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JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN SCIENCE TEACHING

VOL. 21, NO. 2, PP. 115-126 (1985)

RELATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF CLASSROOM AND DOCUMENTARY FILM PRESENTATIONS ON MARINE MAMMALS ROSANNE W . FORTNER

School of Natural Resources, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210

Abstract When questioned regarding their sources of environmental information, many people cite television as the major contributor. Recent research has in fact identified a relationship between scores on aquatic information tests and the reported number of Cousteau documentaries seen on television. This study assesses the knowledge and attitude changes resulting from home viewing of a Cousteau Society documentary on marine mammals and compares these changes with those resulting from a science teacher’s presentation of the documentary’s script. A pretestposttest-delayed posttest comparison group design utilized an instrument based on specific program content. Results indicate that comparable presentations in either medium can result in increased and retainable knowledge. Attitude changes were apparent in the television treated group but not among those receiving classroom treatment. Introduction Science teachers frequently assign home viewing of such television documentation or series as NOVA, Cosmos,National Geographic, and The Cousteau Odyssey in the apparent belief that these are of instructional value as classroom supplements. Such programming serves to update textbook offerings and provide essentially free audiovisual aids that could not easily be obtained for the classroom itself. Pines (1979) in fact advocated convincing teachers of the value of commercial television as a means of dramatizing subject matter, providing motivation, and changing student attitudes. How effective is television in providing out-of-school instruction? The relationship of television viewing to school learning has been investigated from several perspectives, most related to overall viewing amounts and patterns. A few authors have specifically investigated the instructional impact of certain programs or series. Some programs do appear to have value in increasing knowledge and effecting attitudes about their subject matter. Among children, for example, the gains in cognitive skills and vocabulary development from viewing Sesame Street have been documented clearly (Salomon, 1974, 1979; Ball & Bogatz, 1970). Based on such evidence, primary and kindergarten classes often include segments of the program as part of the planned curriculum. Sesame Street’s success with both in-class and out-of-school viewing audiences @ 1985 by the Nationai Association for Research in Science Teaching Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

CCC 0022-4308/85/020115-12$04.00

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prompted the Children’s Television Workshop to produce 3-2-1 Contact, a series designed to motivate interest in science and technology among upper elementary students (Chen, 1980). Busch (1978) reported that many of the programs middle school students found intriguing were science oriented. She stated that from an educator’s viewpoint students at that level are “more easily introduced to material of this kind through television than through print.” Indeed, belief in the educational potential of certain television programs led in the 1970s to the establishment of Prime Time School Television (PTST), a nonprofit organization that worked with teachers, broadcasters, and sponsors to reach school audiences as home viewers (Minow & Mills, 1978). PTST produced advance organizers for teachers to make effective use of home viewed programs such as The Cousteau Odyssey and Masterpiece Theater. Reports from users of their materials show that children can be directed t o more critical viewing and program choice as well as learning correct information (Minow & Mills, 1978). On environmental science issues, television documentaries have been shown to affect knowledge levels among adult viewers. A documentary about local air quality problems was produced by the Mid-Ohio Regional Planning Commission as a means of increasing awareness and determining viewer attitudes toward alternative solutions (MORPC, 1981). At various points in the program, action sequences were interrupted and multiple choice questions appeared on the screen. Adult viewer responses were assessed by both the interactive television mechanisms of Warner Amex QUBE and by newspaper survey form. Both groups outscored a nonviewer control group by 15% on the 16-item knowledge test. Our own interactive pre- and posttesting of adult viewers using QUBE also revealed knowledge gains and attitude shifts following the Cousteau marine mammal documentary used in the present research. Specifically, knowledge scores increased from 46% correct on the pretest to 81% on the posttest, while attitudes shifted toward the affective goals indicated by the producers. In an effort to identify productive information channels, a number of studies have collected data on perceived sources of information on certain environmental science topics. Results generally favor television regardless of audience age, and some studies provide indications of specific television programming related to knowledge levels. In a study by Murch (1971) regarding information about Earth Day, 70% of the adults sampled selected television as the information source. Among students, only a small proportion credit school with environmental information. At all grade levels, students in Alaimo and Doran’s study (1980) selected television as a prevalent source of such information. Research by Fortner and Teates (1980) found only 15.5% of Virginia tenth graders selecting school experiences as major sources of aquatic information, and Fortner and Mayer (1983) noted 23.7% of fifth graders and 15% of ninth graders in Ohio in this category. These latter two studies reported that the largest proportion of students surveyed selected television as their major source of environmental information (39% in the Virginia ninth grade study and 28% and 37% in Ohio fifth and ninth grades, respectively). Correlations between knowledge scores and these identified information sources were examined in both the latter studies, revealing a significant positive relationship between higher knowledge scores and a specific type of television experience-the number of Cousteau documentaries viewed on television. Literature searches revealed no studies in which such a preexisting relationship indicated by ex post facto research was tested experimentally, nor any in which home viewing was compared with teacher presentation for relative effectiveness. Research specific to science education has focused almost entirely on television programs developed specifically for instruction. Chu and Schramm (1975) reviewed 100 studies comparing science instruction by television and by conventional techniques. They reported that in 86% of those comparisons the television group did as well as or better than the control group. Examples of such comparisons in recent literature include Menis’ (1982) use of closed circuit television as a substitute for the science laboratory and the filmed experiments that Ben-Zvi,

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117

Hofstein, Samuel, and Kempa (1976) used for high school chemical education. No significant differences in achievement were reported in either study, but the filmed materials apparently were of value in decreasing personnel time for instruction and allowing repeated review of experiments if needed. Clark (1983) interpreted such media comparison studies as providing no consistent evidence that learning benefits are to be gained from any specific medium of instruction. Furthermore, Clark (1983) contended that studies showing significant differences are vulnerable to confounding influences. For example, Webb’s (1975) report of film use in a college science classroom indicated significant differences between groups but also noted pretesting effects and a substantial decline in score differences after three months. As for out-of-school science on television, a few series, such as 3-2-I-Contact in the United States (Chen, 1980- 1981), Private Lives in Great Britain (British Broadcasting Corporation, 1974), and Australia Naturally in Australia (Noble, 1983), have done extensive pilot testing and incorporated audience input into their products to turn them into instructional media. Those reporting post-broadcast research indicate that such development techniques do produce the desired gains in knowledge and changes in attitudes. The natural history and current science broadcasts aired primarily as documentaries over commercial or public television channels have as much of an entertainment goal as an instructional one (Coelho, 1981). What effect does a single television documentary of this type have on students’ science knowledge and attitudes about scientific or environmental issues? Can a science teacher providing the same infor:nation have an equivalent effect? This study was designed to seek answers to such questions by comparing the science knowledge and attitude changes resulting from home viewing versus classroom presentation of the subject matter of a Cousteau Odyssey documentary, “Mammals of the Deep: The Warm-Blooded Sea.”

Objectives The study was designed to compare the relative effectiveness of classroom instruction and a television program in providing knowledge and iqfluencing 2 .tudes about marine mammals. Specific research objectives were as follows: (1) To compare knowledge gained by ninth grade students who watch a Jacques Cousteau documentary on marine mammals with that gained by those who have the same information presented by their classroom teacher. (2) To compare attitude changes among the viewers of the program with those of students who were taught the material in class. (3) To determine whether changes in knowledge and attitudes could be related to marine experiences other than the treatments, or t o demographic characteristics ofthe subjects.

Methodology Subjects Subjects for the study were ninth grade students in a suburban Columbus, Ohio, high school. The ninth grade was chosen as the target level in order to compare results with previous studies (Fortner & Mayer, 1983) which had indicated relatively low levels of marine knowledge (48% of questions correct) among ninth graders and a significant relationship between knowledge and the number of Cousteau programs watched. The study was conducted using five intact science classes of each of two teachers.

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Classes of Teacher A served as the subjects for the two types of treatment. His three morning classes were arbitrarily designated by the researcher as the “Instruction” group (A-I) and his two afternoon classes the “Television” group (A-T). The five classes of Teacher B served as the comparison group (B-C) and received no prescribed treatment. However, any of Teacher B s students who watched the documentary were to be reclassified as “Voluntary Viewers” (B-V).

Instrument

A test instrument was developed based upon the script and a preview showing of “The Warm-Blooded Sea: Mammals of the Deep,” a Cousteau Odyssey program not previously aired on television. An initial pool of 40 items which related specifically to program content was pilot tested and subsequently modified. The final instrument was composed of 13 multiple choice and true-false knowledge items, eight Likert scale attitude questions, and seven demographic questions. Content validation for the test was provided in two forms. First, nine adults who had watched the program on videotape answered the knowledge questions and checked those items they had seen answered in the program. They also certified that the subject matter for all attitude items was presented. Interrater agreement was 96%. Second, a university professor of oceanography reviewed the test to assure that knowledge items were appropriately stated and that the correct answers appeared among the answer choices. Procedure Teacher A provided the treatment for the study. During the three days immediately preceding the broadcast date of the Cousteau program, his A-I classes were taught using the marine mammal information in the script for the program. He presented this information in his own teaching style, lecture-discussion supplemented by a National Geographic Society filmstrip on whales, an activity on whale identification from Project ORCA (Pacific Science Center, 1980), and a review of current magazine articles that presented controversial issues involving marine mammals, The A-T classes did no classwork related to marine mammals but were required to watch the Cousteau program when it was aired on public television on March 17, 1982. The watching requirement did not include any written assignment nor was it accompanied by follow-up discussion in class. The researcher was present in Teacher A’s classes to assure that the requirements of the research were met; that is, all parts of the script were covered in the classroom treatment (A-I) and no marine mammal material was presented in the television treatment (A-T) classes. B-C classes were not informed of the television program but were simply asked to participate in a study about the sea. A pretest-posttest-delayed posttest comparison group design was used, as shown in Figure 1. Pretesting was done one week before the broadcast; the irnmediate posttest was given the day after the broadcast, and the delayed posttest was administered two weeks later.

Analysis of Data

Knowledge The knowledge test was scored on the basis of the total number of correct answers out of a possible thirteen. Descriptive statistics were calculated for each group of students. Results of testing an adult group of television viewers using the same instrument had indicated that most

EFFECTIVENESS OF DOCUMENTARY FILMS Pretest

Treotment

A-I:

Group P

Immed. Program Posttest

\A-T:

Television

Wotch Program

--+

-

/ Instruction

---+

A

Deloyed Posttest

Yes .-+ Discard data

No

a.

Yes

>

No -Discard

/

Group B

119

A .-----

yes

-

dota

B-V : Voluntary Viewers

-

No -+ B-C: CornporkonGroups

Fig. 1. Design of the Study. posttest knowledge gain could be attributed to responses on six items of “new” information presented in the program. Therefore, subtests consisting of these items were also scored. Analyses of variance of group means were performed for the complete set of tests, and Scheffe’s test identified groups significantly different from each other at p < 0.05.

A ttitudes Since the set of affective response items included items that properly might be labeled beliefs, attitudes, or opinions, they were not grouped to obtain a single “attitude” score. Instead each item in this category was considered individually, and descriptive statistics were calculated by item by group. Mean item scores were compared with the Cousteau Society’s reported attitude goals for the program. A “net change” score was then calculated for each group’s posttests in comparison with pretest measures. Demographic Variables For purposes of this study, characteristics of the subjects related to the length of time lived near a coast, the number of Cousteau specials previously seen on television, and the distance they reported being able to swim were grouped with the more common demographic variables of sex, race, IQ, and family income. All demographic variables except sex were implied scales and therefore treated as interval variables. Means of all these variables were compared between groups to determine group equivalence. Those not equivalent were monitored through the succeeding regression analyses to detect any effect on test scores. Demographic variables were entered stepwise into a multiple regression analysis to determine their effect on pretest scores of each group. Items accounting individually for more than 20% of the variance of pretest scores were then controlled for in analyses of variance of posttest scores. Demographic variables were also considered in relation to posttest scores for interpreting differences between groups.

Results Knowledge Table I summarizes the results of the knowledge test for classes receiving marine mammal information by way of classroom instruction (A-I) and television (A-T), plus those receiving no

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treatment (B-C). Voluntary viewers (B-V) were identified from the comparison group but there were so few that analysis was not attempted. Subjects in the other three groups were excluded from analyses if all research conditions were not met; that is, if all three tests were not taken, if subjects in Group B-C or A-I indicated they had watched the Cousteau program, or if subjects in Group A-T did not watch the program. Of the original sample size of 119 in Group A and I34 in Group B, only the responses of the given numbers of subjects were analyzed. Knowledge levels increased significantly (p < 0.001) following both treatment methods and remained considerably higher than pretest levels even on the two-week delayed posttest. Calculation of subtest scores indicated that the gains for both treatment groups were concentrated in six questions which were considered by the researcher to be “new” information, material about marine mammals that is either not commonly known or was being presented in popular format for the fust time in this Cousteau program. Subtest scores based only on these items, plus scores on “older” information, are included in Table 1 for comparison. Scores of the comparison group did not change significantly between tests nor was there a significant difference between comparison group scores and treatment group pretests (p < 0.05). Comparison group prettest and post-subtest scores, however, do differ (p < 0.001) from treatment group posttests. Analyses of variance by group for all tests and subtests are shown in Table 11.

Demographic Relationships On most demographic measures the three major groups were similar: family income, years living near a coast, frequency of reading National Geographic and National Wildlife, ability to swim, number of Cousteau specials watched, and number of visits to the ocean during the previous year. There were more males in classes of Teacher B (67%) than in either A-I (41%) or A-T (46%). “Total IQ,” as measured by the Short Form Test of Academic Achievement TABLE I Mean Knowledge Scores by Treatment Group by Test: Complete Test, New and Old Item Subtests Nof Students

Test Portion

Pretest

Immediate Posttest

Delayed Posttest

A-I

51

Completea Newb OlderC

5.6 1.3 4.3

10.5 4.6 5.9

9.4 3.8 5.6

A-T

37

Complete New Older

5.2 1.5 3.7

10.4 4.4 6.0

9.1 3.8 5.3

B-C

124

Complete New Older

5.5 1.3 4.2

5.1 1.5 4.2

5.8 1.6 4.2

Group

IN of items = 13.

lN of items = 6. 3 N of items = 7 .

EFFECTIVENESS OF DOCUMENTARY FILMS

121

TABLE I1 Analyses of Variance in Knowledge Scores by Group A.

Pretest

Source o f V a r i a t i o n

Sum o f Squares

Covari a t e s Swimming A b i l i t y Cousteau S p e c i a l s Seen Main E f f e c t s Treatment Explained Residua 1 Total

B.

Immediate P o s t t e s t

Source o f V a r i a t i o n

Oeyees o f Freedom

Mean Square

230.59 79.80 64.33

2 1 1

115.29 79.80 64.33

32.81 22.71 18.31

0.00 0.00 0.00

12.31 12.31 242.90 871 .34 1114.24

2 2 4 248 752

6.16 6.16 6n.72 3.51 4.42

1.75 1.75 17.28

0.18 0.18 0.00

Sum o f Squares

Degrees o f Freedom

bean Square

F

18.52 4.14 7.56

2 1 1

9.26 4.14 7.56

0.14 0.06 0.11

C.07 0.81 0.74

839.54 839.54 858.07 16949.85 17807.93

2 2 4 248 252

419.77 419.77 214.51 68.35 70.6

6.14 6.14 3.11

0.00 0.00 0.02

Degrees o f Freedom

Mean Square

Covariates Swimming A b i l i t y Cousteau S p e c i a l s Seen Main Effects Treatment Explained Residual Total

C.

Delayed P o s t t e s t

Sum o f Squares

Source o f V a r i a t i o n

Cova r ia t e s

Swimming P b i l i t y Cousteau S p e c i a l s Seen

Main Effects Treatment Explained Resf dual Total 0.

F

F

Significance of F

Significance of F

Significance of F

101.70 9.10 60.58

2 1 1

50.85 9.10 60.58

7.43 1.33 8.86

0.00 0.25 0.00

803.86 803.86 905.57 1696.26 2601.83

2 2 4 248 252

401.93 401.93 226.39 6.R4 10.32

58.76 58.76 33.10

0.00 0.00 0.00

Scheffe I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f S i g n i f i c a n t l y D i f f e r e n t Groups (P.0.05)

A-T

*+ 8-C

A-I

A-T

*Immediate posttest. +Delayed posttest (no scores significantly different on pretest).

(SFTAA) the year previous to the study, also differed, with group means of 107.5 for B-C, 113.8 for A-T and 130.9 for A-I. Multiple regression of demographic characteristics on pretest knowledge scores for each group indicated that two items, swimming ability and number of Cousteau programs reportedly seen on television, were responsible for at least 20%of the variance in two of the three groups. Therefore all analyses of variance controlled for these variables. On the delayed posttest the number of Cousteau programs seen was again a significant factor related to knowledge scores. A-T posttest scores appeared to be related more closely to IQ than to either of these experience variables, however. On the A-T immediate posttest, Pearson's r = 0.44,p = 0.01, for language IQ and r = 0.44, p = 0.01, for total IQ. On the delayed posttest, measuring retention of information, the relationship of language IQ was r = 0.39, p = 0.01, and that of total IQ was

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r = 0.43, p < 0.01. Though the mean Total IQ of the A-I group was considerably higher than A-T, IQ was not significantly related t o any A-I test scores. Attitudes The Cousteau Society’s selected “positive” responses are indicated in Table 111 along with the student responses. Students in both treatment groups (A-I and A-T) responded in a neutral to slightly positive manner on the pretest. The frequency of positive responses in Group A-T increased significantly (p < 0.05) on the immediate posttest, but regressed to a level on the delayed posttest that was not significantly different from pretest results. Attitude responses of Groups A-I and B-C did not change significantly over the series of tests.

Discussion Ross (1979) has designated television “a part of our environment left unexplored by environmental designers.” This study is a step toward that exploration. Many authors have noted knowledge gains as a result of television viewing, but the literature does not contain information on a study such as this in which a documentary’s script is available for teaching before a program is aired. Nor have other studies compared attitude responses with the predetermined attitudinal goals of the producers of a documentary. The Cousteau Society’s cooperation in both regards was crucial in the design of this study and is gratefully acknowledged. The Society’s confidence in the ability of its production to reach intended goals is apparently well justified by these results. The data indicate that the same science information can be presented as effectively through both a home-viewed television documentary and a classroom presentation. Results presuppose that production and presentation quality in each medium are at high levels, as in this study, and that the science content of each is identical. Among a population that is already cognizant of many marine mammal characteristics and issues, as evidenced by pretest scores of this study, attention to the subject matter of a presentation in any medium may be based on the expectation of learning something new. In this study it was that new information that accounted largely for increased scores on posttests. Similar results have been reported by Noble (1 983) from the viewing of the Australia Naturally series by seven- to eleven-year-olds. The fact that scores on new items did not differ statistically here between the instruction group and the television group is an indication that Teacher A was able to present that new information effectively. He accomplished this without benefit of visual aids, with one exception. The presence of hip bone remnants in whales was presented using a Project ORCA skeletal diagram as a handout. The filmstrip used was based on “older” information such as marine mammal characteristics. New knowledge gained through classroom instruction tended to be retained to a greater extent than that acquired through television viewing. Data from previous research by Fortner and Teates (1 980) and Fortner and Mayer (1983) resulted in speculation that a socioeconomic variable unmeasured in those studies was related to knowledge about the oceans. The authors based this speculation on the types of experience variables they found to be related to marine knowledge: watching Cousteau specials, frequently reading National Geographic and National Wildlife, and being able to swim well, and the suspicion that these occur in high socioeconomic groups. In this study the community socioeconomic level was considerably higher than in previous studies. Family income, the socioeconomic indicator measured here, was largely restricted to upper ranges and was not significantly related to knowledge scores. The experience variables of swimming and watching Cousteau programs were again shown to be related to baseline knowledge, but magazine read-

3.0

NA

1 .o

S p e c i a l areas s h o u l d be s e t a s i d e as preserves f o r marine mammals . Measures s h o u l d be taken t o prevent future e x t i n c t i o n of marine mammals. The h a r v e s t o f harp seals s h o u l d be outlawed. Human a c t i v i t y i s l a r g e l y responsible f o r the extinct i o n o f marine mammals. There should be a w o r l d t r e a t y t o prevent t h e k i l l i n g o f marine mammals

4.

5.

6.

7

8

1.5

1.5

2.2

1.6

2.0

1.5

1.8

2.1

4.2

2.4

Pretest

-.2

0

+.2 -.

t.2

PA

-.4

0

t.2

t.8

-.3

-.5

Post 2 Shift

-

NA

-.4

0

t.3

t.6

-.2

-.7

A- I

Post 1 Shift

*5 = Strongly disagree. NA = Considered a knowledge item by Cousteau Society.

Net Change

1.5

S p e c i a l n e t s s h o u l d be r e q u i r e d on a l l tuna boats t o reduce t h e number of d o l p h i n s k i l l e d .

3.

5.0

K i l l i n g o f sea mamnals s h o u l d be a l l o w e d i f t h e y a r e a t h r e a t t o commercial a c t i v i t y .

2.

4.0*

Marine mammals have i n t e l l i gence which i s much l i k e human i n t e l l i g e n c e .

Cousteau Goal

1.

I tem1Conceot

~~

7.2

2.0

1 .R

1.6

2 .o

1.5

3.9

2.3

Pretest

b1

.8

+.4

CA

0

t.4

t.2

-.l

+.3

t.6

P-T Post 1 Shift

t.7

-

t.3

N P,

-.2

+.2

t.1

0

-.2

t.5

Post 2 Shift

Comparison of Cousteau Attitude Goals with Student Responses

TABLE I11

2.1

1.5

1 .a

1.6

2.0

1.7

3.9

2.4

Pretest

t.7

-.

t.1

NA

t.l

+.l

+.4

-.l

t.1

0

Post 1 Shift

6-C

t.1

.-

t.1

NA

-.l

0

t.3

-.l

-.l

-.2

Post 2 Shift

E m

3

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ing was not. The two variables related to pretest scores did not significantly affect the acquisition of new information by either classroom instruction or television. It was also suspected that general academic ability may be related to this type of performance on a specific science topic and to subsequent response to a television intervention. All groups in this study had IQ scores that were above average, and the restricted range signals a need for caution in interpretation of results. While no relationship was found for any group between IQ and pretest scores, both language IQ and total IQ were significantly related t o A-T posttest scores, an indication that higher ability students may respond more effectively t o television learning. This seems to support Bailey’s (1973) hypothesis that media usage tends to widen rather than narrow the gap between the informed and the uninformed. As for attitude changes, there were notable differences between groups. The television treatment temporarily produced significant shifts toward the producer’s attitude goals, while the script-based instruction resulted in no such changes. Some element or elements, perhaps the teacher’s instructional goals, presentation style, or content emphasis, apparently differed enough from those of the documentary’s producers that the affective elements of one were not present in the other. A teacher using a script for subject matter may therefore not impart the subtle or highly visual ideas that are transmitted by a filmed version of the same information. The fact that the science teacher’s interpretation of the documentary’s script did not produce a presentation that changed attitudes in the direction desired by the producer indicates a need t o consider the effects of the film elements themselves as instructional or affective elements. The work of Salomon (1979) has indicated the cognitive effects of film elements such as zooming in for close-up shots, breaking visual segments into components by film cuts, altering cameras angles and such. These techniques are used to cue the attention of viewers at critical film segments. The Children’s Television Workshop (Chen, 1980), for example, has utilized such methods to measure perceptual changes resulting from the series 3-2-1 Contact. Perhaps there is an affective correlate to this cognitive research that can be tested in future studies.

Implications for Science Teaching This study has indicated that home viewing of a single environmental science documentary can result in increased and retainable knowledge and can temporarily alter attitudes among ninth graders. A good science teacher, given the same content information as in the documentary, can provide an equivalent amount of information using his or her own teaching style and materials. These findings support Clark’s (I 983) contention that “media are mere vehicles that deliver instruction but do not influence student achievement any more than the truck that delivers our groceries causes changes in our nutrition. Basically, the choice of vehicle might influence the cost or extent of distributing instruction, but only the content of the vehicle can influence achievement” (p. 445). For financially stressed schools this study provides encouragement that electronic technology may not be a necessity for enhanced science education. What is desirable instead is to attract and retain the type of science teacher that is willing and able to seek the reports of new scientific research and present them effectively to a class. It is not likely, nor is it desirable, that science teachers would discontinue the practice of recommending home viewing of science programs on television. After all, this study has shown that the desired knowledge is acquired in this manner. What the science teacher should find of greater value here is an indication that the current, exciting subject matter of those programs can be presented just as effectively without the television set. Information from science maga-

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zines, from the teacher’s own attentive television viewing in advance, or from transcripts available for some programs, can provide that same stimulus in the classroom. The disadvantages of home viewing by students are numerous, but perhaps the most pervasive is lack of equal access, particularly to PBS programs or those aired on special cable channels. The home environments represented in a given classroom may range from those with parents that forbid television on school nights to those that instruct beyond the subject matter presented (Ball & Bogatz, 1970). Some students taught by television have indicated that they miss the personal teacher-student contact, but “there is insufficient evidence to suggest that lack of such contact will impair learning from television” (Chu & Schramm, 1975). Classroom learning, on the other hand, is enhanced by the exchange of ideas and the social support of doing what others are doing (Chu & Schramm, 1975). The science class may have an advantage for extension and retention of new information through personal interactions following the introduction of new material. Such group interaction is less likely to occur following the comparatively solitary activity of home viewing. Future efforts in this area should investigate the medium/interaction relationships more completely, possibly through an intensive time-series design of the type used by Mayer and Monk (1983). Using daily measurements of science knowledge among groups using both kinds of media could help to identify the points at which knowledge increments occur. These points could then be characterized by the activities and environments that were associated with the growth. Acknowledgment This research was supported by a grant from the Spencer Foundation to the College and Education, The Ohio State University. References Alaimo, S. J., & Doran, R. L. (1980). Students’ perception of environmental problems and sources of environmental information. Journal of Environmental Education, 7, 17-21, Bailey, G. A. (1973). The public, the media, and the knowledge gap. In C. Schoenfeld (Ed.), Interpreting environmental issues. Madison, WI: Dembar Educational Research Services. Ball, S., & Bogatz, G. A. (1970). f i e first year of Sesame Street: An evaluation. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service. Ben-Zvi, R., Hofstein, A., Samuels, D., & Kempa, R. F. (1976). The effectiveness of filmed experiments in high school chemical education. Journal of Chemical Education, 53,s18-520. British Broadcasting Corporation. (1 974). Private lives [A pre-broadcast survey] . London, England: BBC. Busch, J. S. (1978). Television’s effects on reading: a case study. Phi Delta Kappan, 59, 668-67 1. Chen, M. (1980/1981). Television, science and children: Formative evaluation for “3-2-1Contact.” Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 9,261 -276. Chu, G. C., & Schramm, W . (1975). Learning from television: What the research says. Washington, DC: Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Clark, R. E. (1983). Reconsidering research on learning from media. Review of Educational Research, 53,445-459. Coelho, G. V. (Ed.). (1981). Television asa teacher: A research monograph. Rockville, MD: National Institute of Mental Health.

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