Reflection in pre-service teacher education: exploring

0 downloads 0 Views 2MB Size Report
Jan 11, 2019 - exploring the nature of four EFL pre-service teachers' reflections, ... (outer level of the onion model), some of the reflections never- .... Farrell (2011) identified participantsL professional role identities via their engagement in .... All themes were reviewed in terms of coding, and all codes were refined.
Reflective Practice International and Multidisciplinary Perspectives

ISSN: 1462-3943 (Print) 1470-1103 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/crep20

Reflection in pre-service teacher education: exploring the nature of four EFL pre-service teachers’ reflections Fadime Yalcin Arslan To cite this article: Fadime Yalcin Arslan (2019) Reflection in pre-service teacher education: exploring the nature of four EFL pre-service teachers’ reflections, Reflective Practice, 20:1, 111-124, DOI: 10.1080/14623943.2018.1564652 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/14623943.2018.1564652

Published online: 11 Jan 2019.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 48

View Crossmark data

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=crep20

REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 2019, VOL. 20, NO. 1, 111–124 https://doi.org/10.1080/14623943.2018.1564652

Reflection in pre-service teacher education: exploring the nature of four EFL pre-service teachers’ reflections Fadime Yalcin Arslan English Language Teaching, Gaziantep University, Gaziantep, Turkey ABSTRACT

ARTICLE HISTORY

This year-long study examined the nature of reflections belonging to four EFL (English as a Foreign Language) pre-service teachers. It was longitudinal in nature, taking place during the phases of teachers’ initial observation, teaching practice, and entry into the teaching profession. This study aimed to investigate the nature of student-teachers’ individual reflections throughout the phases of school experience, teaching practice, and entry into the workplace. Data collection was facilitated via interviews conducted throughout the study’s duration, and the collected data were subsequently analyzed deductively using content analysis. In addition, the onion model of reflection of was employed for interpretation of the data. The findings of this interpretation indicated that although most of the reflections concerned environment, behavior, and competence (outer level of the onion model), some of the reflections nevertheless pertained to mission (inner level of the onion model). Moreover, an examination of participants’ individual reflection processes revealed that although reflections initially were outerlevel in nature, by the end of the study they had become more inner-level-oriented.

Received 26 July 2018 Accepted 19 December 2018 KEYWORDS

Practicum; professional development; reflective practice

Introduction A recent dominant paradigm in the fields of educational studies and teacher education has been reflective practice. While various interpretations of reflective practice may exist, it is generally agreed that this practice involves ‘a process of learning through and from experience’(Finlay, 2008, p. 1). Reflection increases an individual’s awareness regarding his or her experience, and it is generally followed by critical analysis, which leads to new knowledge as well as a reframing of future professional activities (Scanlan & Chernomas, 1997). Whatever form reflective practice may take, reflective practitioners should learn and grow during this process. As learning and growing is thought to be basis for the process of reflection, accordingly reflective practice is employed in teacher education to enable pre-service teachers to learn from their experiences. Reflection is believed to be a significant component of professional practice (Beauchamp, 2015, p. 127). The importance of practicum in teacher education has CONTACT Fadime Yalcin Arslan Gaziantep, Turkey

[email protected]

© 2019 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group

English Language Teaching, Gaziantep University,

112

F. Y. ARSLAN

been emphasized by some researchers (Cavanagh & Prescott, 2010; Maaranen & Stenberg, 2017; Schön, 1987). They have emphasized the essential role of practicum in the transformation of theoretical knowledge into practical knowledge. When reflective practice is used in teaching practice, it is believed to promote professional development by integrating theoretical knowledge and professional practice.

Reflective practice and reflection The ability to reflect is generally regarded as an essential part of any teacher’s professional growth, and different dimensions of reflective practice have been emphasized by scholars (Alger, 2006; Kaminski, 2003; Beauchamp, 2015; Korthagen & Vasalos, 2010; Russell, 2005). Russell (2005) highlighted the benefit of these various dimensions by stating that ‘the absence of any clear agreement about what reflective practice is and how we recognize it’ aids teachers in understanding why it is not a simple practice to adopt or teach. Schön (1983), a prominent theorist in reflective practice, fore grounded the complexities of reflective practice by exploring the different types of knowledge. He focused on the role of tacit knowledge, which individuals gain through different experiences. When the individual’s transit into the workplace, their tacit knowledge grows and influences their actions. This knowledge is unconscious and extemporaneous. On the other hand, reflectionin-action is the conscious reflection that occurs during the moment of action (Meierdirk, 2016, p. 370). Reflection-on-action occurs following the event, and practitioners are encouraged to utilize this method in order to generate new knowledge useful in problem-solving. Reflective practice has been the focus of many studies in teacher education (Lee, 2007; Liou, 2001; Pedro, 2005; Russell, 2005). For instance, Liou (2001) examined the reflective practices of pre-service EFL teachers in Taiwan in order to track the development of their reflective practices and determine the nature of these practices as either descriptive or critical. The results indicated that the participants generally discussed topics related to teaching and were more critical than descriptive (p. 205). At the same time, they did not demonstrate much improvement in their ability to reflect. In another study of reflective practice, Russell (2005) evaluated his own practice in initial teacher education and discussed whether or not reflective practice could be taught. His findings indicated that reflective practice can be taught explicitly yet patiently by employing reflection-in-action to understand and promote one’s teaching of reflective practice to others. Reflective practice has also been an interest of Pedro (2005), who conducted a study among pre-service teachers. The aim of Pedro’s study was to discover how pre-service teachers understand and interpret reflective practice. He found that pre-service teachers possessed a general understanding of reflection and learned to reflect through courses and experiences in different contexts. Similarly interested in a pre-service teacher education context, Lee (2007) explored how dialogue and response journals could be used to guide pre-service language teachers during reflection. He found that the use of two different kinds of journals was valuable in nurturing reflective thinking. Moreover, it was claimed that journal writing might facilitate the relationship between teacher educator and teacher trainee. In addition, it was inferred that by reading and rereading their own journals, student teachers might trace their own teacher development, including changes in their values and development.

REFLECTIVE PRACTICE

113

In a study concerned with beginner secondary mathematics teachers, Cavanagh and Prescott (2010) researched how the nature and depth of these teachers’ reflections had developed both during their practicum and upon entry into the workplace. In addition, their study aimed to identify the factors either facilitating or constraining teachers ‘progress during the study period. It was found that participants’ reflections were descriptive in nature and they had minimally progressed in their ability to reflect on their teaching during the practicum period. In another study conducted among three English as Second Language (ESL) teachers, Farrell (2011) identified participants’ professional role identities via their engagement in systematic reflective practice within a teacher group. Data were collected during focus group discussions as well as follow-up interviews occurring within a two-year period. Sixteen main professional role identities emerged from group discussions, and these were placed into three main clusters: teacher as manager, teacher as acculturator, and teacher as professional. The research aimed to help teachers increase their awareness regarding their role identities so that they could decide if and/or how they may change these roles. In an assessment of teacher education in England, Meierdirk (2016) investigated reflective practice and its role in the education of student-teachers. The results indicated that reflective practice had played a partial role in a technical sense in the development new teaching standards but that critical reflection had not been employed. Following the study, Meierdrik claimed that reflection was supported by teaching standards, but the knowledge base for effective reflection was missing from school-based training. In a more recent study, Maaranen and Stenberg (2017) explored the nature of studentteachers’ reflections on their practical theories. The findings showed that studentteachers’ reflections generally focused on more concrete factors such as environment and behavior. Moreover, they reflected the least on competence. Reflective practice is regarded by many as a crucial component of teachers’ professional competence (Larrivee, 2008; Osterman & Kottkamp, 2004; Schön, 1983). Moreover, the term ‘reflection’ has various definitions according to existing research. For instance, Larrivee (2008) explained it as ‘on-the-job performance resulting from using a reflective process for daily decision-making and problem-solving’ (p.342). Reflective practice has been interpreted differently within various professions and even within the same professional field. Reflective thinking from Dewey’s (1933) perspective involves the consideration of four aspects: the action; the time-frame; whether or not the reflection is problem-centered, and whether or not the reflection contemplates cultural, political, and historical values (cited in Pedro, 2005, p. 51). Similar to Dewey, Schön (1983) also emphasized time-frame as an important dimension of reflection and linked reflection to action. He distinguished among reflection-in-action, reflection while teaching and reflection-on-action and suggested that professionals should frame and reframe the problems they encounter, evaluate various interpretations, and modify their results accordingly (Hatton & Smith, 1995). Meierdirk (2016) asserted that a technical approach to reflective practice focuses on learning from actual teaching, whereas a holistic approach might provide critical reflection enabling teachers to interpret the context in a thorough manner. Link to the following paragraph Different models of refection exist in the literature. Some recent studies on reflection have proffered a systematic model (ALACT model) explaining that while individuals naturally reflect on their experiences, this form of personal reflection differs from systematic reflection

114

F. Y. ARSLAN

(Korthagen & Kessels, 1999; Korthagen & Vasalos, 2005). The ALACT model has commonly been utilized for structured reflection, which is believed to be important in the development of ‘growth competence’ (Korthagen & Vasalos, 2005, p. 48). ALACT is named after the first letters of five phases of reflection (action, looking back on the action, and awareness of essential aspects, creating alternative models of action, and facilitating a trial) (p. 49). The ALACT model has been criticized for its lack of regard for the content of a reflection, as it is claimed that the contents and levels of a reflection process should also be considered in order to better benefit from the process. In this regard, the ‘onion model’ (a variant of Bateson model) has been proclaimed as more thoroughly considering the levels and contents of the reflection process. According to this model, inner levels of reflection determine how an individual functions in outer levels. At the same time, there is also a reverse influence of the outer levels on the inner ones (Korthagen & Vasalos, 2005). These levels are ordered in the following way from outer to inner: environment, behavior, competencies, beliefs, identity, and mission. Environment includes the school, classroom, and students; ‘competence’ refers to the potential for behavior; ‘behavior’ regards the teacher’s actions in an educational context; ‘beliefs’ refer to an individuals’ personal practical theories; ‘identity’ denotes the way in which an individual perceives his or her professional identity and experiences his or her sense of self; and ‘mission’ refers to that which inspires the teacher and gives meaning and significance to his or her work. The mission level is also referred to as the ‘transpersonal’ level because it is in this level that teachers increase their awareness regarding their existence in the world as well as their greater social purpose (p. 53). The existing literature indicates that reflective practice has been the focus on many studies (Cavanagh & Presscott, 2010; Liou, 2001; Pedro, 2005; Russell, 2005). The focus of these studies generally has been pre-service teacher education during the practicum(Farrell, 2011; Grushka, McLeod, & Reynolds, 2005; Maaranen & Stenberg, 2017). It is found that Cavanagh and Prescott (2010)examined how the supervising teacher and the practicum school context influence mathematics pre-service teachers’ reflections on their practicum experiences both during the practicum and as first-year teachers. However, to the best of our knowledge, no longitudinal study regarding whether reflection leads a change in the nature of EFL student-teachers’ reflections during the phases of school experience, teaching practice and entry into the workplace do exist in the literature in Turkey context. Therefore, to assess the effectiveness of the current teacher education practicum utilized in Turkey, this study examined the nature of EFL teachers’ reflections throughout their teaching practicum experience and upon their entry into the teaching profession. This study assessed the nature of student-teachers’ individual reflections throughout the phases of school experience, teaching practice, and entry into the workplace. For this purpose, structured reflection was employed in order to gain more thorough knowledge regarding this matter. As Korthagen, Kessels, Koster, Lagerwerf, and Wubbels (2001) have advocated, structured reflection plays a crucial role in promoting professional behavior and may contribute to increased teacher competence. Therefore, the onion model was utilized to structure student-teachers’ reflections in terms of their content during the practicum stage and upon their commencement of first-year teaching. This study was guided by the following questions: (1) What is the nature of EFL pre-service teachers’ reflections during their teaching practicum? (2) What is the nature of EFL teachers’ reflection upon their entry into the workplace?

REFLECTIVE PRACTICE

115

Context of the study Turkish EFL teacher education involves the participation in university study. During their study, they take methodology courses focusing on content and pedagogical content knowledge as well as courses focused on teaching skills and general education. Their most authentic classroom experience occurs during the final year of study, as teachers begin their school and teaching practice terms – one term (approx. four months) of school experience and one term (approx. four months) of teaching practice. Upon the completion of four years of university study, these teachers graduate with a Bachelor’s degree. At the time of the study, the researcher also fulfilled the position of faculty supervisor among the participants within school experience and teaching practice courses. The school experience course, which is a first-term course offered during the fourth year of teacher education, lasted for twelve weeks. In this course, student-teachers are expected to visit practice schools and observe a teacher’s everyday work, class activities, and school context. They are not required to teach, but, when necessary, they can assist teachers. After completing their weekly observation, students must submit a weekly written observation report including their reflections. The content of each week’s observation is established by the department. In practice schools, each student is supervised by a mentor who is the teacher of the observed class. During the second term of their education, student-teachers attend practice schools as part of a teaching practice course which lasts for 12 weeks. As part of this course, student-teachers are required to teach, undergo observation, and write lesson plans under the supervision of both their mentor and supervisor. While teaching, the student-teacher’s mentor observes him or her and gives feedback related to his or her teaching. The supervisor also visits these schools and observes student-teachers in order to give constructive feedback. The total observation/teaching phase of these two courses lasts for 24 weeks and takes place in a high school environment.

Methodology This was a case study which sought to identify the nature of four EFL pre-service teachers’ reflective practices. Best and Khan (2006) have elaborated the importance of the case study approach, stating that ‘case study probes deeply and analyzes interactions between the factors that explain present status or that influence change or growth’(p. 259). We think that this case will inform us about the nature of EFL preservice teachers’ reflection. This study is also longitudinal in nature as it traces the development of reflective practices over a period of time.

Participants The voluntary participants of this study were four EFL pre-service teachers studying at a state university in Turkey. All were enrolled in compulsory school experience and teaching practice courses as a part of their teacher education. There were three females and one male, all of whose ages ranged from 22 to 24 years. Since the number of females is generally higher than that of males in English language teaching programs in Turkey, participants’ gender distribution was consequently affected. Prior to the commencement of this study, participants were assured confidentiality and assigned pseudonyms.

116

F. Y. ARSLAN

Data collection This was a qualitative study in a descriptive design. In order to identify the nature of student-teachers’ reflections, four in-depth interviews were conducted per participant, as suggested by Seidman (2006). The first interview occurred during the fourth week of the school experience course, the second occurred during the last week of this course, the third took place during the eleventh week of the practicum, and the final interview was conducted three months following the commencement of teaching. This last interview was conducted during the second week of participants’ real teaching in schools as novice teachers. Two participants began their teaching in private schools, while the other two were employed as part-time teachers in state schools.

Interviews The purpose of interviewing is ‘to access the perspective of the person being interviewed’ (Patton, 1990, p. 278). In order to best achieve this aim, the interviews were conversational in tone and included standardized open-ended questions. All participants were asked the same basic questions determined in advance and constructed using precise wording and sequencing. Moreover, the purpose of utilizing open-ended questions was to best demonstrate pre-service teachers’ definitions of situations (Silverman, 2015). Follow-up questions were also employed for clarification (Rossman & Rallis, 2011). Interviews began with the topic of what was important to the student-teachers in teaching and school work. Later, they were required to discuss generally their feelings, experiences, and expectations. Key questions concerning their opinions and insights were also asked, and they were required to provide solutions as well as suggestions. Each interview was approximately 40 minutes in duration, and the interview context was uniform across all interviews.

Data analysis Data collected via the interviews were analyzed deductively using content analysis. Korthagen’s (2004) onion model of reflection was employed for data interpretation. Moreover, the data were read and reread by the researcher in order to gain familiarity with content (familiarization). Utilizing the coding system of the onion model, the entire data set was coded (coding). All themes were reviewed in terms of coding, and all codes were refined (reviewing themes). After coding was finalized, to ensure that all the themes were interpreted accurately, an expert having PhD in ELT (English Language Teaching) independently reviewed the analysis and made suggestions. Based on the expert’s suggestions, some changes were made, and agreement between the researchers was approximately 85%.

Findings The content analysis of each participant has been arranged in figures. The findings of each participant across the onion model categories are indicated individually in the following figures. Megan attended 9th-grade classes during observation, and she practiced with the same grade during the following term (Figure 1).

REFLECTIVE PRACTICE

117

Figure 1. Megan’s reflection.

The figure above indicates that, within the first reflection, Megan focused more intently on competence (45%) than on any other category. During the second reflection, she continued to focus on competence with the addition of mission. During the third session, she reflected on identity and mission(26% and 47%, respectively) more intently than on any other category, and during the fourth reflection, after she had begun teaching, Megan emphasized competence and identity(33% and 28%, respectively) over the other categories. In comparative consideration of all the categories, it is observed that during the first reflection, competence was most emphasized, followed by environment and behavior, whereas in the following interviews, the focus on environment and behavior decreased. Although Megan did not focus on identity or mission during the first reflection, she did reflect on these more intently during the observation and practice phase (34% on mission during the second reflection and 48% during the third; 3% on identity during the second reflection and 26% during the third).Regarding the reflections as a whole, Megan focused more on outer-circle components during the first reflection (27% on environment and 27% on behavior, both of which constitute 54% of reflection). However, as she began to observe and practice real teaching, she also began reflecting on inner-circle aspects (31% on competence, 3% on beliefs, 3% on identity, and 34% on mission, all of which constitute 71% of second reflection; and 5%,5%,26%, and 47%, respectively, during the third reflection, all of which constitute 83%). For instance, in her first interview, she expressed the following: When I begin a new unit of study or project with students, I clarify the purpose and learning goals and provide explicit criteria on how students can be successful. It is also ideal to present models or examples to students so they can see what the end-product looks like. Secondly, I frequently step offstage and facilitate class discussion. This allows students to learn from each other. It is also a great opportunity for me to formatively assess (through observation) how well students are grasping new content and concepts. I provide wholegroup feedback on patterns they see in the collective class’s growth and areas of need because students also need to be given opportunities to provide feedback to the teacher so that he/she can adjust the learning process, materials, and instruction accordingly. In addition, I frequently and routinely assess where students are in relation to the unit of study’s learning goals or end-product. I give students opportunities to plan and organize,

118

F. Y. ARSLAN

monitor their own work, direct their own learning, and to self-reflect alongside the lesson. (Competence, first reflection)

Megan also expressed the following during the second and third reflections: I know that I am there to listen to all students while teaching. If I ignore some, they will be demotivated. (Identity, second reflection) Giving feedback is not enough to motivate our students. We should act like a guide and we need to explain the goal of feedback to our students. (Identity, second reflection) Teachers should be role models. They should use the target language in order to communicate with their students. They should prepare useful activities which provide active and cooperative participation such as group- and pair-work. (Identity, third reflection) I had to always look to innovate, so it’s essential that we try new things to add to our pedagogical bag of tricks. But it’s important to focus on purpose and intentionality – not on quantity. What really matters more than “always trying something new” is the reason behind why we do what we do. (Mission, third reflection)

As represented above, Megan’s reflection profile is strongly related to competence and mission. According to Megan, teachers must be competent enough to plan their classroom procedures and associate them with their objectives. She also believes in the importance of feedback for students as well as teachers and adds that teachers can create a supportive atmosphere in which learners feel more autonomous. Furthermore, Megan thinks that teachers should act as guide and role models. As a mission, she believes that she needs to follow new developments and improve herself in order to increase the quality of her teaching as well as student learning. Daniel observed tenth graders and practiced teaching with the same group. The content of his reflections are presented in the Figure 2. As indicated above, Daniel has focused more on competence and environment in the first reflection (50% and 33%, respectively). During observation, he emphasized behavior (55%) over the other categories. Moreover, he focused more on mission (38%)during the third reflection. When he began teaching, he focused more on environment and competence (28% and 34%, respectively). Similarly, during his teaching experience, Daniel highlighted competence, environment, and behavior. Behavior sometimes overlapped with competence in his reflections, and it was difficult to separate them. In such cases, these were categorized as belonging to both groups, as indicated above. Below are some direct quotations from interviews with Daniel: I will have good rapport with students. I know that I can teach well and how to deal with different learning styles. I can prepare myself for some issue and problems that I may have to face while teaching in the classroom. (Competence, first reflection) The school has smart-boards and internet access. My mentor uses the target language as well as his native language. While teaching, he makes use of sample sentences to teach the rules. He uses smart-boards very actively. (Environment, first reflection) At the beginning of the lesson, I generally explain the purpose of the lesson. I think that it is useful because having a purpose helps us to see the big picture and, thus, motivates us to reach our goals. (Behavior, second reflection)

REFLECTIVE PRACTICE

119

Figure 2. Daniel’s reflection. I am confused about how the teacher made use of group-work and how she dealt with classroom management. I can focus on only one or two aspects of the lesson since I could not focus on too many things at the same time. (Environment and competence, fourth reflection)

Regarding the reflection categories as a whole, Daniel focused more on outer-circle aspects than on more than inner circle ones. He emphasized the importance of having a good relationship with students and expressed that he was aware of different learning styles. He also felt that he was good at classroom management, while he mentioned that facilitating group- and pair-work might be difficult for him. Amy observed and began her teaching with a ninth-grade class. The results of her reflections are displayed in the Figure 3. For Amy, identity was just as important as competence during the first reflection. In addition, during observation she focused on behavior and competence at the same rate (49%). During her teaching practice, Amy’s reflection was diverse but mostly focused on mission (28%), an inner-circle component, and behavior (22%)as well as competence (20%),outer-circle components. Following her teaching practice, Amy focused more on mission (65%) than on any other category. Moreover, mission and competence sometimes overlapped in her reflections. In such cases, they were categorized as belonging to both categories. Below are some direct quotations from Amy’s reflections: I am enthusiastic and intrinsically motivated to teach. I try to implement contemporary teaching methods in my classroom. Also, I am willing to learn and try new techniques. My another strength is calmness and patience, which is a personality trait. (Behavior and competence, second reflection) Sometimes it’s difficult to get all children engaged and motivate them to join the activity. I came to realize that every child is different and a teacher needs to find an individual approach. (Mission, third reflection) I realize that teaching is the right profession for me. I want to make useful contributions to the world of education. I wish to bring about some changes which inspire my students and help people because I believe that education is the key to a better world. I love learning

120

F. Y. ARSLAN

Figure 3. Amy’s reflection.

new things and moving forward in terms of self-development, and the teaching profession provides me with these opportunities. As a person with high-creative potential, I aim to increase people’s interest in the English language by making learning a fun and enjoyable process.(Mission and competence, third reflection) I will try to become more considerate and learn to better understand students’ needs and preferences. Also, I hope I will gain more experience and establish my own teaching style that will lead me in my future practice.(Mission, third reflection)

When categories are considered, it is clear that Amy’s reflection involved all content categories. As a teacher, Amy seemed to be very enthusiastic and intrinsically motivated. She wanted to motivate her students by considering their interests and preferences while planning her lessons. Finally, Molly observed tenth graders and also practiced her teaching with the same group. Her reflection content is portrayed in the Figure 4. As indicated above, Molly focused on competence and beliefs followed by environment, behavior, identity, and mission (31%, 23%, 14%, 14%, 9%, and 9%, respectively) during the first reflection. In the second reflection, she focused on behavior (56%), while she emphasized mission more during her teaching practice. Competence was sometimes connected with beliefs in Molly’s reflections. In such cases, these were categorized as belonging to both categories. Following Molly’s teaching practice, she focused most intently on mission. The following quotations illustrate her reflection categories: The learning environment should be flexible. Establishing a flexible learning environment for students might change their learning abilities. During the lesson, creating new contexts for learning is also interesting for students. While you are teaching, you might consider what students learn. I can build good relationships with my students, which is really important. (Competence and beliefs, first reflection) I saw that you can have a lot of problems, but you can find the solutions, as well. For time management, I found that making plans in advance and keeping a calendar might work

REFLECTIVE PRACTICE

121

Figure 4. Molly’s reflection. very well. It is always important to know your students. I use a survey to make icebreakers and all kinds of activities for them. Technology is really useful, and I adopt the activities through technology.(Behavior, second reflection) I like teaching something to somebody. Teaching makes me feel happy. Learning while teaching is pleasurable for me [. . .] I generally observe that students are highly dependent on their teachers, which is something I feel is not good for them. I want to make learners more autonomous and active. I feel that if they like your lesson, they will be more motivated and, thus, they will take more responsibilities. We might face some problems in our classes such as classroom management or time management. We need to know that each student is different, and we need to be patient and try to understand their learning styles, needs, and expectations. They should see that their teacher cares about them. They need to feel safe in a supportive environment. I think a great teacher creates an effective classroom environment. I hope to achieve all.(Mission, third reflection)

For Molly, mission, behavior and competence formed the largest categories of reflection. She wanted to provide a flexible learning environment in which students could express themselves while being more active and autonomous. She also explained that she could encounter classroom management and time management problems. However, she thought that she could overcome such problems if she would make an effort to understand her students’ learning styles, needs, and expectations.

Discussion and conclusion The purpose of this study was to examine the nature of four EFL pre-service teachers’ reflections over a period of time. The results indicate that although most of the reflection involved the outer-level components of environment, behavior, and competence, some reflections involved the inner level of mission. This finding supports those of a study conducted by Maaranen and Stenberg (2017) in which they claimed that reflection might be practical as well as idealistic. They advocated that reflecting on concrete factors such as environment and behavior should be viewed as significant since it involves the reality of teaching practice. Thus, tacit knowledge might grow and influence action (Schön, 1983). In

122

F. Y. ARSLAN

contrast to the study of Maaranen and Stenberg (2017), this study found that competence was the most emphasized level. Since pre-service teachers had just finished taking theoretical courses, this might have influenced their opinions that they possessed all the characteristics of an effective teacher. It was also discovered that mission was the most emphasized level when compared to other inner categories, which is also significant. Since the participants were future teachers, having ideals or missions might have encouraged them to develop themselves. As Wallace and Bau (1991) mentioned, ‘development implies change and fruitful change is extremely difficult without reflection’ (p. 54). In order to fulfill their ideals, teachers need to reflect on their teaching practices. In this way, they are able to increase their awareness regarding their teaching, which enables them to develop a deeper understanding of their practices and triggers positive change. Liou (2001) has also supported this idea by stating that ‘change is a very important function of reflection’ (p.199). When this study’s participants were examined individually across four reflections during a one-year period, it was observed that the theme of each participant’s reflections transitioned from outer levels of focus to the inner most level of mission. Although participants discussed the outer-level themes more frequently during their first reflections, they did so less frequently in subsequent reflections as they began to focus on mission. Korthagen and Vasalos (2005) have stated that reflecting on mission is practically significant as mission denotes what inspires a teacher; thus, it influences teachers’ roles (identities) and actions (behaviors) in the classroom. They claimed that inner-level components such as mission may also influence how an individual functions in terms of outer-level themes but that there may be a reverse function, as well (p. 53).That is, a teacher’s identity or mission may influence his or her behaviors or beliefs. It can be inferred from this study’s results that encouraging EFL pre-service teachers to reflect on their teaching might help them to recognize their strengths and weaknesses in order that they might improve themselves during the reflection period. Moreover, if EFL preservice teachers are required to systematically reflect on their teaching and teaching contexts, they are better able to reconstruct their existing knowledge and transmit this knowledge to their actual teaching. Meierdirk (2016) discussed whether or not reflective practice is an essential part of being a professional. He explained that reflection exists both implicitly and explicitly in current teaching standards .Nevertheless, current teacher training standards should extend beyond how to reflect on and evaluate lesson plans and encompass developing an awareness related to actual teaching and teaching contexts. All preservice teachers should be provided opportunities in which they can constantly reflect on their actual teaching and consequently develop tacit knowledge. In addition to the above, it can also be inferred that a number of factors assisted this study’s participants in developing their reflective practice. One factor was the extended time of reflection in which they were able to improve themselves. Moreover, reflecting over a period of time might have increased their awareness concerning their teaching practices, professional development, and teaching contexts. Another factor was context and teaching environment. This study’s findings demonstrated that all participants had moved from the outer levels to the innermost level of reflection. This may have resulted from the conditions of the participants’ practice schools. Cavanagh and Prescott (2010) explained that the conditions of student-teachers’ practicum might influence their professional formation and development.

REFLECTIVE PRACTICE

123

Overall, this study’s findings imply that reflecting over a period of time can aid EFL preservice teachers in increasing their self-awareness as teachers as well as their awareness of the teaching context. Canning (1991) asserted that reflection during pre-service teaching provides an opportunity for ‘discovery and synthesis of understanding into a personal and world view’. Additionally, teacher educators can integrate reflective practice into their teaching and teaching curriculum since many researchers have proven that reflective practice is an indication of professional competence (Cole & Knowles, 2000; Larrivee, 2008). Thus, pre-service teachers should become more familiar with reflective practice and model it in their teaching, as well. One limitation of this study was the number of participants. Future studies can address this issue by including more participants. They may also follow a comparative approach by including a number of teaching settings in order to gain a more thorough understanding of how reflective practices may alter based on context. Another limitation might have been the use of only one data collection instrument. In order to provide consistency in the amount of the reflection, we only used interviews. Since the participants did not have a chance to teach after teaching practice just before when they start teaching as first-year teachers (before they are employed as teachers, they wait for about three months or more in order to be employed, we could not use other data collection instruments such as journals and reflection reports. Future research should include more data collection instruments. The double role of the researcher, being a researcher and a supervisor might be assumed as a limitation as well.

Disclosure statement No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Notes on contributor Dr. Fadime Yalcin Arslan holds a PhD degree from Çukurova University in Turkey. She currently teaches in English Language Department at Gaziantep University. Her research interests include language learning, teacher education, language teaching and professional development.

ORCID Fadime Yalcin Arslan

http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0644-5636

References Alger, C. (2006). ‘What went well, what didn’t go so well’: Growth of reflection in pre-service teachers. Reflective Practice, 7(3), 287–301. Beauchamp, C. (2015). Reflection in teacher education: Issues emerging from a review of current literature. Reflective Practice, 16, 123–141. Best, W. J., & Kahn, V. J. (2006). Research in education (11th ed.). Canada: Pearson Education Inc. Canning, C. (1991). What teachers say about reflection. Educational Leadership, 48(6), 18–21. Cavanagh, M., & Prescott, A. (2010). The growth of reflective practice among three beginning secondary mathematics teachers. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 38(2), 147–159. Cole, A. L., & Knowles, J. G. (2000). Researching teaching: Exploring teacher development through reflective inquiry. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

124

F. Y. ARSLAN

Dewey, J. (1933). How we think. Boston, DC: Heath & Co Publishers. Farrell, T. S. (2011). Exploring the professional role identities of experienced ESL teachers through reflective practice. System, 39(1), 54–62. Finlay, L. (2008). Reflecting on reflective practice. PBPL CETL, Open University, [Online]. Retrieved from http://www.open.ac.uk/opencetl/resources/pbpl-resources/finlay-l-2008-reflectingreflectivepractice-pbpl-paper-52 Grushka, K., McLeod, J. H., & Reynolds, R. (2005). Reflecting upon reflection: Theory and practice in one Australian University teacher education program. Reflective Practice, 6(2), 239–246. Hatton, N., & Smith, D. (1995). Reflection in teacher education: Towards definition and implementation. Teaching and Teacher Education, 11(1), 33–49. doi:10.1016/0742-051X(94)00012-U Kaminski, E. (2003). Promoting pre-service teacher education students’ reflective practice in mathematics. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 31(1), 21–32. Korthagen, F., & Vasalos, A. (2005). Levels in reflection: Core reflection as a means to enhance professional growth. Teachers and Teaching, 11(1), 47–71. Korthagen, F. A. (2004). In search of the essence of a good teacher: Towards a more holistic approach in teacher education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 20(1), 77–97. Korthagen, F. A., Kessels, J., Koster, B., Lagerwerf, B., & Wubbels, T. (2001). Linking practice and theory: The pedagogy of realistic teacher education. London: Lawrence Elbaum Associates. Korthagen, F. A., & Kessels, J. P. (1999). Linking theory and practice: Changing the pedagogy of teacher education. Educational Researcher, 28(4), 4–17. Korthagen, F. A.J., & Vasalos, A. (2010). Going to the core: Deepening reflection by connecting the person to the profession. In N. Lyons (Eds.), Handbook of reflection and reflective inquiry (pp. 529–552). Boston, MA: Springer. Larrivee, B. (2008). Development of a tool to assess teachers’ level of reflective practice. Reflective Practice, 9(3), 341–360. Lee, I. (2007). Preparing pre-service English teachers for reflective practice. ELT Journal, 61(4), 321–329. Liou, H. C. (2001). Reflective practice in a pre-service teacher education program for high school English teachers in Taiwan, ROC. System, 29(2), 197–208. Maaranen, K., & Stenberg, K. (2017). Portraying reflection: The contents of student teachers’ reflection on personal practical theories and practicum experience. Reflective Practice, 18(5), 699–712. Meierdirk, C. (2016). Is reflective practice an essential component of becoming a professional teacher? Reflective Practice, 17(3), 369–378. Osterman, K. F., & Kottkamp, R. B. (2004). Reflective practice for educators: Professional development to improve student learning. CA, USA: Corwin Press. Patton, M. Q. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods. London, UK: Sage Publications, inc. Pedro, J. Y. (2005). Reflection in teacher education: Exploring pre-service teachers’ meanings of reflective practice. Reflective Practice, 6(1), 49–66. Rossman, G. B., & Rallis, S. F. (2011). Learning in the field: An introduction to qualitative research. London, UK: Sage. Russell, T. (2005). Can reflective practice be taught? Reflective Practice, 6, 199–204. Scanlan, J. M., & Chernomas, W. M. (1997). Developing the reflective teacher. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 25, 1138–1143. Schön, D. A. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. New York, NY: Basic Books. Schön, D. A. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Seidman, I. (2006). Interviewing as qualitative research: A guide for researchers in education and the social sciences. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Silverman, D. (2015). Interpreting qualitative data. London, UK: Sage. Wallace, M. J., & Bau, T. H. (1991). Training foreign language teachers: A reflective approach. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.