experimentation in which seemingly random thoughts are allowed to unify for recreation (Knowledgesingle, 2006, p.90).

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LEARNING ECOLOGY AND LEARNING NETWORKS While (Brown, 2000, p.19) defines ecology as basically an open, complex, adaptive, dynamic and interdependent environment which evolves and self-organizes, (Siemens, 2006, p.11) defines a learning ecology as follows:      

An environment that supports / fosters learning Adaptive, dynamic, responsive Self-organizing / individuality directed Structured informality Diverse Alive

Learning / knowledge is a dynamic, living and evolving state. Components of knowledge sharing environments are (Siemens 2003):  Informal, not structured  Tool-rich  Consistency and time  Trust  Simplicity  Decentralized, fostered, connected  High tolerance for experimentation and failure  The connectivist understanding of learning asserts that informal learning is a key element to providing the flow of information in connected societies. Considering that the key element of learning in such societies is the establishment of connections, the available infrastructure and new developments in ICTs provide the technical tools necessary for addressing the changes taking place in learning ecologies. The connectivist approach to these changes provides us with a better understanding of what is changing, why it is changing and how we can keep up with the change (Kesim, 2008, p.5). Siemens states that the key to network learning is the connections between nodes, and the ecology is the environment in which the network occurs. The health of networks residing within the ecology is also influenced by the ecology in which the learner exists hence the ecology of the learner and the learning ecology in which the network occurs are related. It can be deduced that since the connections between nodes are key elements in network learning, variables that influence these connections and nodes will also have an effect on the network and its ecology. Compromising the components of knowledge sharing environments Siemens states would also result in a disruption in the evolving and dynamic nature of learning and knowledge (Siemens, 2005).The simple definition of a network is connections between entities. Regarding learning ecologies, a network is a way to organize a learning community which in turn results in a personal learning network. A network comprises of two or more nodes which are connected to be able to share resources. Each node acts as a connection point to a larger network. Individuals, information sources and even whole learning communities can be seen as nodes. Each node may act as a gateway to all the other nodes that it has established links with, thereby allowing each node that it is connected to 83 access to other nodes.

In that respect, learning communities also rely on the establishment of new connections for the development and retention of information flow (Marhan, 2006, p.212). CHANGING ROLE OF ICT FOR CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION The New ICT Triangle While the use of ICT in many fields is a development and change itself, ICTs have also been undergoing change in a way that the notions of Information, Communication and Technology are no longer sufficient. While these elements have instigated change, the use of them has also incited change in a way that the notions of Innovation, Collaboration and Transformation have become keys to the application of ICTs. Therefore, the underlying fundamental understanding of ICT is paving the way and laying down the infrastructure to the ―New ICT‖. Previously, ICTs were the changes that justified new infrastructure investment, while it appears that in the future, ICTs will be the infrastructure required for innovation, collaboration, transformation and change (Table: 1). ICT has transformed society and the economy. The challenge is now to achieve equally innovative transformation of the provision of education and training. E-learning has a key role to play in achieving this result (SEC 2008, 2629 final, p.11). Table: 1 Components of old and new ICT (Trilling, 2005, p.40) Old ICT Information Communication Technology

New ICT Innovation Collaboration Transformation

The New ICT triangle consisting of transformation, collaboration and innovation is provided in Figure: 1 below: Collaboration

NEW ICT TRIANGLE Transformation ransformationTr ansformationTra nsformation

Innovation Figure: 1 The new ICT Triangle

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The Knowledge Triangle The knowledge triangle, consisting of education, research and innovation, is paramount in supporting the development of jobs and growth (COM, 2007, 703 final, p.2). The education aspect of the triangle is in need of development, with strengthening beginning in early stages: schools (Figure: 2). Schools provide new competences and learning habits which provide the opportunity for further development of established skills as well as the development of new skills. This in turn increases job opportunities. The European Council has constantly stressed the importance of education and training in the long term plans of the Union. The achievement of such goals depends on the acceleration of reforms, further excellence in higher education and the promotion of creativity and innovation in all aspects of education and training. Research

KNOWLEDGE TRIANGLE Innovation

Education

Figure: 2 Knowledge Triangle The following diagram displays how innovation intersects with the knowledge triangle and the new ICT triangle (Figure 3).

Research

Transformation Innovation Education

Collaboration Figure: 3 Intersection of the New ICT and Knowledge Triangle

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Any discussion regarding the relationship between the new ICT and knowledge would cover a very broad scope, including the relationships between education and society, and the interaction between knowledge and innovation. Under such circumstances, where such vast areas must be covered simultaneously; creativity, innovation and education will most likely be in the agenda of European education for a long time. Such long-term debates and discussions are understandable, considering the scope of the subject. CONCLUSION The development of ICTs has resulted in a dramatic change in the society and the global economy. A similar change is necessary in education and training to comply with the social and economic change. In this regard, e-learning has an important role to succeed in keeping pace with constant change. The changes required involve integrating ICT tools and applications to all aspects of education systems (e.g. teaching, learning, management, administration). While investment in infrastructure is of necessity to provide the platform required for ICTs, lifelong learning endeavors will also make the best use of similar investments. More specifically, ICTs provide easy access to learning resources, individualized learning experiences and cover innovative learning tools and resources, which in turn enables lifelong learning. As such, infrastructure investments are further utilized through the development and initiation of lifelong learning. In this regard, innovation and change must be integral parts of education. To keep up with the constantly changing society, educational systems must provide innovative content and services that allow the development of required knowledge and skills in an innovative society. ICTs can be used innovatively in education on a very broad scale, with the capability to provide necessary tools and content for educational systems to meet the needs of the society. As social changes take place towards a digital society, pre-established social connections have also been transferred and somewhat transformed into the digital domain. Society has been shifted into virtual communities by these technologies, and has managed to expand and develop even further by doing so. Author Note: This article presented at EDEN 2009 Annual Conference, 10-13 June 2009, Gdansk/Poland BIODATA and CONTACT ADDRESSES of AUTHOR Mehmet KESIM received his MSc.Degree from Karadeniz Technical University, Trabzon-Turkey in 1974 as an Electronic Engineer and received his Ph.D. Degree in the field of Cinema and Television from Anadolu University, Eskisehir in 1985. He trained as an Video Engineer in Ampex Corporation, Reading/UK and Bosch Fernseh, Darmstadt / Germany. He was the chair of the Television Technical Projects by Germany for Anadolu University, Eskisehir. He has extensive experience in the field of digital television projects, with various accomplishments regarding the establishment of television studios.

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His focus is on the application of New Communication Technologies in Distance Learning. He is currently full Professor and Vice Dean of the Open Education Faculty of Anadolu University, member of EDEN (European Distance and E-Learning Network) and Editorial Board Member of EURODL (European Journal of Open, Distance and E-Learning). He has various publications on new communication technologies and their use in distance learning. He teaches undergraduate and graduate courses on Television Techniques and Distance Learning Technologies. Prof.Dr. Mehmet Kesim Anadolu University Vice Dean of Open Education Faculty 26470 Eskisehir, Turkey Tel : +90-222-3307444 Fax : +90-222-3350639 Email : [email protected] REFERENCES Brown, J.S. (2000). ―Growing Up Digital. How the Web Changes Work, Education, and the Ways People Learn‖, Retrieved: January 12, 2009 from http://www.johnseelybrown.com/Growing_up_digital.pdf COM (2007) 703 final, ―Delivering Lifelong Learning for Knowledge, Creativity and Innovation‖ Retrieved: January 12, 2009 from http://www.ihep.org/assets/files/gcfp-files/Lisbon_2007.pdf Dolan, P., Metcalfe, R., Powdthavee, N., Beale, A., Pritchard, D. (2008). ―Innovation Index Working Paper, Innovation and Well-being‖, Retrieved: January 12, 2009 from http://api.ning.com/files/NjHDmKPqvCOrLAZb1dCggs6tdXC4gbOA5dPdxXMwed4O95YgoyZfhmUH0Zt0SXS0JwZDy1wEi5vazE5w AfBqEgXUVmHDQkp/61.InnovationandWellbeingDolanetal.pdf Friedman, T. (2005). ―The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-First Century‖. Kesim, M. (2008). ―Connectivist Approach and Restructuring of Lifelong Learning‖ Retrieved: January 12, 2009 from http://www.eadtu.nl/conference2008/proceedings/OER%20-%20Mehmet%20Kesim%20%20Connectivist%20Approach%20and%20Restructuring%20of%20Lifelong%20Learning .pdf

KNOWLEDGESINGLE 2.indd, (2006). ―Changes and Implications Moving Tower Application, Retrieved: January 12, 2009 from http://www.elearnspace.org/kk2.pdf LATIN AND ENGLISH DICTIONARY, (1988). Bantam Books. Loveless, A. (2006). ―Literature Review in Creativity, New Technologies and Learning‖Retrieved: January 12, 2009 from http://www.futurelab.org.uk/resources/documents/lit_reviews/Creativity_Revie w.pdf Marhan, A .M. (2006). ―Connectivism: Concepts and Principles for emerging 87

Learning Networks‖, Retrieved: January 12, 2009 from http://fmi.unibuc.ro/cniv/2006/disc/icvl/documente/pdf/met/19_marhan.pdf

SEC (2008). 2629 final,‖ The Use of ICT to Support Innovation and Lifelong Learning for All - A Report On Progress Retrieved: January 12, 2009 from: http://ec.europa.eu/education/lifelong-learning-programme/doc/sec2629.pdf Siemens, G. (2006). ―Learning in Synch with Life: New Models, New Process‖ Retrieved: January 12, 2009 from http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/google_whitepaper.pdf Siemens, G. (2005). ―Connectivism: Learning as Network-Creation‖ Retrieved: January 12, 2009 from http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/networks.htm Siemens, G. (2003). ―Learning Ecology, Communities, and Networks. Extended the Classroom‖ Retrieved: January 12, 2009 from http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/learning_communities.htm Trilling, B. (2005). ―Innovation Learning for a Flat World ― Retrieved: January 12, 2009 from http://216.130.185.103/techlearning/pdf/events/techforum/ny05/TechForumNY 05_Keynote.pdf

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Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE July 2009 ISSN 1302-6488 Volume: 10 Number: 3 Article 5

TECHNOLOGY AND TEACHING IN POST-MODERN ENVIRONMENTSOR RHETORIC NEGOTIATIONS OF EDUCATION Assistant Professor Geir HAUGSBAKK Department of Education Faculty of Social Sciences Lillehammer University College, Lillehammer, NORWAY ABSTRACT

The article focuses on the situation as we engage with emerging post-modern environments marked by a continued strong belief in technology as the key governing force in society, and by teaching being sacrificed on the altar of ―progress‖. ―Teaching‖ has been turned into ―learning‖. Furthermore, new learning strategies are quite often, in some way or other, interweaved with the use of new technology. However, the instrumental perspectives of the industrial society have been to a large extent prolonged. Accordingly, the underlying assumption of this article is that developments concerning technology and education during recent decades can most adequately be understood as a rhetorically based negotiation between two basic, antagonistic positions. The first position is grounded in perspectives of ―the industrial society‖, the other one in notions of ―the learning society‖. When new technological devices, based on traditional perspectives, are combined with learning strategies of the future, we might regard this as an adoption of ideas of the learning society or as a construction of rhetoric structural couplings. Viewing recent changes in this manner provides new perspectives on important questions concerning the relationship between technology and education. It also constitutes a framework for the quite necessary process of reconsidering and clarifying the concepts of technology, teaching and learning. The tendencies described in the article are presented as overall trends within education, but the use of new technology to a large extent seems to be connected to new and more flexible educational methods and elements of distance education. Keywords: Technology and teaching; ICT and learning; new language of learning; the learning society; interactive technology; Learning Management Systems; rhetoric constructions. INTRODUCTION The teaching machines of the 1960s constituted what was regarded as the ultimate combination of technology and teaching. The invention of these machines was based on a firm belief that the new technology would revolutionize the profession of teaching (Pressey, 1960).

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Potentially making education more effective, to a large extent by industrializing it, the teaching devices represented the highpoint of a predictable, well-organized, modern society. The perspectives of industrializing the teaching activities were also to a large extent dominant within the distance education institutions (Peters, 1988; Keegan, 1996). The use of new technology in education remained a symbol of modernity, even though the apparatus and methods of Skinner and the behaviourists were abandoned. Gradually though, visions of what technology might do to improve education were combined with the ideas of an emerging ―post-modern‖ or ―information society‖. This was clearly manifested in the arrival and use of the Internet, by systems making computer-mediated-communication feasible and later on by different kinds of Learning Management Systems. Computers and the Internet were linked to new educational practices and dynamic and flexible future environments (Selwyn, 2000a and 2000b). In this way they marked a distinct contrast to the industrial society, although basic attitudes towards technology were prolonged and technology to a large extent still was regarded as the basic motive force and premise in social and educational development. This corresponds with the tendency reported as having profound implications for distance education, namely ―the tendency for online tools and pedagogies to operate in predictable ways‖ (Russel, 2007). On the other hand, the attitudes and reflections concerning teaching obviously went through some quite dramatic changes during the same period. Through the 1980s ―teaching‖ faced heavy pressure, both as a phenomenon and as a concept, and in the 1990s the main focus shifted from ―teaching‖ to ―learning‖ (Biesta, 2004). A common understanding was that teaching and learning constituted a dichotomy where teaching belonged to a tradition that we were about to leave, characterized by transfer of knowledge and students as passive recipients. Learning represented the future of education associated with active students, individuality, flexibility and a dynamic society. The different positions regarding ―technology‖ and ―teaching‖ constitute an interesting situation. The emergence of post-modern environments has been characterised by a continued strong belief in technology as a key governing force in society. In many respects, these are beliefs and attitudes that can be traced back to ―the enthusiasm and faith in technology as a liberating force expressed by leaders of the eighteenth-century Enlightenment‖ (Smith, 1994, p. 2). Teaching, however, is apparently not a phenomenon in the same manner compatible with the emerging new society. Teaching has somehow been sacrificed on the altar of ―progress‖ and turned into learning. Furthermore, new learning strategies are quite often some way or another interweaved with the use of new technology. RHETORIC NEGOTIATIONS The strong technological focus raises a number of challenges, not just because technological devices obviously draw attention away from the general didactical reflections, but also because technological perspectives to a large extent are connected to instrumentality and promises of bringing about clearly specified learning outcomes by using new technology.

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The focus on learning is part of a natural reaction to negative experiences with traditional classroom teaching, and a consequence of the new challenges in education caused by profound changes in society. However, the promotion of learning at the expense of teaching to some extent seems to be based on intentions of just marking a difference to established educational practices or on commenting on visions of post-modern environments, rather than providing insights into the unique qualities and consequences of a new form of society. The arguments for a ―learning society‖ contain obvious contradictory statements and reflections, but they are more or less united in the critique of ―the teaching paradigm‖ and ―the industrial society‖. To a large extent then, the situation might be regarded as a matter of rhetoric and as a struggle over how society and education ought to be described. The underlying argument of this article is that developments in technology and education during the last decades can most adequately be understood as a rhetorically based negotiation and antagonism between two basic positions concerning education. At the same time these positions reflect dilemmas dating back to the eighteenth century. The first position is grounded in ―the industrial society‖, the other one in the notions of ―the learning society‖. The concept ―learning society‖ has frequently been used in synonymous fashion with ―information society‖ or ―post-modern-society‖, quite often as a slogan without any clear definition, but indicating one of the dominating characteristics of an emerging society. ―Learning society‖ might also be regarded as an action-oriented concept corresponding to the analytical concepts of a new society. ―Learning‖, as writers such as Qvortrup (2001) have argued, is a practical and necessary consequence of living in a ―hypercomplex‖ society. Based on reflections above and the intention of studying the rhetoric concerning technology, teaching and learning, the concept of ―learning society‖ represents a fruitful line of exploration, especially since it focuses on the core of topical discussions. Viewing recent changes this way, as a negotiation between antagonistic positions rooted in different social paradigms as the industrial society and the learning society, provides new perspectives on the important questions surrounding technology and education. It also constitutes a framework for the quite necessary process of reflecting upon and clarifying the concepts of technology, teaching and learning, hopefully based on the unique characteristics of the currently emerging society. As a background for the further elaboration of this framework, I will briefly examine the history of technology and education and take a closer look at the transformation of teaching into learning. FROM TEACHING MACHINES TO LEARNING MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS ―Modern‖ teaching machines were anticipated in the 1920s by the devices of Sidney L. Pressey. By introducing a ―simple apparatus which gives and scores tests – and teaches‖, he became a pioneer in the development of ―teaching machines‖ or ―automated teaching‖. He pointed out how labour saving devices were quite feasible in education and that education could be run as efficiently as any large-scale undertaking (Glaser, 1960, pp. 23-24). Pressey predicted an industrial revolution in education as education was the one major activity that was still in ―a crude handicraft stage‖ (Pressey, 1960, p. 51).

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Whereas industry had reached the stage of mass-production in the 19th century, education was still regarded as pre-industrial ―in concept and execution‖ in the middle of the 20th century. The idea was to create synchronized and standardized systems not just for one class or one school, but for all nations as a whole (Marx, 1970, p. 210). These kinds of assumptions also constituted an important part of distance education in the early 1960s (Keegan, 1996) From the 1950s, the development of teaching machines was linked to B. F. Skinner and his concept of reinforcement. Although Skinner consistently used the term teaching machine, he clearly pointed out that the really vital aspect was the arrangement of the materials, not the machines themselves (Skinner 1958). However, in the public debates it was the machines and the ambitions to replace teachers that received main attention. From the late 1970s, new tendencies became apparent in educational technology. In the wake of the ―cognitive revolution‖ the emphasis shifted from the behaviouristic perspectives based upon arranging teaching materials to procedures for facilitating interaction. The focus was placed upon knowing rather than responding, the active and constructive learner rather than the passive recipient of stimulus (Saettler, 1990). Throughout the 1980s, a huge number of educational programmes were launched containing some element of ―interactive‖ technologies (Haugsbakk, 2000). Interactive technology was supposed to ―bring new kinds of access techniques‖, ―afford radically new ways of enabling a student to interact with knowledge‖ and ―support a high degree of user control‖ (Laurillard, 1987, pp. 13 – 14). Differences compared with the established ways of doing things were given a lot of attention, especially in terms of the contrast between the ―new‖ interactive media and ―traditional‖ broadcast media. However, arguments were mostly based on visions of what we might achieve in making use of the new technology, and they were expressed in general phrases. The existing material, the ―interactive‖ programmes and technologies, often showed ―weak interaction‖ (Bork, 1987). Compared with the teaching machines and the behaviouristic approaches, the differences and improvements weren‘t always visible and impressive. But with an emphasis on cognition, individuality, active construction and interaction some new signals were sent out. With the introduction of the Internet and different kinds of Learning Management Systems in the 1990s, the intention of making education suit the new emerging society became clearer, and they were more directly stated. Unlike the ―interactive‖ devices of the 1980s, based on human-machine-interaction, the Internet constituted a framework for human-human-communication and for flexible ways of handling complex interactions and information processes. The Internet went more directly to the core of the post-modern conditions, and Learning Management Systems were explicitly designed to match the ―dynamic future‖. They were described as flexible, giving a maximum of freedom to the students, and they were supposed to reflect ―the latest developments in technology and modern education‖ (Haugsbakk, 2004). The arguments were to a large extent grounded in a set of new perspectives regarding education and in a firm conviction that we were entering a quite new kind of society.

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On the other hand, these basic beliefs didn‘t seem to contain a more detailed analysis or descriptions of the unique characteristics of the new environments and the actual knowledge and competencies acquired. In addition to this we might easily detect examples of how established ways of describing and understanding education and society were prolonged, not the least regarding technology. The strong focus on technological devices was maintained and also the tendency to view technology as the driving force in society. Learning Management Systems were promoted by their ―effectiveness‖ and goal-directedness compared to ―traditional‖ methods in education. They could offer several specialized, ―flexible tools‖ to ―satisfy most of your needs‖. In such a way, pedagogical challenges were transformed into questions of picking the right tools (Grepperud and Haugsbakk, 2004). Neil Selwyn has described how The National Grid for Learning, ―the most ambitious educational computing initiative in UK‖, has been shaped within ―a restrictive technocratic and determinist discourse, thus conforming to traditional narratives of society and technology‖. At the same time the Grid has explicitly been positioned within the wider discourses of the ―information age‖ and ―computer revolution‖ (Selwyn, 2000a). Instrumental attitudes regarding technology have been integrated parts of the official plans for introducing ICT in education, and Norwegian schools have by some researchers been criticized for going backwards into the new millennium (Østerud, 1999). To some extent this situation may be regarded as a consequence of the educational institutions not having reached a level were they have made use of the latest technology described as for instance ―Web 2.0‖ (Nordkvelle, 2007). Based on perspectives defining ―social software and Web 2.0‖ as ―highly interactive‖, distance learning environments founded on the more well-known Learning Management Systems are characterized as being ―passive to moderately active‖ (Kesim and Agaoglu, 2007). The article, however, is based on the fact that the present situation is characterized by the Learning Management Systems constituting the main preferences of the educational institutions. THE NEW LANGUAGE OF LEARNING We might therefore, conclude that some of the basic considerations and attitudes regarding the use of technology in education have scarcely been altered, although the context has profoundly changed. However, as indicated above there has been a significant change in the way we speak about education in general. Gert Biesta summarises these changes and states that we have established a ―new language of learning‖ (Biesta, 2004). At the core of these changes is the replacement of ―teaching‖ with ―learning‖. Instead of ―teaching‖ and ―education‖ or combinations including these terms, we now usually talk about the ―facilitation of learning‖, ―provision of learning opportunities‖, ―establishing learning environments‖, ―adult learning‖, ―lifelong learning‖ and so on. The names of projects, institutions and departments have been changed accordingly. In Norway the national initiative to support and coordinate the involvement of higher education institutions in ―lifelong learning‖ was established in 1990 and named ―The Norwegian Agency for Distance Education‖. In 1999, the name of the institution was changed to ―The Norwegian Agency for Flexible Learning‖. Similarly, several distance education units at universities and colleges were turned into departments for ―lifelong learning‖ (Haugsbakk and Nordkvelle, 2004). 93

Biesta provides a broad perspective concerning the reasons for this development, and he claims that the growing significance of the ―new language‖ is connected with underlying tendencies in the current society: the theories of learning, the effect of postmodernism, the effects of individualism, and the erosion of the welfare state. All these trends are vital to an understanding of why the ―old‖ language is being replaced by the new. What we have at hand, according to Biesta, is a situation where the process of education is re-described in terms of an economic transaction, in which the learner is the consumer, the teacher or the educational institution the provider, and education itself becomes a commodity (Biesta, 2004). The empirical effects regarding the development of the language of learning can be documented by bibliometric analysis. Searches for ―learning‖ and ―teaching‖ in the Norwegian BIBSYS Library database rather clearly support the tendencies presented above. BIBSYS contains information about books and periodicals held by Norwegian University Libraries, the National Library, college libraries, and a number of research libraries in Norway.

350 300 250 200

Læring Undervisning

150 100 50

19 50 19 54 19 58 19 62 19 66 19 70 19 74 19 78 19 82 19 86 19 90 19 94 19 98 20 02 20 06

0

The number of hits for‖learning‖ (‖læring‖) and‖teaching‖ (―undervisning‖) in the Norwegian BIBSYS Library database 1950-2006.

The database covers 8 million copies. The total results of the search in the title-fields of BIBSYS were about 8000 hits for ―learning‖ (―læring‖) and 6000 for ―teaching‖ (―undervisning‖).

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When the hits were organized by the years of publication in the period 1950 - 2006, ―teaching‖ appeared as the most popular term all the way up to almost the middle of the 1980s. There was a shift between 1983 and 1984. uring the 1990s the differences were quite remarkable, on average there were more than double the amount of hits each year for ―learning‖ compared with ―teaching‖.A similar search by the ERIC (Educational Resource Information Center) ended up with broadly similar figures. ERIC is an information system supported by the U.S. Department of Education, the National Library of Education, and the Office of Educational Research and Improvement (Haugsbakk, 2008). BETWEEN ―INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY‖ AND ―LEARNING SOCIETY‖ As indicated above, visions of learning in a ―post-modern society‖ have to a large extent been based on a traditional and restricted understanding of the technology as tool. The instrumental perspectives from the industrial society have been prolonged into a society where ―interaction‖ is just as important as ―production‖, where the ability to handle complexity is of increasingly importance compared to creating transparency and transmitting the largest possible amount of information. When traditional technological perspectives in industrial society have been combined with notions of new learning strategies, it has to a large extent been done by making rhetoric structural couplings. This might be seen as an attempt to cross the borders or overcome differences between an industrial society and a learning society. But, in this way the basic challenges and conflicts are not resolved, and this is also of great importance to the main questions concerning teaching and learning. As outlined by Lars Qvortrup (2004) the relation between the industrial society and the learning society are of the same kind as the ones between teaching and learning. They are both genuinely about the controversy between the ideal of goal-directedness and causality on the on hand, and self-dependence and individual freedom on the other hand. At the same time the educational conflict reflects a dilemma between teaching and learning with roots in the eighteenth century, a dilemma between causality and freedom formulated by both Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Immanuel Kant. Rousseau proclaimed that we should live in accordance to nature and that free will was in conflict with the laws of mechanics. But, he also developed the idea of ―the social contract‖ as a key factor of society to balance the ―natural‖ rights of individuals, and he emphasised that the children had to be educated, even if this was an education to freedom. With his theories of the transcendental subject Kant brought this educational dilemma into the public domain. Public education and public forums were regarded as being basic conditions for the development of the universal, independent and free citizen. In the twentieth century this educational dilemma appears as two competing paradigms, behaviourism and cognitivism, described by ―either-or‖, not by ―both-and‖ (Qvortrup ibid.). The conflict has partly been ―resolved‖, or we might say ―neglected‖, by just focusing on one of the paradigms or by stating that the perspectives and approaches by one of them cover the interests of both.

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In a behaviouristic, stimulus-response-perspective the main focus is put on the activities of teaching, the efforts of deciding the educational goals, the processes of planning, the development of the educational materials; on intentionality and causality. In the ―ideal‖ industrial society the focus is put on transmitting information and knowledge, and the activities of the learner are reduced to absorbing and responding. The last two decades have witnessed the opposite situation. By promoting cognitivism and constructivism the processes of teaching have to some extent been overlooked or transformed into matters of learning. An important consequence is that no clear distinction is made between the outer, goal-directed activities of the teacher and the inner self-referring and self-dependant processes of each individual pupil or student. In this manner, educational dilemmas are still not critically examined. They are either not taken into consideration, or ―resolved‖ by making use of rhetoric constructions, as is the case regarding technology and education. The current situation seems to be characterised by a description of technology bearing obvious marks of values and ideas usually associated with a learning society: selfdependence, individual freedom, new learning strategies, constructivism etc.. At the same time the basic assumptions of instrumentalism, goal directedness and causality connected to technology are prolonged. The descriptions of technology and education might be regarded as parts of an ongoing negotiation of how education ought to be described, based on ideal positions within an industrial, respectively a learning society. These positions might schematically be described this way: ―Industrial society‖ behaviourism goal directedness causality teaching

―Learning society‖ cognitivism/constructivism self-dependence individual freedom learning

RHETORICAL CONSTRUCTIONS An overall trend is that technological perspectives based on traditional attitudes of the industrial society are rhetorically linked to strategies of the learning society. In many ways this might be seen as an annexation or adoption by the industrial society of the new language of learning. By using the descriptions of ―interactive‖ devices and the Learning Management Systems as examples, some more illustrations of rhetorical constructions will be given below.The teaching machines of the 1960 clearly show how instrumentalism connected to technology was achieved in a performative manner. The machines were explicitly made parts of the attempts to bring education into the stage of mass-production. However, to a large extent this also has to be regarded as a rhetorical construction taking advantage of the still evident aura of industrialisation and automation. Knowledge and skills should not be treated as industrial products, and by the end of the 1970s analogies like these were no longer part of the dominant rhetoric. Since then, rhetorical descriptions or constructions concerning the use of new technology in education have been characterised by:

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





The annexation or adoption by the industrial society of the arguments connected with the learning society; trying to make them fit the new technological devices in a simple and natural manner. The efforts to create an antagonistic situation between the new technological devices and traditional technology, or between new educational practices supported by the innovative technology and established ways of teaching and learning. The use of concepts and metaphors generally giving positive connotations to most people and being able to bridge the gap between different theoretical stands towards education.

―Interactive Technology‖ as an Example The first two characteristics are usually combined. The promotion of the ―interactive‖ media in the 1980s suggests several illustrative examples. The focus on learning, new learning strategies and the distinct differences compared with existing technology and practices are evident in the quotations from Diana Laurillard cited above. She described ―interactive‖ technology in terms of its ―new kinds of access techniques‖, ―radically new ways of enabling a student to interact with knowledge‖ and ―high degree of user control‖ (Laurillard, 1987). Furthermore, the interfaces of ―Interactive Learning Systems‖ were specially designed ―to engage the learner in external behaviors such as making choices, answering questions, and solving problems‖ (Jih and Reeves, 1992, p. 40). The visions were seldom very concrete, although the ambitions of creating ―something new‖ were quite apparent. Interactive video promised ―enhanced learning opportunities‖ for students and offered academics ―a new avenue for creative expression‖ (Fuller,1987, p. 26). Interactive video was described as ‖the Twenty-first Century Books‖ that would ―set the tone and style for education‖ in the future. The traditional book was supposed to become ―the papyrus of a bygone age‖ (Clark, 1987, p. 73). The new devices were obviously meant to be capable of coping with the challenges of the future. To a large extent interactive media were also described in terms of the contrast with ―traditional‖ media, first of all broadcast media. ―Interactive‖ media were proposed as the solution to a major problem with broadcast medium, namely its ―ephemeral nature and linearity‖ (Looms, 1993, p. 117). This was achieved on a general level and not by going into detailed descriptions or analysis, whether of broadcast media or the ―new‖ media. In the same way‖interactive‖ media were associated with new ways of learning in opposition to traditional teaching methods. This was largely done by using stereotypes, for example by stating that ―interactive‖ ways of learning constituted a break with a two thousand year tradition of education dominated by ―modes of learning that are not interactive‖. The aim was to move to ―an interactive learning environment for all students, in all parts of the world‖ (Bork, 1987, p. 30). To promote the new technology a quite useful and appropriate concept was introduced and heavily used – ―interactivity‖. The term had no common accepted meaning or definitions, but a whole range of positive connotations making it acceptable for most people. It offered positive associations for technologists, marketers, publishers, academics, politicians and ordinary IT-users.

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It was connected with high-tech, progress, individual freedom, self-dependence, increased learning opportunities, and even democratisation and political liberation.

―Interactivity‖ possessed some kind of ―magical power‖ (Jensen, 1998). The term and the vague ideas surrounding it apparently bridged the gap between former opponents regarding the use of technology in education in general and also between diverging educational strategies, as found in behaviourism and constructivism. It was an almost perfect concept for making a rhetoric structural coupling of the industrial society and the learning society. To some extent, however, the opinions expressed by distant educators and distant education institutions seem to differ from the dominating ones usually presented by actors within dual-mode institutions. Academics and researchers rooted in the distance education traditions to a larger extent presented broader and more nuanced perspectives regarding ―interaction‖ and ―interactivity‖. One reason for this might be that the reflections on ―new interactive‖ media from the 1980s and 90s were clearly based on the efforts and research connected to the development of more traditional educational material. An illustrating example is the work of Holmberg on ―guided didactic conversation‖ established through ―real‖ or ―simulated style‖. A simulated conversation might be developed by using ―a conversational style‖ within a course material, and this could lead to ―an internalized conversation‖ within the students (Holmberg, 1989 and 1993). Approaching new media and new technology Holmberg‘s focus is on how they might strengthen the guide didactic conversation. Similar broad perspectives are also presented regarding Moore‘s ―three types of interaction‖ (Moore, 1989), Mason‘s ―three dimensions of interactivity in educational terms‖ (Mason, 1994), Hillman‘s work on ―learner-interface interaction in distance education‖ (Hillman et al., 1994) and Wagner‘s efforts to develop ―a functional definition on interaction‖ (Wagner, 1994). The overall dominating descriptions of ―interactive technology‖ from the 1980s, however, illuminate all of the three main characteristics of rhetoric concerning the use of new technology as presented above. Learning Management Systems The same characteristics might also be demonstrated by descriptions of The Learning Management Systems, although they appear in slightly different ways. They are in the same manner connected to some undoubtedly very important key phrases in ―post-modern‖ environments, to a large extent ―flexibility‖ and ―freedom‖. ―Interactivity‖ is still important, but the popularity of this term seems to have waned, probably because it has been too intimately associated with the ―human-machine‖ technology of the 1980s. The Internet-based systems, such as the LMS‘s, are, however, to a greater extent than ―interactive media‖ linked to the emerging new society. On the other hand, it seems like the contrast with established technologies and methods of teaching and learning are expressed more indirectly. The Norwegian LMS Classfronter might be used as an example. No doubt, this system was assumed to be a natural and necessary part of the new learning society. Classfronter was developed to give a maximum of freedom to the students:

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―Thanks to Fronter, you can work on your tasks at any time and from anywhere.‖ Classfronter was designed to match the ―dynamic future‖: ―As your needs change, you can add new Fronter tools to the rooms where you are working.‖ Fronter might satisfy most of your needs: ―There are more than 50 flexible Fronter tools to choose from!‖. And the system offered new ways of dealing with the challenges of learning. Classfronter was presented as a result of an advanced educational development. The system was described as ―ideal for problem-oriented learning and group collaboration‖, and the ambition is to be at the forefront of developments in technology, teaching and learning: ―In Fronter, development is always an ongoing process! Four times a year, we improve Classfronter, so that it always reflects the latest developments in technology and modern education‖ (Haugsbakk, 2004). The difference compared with established educational methods was manifested for instance by statements of being at the ―forefront‖ of educational development. In the case of Classfronter it was also made perfectly clear that the system ―focuses on learning rather than teaching – meaning that Classfronter to a great extent facilitates learning on the students‘ own terms‖. Comparisons with former educational technologies were not done explicitly. On the other hand, compared with the ―interactive technology‖ of the 1980s the contrasts and conflicts to a greater extent seemed to be included in the system. Although it was the new learning strategies that were in focus, established educational methods were clearly integrated parts of the system, actually making them quite problematic. There was a dramatic contrast in Classfronter between the learning processes promoted as being at the forefront of the educational development, characterized by complex processes of problem-orientation and group collaboration, and attitudes regarding tests and evaluations, where learning was mainly concerned with rather simple processes of absorbing and reproducing knowledge in ways that may easily and quickly be detected with automated tests. These contrasts were rarely commented upon, but they were made even more distinct by overall arguments of simplicity. Simplicity was a key concept elaborated in different directions. The designers had for instance made it ―just as easy to navigate and work in Fronter‘s virtual building, as to move around in a physical building.‖ Classfronter was designed to make it easier for the teachers and administrators to monitor some of the students‘ activities. They were offered reports and statistical material on the students‘ progress. When they felt prepared, students could test their skills and knowledge and immediately receive results. Classfronter made it easy to design good tests. These could be automatically corrected. Classfronter offered comprehensive and detailed progress reports for individual students, classes, or the learning institution as a whole: ―Automatically!‖ The extent to which the argument of simplicity was elaborated, illustrates the instrumental attitude towards technology and the influence from behaviourism as also indicated above. This was not in accordance with the main intentions of being at the forefront of the educational development and focusing on learning rather than teaching. However, this not articulated, more or less implicit, combination of behaviourism and constructivism might also be seen as a strengthening of the rhetoric coupling.

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CONCLUDING REMARKS The basic argument of this article has been that the introduction and description of technology in education can most fruitfully be regarded as part of a rhetoric negotiation on how education ought to be described. They are rooted in antagonistic positions concerning the industrial society and the learning society. New technology is linked to values and ideas associated with new learning strategies although the instrumentalist perspectives of industrial society have been prolonged. When traditional technological perspectives have been combined with the new language of learning, it has to a large extent been done through rhetorical structural couplings. But, the basic challenges and conflicts of education are not resolved, they are merely overlooked or neglected. Accordingly, there is a need to clarify the basic concepts and phenomena of education, of teaching and learning and of educational technology. It‘s quite necessary to challenge the instrumentalism and determinism connected with traditional understandings of technology. One approach is to look at the unique characteristics of the industrial society versus the learning society. As described in the article these different social paradigms can function as a framework for an extended understanding of teaching and learning, as two separate but mutually dependent processes within education, and represent an approach to basic educational conflicts and dilemmas. In addition to this the framework above might also bring some new dimensions to Biesta‘s analysis of the new language of learning. First of all, the framework presented makes technology an integrated part of the analysis. Biesta does not discuss the role of new technology. Secondly, it highlights the continuous negotiation between established and new sets of perspectives, in this case a dominant perspective constituted by traditional assumptions of technology and new conceptions of learning. Lastly, current conflicts within education are made part of an educational dilemma with roots in the 18th century. Biesta‘s analysis is concentrated on new tendencies and on how tradition and established practices are defeated. I have concluded that the dominating tendency concerning reflections on technology and education is constituted by rhetoric couplings between two antagonistic positions. I have also regarded the rhetoric couplings as arguments in the ongoing negotiation based on a traditional understanding of rhetoric. I have not discussed to what extent the current participants of the negotiation have been aware of the character of their own argumentation. Another interesting question not discussed, is to what extent the current metaphors and rhetoric constructions are necessary and helpful in times of radical change. They might under certain circumstances represent useful ways of dealing with complexity. They also to some extent might be regarded as a necessary part of change as they are connected to expectations of a new development opposed to experiences of the past. This corresponds to Koselleck‘s studies of the transition between pre-modern and modern society. He observes how the key concepts that had formerly been rooted in experience‖, become associated with ‖expectations‖ of something new.

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When concepts are disassociated in this way from experience and linked to expectation, they are generalised and become less specific. It means that many people will endorse them but it also provides a basis for attempts from many quarters to capture them and assume control of them (Koselleck, 2004). This gives a background for the rhetoric negotiations of education at present. Anyhow, we have to be aware of the unique characteristics of the social conditions under which we are living and not act as if the perspectives of industrial society were satisfactory as guidelines for addressing the emerging society. BIODATA and CONTACT ADDRESSES of AUTHOR Geir HAUGSBAKK is an Assistant Professor at Lillehammer University College, Department of Education. For more than ten years he has been responsible for developing part-time and distance education courses at the Centre for Continuing Education within the University College. Gradually he was increasingly more involved in research, from 2002 as the project manager for the development of a research centre of media pedagogy. His research interests are connected to language, media, technology and education, and he has published several articles within in this area. Assistant Professor Geir Haugsbakk Department of Education Faculty of Social Sciences Lillehammer University College, Phone: +47 61 28 82 09 Cell: +47 90 91 48 18 Fax: +47 61 28 81 88 Email: [email protected] REFERENCES Biesta, Gert (2004): Against learning. Reclaiming a language for education in an age of learning. Nordisk Pedagogikk, Vol.24. no.1, pp 70-82. Bork, A. (1987): Interaction: Lessons from computer-based learning. In Laurillard, D. (ed.): Interactive Media: Working Methods and Practical Applications . Ellis Horwood, Chichester. Clark, David R. (1987): Twenty-first Century Books: An assessment of the role of Videodisc in the next 25 years. In Laurillard, D. (ed.): Interactive media: working methods and practical applications. Ellis Horwood, Chichester. Fuller, Robert G. (1987): Setting up an interactive videodisc project. In Laurillard. D (ed.): Interactive Media: Working Methods and Practical Applications. Ellis Horwood, Chichester.

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Glaser, Robert (1960): Christmas Past, Present, and Future: A Review and Preview. In: Lumsdaine, A. A. and Glaser Robert (eds.): Teaching Machines and Programmed Learning. A Source Book. Washington: Department of Audio-Visual Instruction, National Education Association of The United States, p. 23-31. Grepperud, Gunnar and Haugsbakk, Geir (2004): Ikke helt som planlagt? Nettbaserte aktiviteter i teori og praksis. [Not as planned? Net based activities in theory and praxis.] Forskningsrapport nr. 118/2004, Høgskolen i Lillehammer. Haugsbakk, Geir (2000): Interaktivitet, teknologi og læring – en forstudie. [Interactivity, technology and learning – some preliminary studies.] Skriftserie for Forsknings- og kompetansenettverk for IT i utdanningen, Unipub forlag, Oslo. Haugsbakk, Geir (2004): The ideas of Learning Management Systems. Paper at The Nordic Educational Research Associations 32nd Congress, Reykjavik 11-13.3, 2004. Haugsbakk, Geir (2008): Retorikk, teknologi og læring. [Rhetoric, technology and learning.] Unpublished manuscript. Haugsbakk, Geir and Nordkvelle, Yngve Troye (2004): The rhetoric of ICT and the new language of learning - a critical analysis of the use of ICT in the curricular field. Paper at The European Conference on Educational Research, University of Crete, 22. 25. September 2004. Hillman, Daniel C.A.; Willis, Deborah J. and Gunawardena, Charlotte N. (1994): ‖Learner-Interface Interaction in Distance Education: An Extension of Contemporary Models and Strategies for Practitioners‖. In The American journal of distance education, vol. 8, no. 2. Holmberg, Börje (1989): Theory and Practice of Distance Education, London: Routledge. Holmberg, Börje (1993): ‖Key issues in distance education: An academic viewpoint‖. In K. Harry, M. John & D. Keegan (red.):Distance Education: New Perspectives, London: Routledge. Jensen, Jens F. (1998): ‖Interaktivitet og Interaktive Medier‖. In Jensen, Jens F. (ed.): Multimedier Hypermedier Interaktive Medier. [Multimedia, Hypermedia and Interactive Media.] Aalborg Universitetsforlag. Jih, H.J. & Reeves, T.C. (1992): Mental models: A research focus for interactive learning systems. In Educational Technology Research and Development, 40 (3), p. 39–53. Keegan, Desmond (1996) Foundations of distance education, London: Routledge. Kesim, Eren and Agaoglu, Esmahan (2007): A Paradigm Shift in Distance Education: Web 2.0 and Social Software. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education - TOJDE, Vol.8. no. 3.

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Koselleck, Reinhart (2004) Futures past. On the semantics of historical time, New York: Columbia University Press. Laurillard, D. (1987): Pedagogical design for interactive video. In Laurillard, D. (ed.): Interactive Media: Working Methods and Practical Applications. Ellis Horwood, Chichester. Looms, Peter Olaf (1993): Interactive multimedia in education. In Latchem, Colin; Williamson, John and Henderson-Lancett, Lexie (eds.): Interactive Multimedia: Practice and Promise. London: Kogan Page. Marx, Leo (1970): Notes for a humanist critique of technological innovation in teaching. In Tickton, Sidney G. (ed.): To improve learning. An Evaluation of instructional technology. Volume II. New York: R. R. Bowker Company, p. 203-212. Mason, Robin (1994): Using Communications Media for Open and Flexible Learning, London: Kogan Page. Moore, Michael G. (1989): ‖Three types of interaction‖. In American Journal of Distance Education, vol. 3, no. 2. Nordkvelle, Yngve (2007): Digitale mapper i høyere utdanning: Omfang, bruk og trender for framtida. [Portifolio in higher education: the extension of use and trends for the future.] Tromsø: Norgesuniversitetet. Peters, Otto (1988) Distance teaching and industrial production. A comparative interpretation in outline. In: Sewart, David; Keegan, Desmond and Holmberg, Börje (eds.) Distance education. International perspectives, 95-113. London: Routledge. Pressey, S. L. (1960): A Third and Fourth Contribution Toward the Coming ―Industrial Revolution‖ in Education. In Lumsdaine, A. A. and Glaser Robert (eds.): Teaching Machines and Programmed Learning. A Source Book. Washington: Department of Audio-Visual Instruction, National Education Association of the United States, p. 4751. Qvortrup, Lars (2001): Det lærende samfund. Hyperkompleksitet og viden. [The Learning Society. Hypercomplexity and Knowledge.] København: Gyldendal. Qvortrup, Lars (2003): The Hypercomplex Society. New York: Peter Lang. Qvortrup, Lars (2004): Det vidende samfund. Mysteriet om viden, læring og dannelse. [The Knowledge Society. The Mystery of Knowledge, Learning and Bildung.] København. Unge Pædagoger. Russel, Glenn (2007): Globalization, distance education and hegemonic futures. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education - TOJDE, Vol.8. no.4. Saettler, Paul (1990): The Evolution of American Educational Technology. Libris Unlimited, Colorado.

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Selwyn, Neil (2000a): The Discursive Construction of the National Grid for Learning. Oxford Review of Education, Vol. 26, No. 1, pp. 63-69. Selwyn, Neil (2000b): The National Grid for Learning: panacea or Panopticon? British Journal of Sociology of Education, Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 243-255. Skinner, B. F. (1958) Teaching Machines. Science, (128) 969-977. Smith, Merrit Roe (1994) Technological Determinism in American Culture. In Marx, Leo and Smith Merrit Roe (eds.) Does Technology Drive History? The Dilemma of Technological Determinism, 1-35. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. Svennevig, Jan; Sandvik, Margareth and Vagle, Wenche (1995): Tilnærminger til tekst. Modeller for språklig tekstanalyse. [Approaches to text. Models for text analysis.] LNU, Cappelen Forlag. Wagner, Ellen D. (1994): ‖In support of a functional definition of interaction‖. In American Journal of Distance Education, vol. 8, no. 2. Østerud, Svein (1999): Norsk skole baklengs inn i det neste årtusen? [Norwegian schools backwards into the next millennium?] Bedre skole, No. 2.

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Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE July 2009 ISSN 1302-6488 Volume: 10 Number: 3 Article 6

A SIMULATION ON TEACHING VOLHARD METHOD Celal BAYRAK Nilgün SECKEN Hacettepe University Education Faculty Ankara, TURKEY Funda OZCAN OZTURK Ankara University Science Faculty Ankara, TURKEY Evrim URAL ALSAN Hacettepe University Education Faculty Ankara, TURKEY ABSTRACT Laboratories are important components of chemistry education. Virtual simulations allow students to repeat the experiments as many times as they want and give students the opportunity to learn in their own ways. In this study, a computer assisted teaching material has been developed for tertiary level. This material has been planned to use in Analytical Chemistry Course content in the subject of quantitative methods. This teaching material has been developed by using Flash program and consisted of animations and simulations related to the quantitative determination of chloride by Volhard Method. Even though the quantitative determination of chloride by Volhard Method could be conducted in the laboratory setting, this experiment has been prepared by using simulations to give students the opportunity to repeat the experiment steps when they want, to control the each step, observing the changes on the equivalence point better. Volhard method is one of the methods to be considered as important in chemistry courses and laboratories. It is an important practical experience for students in the laboratory. In this study, the presented simulation has been prepared by considering these harmful effects and insufficient laboratory conditions. Keywords: Computer assisted instruction, face-to-face instruction, Volhard method, science education INTRODUCTION Laboratories are important components of chemistry education. In laboratory applications, students realize practical applications of theoretical knowledge and also they develop their inquiry and scientific processing skills. But, traditional laboratory applications have some limitations. Some experiments cannot be conducted because of technical deficiencies, their hazardous risks or some environmental factors.

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Time limitation is one of the problems that students meet in laboratory settings. Students need different time periods even for the same experiment, since they have different personal characteristics. Time limitation is a problem especially for the students who cannot learn easily or have poor motor abilities. Since additional working in the laboratory is not always possible for students, they cannot repeat the experiments or solve the problems which they meet in the laboratory settings. Computer assisted laboratory applications are alternatives for educators to cope with the mentioned limitations of traditional laboratories. A computerized laboratory experiment is an efficient tool to aid understanding of topics developed in the classroom and in the laboratory (Martinez et al., 2003; Ruiz et al., 2001). Since the real experiment allows teachers and students to reach the desired goals, a virtual experiment could be useful for better understanding of the theoretical information and takes students‘ attention to the techniques used to perform the measurements (Belletti et al., 2006). Also, simulation experiments give students the opportunity to learn in their own ways. With the help of simulation experiments, students learn the proper usage of the equipments (Belletti et. al., 2006). Moreover, it is possible to organize virtual experiments which cannot usually be done in the laboratory (i. e., with harmful or dangerous chemicals) and the simulation of experiments that would require too many hours or expensive instruments (Belletti et. al, 2006). In recent years, through the rapid development of computer programs, simulation experiments and computer assisted applications have been developed in chemistry education field. Belletti et. Al. (2006) described the results from a simulation of vapor pressure measurements of a pure liquid as a function of temperature. They used a program called VAPSIM (a simulation of vapor pressure measurements of a pure liquid as a function of temperature). This program was developed with the LabVIEW package they allows students to simulate the vapor pressure measurements of a pure liquid with an isoteniscope apparatus. The program can quickly realize modular and easily modifiable programs and mathematically and graphically elaborate the data simulating a real laboratory experiment. Victor and Gil (2006) describe Computer Simulations of Salt Solubility which provide an animated, visual interpretation of the different solubilities of related salts based on simple entropy changes associated with dissolution: configurational disorder and thermal disorder. These can also help improve students‘ conceptual understanding of chemical equilibrium before any quantitative interpretation of equilibrium constants is attempted. Woodfield et.al. (2005) created a set of sophisticated and realistic laboratory simulations in freshman- and sophomore-level chemistry classes and laboratories called Virtual ChemLab. These simulations were for Inorganic Qualitative Analysis, Organic Synthesis and Organic Qualitative Analysis, Fundamental Experiments in Quantum Chemistry, Gas Properties, Titration Experiments, and Calorimetry. In their study, authors provided a detailed assessment of student responses and described the simulation‘s pedagogical utility. The evaluation of the organic simulation was conducted to document whether the simulation met the objectives of helping students focus on the principles of organic chemistry, how students used the program, and whether they were satisfied with the simulation.

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The authors collected both qualitative and quantitative data from questionnaires, interviews, observations, and assessment of performance. The results displayed the significant jump in the number of A‘s on the final examination. They concluded that students were able to increase their understanding of organic chemistry more than in previous semesters and terms because of their higher exam scores. Students liked how the organic simulation saved time and looked realistic. Students said that the organic simulation was valuable because it helped improve their problem-solving ability and reinforced chemistry principles they learned previously. Students believed they better understood the chemistry from the combination of experiences they received in the actual and virtual labs. The findings displayed that the organic simulation promoted student learning as demonstrated by observations, improved test scores, and students‘ self-reports. Halkides and Herman (2007) introduced Michaelis-Menten Kinetics through simulation. The concept of the steady state is fundamental to enzyme kinetics and the general derivation of the Michaelis-Menten equation assumes that the concentration of the enzyme-substrate complex has achieved steady state (Segel, 1975). Since students have difficulties while learning this, they created a computer tutorial that illustrates the meaning of steady state for the simplest possible case (Michaelis–Menten Software, 2006). In their lectures, they introduce the Michaelis– Menten equation and graph before giving its derivation and then discuss the concepts of the pre-steady state and the steady state in the classroom prior to students working through the tutorial. They give the students a hardcopy of the tutorial and access to a computer on which this program and a spreadsheet program are loaded. Students were asked a number of questions after taking the tutorial. The responses indicated that the students had a better grasp of the term ―steady state‖ and enzyme kinetics. The authors concluded that the determination of kinetic parameters might be especially useful for students who would not otherwise be exposed to saturation enzyme kinetics in a biochemistry laboratory class. In conclusion simulation experiments can be used for various goals. They can be used for strengthening traditional applications, regulating learning for individual learning preferences (this is one of the learning principles), conducting experiments which are dangerous and have harmful effects on the environment and also teaching students some difficult concepts. They give unlimited repetition opportunity. Why do we need simulations? In this study, a computer assisted teaching material has been developed for university level. This material has been planned to use in Analytical Chemistry Course content in the subject of quantitative methods. This teaching material has been developed by using Flash program and consisted of animations and simulations related to the quantitative determination of chloride ion by Volhard Method. Even though the quantitative determination of chloride ion by Volhard Method could be conducted in the laboratory setting, this experiment has been prepared by using simulations to give students the opportunity to repeat the experiment steps when they want, to control the each step, observing the changes on the equivalence point better. In addition it is environmental friendly simulation experiment by considering insufficient safety cautions in laboratory or students‘ insufficient information about safety in laboratory, and the hazardous effects of the chemicals which used in the experiment on the environment. 107

The risk information about the chemicals which used for the quantitative determination of chloride ion by Volhard Method has been given below (http://www.jtbaker.com 14. 05. 2008). Hazards Identification of Potassium Permanganete Emergency Overview Danger! Strong oxidizer. Contact with other material may cause fire. Corrosive. Causes burns to any area of contact. Harmful if swallowed or inhaled. Toxicological Information Investigated as a mutagen, reproductive effector. Oral rat LD50: 750 mg/kg. Hazards Identification of Potassium Thiocyanate Emergency Overview Warning! Harmful if swallowed or inhaled. Causes irritation to skin, eyes and respiratory tract. Toxicological Information Oral rat LD50: 854 mg/kg. Investigated as a mutagen, reproductive effector. Hazards Identification of Silver Nitrate Emergency Overview Poison! Danger! Corrosive. Causes burns to any area of contact. May be fatal if swallowed. Harmful if inhaled. Strong oxidizer. Contact with other material may cause fire. Toxicological Information Oral rat LD50: 1173 mg/kg. Irritation data, rabbit, std Draize: eye: 1 mg, severe. Investigated as a tumorigen, mutagen and reproductive effector. Hazards Identification of Ferric Ammonium Sulfate Emergency Overview Caution! May cause irritation to skin, eyes, and respiratory tract. Toxicological Information No LD50/LC50 information found relating to normal routes of occupational exposure. Investigated as a mutagen. Hazards Identification of Nitric Acid Emergency Overview Poison! Danger! Strong oxidizer. Contact with other material may cause fire. Corrosive. Liquid and mist cause severe burns to all body tissue. May be fatal if swallowed or inhaled. Toxicological Information Nitric acid: Inhalation rat LC50: 244 ppm (NO2)/30M; investigated as a mutagen, reproductive effector. Oral (human) LD50: 430 mg/kg.

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METHOD Volhard Method Volhard method in which complex indicatpr used was developed by a German chemist Jacob Volhard in 1874. In this study, conducting Volhard method, the indicators used in the experiment, the color changes of the indicators at the equivalent point have been presented to the students by using Macro Media Flash 6 program. This method uses a back titration with potassium thiocyanate to determine the concentration of chloride ions in a solution. This method is first developed for the determination of the concentration of Ag+, but the modified form of the method is suitable for the determination of the concentration of halogen ions. Since the medium is acidic by using HNO3, it prevents the harmful effects seen in other methods in which oxalate, arsenate and carbonate are used. Because these ions form silver salts with poor solubility, but in acidic mediums these salts are not formed. In this method, the concentration of silver ions can be determined directly and also using back titration the concentration of halogen ions can be determined. To attain this goal, an excess volume of a standardized silver nitrate solution is added to the solution containing chloride ions. The Cl- is precipitated as AgCl and then AgCl is isolated. Excess of Ag+ is back titrated with SCN-. The determination of chloride ions by this method requires great attention since solubility of silver bromide is stronger than silver iodide. In Volhard method, Fe3+ ion from NH4Fe(SO4)2 acts as an indicator. When all the silver ions have reacted with SCN-, the slightest excess of thiocyanate ions reacts with Fe3+ to form a dark red complex. The equations of the reactions in the determination of the concentration of chloride ions: Ag+ + ClExcess

AgCl(s) White

SCN- + Ag+

AgSCN(s) White

Fe 3+ + SCN-

[FeSCN]2+ Red

In the titration, the acid medium is necessary to prevent the precipitation of Fe3+ ions as their hydrated oxides. Evaluation of the Educational Experiment The most important application of Volhard method is the determination of halogen ions directly. For this reason, a student experiment in which the concentration of chloride ions in a cheese probe is determined has been designed. The prepared experiment has been presented to the students with a simulation by using Macro Media Flash 6 program. The prepared simulations can be seen on http://www.akinkaplan.com.tr/chemistry

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Preparing the Sample In this experiment, 6.1632 g cheddar cheese has been grated into small pieces and put into a 500 ml erlen Meyer. 50 mL of 0.1 M AgNO3 solution, 20 mL concentrated HNO3 and 100 mL of distilled water have been added. This solution has been heated to the boiling point.

Figure 1: The required materials in the experiment Volhard method requires strong acid medium and this requirement provides an advantage for this method when compared with other titrimetric methods which analyze halogens since ions like carbonate, oxalate and arsenate have interference effect. As the solution boils, 5 mL of 5% (v/v) KMnO4 solution has been added and the cheese particles are completely digested. After the addition of KMnO4 solution, a very smelly reaction has occurred. By the addition of KMnO 4 solution a purple color has been appeared. The boiling of the solution has been continued until the purple color disappeared. And then, another 5 mL of KMnO4 solution has been added into the solution. Because of KMnO4 addition, a bad smell has occurred.

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Adding of KMnO4 solution has been continued until all the cheese particles are completely digested. As a result of these procedures, a white precipitate of AgCl has formed. After cooling the solution, it has been filtered and the solid residue has been washed with distilled water for two or three times and then the filtrate has been put into a flask of 50 mL.

Figure 2: The preparation steps of the sample The procedure of the Experiment In Volhard method, silver ions have been titrated with a standard thiocyanate solution. Since KSCN is a seconder standard matter, the solution of KSCN cannot be prepared directly. Therefore, approximately 2.45 g of KSCN has been dissolved in a few mL of distilled water and then much more water has been added until 250 mL.

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Figure 3: The steps of the standardization of KSCN solution Standardized AgNO3 solution is poured into an erlen meyer and then some more distilled water has been added until 100 mL. 5 mL of 6 M HNO3 and 5 mL of NH4Fe(SO4)2 solution have been added. Fe3+ ion acts as an indicator. With the excess of thiocyanate ions, the color of the solution turns into red. By using the volume of the KSCN and the concentration of AgNO3 solution, the concentration of KSCN has been calculated. Following the determination of the concentration of KSCN solution, 5 mL of Iron (III) ammonium sulfate indicator has been added into the sample solution and the solution has been shaked strongly. The unreacted silver ions have been titrated with standarized solution of KSCN until the dark red-brown color due to the ferric thiocyanate complex appears for one minute.

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Figure 4: The steps of the titration of the sample CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION An efficient education environment does not contain only text reading and lecturing. Students learn better by thinking, questioning and practicing the given information. For this reason, it has been thought that the simulations have great contributions to the teaching and learning process (Bayrak, 2008). In the study, teaching the Volhard method through simulations enables students to comprehend the topic in a more visual, interesting and effective way. By this way, the learning process becomes more visual and effective. With the help of simulations, students have opportunity to see the practical usage of the knowledge they learn and also simulations help teachers to lecture more effectively and present the experiment many times they require. Simulations can be used as education tools that support the teaching and they make the learning easier. Victor and Gil‘ (2006) simulation about the solubility of the salts is a good example for this. In that simulation, students can see the particles (ions and molecules) symbolically. They also see the spaces between the ions and molecules in the solution process. The simulation makes the solubility of the salts visual for the students. By this way make the concepts more concrete. Each student can follow the simulation steps according to his or her learning speed. This opportunity supported by the simulations will increase student achievement. Additionally, education with simulations would support students‘ problem solving skills and it contributes to meaningful learning. There are some studies in the literature which aim to make students free in their own learning. For example, Meyer and Sargent (2007) developed a computer visualization package called SymmetryApp to help student learn symmetry and group theory. By using this program students learn in an interactive environment, they make mistakes, but they learn from their own mistakes.

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Using simulations in chemistry education would contribute to prevention from the hazardous effects of chemicals as well as the protection of the environment. Belleti et. al. (2006) developed a simulation experiments by considering hazardous effects of the chemicals on students‘ health. In the real experiment, the vapor pressure of a pure liquid has been measured a function of temperature. This experiment contains some chemical and electrical hazards. The required pure liquids for the experiment are volatile, and can be flammable and contain chemical poisons. For this reasons they are dangerous for the students. Because of these hazard risks, they developed a simulation of this experiment. Laboratory is a vital component of chemistry education; however, in the absence of the required chemicals or the suitable environment for the experiment, using simulations would be a great way facilitating the responsibilities of both the teacher and the learner. Volhard is one of the methods to be considered as important in chemistry courses and laboratories. It is an important practical experience for students in the laboratory. As mentioned before, the some of the chemicals in the experiment are harmful for human health and environment. In addition to these harmful effects of the chemicals, if laboratory conditions are not sufficient, this experiment cannot be conducted in student laboratories. In this study, the presented simulation has been prepared by considering these harmful effects and in sufficient laboratory conditions. BIODATA and CONTCT ADDRESSES of AUTHORS Associate Professor Dr. Celal BAYRAK. He was born in Trabzon on 22 February 1960, graduated from the Department of Physics Education, Faculty of Education, Karadeniz Technical University in 1983. He worked as a teacher of physics in Kırıkkale Kurtuluş High School between 1983–1985. He became Associate Professor in 2007. He has been working in Physics and Physics education field at Hacettepe University since 1985. Hacettepe University, Faculty of Education, Department of Physics Education 06800 Beytepe, Ankara-TURKEY Phone: 00903122978615 Email: [email protected] Assist. Prof. Dr. Nilgün SECKEN was born in Ankara at 17.01.1965 and graduated Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Education, at Hacettepe Universiy at 1987. She is working at the Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Education, at Hacettepe Universiy, since 1987. Hacettepe University, Faculty of Education, Department of Chemistry Education 06800 Beytepe, Ankara-TURKEY Phone: 00903122976746 Email: [email protected]

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Dr. Funda OZCAN OZTURK was born in Ankara at 16.06.1974 and graduated Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Education, at Hacettepe Universiy at 1997. Email: [email protected]

Res. Asst. Evrim URAL ALSAN She was born in Bursa at 20.06.1980 and graduated Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Education, at Hacettepe Universiy at 2004. She is working at the Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Education, at Hacettepe Universiy, since 2005 as research asistant. Hacettepe University, Faculty of Education, Department of Chemistry Education 06800 Beytepe, Ankara-TURKEY Phone: 00903122976787 Email: [email protected] REFERENCES Bayrak, C. (2008). Effects of Computer Simulations Programs on University Student‘s achievments in Physics. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 9(4), pp. 5362. Belletti, A., Borromei, R. and Ingletto, G. (2006). Teaching Physical Chemistry Experiments with a Computer Simulation by LabVIEW. Journal of Chemical Education, 83(9), pp. 1353-1355 Halkides, C. J. and Herman, R. (2007). Introducing Michaelis–Menten Kinetics through Simulation. Journal of Chemical Education, 84(3), pp. 434-437. Martínez-Jiménez, P., Pontes-Pedrajas, A., Climent-Bellido, M. S. and Polo, J. (2003). Learning in Chemistry with Virtual Laboratories, Journal of Chemical Education, 80, 346–352. Meyer, D. E. and Sargent, A. L. (2007). An Interactive Computer Program to Help Students Learn Molecular Symmertry Elements and Operations. Journal of Chemical Education, 84(9), pp 1551–1552. Michaelis–Menten Software. http://people.uncw.edu/hermanr/TechFiles/mm/mm.htm (accessed Dec 2006). Luque Ruiz, I. López Espinosa, E., Cerruela García, G. and Gómez-Nieto, M.A. (2001). Design and Development of Computer-Aided Chemical Systems: Virtual Labs for Teaching Chemical Experiments in Undergraduate and Figure 3. A sample of the dialog system navigator. Graduate Courses. Journal of Chemical Information and Computer Sciences, 2001, 41(4), 1072–1082.

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Segel, I. (1975). Enzyme Kinetics; Wiley-Interscience: New York. Skoog, D., West, D. M and Holler, J. F. (1996). ―Fundamentals of Analytical Chemistry‖ Seventh Edition, Sounders College Publishing, Fort Wort. Victor M. S. and Gil, V. M. S. (2006). A New Java Animation in Peer-Reviewed JCE WebWare: Computer Simulations of Salt Solubility. Journal of Chemical Education, 83(1), pp. 173-174. Woodfield, B. F., Andrus, M. B., Andersen, T., Miller, J., Simmons, B., Stanger, R., Waddoups, G. L., Moore, M. S., Swan, R., Allen, R. and Bodily, G. (2005). The Virtual ChemLab Project: A Realistic and Sophisticated Simulation of Organic Synthesis and Organic Qualitative Analysis. Journal of Chemical Education, 82(11), pp 1728–1735. http://www.akinkaplan.com/chemistry/volhard.html http://www.jtbaker.com

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Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE July 2009 ISSN 1302-6488 Volume: 10 Number: 3 Article 7

COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVES OF STUDY STRATEGIES AMONG HIGH AND LOW ACHIEVERS DISTANCE LEARNING STUDENTS

ABSTRACT

Dr. Muhammad Imran YOUSUF Assistant Prof., Division of Continuing Education Pir Mehr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi, PAKISTAN

The main aim of this research is to better understand and draw perceptions of low and high achiever distance learners about their study patterns. The study indicates the areas where significant difference is found among low and high achievers of Allama Iqbal Open University, Pakistan through a self developed questionnaire covering their preferred study location, study times, number of hours spent on study, the difficulties affecting their study patterns and the organization of study strategies in comparative perspective. Greater difficulties were being faced by low achievers in their study. Increased difficulties were encountered by low achievers with study material, volume of study, self-motivation and other factors. There was no significant difference between low and high achievers for their study strategies of studying materials without taking notes and reading aloud. Greater low achievers attempted easy portions of their study material first and took notes simultaneously as compared to high achievers. Keywords: Distance learning students, high achievers, low achievers, study strategies, difficulties for study. INTRODUCTION The Open University Students generally come from all walks of life. Most are working adults on full-time employment. Some of them are highly successful in their courses and achieve outstanding results. The sizeable percentage achieves fairly low results, indicating difficulty with meaningful learning. The primary role of any distance student is to learn which further requires motivation, planning, and the ability to analyze and apply the information being learnt. Distance learners may have some difficulty determining what the demands of a course of academic study actually are because they do not have the support of an immediate peer group, ready access to the instructor, or familiarity with the technology being used for delivery of the distance education course. They may be unsure of themselves and their learning. Yet, keeping in view the distance education system, the learning process of student becomes comparatively complex for the following limitations (Schuemer, 1993): 

Many distance-education students being mature and earning hand have to coordinate the different areas of their lives which influence each other—their families, jobs, spare time, and studies.

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Distance-education students have different reasons for taking courses. Some students are interested in obtaining a degree to qualify for a better job. Many take courses to broaden their education and are not really interested in completing a degree. The motivational factors arising from the contact or competition with other students is usually found absent among distance-education students. The student also lacks the immediate support of a teacher who is present and able to motivate and, if necessary, give attention to actual needs and difficulties that crop up during study. That is why distance learner is considered isolated. Distant students and their teachers often have little in common in terms of background and day-today experiences and therefore, it takes longer for student-teacher rapport to develop. Without face-to-face contact distant students may feel ill at ease with their teacher as an individual and uncomfortable with their learning situation. Technology is involved for flow of information and communication. Communication is inhibited only when the teacher and students become comfortable with the technical delivery system. Global research yields that these characteristics are inherent also in the concept of distance education. They become manifest during the process of delivery.

Studying is the process that is used to decide what to learn and what to remember and recall. Study skills can be described as learning how to become an effective learner and how to manage your own learning. The term refers to the conscious and deliberate use of the processes of learning to achieve effective study practices. It deals with the idea that pupils and students can and should be helped to develop conscious, deliberate control over the mechanisms of their own learning. The most obvious study skills are reading, writing, note-taking, time-management, working with others, engaging in critical and analytical thinking and revising and remembering. Many of the skills are best developed over a period of time. Good study habits provide a strong foundation for the learning that comes later. Properly developed notes typically reflect the ideas, concepts, methods, examples, and do's & don'ts that instructor believes to be important and will expect you to know well. Mastery of notes will be the best use of your time and is much more efficient than basing your study around the textbook. Study time focus on how long should a student plan for studying and how should it be used. Each person has certain times when they peak mentally. STUDY HABITS AMONG DISTANCE LEARNERS Teaching and learning at a distance is demanding. However, learning will be more meaningful and deeper for distance learners, if the students and their instructor share responsibility for developing learning goals and objectives; actively interacting with class members; promoting reflection on experience; relating new information to examples that make sense to learners; maintaining self-esteem; and evaluating what is being learned. Distance learners need to reflect on what they are learning. They need to examine the existing knowledge frameworks in their heads and how these are being added to or changed by incoming information.

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Examinations, papers, and class presentations provide opportunities for student and teacher to evaluate learning. There are many different categories of learners:    

some prefer to study independently some prefer to be guided by the instructor some prefer to study for understanding and process information at deep levels some focus on reproduction of detail at a surface level (Bessant, 1997).

There are two major approaches for going through the assignments and examination attempt; first is to memorize the facts and details with poor understanding of course material and second is to master the new information by deep understanding of course material. These two approaches are as under: Surface approach and Deep approach Surface Aproach Distance-education students who are not confident about their learning tend to concentrate on memorizing facts and details in order to complete assignments and write exams. As a result, they end up with a poor understanding of course material with memorization of facts which can be entitled as ‗surface approach to learning‘. This type of approach may be characterized as follows (Morgan, 1991):       

There is focus on the "signs" (e.g., the text or instruction itself) There is focus on discrete elements Learners memorize information and procedures for tests Learners unreflectively associate concepts and facts Learners fail to distinguish principles from evidence, new information from old Learners treat assignments as something imposed by the instructor External emphasis focusing on the demands of assignments and exams leading to a knowledge which as a result cut-off learners from everyday reality

Deep Approach On the other hand some distance-education students become more selective and focus their learning to master new information. The focus of their learning is not based on surface approach but it is based on deeper understanding; which can be entitled as ‗deep approach‘. (Morgan (1991) summarizes this approach as follows:      

There is focus on what is "signified" (e.g., the instructor‘s arguments). Learners relate and distinguish new ideas and previous knowledge. Learners relate concepts to everyday experience. Learners relate and distinguish evidence and argument. They organize and structure content. Their internal emphasis is focusing on how instructional material relates to everyday reality.

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IMPROVING STUDY APPROACHES AMONG DISTANCE LEARNERS Adult students and their instructors must face and overcome a number of challenges before learning takes place including: becoming and staying responsible for themselves; owning their strengths, desires, skills, and needs; maintaining and increasing self-esteem; relating to others; clarifying what is learned; redefining what legitimate knowledge is; and dealing with content (Brundage et.al., 1993). These challenges are considered in relation to distance education: Encouragement High motivation is required to complete distant courses because the day-to-day contact with teachers and other students is typically lacking. Instructors can help motivate distance learners by providing consistent and timely feedback, encouraging discussion among students, being well prepared for class, and by encouraging and reinforcing effective student study habits. Motivational factors have also an effect on students‘ levels of achievement (Eppler and Harju, 1997). Exploring Strengths and Limitations Students need to recognize their strengths and limitations. They also need to understand their learning goals and objectives. The instructor can help distance learners to explore their strengths/limitations and their learning goals/objectives by assuming a facilitative role in the learning process. Providing opportunities for students to share their personal learning goals and objectives for a course helps to make learning more meaningful and increases motivation. Achieving students were found often likely to seek help if they needed it and to do so in an effective and efficient way (Ryan and Hicks, 1997). Balancing Responsibilities Distance learners remain afraid to their ability to do well in a course. They have to balance many responsibilities including employment and supporting family. Often their involvement in distance education is unknown to those they work with and ignored by family members. Student performance is enhanced if learners set aside time for their instructional activities and if they receive family support in their academic endeavors. For adult students it is not surprising that social factors including work commitments, family orientation (Yamauchi and Li, 1993) and learning situation characteristics like a supportive environment can have an effect on level of their achievement (Hough, 1994). Interaction and cooperation Students often learn most effectively when they have the opportunity to interact with other students. Kennett et.al. (1996) reported that test performance improved for students who worked cooperatively with others. Interaction among students typically leads to group problem solving. When students are unable to meet together, appropriate interactive technology such as E-mail should be provided to encourage small group and individual communication. Assignments in which students work together and then report back or present to the class as a whole, encourage student-to-student interaction so it is quite obvious to ensure clear directions and realistic goals for group assignments (Burge, 1993).

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OBJECTIVES The major objectives of this research are as under:  To highlight the present situation of study strategies among distance education students.  To compare the study strategies of low and high achievers of distance learning students.  To draw the preferences of distance learners about study location and study timing. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Population and Sampling The population of this research consisted of all the distance education students of Allama Iqbal Open University, Pakistan. Whereas research was delimited to students enrolled in masters‘ level course workshop, semester Autumn 2007. These students were ranked on the basis of their results for Spring semester 2007. Among them 500 high achievers and 500 low achievers were considered as sample of the study. Research Tool Development and Data Collection: Since the study was descriptive in nature, survey was considered appropriate to collect the data. For this purpose, questionnaire was validated through experts‘ opinion and pilot testing on fifty low and fifty high achievers was conducted. The data collected through questionnaire were coded and analyzed through Ms- Excel in terms of mean scores. Scale values were assigned to each of the five responses ranged from 5-1 viz SA to SDA and to calculate the mean score, further standard deviation and tvalue were calculated at p