SL18 D240 0 ..... antigen-antibody complexes were detected with goat anti-rabbit IgG horse radish-peroxidase conjugate (Scottish Antibody Production Unit).
Proceedings of the 6th Workshop on Reindeer Research, Tromse, Norway, 8-10 October, 1990
Tidsskrift om rein og reinnaering
RANGIFER Scientific Journal of Reindeer and Reindeer Husbandry
Special Issue No, $, 1990
Rangifer Published by: Nordisk Organ for Reinforskning (NOR) Nordic Council for Reindeer Research. Editor: Sven Skjenneberg Address: Postboks 378, N-9401 Harstad, Norway Telephone: (0)82-64 172 Telefax: (0)82-66 280 Bank account: 4760 56 92776 Postal account: 2 11 63 58 Subscription prices: Ordinary subscription, prices/year: Nordic countries Europe, surface mail Europe, air mail Oversea, surface mail Oversea, air mail
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Agricultural Department, Box 8007 Dep, N-Oslo 1, Norway The Swedish University of Agriculture, Institute of Forest Improvement, Box 7007, S-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden University of Oulu, Department of Zoology, Zoophysiological Laboratory, Linnamaa, SF-90570 Oulu, Finland Greenland Home Rule Authority, Department of Nature Management, Box 1015, DK-3900 Nuuk, Greenland University of Tromsø, Department of Arctic Biology, Breivika, N-9001 Tromsø, Norway State Veterinary Institute, Box 368, SF-00100 Helsingfors, Finland University of Alaska Fairbanks, Institute of Arctic Biology, Fairbanks, Alaska 99775, U.S.A.
R A N G I F E R
Proceedings of the Sixth Nordic Workshop on Reindeer Research, T r o m s ø , 8-10
October
Contents Programme
1990 Page 2
Lectures E . Norvik: Research as the basis for deciosion-making in the reindeer husbandry 0.
Halvorsen: Resources, reindeer and man. H o w can research contribute to sustainable development?
A . J. Pearse: W h a t has made deer farming in N e w Zealand so successful?
3
5 6
Poster presentations: U . Heiskari and M . Nieminen: M a i n t a i n i n g reindeer o n roughage diet d u r i n g w i n t e r
14
A . J. Karter, I. Folstad, A . Skorping and D . W . Heard: T h e effect of ivermectin o n reindeer o f f s p r i n g ' s weight gain and survival: p r e l i m i n a r y findings
15
G . Malmfors: Influence of handling systems o n meat quality of beef and some remarks concerning slaughter handling of reindeer
16
1. Kojola and T . Helle: Benefits f r o m calf harvest
17
J. Kumpula, K . Kumpula and M . Nieminen: D o m i n a n c e relationship i n female groups of semi-domesticated reindeer: changes after antler r e m o v a l S. Nikander, S. Saari and T . Rahko: Pathological changes i n dictyocaulosis of reindeer ...
18 19
A . Oksanen, M . Nieminen, T . Soveri K . Kumpula, U . Heiskari and V . Kuloharju: T h e establishment of parasites i n reindeer C . J. Petersson, D . Lenvik and 0 . Nissen: D a t a systems for i m p r o v e m e n t of reindeer production
22
P. Soppela, M . Nieminen, S. Saarela, J. S. Keith, J. N . Morrison and P. Trayhurn: T h e presence of u n c o u p l i n g p r o t e i n i n «brown» adipose tissue of reindeer
29
Rangifer, Special Issue No. 5, 1990
20
1
E. Ropstad, D . Lenvik, E . B ø , M . M . Fjellheim and K . B. R o m s å s : O v a r i a n f u n c t i o n and pregnancy rates i n reindeer calves {Rangifer tarandus) i n southern N o r w a y
31
E. Ropstad and D . Lenvik: T h e use of cloprostenol and prostaglandin F2 lysis i n reindeer calves
32
B. Å h m a n and G . Å h m a n : Levels of
1 3 7
a
to induce luteo-
C s i n reindeer bulls i n J u l y / A u g u s t and September
and the effect of early slaughter
34
Panel discussion: Meat q u a l i t y
37
Magnus Nordkvist: A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t
39
Participants
40
Situations during the workshop, photos
44
Programme Monday, 8 October 17.00-20.00 Poster Installation 20.00-23.00 Get-together meeting. Svein D . Mathiesen: A m o n g reindeer and penguins o n South Georgia Tuesday, 9 October 09.00-09.15 O p e n i n g b y E r l e n d R i a n , C h a i r m a n of the C o u n c i l of T r o m s ø . 09.15-10.15 Erling N o r v i k :
Research as the basis f o r desicion-making i n reindeer husbandry.
Discussion. Main subject I. Reindeer husbandry. Basis f o r resources and the m a n . 10.15-11.30 Presentation of scientific posters. Session leader: Sven Skjenneberg. 11.30-12.15 O d d Halvorsen: Resources, reindeer and m a n . H o w can research contribute to sustainable development? Discussion. 12.30-13.30 L u n c h . 13.30-17.00 G u i d e d t o u r o n the U n i v e r s i t y of T r o m s ø : Department of A r c t i c B i o l o g y and Department of E c o l o g y . 18.00-19.00 R e c e p t i o n i n «Arctic Gallery». H o s t : N o r w e g i a n Saami Reindeerowners A s s o c i a t i o n . A r t e x h i b i t i o n b y Sven Skjenneberg. 20.00-
Banquette. Restaurant
«Arctandria».
Wednesday, 10 October M a i n subject II: Meat q u a l i t y . 09.00-10.00 A n t h o n y J. Pearse: W h a t has made deer f a r m i n g i n N e w Zealand so successful? 10.00-11.00 Presentation of scientific posters. Session leader: Sven Skjenneberg. 11.00-12.45 Panel discussion: Meat quality. 13.00-13.15 E v a l u a t i o n and closing seremony. 13.15-14.15 L u n c h . 14.15
2
W o r k s h o p s . D i s c u s s i o n groups.
Rangifer, Special Issue No. 5, 1990
Research as the basis f o r decision-making i n reindeer h u s b a n d r y Erling
Norvik,
N-1500 Moss, N o r w a y
A s y o u k n o w , I a m no specialist i n reindeer husbandry. N o r do I have sufficient academic background to give any expert o p i n i o n o n the significance of scientific research f o r the reindeer industry. B u t f o r many years as a p o l i t i c i an and, n o w , as chairman of b o t h the Steering C o m m i t t e e f o r Reindeer H u s b a n d r y and the Reindeer Industry D e v e l o p m e n t F u n d , I have been i n v o l v e d i n m a k i n g decisions w h i c h d i rectly and i n d i r e c t l y have wide reaching consequences f o r this fine industry. It is f r o m this standpoint that I make m y remarks o n the significance of research (and technical advice). First, a deep sigh: if o n l y w e had established a qualitatively and quantitatively m u c h stronger p r o g r a m of reindeer research m u c h earlier! H a d we done this, several important decisions w h i c h have had to have been made c o u l d have been based o n solid scientific fact. T h i s has not been the case. T h e amount of guesswork i n v o l v e d i n today's decision-making c o u l d have been substituted w i t h knowledge - knowledge about good alternative strategies for reindeer husbandry. I am speaking here, f o r example, of land disposit i o n , of exploitation of pasture, o f w i n t e r fodders besides lichen, of the e n v i r o n m e n t a l consequences of different types of management and of meat quality. O f course, we do k n o w something of these things - both f r o m experience of the reindeer owners themselves and f r o m research. B u t we k n o w n o t h i n g like enough. W e k n o w , f o r example, that today there are 3000 healthy N o r w e g i a n reindeer o n South Georgia. T h i s p o p u l a t i o n has g r o w n f r o m 22 animals, w h i c h were taken there d u r i n g the
Rangiter, Special Issue No. 5, 1990
years between the wars (sic), despite the fact that there are no lichens o n South G e o r g i a . It is very i m p o r t a n t that w e f i n d out what w i n t e r fodders besides lichens m a y exist here at home, too. I a m h a p p y to learn that this is c u r r e n t l y being investigated. K n o w l e d g e about diet preferences and the n u tritional requirements of reindeer i n w i n t e r w i l l be of fundamental importance f o r m a k i n g decisions w i t h regard to reindeer numbers, land disp o s i t i o n , channelling economic resources and so on. T h e p r i n c i p a l challenge f o r N o r w e g i a n reindeer husbandry i n F i n n m a r k today - seen f r o m the v i e w p o i n t of b o t h the central p o l i t i c a l authorities and the industry itself - is disequilibriu m between the number of reindeer and their forage resources. P r o d u c t i v i t y is l o w , the econo m y is worse and a large n u m b e r of reindeer owners have an unsatisfactory number of animals and an unsatisfactory income. T h e animals are b e c o m i n g smaller and smaller. Social and economic problems are increasing. There is an obvious danger of long t e r m damage to the pasture areas. How l o n g term, n o b o d y k n o w s . There are n o clear research results to guide us but, I a m glad to say, research is under w a y and satellite imagery represents a good, n e w tool. W h e n researchers can s u p p l y answers to the questions I have mentioned above, it w i l l be easier, not least f o r the Steering C o m m i t t e e f o r Reindeer H u s b a n d r y , to define both total and regional permitted m a x i m u m numbers f o r reindeer. It w i l l also be easier f o r reindeer owners to accept the need to reduce the number of ani3
mals. But, of course, we all hope that research in reindeers' n u t r i t i o n a l requirements, in diet selection and i n pasture w i l l reveale new options by w h i c h we can a v o i d having to reduce the number of animals. T o d a y , however, we have no alternative but to insist that numbers be reduced. It is no simple matter to achieve this. M a n y reindeer owners are strongly opposed to it. M a n y people w o n d e r whether the reindeer Saami might not themselves k n o w best. Surely, they w e l l understand that it is not the number of animals but the number of kilos of meat produced, its quality and its price that matters? Yes, they understand this. But they are w o r r i ed that «if I reduce the size of m y herd, m y neighbour w i l l increase the size of his». A n d so they remain sceptical that any local reduction in numbers w i l l result i n an)' rapid and satisfact o r y increase i n p r o d u c t i v i t y . There are some experimental results, as well as examples f r o m husbandry i n other parts of the c o u n t r y , w h i c h suggest that p r o d u c t i v i t y can be increased in this w a y . But the Saami i n F i n n m a r k remain u n c o n v i n c e d that it w i l l w o r k for them. But, of course, p r o d u c t i v i t y is affected not merely b y the n u m b e r of animals present. H e r d structure (age, sex c o m p o s i t i o n etc.) also has an important influence. This has been demonstrated i n Professor D a g L e n v i k ' s dissertation. In addition, animal health (treatment against parasites) is important. Research has come a l o n g way i n this field. A n d all these factors interact. But, above all else, there is one challenge that must be mastered besides research: technical advice and supervision! Advances i n research contribute little unless the results are used. I am very pleased, therefore, that the Reindeer H u s b a n d r y Research C o m m i t t e e and Reindeer H u s b a n d r y A d v i s o r y C o u n c i l are to be c o m b i n e d . Research and tech-
4
nical advice w i l l go hand i n h a n d i n the future. T h e reindeer industry suffers f r o m barriers of b o t h language and culture. W e are plagued, besides, by a deep mistrust of bureaucracy including, i n this instance, research and advisory services. A c c o r d i n g to the Statutes of Reindeer H u s bandry i n N o r w a y , the industry shall give: «Secure economic and social conditions for those w h o practice reindeer husbandry and shall protect reindeer husbandry w h i c h is an important component of the culture of the Saami people». But a lame reindeer industry w h i c h generates insecurity instead of security, w h i c h i n some areas produces a social slum instead of welfare, is a n y t h i n g other than a positive factor i n Saami culture. O f course, it is the industry itself w h i c h , together w i t h the political and administrative apparatus, must find solutions to its problems. T h e role of research is to p r o v i d e us w i t h an alternative strategy w h i c h can t u r n reindeer husbandry into a secure way of life for as m a n y as possible. Y o u must give us knowledge and advice - we must be cleverer at using t h e m . O f course, research must have a free h a n d but it cannot be f u l l y independent. Researchers must try to direct their activities towards p r o v i ding both the industry and the politicians w i t h a solid basis o n w h i c h to base their decisions. It is therefore m y hope that «productive» research receives as h i g h p r i o r i t y as possible. W i t h l i m i ted f u n d i n g available for research and the relatively small size of the indus-try, it is important that its requirements and its o w n demands for help f r o m researchers be attended to. T h i s , besides a n y t h i n g else, results i n b u i l d i n g up confidence i n research and, consequently, i n acceptance and application of research results. Which is precisely our
aim!
Ranggif er, Special Issue No. 5, 1990
Resources, reindeer and m a n . H o w can research contribute to sustainable development? O d d Halvorsen University of Oslo, Zoological Museum, Sarsgt. 1, 0562 Oslo 5, Norway
Abstract: T h e sami reindeer industry is a socioeconomic system based o n biological p r o d u c t i v i t y . In the biological p r o d u c t i o n chain, plants are converted to reindeer. T h e basic conditions for this p r o d u c t i o n are laid d o w n by the fraction of p r i m a r y plant p r o d u c t i o n available to the reindeer, the p h y s i o l o g y of the deer, and the size and age and sex c o m p o s i t i o n of the deer herd. T h e amount of plant p r o d u c t i o n available is influenced b y 1: climate, topograph y , and geology, 2: preferences of the reindeer, and 3: the amount consumed b y other e x p l o i ters i.e. sheep, made inaccessible b y others (roads and cottages), destroyed b y vehicles or spoilt b y p o l l u t i o n . Losses to the p r o d u c t i o n is caused b y herding operations, disturbances f r o m other h u m a n activities, predators parasites and diseases. The industry is attempting to m a x i m i ze the yield through herding activities and the implementation of various remedies, i.e. fences, scooters, cars, helicopters, and sometimes b y the use of c o m m e r c i a l l y manufactured fodder. These efforts may be classified as oilbased. T h e
Rangif er, Special Issue No. 5, 1990
biological p r o d u c t i o n is converted to m o n e y in the market. The p o l i t i c a l l y defined aim of the industry is to supply its participants w i t h econ o m i c security. T h i s is influenced b y the n u m ber of participants and the f o r m of o w n e r s h i p and distribution of herd sizes a m o n g t h e m . P o licies relating to Sami affairs and the general agricultural p o l i c y of the c o u n t r y w i l l also strongly influence this side of the i n d u s t r y . Scientific research has been carried out o n relatively few of these elements, and there is, for example, little scientific data available relating to the claimed overexploatation of the vegetat i o n of most of F i n n m a r k c o u n t y . T h e Scientific committee of the reindeer i n d u s t r y is t r y i n g to identify where research is most needed with i n this c o m p l e x i t y of biological and socioecon o m i c elements. T h e committee further regards it as equally important to initiate research that aims at understanding and q u a n t i f y i n g the interaction a m o n g the elements and the various total results different configurations m a y produce.
5
W h a t has made deer f a r m i n g i n N e w
Z e a l a n d so successful?
The importance of venison quality, understanding the industry, the market and the biology of the animals A . J . Pearse Deer International, M A F Technology, Invermay, N e w Zealand
In recent years a w o r l d w i d e interest has devel o p e d i n c o n t r o l l e d p r o d u c t i o n of the red meat venison f r o m indigenous or exotic species of deer i n many countries. In most cases this means more than the r a n d o m selection of suitable animals, often y o u n g males, f r o m a p o p u l a t i o n contained w i t h i n a large area of natural terrain. Harvest is a means of balancing n u m bers and natural f o o d supplies, at some econom i c profit. Rather, deer f a r m i n g is the c o n t r o l led feeding, breeding and selection of the most appropriate animals for slaughter, at a time w h e n their g r o w t h rates, ultimate size, or time of the year fits a marked demand and specificat i o n and a productive o p p o r t u n i t y for the farmer. N e w Zealand has developed deer f a r m i n g systems based o n the m o d e r n practices of traditional livestock grazing management that have all o w e d «exotic deer species» l i k e the E u r o p e a n red deer, and the f a l l o w deer, to be farmed i n numbers n o w approaching a m i l l i o n animals o n 5,000 varied farms f r o m an e m b r y o n i c beginning i n the early 1970s. A n important number of historical features have been precursors to this r a p i d development. T h e industry has an investment of $1 b i l l i o n ( N Z ) i n animals, fencing and h a n d l i n g systems, and i n slaughter, processing and exporting facilities, w i t h industry returns i n the June 1990 year of $84 m i l l i o n , a greater than 10 f o l d i n crease i n o n l y 20 years. 6
History R e d deer were systematically i n t r o d u c e d i n t o N e w Z e a l a n d ' s natural range since early E n g lish-Scottish settlement f r o m 1861 u n t i l the 1920s for sport h u n t i n g and recreation. In a c o u n t r y w i t h no native herbivores, no predators and abundant natural vegetation, deer n u m bers grew r a p i d l y aided b y favourable climate, protective legislation and h u n t i n g c o n t r o l . N e w Zealand deer were an internationally r e n o w n e d t r o p h y antler herd i n the 1930s but their g r o w t h was unchecked and numbers reached pest p r o p o r t i o n s i n the 1950s. C o m b i n e d w i t h the n o w questionable practices of overgrazing and fire to p r o m o t e new g r o w t h , i n the natural high c o u n t r y vegetation for sheep and the secondary forest g r o w t h was extensively damaged b y deer. T h e deforestation allowed extensive erosion f r o m rapid run-off of rain and s n o w melt. T h i s created such concern w i t h agencies i n v o l v e d i n land protection and i n agriculture and forestry that deer were declared a noxious animal i n 1951 and an eradication programme began. T h e G o v e r n m e n t e m p l o y e d many professional hunters as w e l l as a «bounty system» where private hunters were paid for the deer w h i c h they shot. T h e o n l y value was venison for domestic c o n s u m p t i o n f r o m sport h u n t i n g . N e w Zealand, dominated as it is b y the export of p r i m a r y products, benefitted f r o m the w i s d o m and innovative skills of a few individuals. T h e y , aware of the large c o n s u m p t i o n
Rangifer, Special Issue No. 5, 1990
(OOOS' ) f I I I I ( I I
900 -
800 -
i 700 -
,'
p r i n c i p a l l y that of velvet antler i n v a r y i n g stages of g r o w t h , the tail, eye, teeth, sinews and pizzle sought b y the K o r e a n pharmaceutical business. E a r l y deer f a r m i n g focused o n meat p r o d u c t i o n but b y 1976, w h e n the price f o r velvet antler had begun to rise, the emphasis shifted away f r o m meat and investment m o n e y began to f l o w into the i n d u s t r y . T h e w i l d deer were captured b y a great variety of means, (bulldog¬ ging, dart t r a n q u i l l i z i n g , netted f r o m helicopters, trapped o n the ground) and relocated to t y p i c a l sheep farms and intensively stocked at up to 6-8 animals per hectare, confined b y a high w i r e fence, and managed under the most m o d e r n of pasture based f a r m i n g techniques. The deer successfully mated, p r o d u c e d live, healthy calves and suffered no apparant diseases or stress d u r i n g that operation. T h e entrepreneurs of the industry, c o n v i n c e d of the future of deer f a r m i n g , were then confronted w i t h an administrative battle to change the legal status of deer f r o m a n o x i o u s pest i n t o an animal f o u n d t y p i c a l l y o n any farmland w i t h i n N e w Zealand. In 1971 the first licence was granted and b y 1975 t w o further significant events had occurred. T h e first was the establishment i n 1973 of the M i n i s t r y of A g r i c u l t u r e ' s research p r o g r a m m e for deer p r o d u c t i o n under the guidance of n u tritionist, D r . K e n D r e w , at Invermay. A n enthusiastic and v e r y skilled team of scientists and support staff began w o r k i n g w i t h deer i n the most basic sense. Significant early research w o r k included the detailed study of the seasonal i t y of deer p r o d u c t i o n and g r o w t h , their nutritional requirements and h o w the feeding and management systems c o m m o n to most N e w Zealand farmers c o u l d be adapted to these requirements. E q u a l l y as important were studies of the veterinary and health aspects, and c o m plications that intensification might b r i n g to deer, for example, o n the l o w l a n d irrigated pastures, or fertile dairy pastures t h r o u g h o u t the entire range of N Z agricultural geography. (
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
Year
Fig. 1. Growth in farmed deer numbers.
of game meat i n E u r o p e , p r i n c i p a l l y West G e r m a n y ( w h i c h today remains the single largest market i n v o l u m e and return) began a concerted recovery and processing business, e x p o r t i n g shot venison i n frozen f o r m i n the f o u r p r i m a l cuts: saddle or l o i n , h i n d legs, shoulders and neck and r i b t r i m . E x p o r t peaked at 4500 tonnes i n the early 1970s w i t h returns w h i c h were comparable to traditional meats. T h e venison recovery business expanded i n sophistication and v o l u m e through the use of aircraft and recovery helicopters i n an innovative and n o w classic story of w i l d game recovery. T h e obvious extension of the feral recovery industry and the attendant game p a c k i n g houses and export markets was to relocate this fast d w i n d l i n g resource onto the farms nearest the feral range and continue to supply a game ranched product. T h r o u g h o u t the feral venison recovery industry a small and h i g h l y profitable market for the other more exotic deer products existed,
Rangifer, Special
Issue N o . 5,
1990
T h e high nutrient values and health aspects of venison were c o n f i r m e d and, significantly, the criticism or fears that farmed venison w o u l d taste differently or, at the worst, l i k e grass fed beef were dispelled i n early clinical analysis and taste testing panels. T h e f o u n d a t i o n for the current success of a large farmed venison industry was laid d u r i n g this p e r i o d and the industry-wide awareness of 7
j * * i-
Fig. 2. Red deer hinds and a Wapiti stag in an enclosure at a N e w Zealand deer farm.
the term quality became a focal p o i n t for the developing sophistication of the industry both o n farm and i n i n the market place. F i n a l consumer acceptance of farm raised venison at the top end of the market - the hospitality trade - competing w i t h salmon, pheasant, oysters, relies on t w o basic qualities; tenderness, and consistency of presentation i n age, size of cuts, fat content and meat hygiene. V e n i s o n is traditionally acknowledged as a fat free meat, and it was critically i m p o r t a n t for the developing industry to relate seasonal p r o d u c t i v i t y , g r o w t h rates, and carcass parameters to those w h i c h the expanding hospitality trade markets demanded. Before discussing i n broad terms the aspects of venison quality that n o w f o r m the base for the successful marketing of venison, the reason behind the r a p i d development of deer farming throughout N e w Zealand as a major livestock pastoral alternative is w o r t h a m p l i f y i n g . Interest i n farming deer f r o m 1976 and onwards was widespread o w i n g , i n part, to enor8
mous returns for velvet f r o m the H o n g K o n g and K o r e a n markets (up to $200-250 per k g for frozen product). N o farm raised venison was produced, indeed the m o d e r n systems of slaughter, veterinary inspection and processing had not yet been devised. H e l i c o p t e r recovery of shot game t u r n e d rapidly to a live capture and recovery operation. F a r m e d and captured deer escalated i n value and demand. N e w Zeal a n d ' s taxation laws permitted these animals, once valued at $200-$250 per carcass, but n o w as high as $2,500 per live animal, to be capitalised for accounting purposes at a b o o k value of $200. The difference i n purchase price and taxat i o n value c o u l d be declared as a tax write off i n other business, be it agricultural or commercial; a new breed of deer farmer evolved. These new entrants, the city based investor, the private i n d i v i d u a l or corporate businessmen, p r o v i ded capital for stock and shared the progeny w i t h the farmer w h o had invested i n the expensive land, facilities and management systems. D e e r f a r m i n g came w i t h i n the reach of the or-
Rangif er,
Special Issue N o . 5,
1990
. _
Farmed venison Feral venison
>
2O0O 1000 0 1980 Year
Fig. 3. Venison production in New Zealand.
dinary farmer, and a rare c o m b i n a t i o n of skills p r o v i d e d the incentive f o r further expansion and development. W i t h such an additional source of finance, business and political experience w i t h , i n n o v a t i o n , leadership and risk taking outside that n o r m a l l y evident i n agriculture ( N Z f a r m i n g has been u n til recently been mainly a f a m i l y unit operation) the emergence of an industry, vertically integrated f r o m capture, to export of products, was assured. In 1975 the N e w Zealand Deer Farmers A s s o ciation was f o r m e d b y 29 of the first deer farmers (including the leading scientist f r o m the government research programme). T h i s marked the second significant milestone w h i c h assured the success of deer farming. By their own volition and vision members of the industry at all levels took charge of their own development and directions in the market place, in the face of quite hostile political environment. In light of comments already addressed i n this conference analysing the role o f research a n d the need of an industry, it is interesting to note that w e have been fortunate b y design to have a very close relationship between farmers, researchers and exporters and the market place, expressed p r i m a r i l y through the N Z Deer Farmers A s s o c i a t i o n activities. T h e N Z G a m e Industry B o a r d (GIB), a statutory marketing organisation funded b y levies o n the products of velvet antler and venison was established i n 1985 t o co-ordinate the m a r k e t i n g a n d market development of venison and other deer p r o ducts. T h i s B o a r d , up u n t i l recently, c o m b i n e d equally the interests of producers, processors and exporters w i t h government p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n shaping the direction and market p o s i t i o n of
Rangif er, Special Issue No. 5, 1990
the industry. Recently, the B o a r d ' s structure was changed t o accommodate more readily the producers unanimous desire to c o n t r o l their o w n destiny, but the complete vertical integration f r o m f a r m p r o d u c t i o n to market place that unifies o u r industry still remains. A n example of this c o m m o n purpose, as it relates t o the science and research supporting the industry, i l l u strates the industries responsiveness to market signals. Deer research programmes have been tabled i n f o r m a l l y w i t h the N Z D F A c o u n c i l a n d the needs of both groups have been balanced i n deciding long t e r m research priorities. T h e value of basic investigative science is not c o m p r o m i sed because the M i n i s t r y of A g r i c u l t u r e c o m mits a p r o p o r t i o n of f u n d i n g f r o m the national science programme. C o u n c i l c o n t r o l does, h o w ever, a l l o w quick application of research to i m mediate and l o n g term challenges i n applied areas, as indicated f r o m market requirements. The industry is n o w required to support research financially . A recent meeting i n c l u d i n g all research groups, deer farmers, the N Z G I B , veterinarians and the N Z D F A , determined that the i m m e d i ate industry need was to produce 55 k g carcasses f o r the chilled and fresh trade i n E u r o p e and N o r t h A m e r i c a during the months September to N o v e m b e r rather than the more favourable F e b r u a r y - A p r i l p e r i o d w h e n the natural g r o w t h rates and farm management practices are w e l l established and best suit the seasonality of deer p r o d u c t i o n . That objective, t r u l y based ($rm) 80
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Year Fig. 4. Export income from deer products in N e w Zealand. 9
5. Research i n t o the requirements of v e n i s o n f o r transportation b y sea freight - hygiene and packaging. 6. V e t e r i n a r y programmes i n preventative animal disease, trace mineral research and anim a l welfare considerations.
Fig. 5. A n indoor facility for sorting animals. Note the plywood sheet walls and the complete abscence of door-handles or bolts or anything else on which the animals could snag themselves.
on industry market i n f o r m a t i o n , has led to cooperative programmes i n i n the f o l l o w i n g areas: 1. A g r o n o m i s t s and soil scientists are investigating the species and g r o w t h patterns of grasses most preferred b y deer, rather than pasture developed f o r sheep and cattle to increase g r o w t h rates and better fit lactational demands of breeding stock. 2. A n intensive reproductive a n d management programme to utilize h y b r i d i z a t i o n between the large N o r t h A m e r i c a n w a p i t i and the E u ropean red deer and thereby to exploit the efficiency of venison p r o d u c t i o n as f u l l y as possible. 3. Research i n t o the technology o f semen c o l lection and storage, artificial insemination and reproductive m a n i p u l a t i o n . 4. Extensive venison research i n t o the qualities of tenderness, hygiene and l o n g term storage of c h i l l e d product ( - 1 ° C to 1 ° C ) , i n c l u d i n g basic investigation into slaughter and processing systems and the quality assurance requirements of a consistent p r o d u c t i o n . 10
Basic research continues i n the areas of advancing calving b y m a n i p u l a t i o n w i t h m e l a t o n i n and reproductive hormones, t w i n n i n g potential and i n disease identification and c o n t r o l . T h e list is extensive, multi-disciplinary and involves f a l l o w , r e d a n d elk breeds and has already h a d a major impact o n farm p r o d u c t i o n . T h e results, news of e v o l v i n g technologies and of practical farm management solutions are exchanged at producer forums and i n an i n d u stry magazine as frequently as i n the scientific literature. T h e i n d u s t r y ' s success therefore has been boosted b y the enthusiastic sharing of i n f o r m a t i o n , f r o m basic management skills i n feeding, breeding a n d handling - the «what w o r k s a n d what doesn't» approach, w i t h a common theme i n c o m m u n i c a t i o n ; i.e., feedback f r o m the market place about the quality of the p r o duct and the t i m i n g of its s u p p l y to accommodate the market demand. Researchers not o n l y had to achieve good science, but the techniques e m p l o y e d , particularly i n breeding and feeding, had to withstand application o n c o m m e r c i a l farms, often w i t h a large financial c o m m i t m e n t a n d , therefore, w i t h a need to i m p l e m e n t efficient p r o d u c t i o n systems quickly. T h e rapid interchange of ideas has meant that farmer i n n o v a t i o n was r a p i d l y incorporated as an industry «golden rule» and research d i d not struggle f o r c r e d i b i l i t y . Quality venison production Highest returns are achieved f o r venison that is exported i n a fresh o r chilled state and prepared for the hospitality trade, rather than i n retail c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h traditional r e d meats i n supermarkets and c o m m o d i t y trading. In terms of venison quality the f o l l o w i n g seven major factors are crucial critical: a) Carcass grading system and carcass fatness P r e m i u m venison quality f r o m farmed red and f a l l o w deer comes f r o m animals less than 2
Rangtfer, Special
Issue No. 5, 1990
years of age. There is evidence that venison i n creases i n toughness i n older animals and f o r efficiency slaughter is most acceptable at the end of summer at ages 12-15, o r 22-27 months. Some t w o year o l d red and f a l l o w deer are even then i n danger of being unacceptably fat. A carcass grading system, based o n weight and a total tissue depth measurement (the G R or T D measurement i n m m ) over the 12th r i b at a p o i n t 16 c m f r o m the spinal m i d l i n e , is the parameter used to determine overfatness. T h e p r o ducer can be penalised up to 40 % f r o m deer classified as overfat. M u c h of the fat (particularly i n older stags) is subcutaneous and intermuscular i n location, rather than intramuscular. In the p r i m e cuts of saddle and h i n d quarter, 55-65 % of the fat is distributed subcutaneously and can readily be t r i m m e d but i n the forequarters, neck and ribs t r i m m a b l e fat amounts to 16-30 % of total fat and removed w i t h d i f f i c u l t y . T h e marketing solution has been to remove those animals f r o m the slaughter plant b y penalty, and presenting them, instead, i n m i d w i n ter f o l l o w i n g the post rut weight loss. H o w ever, exporters offer a financial incentive for y o u n g carcasses. b) Further processing V e n i s o n , presented as a gourmet meat is n o w often marketed i n a «no further preparation form», except to cut into steak, cutlet or medallions. W i t h 54 % of the carcass being represented as saddle and h i n d leg, further fabrication is Table
1. Wapiti hybrid and red deer stag carcass composition.! 2 yr 11 month red deer wapiti/red hybrid
n Liveweight (kg) Hot carcassweight (kg) Dressing
53 110 63 57
8 116 68 59
Carcass composition (% cold carcass weight) Saddle 15 18 Hindquarters 39 40 Forequarters 19 20 Neck 16 14 Ribs 11 8 Fatness (GR in mm) 10 4.7 1
From Drew and Hogg,
1990.
Rangifer, Special Issue No. 5, 1990
Table 2. Nutrients in 100 g of trimmed feral and farmed red deer leg meat.l Farmed
Feral Age (months) Carcass weight (kg) Lean meat (g) Fat (g) Minerals (g) Polyunsaturated fatty acids (g) Polyunsaturated: saturated fatty acids (P/S)
27 43.1 95.6 3.3 1.1
12 40.8 95.6 3.3 1.1
27 75.7 88.0 10.9 1.1
0.5
0.3
0.3
0.18
0.10
0.03
' From drew and Gogg, 1990. undertaken to increase r e t u r n . A leading N Z exporter, G a m e Meats, pioneered the D e n v e r leg i n w h i c h the hindquarters are b o n e d out and the i n d i v i d u a l muscles of the beef type cuts, topside, r u m p , silverside and shank, are boned out i n t o 8 muscle blocks, desinewed, vac u u m packed and chilled. Saddles are b o n e d out i n t o strip and tenderloins and shoulders too are boned out to produce a shepherd's steak. Saddles sold «bone-in» are precisely measured according to the n u m b e r of ribs, according to the c u s t o m e r ' s request, t r i m m e d at an exact distance f r o m the m i d l i n e and protected w i t h a boneguard and v a c u u m packed. c) Packaging K e e p i n g the product c o l d , clean and covered has allowed the e v o l u t i o n of v a c u u m s h r i n k wrap (Kryo-vac) packaging systems for the chilled trade, increasing the shelf life of meat to 12-16 weeks w h e n stored at - 1 ° C . A b s o l u t e hygiene d u r i n g slaughter and processing is param o u n t . Systems of inverted dressing have added to the hygiene c o n t r o l . Little or no washing of the carcass and good sanitation of machinery used i n the fabrication of bone-in or boneless venison is i m p o r t a n t as these areas, if done poo r l y may inoculate the venison w i t h bacteria p r i o r to c h i l l i n g and packaging. d) Electrical
stimulation,
conditioning
and
aging
Meat tenderness is by far the most i m p o r t a n t consideration i n eating quality, f o l l o w e d b y juiciness and texture. The product must not o n l y be hygienic but the consumer must like it. Research w o r k has s h o w n that electrical stimula11
t i o n (ES) straight after slaughter to accelerate r i gor mortis can prevent tough venison due to c o l d shock i n a chiller. (1) Electrical stimulation is very effective i n i m p r o v i n g tenderness, especially i n the loin and h i n d legs. M o s t systems incorporate a l o w voltage 8 0 V peak sine wave stimulation for 90 sees 30-60 sees after «sticking» approximately 30 sees after stunning. (2) F u r t h e r enhancement of tenderness is achieved through post slaughter c o n d i t i o n i n g and aging of the w h o l e carcass. T h e ideal treatment regime, f o r product that is to be sold frozen, is h o l d i n g at 1 0 ° C f o r 24 hours, then a further 24-48 hours aging at 2 - 4 ° C before freezing at - 1 8 ° C . These effects are more noticeable w i t h stimulated carcasses, suggesting that careful post slaughter aging has an i m p r o v e d effect w i t h animals that are older than 15 o r 27 months. O n c e delivered to point of sale o r consumpt i o n , tenderness can also be enhanced significantly by a careful t h a w i n g regime. B y t h a w i n g s l o w l y f r o m - 1 8 ° C at + 4 ° C , venison quality improves significantly, w i t h the effect most noticeable i n y o u n g deer, non-stimulated, or i n carcasses exposed to l o w temperatures very soon after slaughter. e) Other aspects of venison quality (pH, stress and the Dark, Firm and Dry phenomenon) Meat of high p H (6.0 o r more) t y p i c a l l y has greatly reduced shelf life and is not suitable f o r extended chilled storage i n v a c u u m packages. R o u t i n e p H measurement of slaughtered stock allows the sub-classification of carcasses f o r fro-
Grade
Prime Quality (lean with good muscle)
Ç API ) AP2 / AP3
Tissue depth Carcass limit for wiight (kg) overfatness (mm TD) >70 50.5-70 0.05). T h i s applied also to productivity (r = 0.466, p < 0.001; r = -0.092, p > 0.05, respectively), though not to the calf/female ratio (r = 0.191, p > 0.05; r = 0.121, p > 0.05, respectively). Supplementary feeding itself resulted i n increased p r o d u c t i o n of meat, o w i n g to an increase i n the n u m b e r of reindeer.
References: Helle, T . and Saastamoinen, 0. 1979. The winter use of food resources of semi-domestic reindeer in Northern Finland. - Comniumcationes Instituti Forestalls Fenniae, 96(6): 1-26. Kojola, I. 1989. Mothers' dominance status and differential investment in reindeer calves. - Animal Behaviour, 38:177-185.
17
D o m i n a n c e relationships i n female groups of semi-domesticated deer: changes after antler r e m o v a l .
rein-
Kumpula, J . , Kumpula, K. and Nieminen, M . Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute, Reindeer Research, Rovaniemi, Finland.
Abstract: T h e study of dominance relationships and effects caused b y antler r e m o v a l was made for reindeer hinds i n K a a m a n e n Reindeer Research Station i n w i n t e r 1989-90. A total of 24 pregnant hinds were divided i n t o equal three groups and placed i n t o corrals. Several b o d y and antler measurements were taken f r o m hinds. T h e division of the groups was: G r o u p 1, c o n t r o l , antlered d u r i n g the w h o l e study; G r o u p 2: antlers were r e m o v e d at the same time; G r o u p 3: antlers were r e m o v e d separately according to the rank order. D u r i n g the study the hinds were weighed w e e k l y and daily feed c o n s u m p t i o n was measured. T h e social rank order of the groups was evaluated d u r i n g intense observation before and after antler r e m o v a l . The rank order differed f r o m ideal straightline organization i n the groups and there emer-
18
ged more complicated l i n k s i n dominance. T h e dominance of hinds was explained best by the age, b o d y weight and size of antlers (weight and height). W h e n the hinds gained weight i n abundant feeding the relation between d o m i nance and b o d y weight disappeared. B o d y structure was a d e t e r m i n i n g factor i n fights between hinds of same weight and antler size. H i n d s of heavier b o d y b u i l d were higher i n rank order. N o dominance changes were noticed i n the antlered groups. T h e d o m i n a n t hinds lost part of their status, w h i l e some hinds earlier l o w e r achieved higher rank order. A g e of hinds explained dominance i n the deantlered groups, but b o d y weight had no effect. B o d y structure was again a d e t e r m i n i n g factor i n fights between deantlered hinds.
Rangifer, Special Issue No. 5, 1990
P a t h o l o g i c a l changes i n dictyocaulosis o f reindeer Sven Nikander, Seppo Saari a n d Timo Rahko Department of Pathology and Laboratory of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Helsinki, Finland
Abstract: T h e l u n g w o r m s produce pathological alterations i n the lungs and m a y cause severe illness i n m a n y w i l d and domsticated animals. T h e infection was documented more than half a century ago i n reindeer b y Hellesnes (1935). T h e l u n g w o r m of reindeer was o r i g i n a l l y described as Dictyocaulus viviparus (Bloch 1782) but was identified as. D. eckerti b y Boev i n 1934 after m o r p h o l o g i c a l studies. T h e pathological changes i n the lungs are illustrated o n the basis o f present studies. T h e material consists of 15 l u n g w o r m - p o s i t i v e lungs of slaughtered reindeer f r o m Eastern Lappland. T h e parasitological and tissue samples were studied b y routine methods. T h e f o l l o w i n g histopathological lesions are considered typical f o r Dictyocaulus-infected lungs i n reindeer:
Rangifer, Special
Issue No. 5, 1990
The acute changes consisted of presence of vascular fluids r i c h i n i n f l a m m a t o r y cells and mucus i n b r o n c h i a l l u m i n a w h i c h also were regionally n a r r o w e d . R e s p i r a t o r y tissues were locally condensed b y the i n f l a m m a t o r y reaction. In c h r o n i c a l l y i n f l a m m a t e d areas the indurations also contained giant cells and calcified debris. L y m p h a t i c reactions were p r o m i n e n t . In future studies the m o r p h o l o g y of the developmental stages of D. eckerti and the pathology i n the different phases of dictyocaulosis w i l l be investigated.
References: Hellesnes, P. 1935: Rensnyltere. (Parasites in reindeer). - Norsk Veteriruertidskrift 47,(3): 117-137.
19
T h e establishment of parasites i n reindeer calves A . Oksanenl, M . N i e m i n e n , T. Soveri , K . K u m p u l a , U . Heiskari a n d V . Kuloharjul 2
1
2
2
1 National Veterinary Institute, Regional laboratory O u l u , P O 517, SF-90101 Oulu, Finland. 2
Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute, Reindeer Research, Koskikatu 33A, SF-96100 Rovaniemi, Finland.
Abstract: D u r i n g the reindeer calf gatherings i n June and J u l y 1990, rectal faecal samples were collected f r o m 494 reindeer calves at 6 locations in F i n n i s h L a p l a n d . T h e samples were analyzed according to a m o d i f i e d M c M a s t e r m e t h o d w i t h a detection level of 40 epg (eggs per gram) and, w h e n the sample size was sufficient, also f o r nematode larvae using the Baermann m e t h o d . T h e parasite eggs and larvae were identified according to their m o r p h o l o g i c a l characteristics. Sam-
SODANKYLA
1
ples w i t h coccidial oocysts were incubated i n a 2 % potassium dichromate s o l u t i o n to sporulate the oocysts f o r identification. T y p i c a l t r i c h o s t r o n g y l i d eggs (
