Rebuilding Afghanistan's agricultural economy

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Rebuilding Afghanistan’s agricultural economy Vegetable production in Balkh province S. Alan Walters, John W. Groninger and Oval Myers Jr Abstract: The recovery of Afghanistan’s agricultural economy has been delayed by a devastated infrastructure and diminished human capacity. The authors describe the challenges and opportunities to increase agricultural capacity, using vegetable production in Balkh province as a case study. The most widely grown vegetable crops in the province are aubergine, melon, onion, tomato and watermelon, and most of them are marketed locally. There is great potential to expand vegetable production due to the arid climate, favourable soils and an industrious and abundant workforce. However, production and market expansion cannot be realized unless better field production and management methods are implemented. Increased vegetable product quality and quantity depend on improved water and fertility management, use of vegetable cultivars best suited to the arid climate and environment, development of cold storage facilities and improved pest control methods. Drought conditions, exacerbated by inefficient water use, constitute the most significant constraint to vegetable production in Balkh province and elsewhere in Afghanistan. In particular, plant diseases such as Phytophthora blight, which are manifested during the growing season, often stem from excessive irrigation in the spring when water is available. Until a more broadly functional means of distributing water becomes available, on-farm practices that improve water management represent the best opportunity to improve farmers’ livelihoods. Keywords: fertility management; food security; irrigation; pest management; water use efficiency; Afghanistan S. Alan Walters (corresponding author) is with the Department of Plant, Soil and Agricultural Systems, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL 62901, USA. E-mail: [email protected]. John W. Groninger is with the Department of Forestry at Southern Illinois University. Oval Myers Jr (deceased) was with the College of Agriculture, also at Southern Illinois University.

Importance of agriculture to Afghanistan’s economic development Afghanistan is a developing country where progress has been delayed by decades of war. The producers of various agricultural goods are among those who are trying to make up for lost time in becoming modernized. Agriculture is central to the food security and economic

growth of developing countries and is the main source of income for most of the world’s poor (Wheeler and Kay, 2010). National leaders and their international supporters view agriculture as key to Afghanistan’s recovery and stability (MAIL, 2009). These national leaders stress their dedication to the re-establishment of an economy based on agriculture and natural resources (Groninger, 2006). However, concern about food security and regional

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stability in Afghanistan and neighbouring countries is likely to increase world attention on food production and economic health issues in this region of the world for many years (United States Senate Majority Staff, 2011). Afghanistan historically has an agriculture-based economy, with approximately one-eighth of the land being tillable (about 9 million hectares) with irrigation. Although Afghanistan served as a regional leader as recently as the 1970s, most advancements of that period have since been lost (Formoli, 1995). Today, most production and harvesting activities utilize hand labour due to scarce mechanization. Knowledge was lost as many farmers perished in the war or languished in cities or foreign refugee camps. At the same time, agricultural infrastructure was destroyed by combatants or looted. Punitive destruction of irrigation systems by Soviets targeting communities believed to be supporting the Mujahedeen has been particularly damaging. Since 2001, development efforts through monies donated by the international community have helped towards rebuilding Afghanistan’s agricultural capacity, including the provision of improved wheat seed, rice intensification, and grower and marketer associations (Thomas and Ramzi, 2011; Groninger and Lasko, 2011). The economy of Balkh province is dominated by agriculture, but also has a significant industrial base. Balkh stands out nationally in terms of having fairly good security, market access, producing a variety of familiar vegetable crops, and a relatively extensive and improving infrastructure. The capital, Mazar-e Sharif, is a city of approximately 350,000 people and serves as the primary commercial centre and transportation hub for northern Afghanistan. Kabul and the Khyber border crossing into Pakistan are 304 km and 492 km distant respectively, via Afghanistan’s Route 1, a paved two-lane road. An Asian Development Bank-funded railway project has extended Afghanistan’s only international rail connection to Mazar-e Sharif, making this Afghanistan’s first city to have uninterrupted rail linkage to Uzbekistan and beyond. Despite a generally deteriorating security situation nationally, much progress has occurred in certain areas and sectors. Development organizations have made Balkh a pilot for northern Afghanistan and, in many respects, for the nation as a whole. Accordingly, Mazar-e Sharif has attracted significant foreign investment over the past decade and continues to undergo a construction and economic development boom. The vegetable production industry thus has potential to fuel the development of a value-added agriculture industry. Vegetable production plays an important role in Balkh’s economy. In 2008, approximately 33% of total crop production was focused on vegetables (USAID-ASAP, 2008). The most widely grown vegetable crops in Balkh include aubergine, melon, onion, tomato and watermelon, with most marketed locally. Melons and watermelons have been grown for centuries in northern Afghanistan and are currently two of the most important vegetables grown in the country today. Melon production has played an important role in Afghanistan’s crop history, primarily due to the fact that it is the last arid climate in Central East Asia before China to the east; and, since melons have been domesticated and grown for such a long period, Afghanistan is considered a secondary centre of melon

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diversification (Robinson and Decker-Walters, 1997). For the vegetable crop sector, development has typically had input from local government, with an overall goal of increasing production capacity through enhancing water use efficiency, developing better soil management and fertility practices and improving pest management strategies. The objectives of this article are to provide an overview of vegetable production activities in Balkh and to suggest further work to benefit vegetable producers there, as well as elsewhere in Afghanistan and other areas facing similar changes worldwide.

Study area and conditions Balkh has an arid (or desert) climate with cold winters and hot summers. Temperatures during the summer can reach up to 45oC, while during the winter, –10oC is not uncommon. Rainfall averages about 700 mm per year, with most rain occurring from December to May. No significant rainfall generally occurs during the summer production season. All high-value horticultural crops are irrigated, with most irrigation water of surface origin obtained from the various canal systems and originating from the north slopes of the Hindu Kush Mountains where the system is charged by heavy snowfalls during the winter and moderate rainfall in the spring. Historically, there are 18 canals in Balkh – although only 11 are presently functional – with all obtaining their water from the Balkh-Ab River basin (Lee, 2003). Although agronomic crops dominate Balkh agriculture, vegetables are also an important part of agricultural production. This study is based on observations over a two-week period in August 2008 and 2009, both considered dry years by local people. The area visited in Balkh, Dehdadi district, provided a representative sample of vegetable production for the province. This is the part of the Balkh-Ab River delta where a significant portion of the province’s vegetable crop production occurs. Our observations are based on visits to several farms and through observations from travel on the major and minor roads. Additionally, we spoke to key informants, both local ministry and NGO development personnel, including staff from the Balkh Province Directorate of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock (DAIL).

Current vegetable production systems Although various agronomic and horticultural crops are grown in Afghanistan, wheat is the main crop and provides a large portion of the overall Afghan farm income, as well as supplying significant calorific intake to the daily diet. However, horticultural food crops such as vegetables are also important to Afghan farm families; and, as in other developing countries, vegetables are generally grown for both home use and to supplement farm income (Lenné and Ward, 2010). Farm families in Balkh support themselves through multiple sources of income, including that obtained through vegetable production. Balkh farmers cultivate more than 10 different types of vegetables, but only five have reached volumes of more than 15,000 metric tonnes (MT) annually (USAID-

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ASAP, 2008). In addition to the five mentioned previously, others include cabbage, carrot, cauliflower, chilli pepper, cucumber, garlic, lettuce, okra, onion, potato, red radish, spinach and squash. Although we observed large-scale production fields of several vegetables including chilli peppers, melons, onions, tomatoes and watermelons, okra is most often observed growing in home gardens. Accordingly, many Afghans informed us that okra was one of the most preferred vegetables in Afghanistan and was found to be readily available at most markets. However, onion and tomato production is also significant and, besides melons, Balkh is best known (elsewhere in Afghanistan) for the production of these two vegetables. Vegetable production systems in Balkh and other areas in Afghanistan employ little specialized technology. Water-conserving technologies, such as plastic mulch and drip irrigation normally associated with water-starved, dry-climate vegetable production, are absent. However, low tunnels are used to produce ‘out-of-season’ cucumbers and as covers over tomato transplant beds. Tomato transplants are pulled out of these beds and used as bare-root transplants for field planting. Most vegetable production activities utilize hand labour, with little mechanization apart from occasional soil tillage procedures. Raised beds approximately 1.3 m wide are used for the production of most vegetables, with two rows generally planted adjacent to the furrow on either side. Depending on the vegetable grown, this often allows enough space for a small path between the two rows, so that maintenance and harvesting activities can be accomplished without workers needing to step down into the often muddy and deep furrow. Small holes are made in the raised beds at the proper in-row spacing depending on the vegetable crop grown, with manure (typically sheep manure) and diammonium phosphate placed into the hole prior to vegetable transplant placement. Sheep manure that has been composted for at least one year is a favourite manure of vegetable farmers. These vegetable plants are later side-dressed with urea. However, often 50% or more of surface-applied urea is lost through volatilization due to the high summer temperatures (Henning, 2008, personal communication). This is a significant input loss to the farmer, since a 50 kg bag of urea costs approximately $15. Therefore, research is being directed at deep placement of urea prior to seeding or transplanting vegetables (Kovach, 2008, personal communication). Another problem related to soil management is nutrient availability and subsequent crop growth due to the alkaline soils found throughout Afghanistan that range from about 7.5 to 8.5 pH. We observed no evidence of long-term soil management programmes used by farmers to improve soil physical condition or organic matter content. Crop rotations are sometimes used by farmers, with the previous crops grown and crop water use requirements considered in the rotational scheme. For example, crops that have low water use requirements (such as wheat) are often grown in adjacent fields at the same time as a highvalue horticultural crop that requires more water. This permits farmers anticipating reduced water allocations to divert water designated for the wheat crop to the higher-

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value horticultural crops as needed. However, this scheme requires farmers to have sufficient land area at their disposal. Most vegetable cultivars used by Afghanistan’s farmers are older, open-pollinated inbreds (such as ‘Roma VF’ tomato) or landraces that have been grown in specific villages for many years. Although hybrid vegetable seed would most likely improve product quality, pest management and yields, most Afghan vegetable farmers lack access to them due to the prohibitively high costs. Traditionally, vegetable farmers in Afghanistan save seed to plant the following year. Thus, not all cultivars used are always best matched to grower constraints and market preferences. If a market required chilli pepper of a certain length, shape and size, a hybrid cultivar would consistently provide this fruit for the marketplace, while a landrace would be inconsistent and produce fruit of various lengths, sizes and shapes. Agriculture financing is an option that should be considered by the Ministry and the Directorate of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock (MAIL and DAIL) to allow growers to shift to a more commercialized system of production that incorporates the use of hybrid seeds (Beck, 2011, personal communication). Lending institutions should focus on younger farmers and provide medium-term rather than short-term loans (Oluwasola and Alimi, 2008). Younger farmers are often more willing to take the risks associated with agricultural innovation, and a longer repayment period further encourages agricultural reform.

Production and marketing of specific vegetable crops in Balkh province Although cereals remain the most important field crops in Balkh, current trends favour higher-value horticultural crops. There is intensive, irrigated vegetable production, particularly in Dedadhi, Sherabad and Balkh districts (Henning, 2008, personal communication). The Mazar-e Sharif market has relatively high prices during the early season, with a steady price decline occurring as the market becomes flooded with produce. The following are our observations regarding the primary vegetable crops we observed growing in Balkh province. Chilli pepper. The Dehdadi district is well known for its chilli pepper production. Although most are sold fresh, some are sun-dried and then sold. A significant proportion is also exported to Pakistan. Since chilli pepper plants in the field often remain inundated in water for extended periods due to the flooded conditions provided by the irrigation systems, Phytophthora blight was observed as the most limiting factor to production, causing about 10 to 15% losses in many fields. Cucumber. Most cucumbers grown were the light-green, thin-skinned Beit Alpha types, but limited amounts of slicing types were also grown. Although some cucumbers are seeded directly into raised beds and covered with low plastic tunnels for ‘out-of-season’ cucumber production, most are transplanted during the spring and summer months in the raised-bed production system previously described. Typically, cucumbers imported from Pakistan sell for about $0.5 each, but the ones grown in low tunnels for out-of-season production sell for about $1 each. All

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cucumbers from low tunnel production are marketed domestically, and farmers can make about $5/m2. Farmers often use this system twice a year (spring and autumn) for out-of-season cucumber production, resulting in a gross return of approximately $10/m2, a significant amount of revenue for an Afghan farmer. Aubergine. Although aubergine is one of the most important crops in Balkh, we observed only a few small plantings and no large-scale production fields within our study area. However, fresh aubergine was abundant at local markets. Aubergine is used in many different Afghan dishes and is often mixed with tomatoes when eaten. Onion. Onions are widely produced in Balkh, typically employing flood irrigation practices when available. Most are sold wholesale in Mazar-e Sharif. We observed a wide assortment of red, white and yellow long-day onion types. These were normally field-cured for several days following harvest, with tops removed and bulbs placed into burlap bags. Individual bags were observed being carried from fields on the backs of domesticated animals such as donkeys. However, some onions are left in the field to produce seed that will be harvested, stored and later used to plant next year ’s crop. Potato. Although most potatoes in Afghanistan are grown on more suitable higher-elevation sites outside the province, we were informed that some production does occur. Approximately 300 MT are produced annually in Balkh province, with an approximate value of $100,000 (USAID-ASAP, 2008). We observed no production in our study area, but fresh potatoes were available at most local markets. Tomato. Both processing and fresh tomatoes are produced in Balkh and are readily seen in local markets. Many are shipped directly to the large Kabul market. During peak production, tomatoes in Balkh average about $1 per kg. The primary tomato production problems we observed were the lack of an effective insect pest management programme for tomato fruit worm, and the high incidence of both blossom-end rot (BER) and sunscald (SS). The dry environment plays a major role in the development of BER on tomatoes (primarily through inconsistent water availability to plants), as does the lack of a calcium nutrition programme. Foliage cover on tomato fruit is important to reduce damage from SS, which decreases marketable yield. The sunlight conditions in Balkh are ideal for SS damage because little cloud cover occurs between May and August when most of the tomato fruits are developing and ripening. During 2008, a 90% yield loss occurred on tomatoes grown in Balkh due primarily to the three aforementioned issues. Tomato fruit worm damage resulted in about a 50% yield loss, while BER and SS accounted for an additional 30% loss. A further 10% loss occurred due to fruit rot resulting from soil contact, because most tomato plants are not staked during production. Often, 90% or more of the first tomato fruit set is lost due to fruit contacting the soil. Due to development efforts through recent farmer training, some of the crop is now staked to prevent this problem. Watermelon and melon. The market value of these crops in Balkh was estimated to be about $52 million in 2008,

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resulting from approximately 131 MT of production (USAID-ASAP, 2008). Farmers generally harvest 2,000 to 3,000 melons or watermelons per hectare, and these fruits are typically sold for about $0.75 to $1.50 each, with an expected gross income of approximately $2,500 per hectare. Watermelon cultivars we observed in the field were mostly open-pollinated types, including ‘Charleston Gray’, ‘Crimson Sweet’ and ‘Sugar Baby’. Since most watermelon and melon cultivars are open-pollinated, growers typically select and extract seed from the best fruit to use as seed for the next growing season. Currently, orange- and yellow-flesh cultivars such as ‘Orangeglo’ and ‘Tendersweet Orange Flesh’ are being evaluated. Many Afghan growers are excited about the marketing potential of these types. Although watermelon fruits are mostly sold by piece, in the near future, many growers will probably start selling by the kg to improve revenues, especially with the orange- and yellow-flesh cultivars (Henning, 2008, personal communication). Melon season in Balkh occurs from July to November. Essentially, all melons are produced from local landraces, with seed saved from open-pollinated fruit and planted the following year. Locally produced melons are typically white-fleshed and very sweet and tasty. Most melon sales generally occur at farms, with buyers trying to find the best produce and lowest prices. Many of the melons are sold to retailers in Mazar-e Sharif, although buyers come from various parts of the country, even Kabul, to buy melons produced in Balkh. Afghan melons are also highly prized commodities in neighbouring countries and are exported daily to Pakistan during the growing season. However, locally grown melons are readily available at roadside and other markets in Balkh. We frequently observed roadside markets where melons were the only product displayed for sale. The melon fly is probably the most damaging pest in melon production. Both governmental and nongovernmental organizations are conducting significant research efforts directed towards developing management methods for this pest. In some years, farmers have suffered more than 70% loss to their melon crop due to melon fly infestation; however, farmers who used the correct chemical and field sanitation methods on their melon crops increased their profits by more than 100% from 2006 to 2007 (Henning, 2008, personal communication). The most significant watermelon problems observed were BER and Fusarium wilt.

Limitations for vegetable expansion, productivity and marketing Virtually all aspects of the production and marketing chain raise significant challenges to building an agricultural economy in Balkh province (Table 1). Water is the most important limiting factor for agricultural crop production in Balkh and throughout most of Afghanistan. In the absence of a functioning central government, there is no means of regulating water use within the many districts upstream of the vegetable production area in Balkh (Wegerich, 2010). Rice production and water wastage decrease downstream water availability during the growing season (Thomas and Ramzi, 2011). Chronic

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Table 1. Problems that constrain vegetable production in Balkh province, Afghanistan. Problem

Recognized by

Improper water management Low soil organic matter Pest management Fertility problems

A P A P

Lack of improved vegetable cultivars International markets Lack of cold storage facilities

O P P

Mid–late season water shortages

A

a

Possible on-farm solutions Better understanding of water scheduling for specific vegetable crops Crop residue management, cover cropping, manure management to improve soil Diagnostic lab, improvement in pest control practices Increase fertilizer availability in soils, rotational cropping, cover cropping, split fertilizer applications Cultivar development and evaluation, financing of hybrid seed purchases Product quality improvement, transportation and storage Crop selection, market access for dried products, below ground (earthen) cool storage facilities Plastic and organic mulch management, water reservoirs

a

Based on personal communications with Afghan farmers and development professionals working in Afghanistan, 2008–09. A = all farmers and government officials; O = agriculture government officials; P = progressive farmers and government agriculture officials.

overgrazing and poor range condition reduce upper watershed buffering capacity, further contributing to growing season water shortages in the downstream vegetable production areas. On-farm water storage capacity is also quite limited (Lee, 2003). Consequently, many producers (primarily downstream users) are not receiving the water they need to sustain family consumption, let alone produce a surplus (Torell and Ward, 2010). The water distribution process from the canals is operated on a time allotment based on the amount of land owned. However, the frequency with which water is actually received can differ, depending upon location, with farmers closer to the canal receiving more water. For one jirib of land (2,000 m2), farmers generally receive about 10 minutes of water use from the canal, with the frequency ranging anywhere from about 7 to 30 days based on canal water availability. Farmers receive no water if their turn comes at a time when the canal is empty. Mirabs are responsible for water distribution at the canal and sub-canal level, and operate independently of the two government agencies responsible for water issues (Mahmoodi, 2008). A farmer we visited in 2008 irrigated every 12 days; however, since other crops he had also needed to be irrigated, his onion crop was irrigated approximately once a month. This irrigation frequency provided drought conditions for the onion crop; and the resulting small-sized onions had to be harvested earlier than normal, significantly reducing the revenues obtained. Another issue is soil organic matter, which is chronically low in Balkh and throughout Afghanistan. Wheat straw that in other settings would be left as a residue on the soil surface is sold and marketed as livestock feed or for construction materials. Cattle and other domestic livestock are also permitted to graze wheat stubble and any other crop or weed residues left in the field. Furthermore, weeds from fallow fields are also used as fuel. Much of the manure production that might otherwise be used as fertilizer is often combined with wheat straw and used as fuel for home use. Pest management is critical since many vegetable insects and diseases have become major limiting factors to vegetable production. Although pesticides are readily available, most farmers lack a basic understanding of

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pesticide use and application timing. Most importantly, some farmers use systemic pesticides right before harvest, which provide food safety concerns about pesticide residues in fresh products. Furthermore, most of the pesticides originate from China, and product quality is variable, which reduces the chance of providing efficacious treatments. Many of the vegetable crops grown in Balkh are sold to wholesale markets in Mazar-e Sharif. Most produce grown in Afghanistan is sold in-country in response to the large domestic market demand, with melons being the primary exception. Many vegetables are sold even before they are harvested, due to the limited production in Afghanistan. Most vegetables produced domestically are utilized to some extent, regardless of overripeness or excessive insect or disease damage. Vegetables unfit for human consumption are generally used as animal feed. Although Afghanistan is economically linked to Pakistan and vegetables move across the border in both directions, Afghan melons are a highly prized commodity in India. Furthermore, the emerging and ever expanding markets in India will most likely play a future role in Afghan produce sales, including various other vegetables besides melons (Brown, 2008, personal communication). However, land routes to India cross Pakistan and present a major political problem. Pakistan has discouraged strong relations between Afghanistan and India for both strategic and economic reasons. Afghan producers have complained that high duties and unnecessary delays in Pakistan have severely limited the utility of road transportation to India. The two trading partners have circumvented this problem by transporting fresh fruit on commercial passenger flights from Kabul to Delhi. However, there is little opportunity to expand the capacity of this system significantly. Similarly, increasing Afghan cold storage capacity will undercut Pakistan’s lucrative food storage industry that has profited enormously by reselling Afghanistan its own produce during the winter season.

Addressing challenges for increasing vegetable productivity and marketability The recovery of Afghanistan’s landscape and social institutions is complex because the needs are many and barriers are often interrelated. However, we identified

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some areas of focus that may help accelerate the process (Table 1). The lack of educated vegetable growers is a critical problem that must be dealt with to increase vegetable crop productivity in Afghanistan. Farmer training through internationally funded programmes is starting to address this issue (Kock et al, 2010). However, long-term success will require the development of a functional extension system plus an underlying education institution to ensure a sustained supply of adequately trained personnel. A strategy would be to disseminate improved water management practices via the mirabs, or water masters, who regulate water distribution to individual farmers in exchange for a share of the harvest. These individuals lack specific agricultural training, but if trained, would be well positioned to disseminate useful information to increase yields, given their regular interaction with farmers. Besides water issues, plant pests represent the greatest challenge limiting vegetable production and marketability. An almost complete lack of diagnostic facilities, including knowledgeable staff, hampers progress nationally. Recurring costs, including those for staffing and sample handling, have prevented the establishment of a sustainable diagnostic system. Several development organizations have worked to establish facilities throughout Afghanistan, but the government is not yet able to maintain these beyond the lifespan of a project. Processing and cold storage facilities are presently limited by a lack of municipal infrastructure, including reliable electricity supplies and water of sufficient quality and quantity. The power supply is erratic and prone to surges. Increased domestic electricity supply utilizing nearby natural gas reserves is in the planning stages. An important first step towards improving infrastructure is ensuring that investments in processing infrastructure will be secure and remain functional. Furthermore, corruption and security threats from international terrorist organizations are a hindrance to all economic development, including agriculture. The shelf life of fresh vegetable products in Afghanistan can be extended with cold storage and improved handling and packaging practices. The loss of vegetable products in Afghanistan is estimated to be more than 50% due to improper handling and storage (USAIDRAMP, 2006). The lack of a modern fruit and vegetable cold storage and packing facility has severely limited producer access to anything other than local markets in Balkh and throughout Afghanistan. Thus, post-harvest loss of fresh vegetable products in the absence of a cold storage facility is significant. Many vegetables have only a couple of days to be sold before they become unmarketable during the summer in the hot climate. The availability of a modern cold storage facility would allow growers to increase their revenues through reducing postharvest losses, as well as having a greater ability to market their product through various channels. For example, during peak production, Balkh tomatoes average about $1 per kg due to insufficient cold storage facilities. The Director of Balkh Provincial DAIL indicated that tomato prices would probably increase to $2 per kg if a cold storage facility was made available to farmers. It is suggested that more basic infrastructure is needed in the

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province, with cold storage facilities being the highest priority. However, cold storage facilities need a continuous electricity supply, and electricity outages are commonplace. As described previously, farmers often have little or no choice over to whom or when to sell highly perishable vegetable crops, as there are no cold storage or processing facilities for fruit and vegetables and none being developed in the foreseeable future due to a poor electricity supply. However, much effort has recently been directed at building simple, low-cost earthen cool storage facilities in other areas of Afghanistan to increase crop longevity, which allows farmers to sell their product at times when market prices have increased significantly. This system has been quite successful for potatoes produced in some of the higher-elevation provinces. Furthermore, sun-drying is a low-cost vegetable processing method that is also being evaluated as another way to increase farmer incomes from certain vegetable crops such as tomato. Abundant sunlight for drying and a large labour force suggest that there is significant potential to develop the export market for dried fruit and vegetables in Balkh, and possibly in other northern provinces. Sun-dried tomatoes, primarily ‘Roma’ types, are being developed in Balkh as a possible export crop to Turkey (Henning, 2008, personal communication). These sun-dried tomatoes will provide both a new market for growers and new employment opportunities for women in the community.

Future prospects for vegetable production and marketing Afghanistan has great potential to produce many vegetable crops effectively due to the arid climate, favourable soils and an industrious and abundant workforce. However, the potential for increased vegetable supply and international marketing cannot be realized unless capacity is improved through better field production and management methods. Although this constitutes a complex array of problems, most would agree that the primary limiting factor to vegetable production in Balkh province, and elsewhere in Afghanistan, lies in the drought conditions that are exacerbated by inefficient water use. In particular, plant diseases manifested late in the growing season often stem from excessive irrigation in the spring when water is available. Until a more broadly functional means of distributing water becomes available, on-farm practices – especially improved water management – represent the best opportunity to improve farmer livelihoods and develop a sound agriculture-based economy.

Acknowledgments This paper was supported by the Afghanistan Water, Agriculture and Technology Transfer (AWATT) project funded by the US Agency for International Development, Agriculture Development for Afghanistan PreDeployment Training (ADAPT) funded by the US Department of Agriculture Foreign Agriculture Service, and Southern Illinois University.

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