Apr 13, 2012 - protection from insect pests and diseases. International Federation of ...... Panda D (2006) Biological nutrient management in organic farming.
JNKVV
RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 46
Number 1
January - April 2012
Contents Review Paper Microbial technology for sustainable organic agriculture M.N. Khare and S.P. Tiwari
1
Estimation of seed, feed and wastage ratios for wheat production in Rewa district of Madhya Pradesh S.K. Gupta and P.K. Mishra
11
Research Paper Seed enhancement studies in tomato for germination and seedling emergence Sathrupa Rao and Subrata Sharma
18
Ethnobotanical aspects of plants from east zone of Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh Karuna S. Verma, Sandhya Swarnkar, Aparna Awasthi and Tabassum Ansari
22
Influence of soil moisture stress on dry matter production, partitioning, biochemical constituents and productivity in chickpea Ganesh Mishra, A.S. Gontia, Anubha Upadhyay and Sathrupa Rao
28
Identification of selection components for linseed breeding S.K. Tiwari, Rajmohan Sharma and Ramakant
33
Evaluation and identification of suitable horse gram cultivars for higher productivity and seed quality traits K. Kanaka Durga and M. Ganesh
37
Relative performance of new single cut oat genotypes to different nitrogen levels under agro-climatic condition of Kymore plateau zone of Madhya Pradesh A.K. Jha, Arti Shrivastava, N.S. Raghuvanshi and J.K. Sharma
44
Influence of staggered date of sowing on eco-physiological studies of soybean varieties combating climate change under Kymore plateau zone of Madhya Pradesh, India Karuna Meshram, S.D. Upadhyaya, K.K. Agrawal, Anubha Upadhyay and Noor Afsan Khan
47
Nutrient management for improving productivity and economics of rabi niger M.R. Deshmukh, Alok Jyotishi and A.R.G. Ranganatha
52
Composting of obnoxious weeds through microbial treatment and subsequent vermicomposting Deepak Chourasiya, Anay Rawat, S.B. Agrawal and Gyanendra Mathankar
56
Response of promising varieties of single cut forage oat to different nitrogen levels under agroclimatic conditions of Kymore plateau zone, Madhya Pradesh P.K. Roshan, K.R. Naik and Siddarth Nayak
59
Assessment of soil test based fertilizer recommendation under rice-wheat cropping sequence and its impact on soil quality under agroclimatic condition of Kymore plateau zone of MP K.S. Keram, G. Puri and S. D. Sawarkar
62
Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya Jabalpur 482004 (Madhya Pradesh) India
JNKVV
RESEARCH JOURNAL ISSN : 0021-3721
Registration No.: 13-37-67
Production of Monascus sp. pigments from farm byproducts using solid state fermentation M.M. Khan, L.P.S. Rajput, S.S. Yadav, S. Kumar and Kirti Tantwai
69
Efficacy of phytoextracts against root rot of mungbean caused by Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn Nilay Kumar Saxena and U.K. Khare
75
Effect of fungicides and polymer coating on storability of soybean seeds Imran Baig, N.K. Biraderpatil , B.T. Ninganur and R.H. Patil
78
Management of damping-off of fennel under nursery condition in Gujarat R.N. Pandey, R.B. Patel, G.B. Valand, Ashok Mishra and S.J. Patel
84
Insect pest fauna of rice in Nagarjuna Sagar Project Command Area of Nalgonda district of Andhra Pradesh during Kharif season R. Muralidhar Naik and P. Rajanikanth
88
Varietal influence on physical characteristics of brown rice V.K. Tiwari and Nitya Sharma
90
A probability distribution for describing the pattern of mango hoppers population at Jabalpur Ashok Kumar Tailor, H.L. Sharma, S.B. Das and Siddarth Nayak
94
Accuracy assessment for land use/land cover map of Rewa district using Remote Sensing technique Seema Suraiya, Subhash Thakur, S.K. Sharma, R.K. Nema and Renu Upadhyay
101
Impact of vocational training programme on knowledge, skill development and income generation among farm women in Satpura plateau zone of Madhya Pradesh Ekta Belwanshi and N.K. Khare
106
Agricultural Information and Technology dissemination through Blog: A speedy approach Chandrajiit Singh and Kinjulck C. Singh
112
Role of Information and Communication Technology for agriculture: A case study of Kisan Call Center of Indian Society of Agribusiness Professionals Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh R.S. Chouhan, Dushyant Kumar and H.O. Sharma
115
Economics of hybrid rice seed production in Madhya Pradesh R.R. Kashikar, P.K. Mishra, S.B. Nahatkar and H.O. Sharma
120
Assessment of microbial quality of enrobed chicken meat product using plant binders Surbhi Yadav, V. Appa Rao, R Narendra Babu and Jitendra Kumar Sharma
125
Hepatocellular carcinoma in dogs : A case report Ankush Maini, Debosri Bhowmick, Shobha Jawre and M.K. Bhargava
129
Colibacillosis in free-ranging pigeons Nidhi Rajput, M.P.S. Tomar, A.B. Shrivastav, Sanjay Shukla and Varsha Sharma
132
Effect of castration on performance of crossbred pigs V.N. Gautam, Shraddha Shrivastava, G.P. Lakhani and R.P.S. Baghel
134
Epidemiological studies on hypogalactia and common reproductive problems in buffaloes of Jabalpur region A.K. Soni, P.C. Shukla and R.P.S. Baghel
137
Published by : Dr. S.K. Rao, Dean, Faculty of Agriculture, JNKVV, Jabalpur 482 004 (M.P.), India Printed at : M/s Fortune Graphics & Scanning Centre, Golebazar, Jabalpur 482 002 (M.P.)
ISSN : 0021-3721 Volume 46 Number (1) 2012
JNKVV Research Journal (January - April 2012)
Contents Review Paper Microbial technology for sustainable organic agriculture M.N. Khare and S.P. Tiwari
1
Estimation of seed, feed and wastage ratios for wheat production in Rewa district of Madhya Pradesh S.K. Gupta and P.K. Mishra
11
Research Paper Seed enhancement studies in tomato for germination and seedling emergence Sathrupa Rao and Subrata Sharma
18
Ethnobotanical aspects of plants from east zone of Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh Karuna S. Verma, Sandhya Swarnkar, Aparna Awasthi and Tabassum Ansari
22
Influence of soil moisture stress on dry matter production, partitioning, biochemical constituents and productivity in chickpea Ganesh Mishra, A.S. Gontia, Anubha Upadhyay and Sathrupa Rao
28
Identification of selection components for linseed breeding S.K. Tiwari, Rajmohan Sharma and Ramakant
33
Evaluation and identification of suitable horse gram cultivars for higher productivity and seed quality traits K. Kanaka Durga and M. Ganesh
37
Relative performance of new single cut oat genotypes to different nitrogen levels under agro-climatic condition of Kymore plateau zone of Madhya Pradesh A.K. Jha, Arti Shrivastava, N.S. Raghuvanshi and J.K. Sharma
44
Influence of staggered date of sowing on eco-physiological studies of soybean varieties combating climate change under Kymore plateau zone of Madhya Pradesh, India Karuna Meshram, S.D. Upadhyaya, K.K. Agrawal, Anubha Upadhyay and Noor Afsan Khan
47
Nutrient management for improving productivity and economics of rabi niger M.R. Deshmukh, Alok Jyotishi and A.R.G. Ranganatha
52
Composting of obnoxious weeds through microbial treatment and subsequent vermicomposting Deepak Chourasiya, Anay Rawat, S.B. Agrawal and Gyanendra Mathankar
56
Response of promising varieties of single cut forage oat to different nitrogen levels under agroclimatic conditions of Kymore plateau zone, Madhya Pradesh P.K.Roshan, K.R. Naik and Siddarth Nayak
59
Assessment of soil test based fertilizer recommendation under rice-wheat cropping sequence and its impact on soil quality under agroclimatic condition of Kymore plateau zone of MP K.S. Keram, G. Puri and S.D. Sawarkar
62
Production of Monascus sp. pigments from farm byproducts using solid state fermentation M.M. Khan, L.P.S. Rajput, S.S. Yadav, S. Kumar and Kirti Tantwai
69
Efficacy of phytoextracts against root rot of mungbean caused by Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn Nilay Kumar Saxena and U. K. Khare
75
Effect of fungicides and polymer coating on storability of soybean seeds Imran Baig, N.K. Biraderpatil , B.T. Ninganur and R.H. Patil
78
Management of damping-off of fennel under nursery condition in Gujarat R.N. Pandey, R.B. Patel, G.B. Valand, Ashok Mishra and S.J. Patel
84
Insect pest fauna of rice in Nagarjuna Sagar Project Command Area of Nalgonda district of Andhra Pradesh during Kharif season R. Muralidhar Naik and P. Rajanikanth
88
Varietal influence on physical characteristics of brown rice V.K. Tiwari and Nitya Sharma
90
A probability distribution for describing the pattern of mango hoppers population at Jabalpur Ashok Kumar Tailor, H.L. Sharma, S.B. Das and Siddarth Nayak
94
Accuracy assessment for land use/land cover map of Rewa district using Remote Sensing technique Seema Suraiya, Subhash Thakur, S.K. Sharma, R.K. Nema and Renu Upadhyay
101
Impact of vocational training programme on knowledge, skill development and income generation among farm women in Satpura plateau zone of Madhya Pradesh Ekta Belwanshi and N.K. Khare
106
Agricultural Information and Technology dissemination through Blog: A speedy approach Chandrajiit Singh and Kinjulck C. Singh
112
Role of Information and Communication Technology for agriculture: A case study of Kisan Call Center of Indian Society of Agribusiness Professionals Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh R.S. Chouhan, Dushyant Kumar and H.O. Sharma
115
Economics of hybrid rice seed production in Madhya Pradesh R.R. Kashikar, P.K. Mishra, S.B. Nahatkar and H.O. Sharma
120
Assessment of microbial quality of enrobed chicken meat product using plant binders Surbhi Yadav, V. Appa Rao, R. Narendra Babu and Jitendra Kumar Sharma
125
Hepatocellular carcinoma in dogs : A case report Ankush Maini, Debosri Bhowmick, Shobha Jawre and M.K. Bhargava
129
Colibacillosis in free-ranging pigeons Nidhi Rajput, M.P.S. Tomar, A.B. Shrivastav, Sanjay Shukla and Varsha Sharma
132
Effect of castration on performance of crossbred pigs V.N. Gautam, Shraddha Shrivastava, G.P. Lakhani and R.P.S. Baghel
134
Epidemiological studies on hypogalactia and common reproductive problems in buffaloes of Jabalpur region A.K. Soni, P.C. Shukla and R.P.S. Baghel
137
Issued 31st December, 2012
STATEMENT OF OWNERSHIP FORM IV (See Rule 8) Place of Publication
: Jabalpur (Madhya Pradesh), India
Periodicity of Publication
: 3 issues per year (from 2012)
Publisher's Name
: Dr. S.K. Rao Indian Dean, Faculty of Agriculture JNKVV, Jabalpur 482 004 (M.P.), India
Printer's Name
: M/s Fortune Graphics and Scanning Centre Golebazar, Jabalpur 482 002 (M.P.)
Editor's Name
: Dr. Mohan S. Bhale Indian Senior Scientist Department of Plant Pathology JNKVV, Jabalpur 482 004 (M.P.), India
Name and address of individuals : Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur Who own the news papers and partners of share holders holding more than one per cent of total capital I, S.K. Rao, hereby declare that the particulars given above are true to the best of my knowledge and belief.
Dated the 31st December, 2012
Sd/- S.K. Rao Publisher
A Publication of
Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya Jabalpur 482 004 (Madhya Pradesh) India Phone: (+91) (0761) 2681200; Fax: (+91) (0761) 2681200 Website: www.jnkvv.nic.in
JNKVV Research Journal Editorial Board Patron Chairman Members
Editor Co-Editor
Prof. Vijay Singh Tomar Vice Chancellor, JNKVV, Jabalpur Dr. S.K. Rao Dean, Faculty of Agriculture, Jabalpur Dr. P.K. Mishra Director Instruction, Jabalpur Dr. K.K. Saxena Director Extension Services, Jabalpur Dr. R.S. Khamparia Dean, College of Agriculture, Jabalpur Dr. T.K. Bhattacharya Dean, College of Agricultural Engineering, Jabalpur Mohan S. Bhale Abhishek Shukla
General Information: JNKVV Research Journal is the publication of J.N. Agricultural University (JNKVV), Jabalpur for records of original research in basic and applied fields of Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering, Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry. It is published thrice a year (from 2012). The journal is abstracted in CAB International abstracting system, Biological Abstracts, Indian Science Abstracts. Membership is open to all individuals and organizations coping with the mission of the University and interested in enhancing productivity, profitability and sustainability of agricultural production systems and quality of rural life through education, research and extension activities in the field of agriculture and allied sciences. Submission of manuscript for publication: Manuscripts should be submitted in duplicate to the Editor, JNKVV Research Journal, J.N. Agricultural University, Adhartal, Jabalpur 482 004 (M.P.) India. Membership and subscription: The annual fee for individuals is Rs. 200/- for residents in India and US$50 for residents outside India. The annual fee for Libraries and Institutions is Rs. 500/- for residents in India and US$100 for outside. All authors must be subscribers. Payment should be made by Demand Draft in favour of Dean, Faculty of Agriculture, JNKVV payable at Jabalpur 482 004 MP to the Editor, JNKVV Research Journal, JNKVV, Jabalpur (M.P.). Exchange of the journal: For exchange of the journal, please contact the Librarian, University Library, JNKVV, Jabalpur 482 004 (M.P.), India. ISSN : 0021-3721
Registration No. : 13-37-67
Published by : Dr. S.K. Rao, Dean, Faculty of Agriculture, JNKVV, Jabalpur 482 004 (M.P.), India Printed at : M/s Fortune Graphics & Scanning Centre, Sahu Mohalla, Golebazar, Jabalpur (M.P.)
JNKVV Res J 46(1): 1-10 (2012)
Microbial technology for sustainable organic agriculture M.N. Khare and S.P. Tiwari Department of Plant Pathology Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya Jabalpur 482 004 (MP)
Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture started National Project on Organic Farming (NPFO) from October 1st, 2004 with six Regional Centres of Organic Farming located at Jabalpur (MP), Nagpur (MS), Bangalore (Karnataka), Bhubaneswar (Orissa), Hissar (Haryana) and Imphal (Manipur). It is essential to develop package of practices for organic agriculture. Maharashtra Organic Farming Federation (MOFF) has developed organic packages of practices for cotton, wheat and gram. Organic farming products are certified by Govt. of India approved Certifying and Regulating agencies. At present eleven agencies are doing this work located at Mumbai, Aurangabad, Cochin, Bangalore, Thiruvella, Pune, Jaipur, Gurgaon and Dehradun.
Present day agriculture is chemical intensive based on synthetic fertilizers, hazardous pesticides, weedicides, growth promoting chemicals which pollute the soil, water, air and the whole environment causing harmful affect on human and animal life. The agricultural practices in vogue have made soils vulnerable to erosion, saline, contaminated with agrochemical residues, reduced soil fertility, lesser water absorption and retention capacity and destruction of beneficial soil microorganisms. The use of renewable energy is getting replaced by non-renewable energy sources. In organic farming sustainable crop productivity is maintained through natural resource conservation technologies and the natural processes through microbial technology to reduce external inputs in the farming operations like soil conservation, water management, integrated nutrient and pest management. High quality pathogen free seed is a must in any crop production programme.
Thus the organic farming is a system of sustainable agriculture production management of locally available natural resources for nutrition to crop. It helps in conservation of natural resources and soil fertility, environmental pollution and allows clean water and safe food.
There are several components on which organic cultivation is based like seed, compost, planting system, bio-fertilizers, biocontrol agents and botanicals in crop protection from insect pests and diseases.
Seed
International Federation of Organic Agriculture Management (IFOAM) was established in 1972 to cover all aspects of organic farming to maintain long soil fertility; to avoid pollution; to produce highly nutritional food; to maintain genetic diversity of plants; to use water with care; to encourage and enhance biological cycles with farming system; to use renewable resources in the system; to use material and substances which can be reused or recycled; to produce fully biodegradable non food product out of renewable resources and to build a safe working environment. At Biofach 2007 IFOAM had claimed 31 million ha managed organically in around 633891 farmers at global level. The maximum area 11.8 m ha was in Australia followed by 3.1 in Argentina, 2.3 in China, 1.6 in US and 0.17 in India.
Looking to new regulation of National Pragramme on Organic Agriculture (NPOA), organic seeds are used as planting material. Efforts are being made for the production of certified organic seed. Mahajan et al. (2011) produced cluster bean seed organically with foliar application of leaf extract of neem (Azadiracta indica) which increased seed yield, biological yield and yield attributes, dry matter of plant, number of pods per plant, pod weight, seed weight and 100 seed weight. Besides seed germination, shoot, root, seedling lengths, seedling dry weight and vigour indices increased considerably. Selveraj (2006) observed higher plant growth and yield of crop plant due to hormonal effect and enhanced immunity of the plants against biotic stresses with foliar application of panchgavya along with plant leaf extracts in many crops. It is essential to use
In India the Department of Agriculture and
1
Phosphocompost method
high quality healthy seed for planting purpose in organic cultivation. More than 300 different crop varieties of organic are commercially available to farmers, of which 90 per cent are vegetables and cereal varieties (Vishwanath et al. 2008).
The method was developed by Gaur and modified by Hazra and coscientists at BCKV Kalyani, W.B. the required materials are organic waste 600 kg, cow dung 150 kg, FYM 30 kg, soil 20 kg, Rock phosphate 150 kg, Pyrite 50 kg, urea in trace, microbial culture in trace and water as per need. Compost gets ready in 8-10 weeks (Kabi 2006).
Compost Soil rich in fertility is prerequisite for planting any crop for which proper compost is a must. Organic wastes are decomposed through thermophilic microorganisms which generate heat to make the product free from pathogens and plant seeds. This compost has fertilizer value, improves humus content, soil texture, permeability, water holding capacity and is used as mulch in nursery. Compost is generally prepared from organic waste materials like crop residues, leaves, weeds, house refuge, animal excreta etc. The microbial inoculants for compost production are compost activators. Cellulolytic organisms like Trichurus spiralis, Trichoderma viride, Paecilomyces fusisporus, lignolytic organisms like Polyporus versicolor, Ganoderma lucidum, Phanerochaete chryosporium; compost enrichers- P solubilizers like Aspergillus awamorii, Bacillus polymyxa and N- fixer Azotobacter chroococcum. Besides some bacteria Bacillus steriothermophilus, Theromomonospora sp., Thermoactinomyces sp., Closteridium thermocellum and fungi Aspergillus fumigants, Geotrichum candidum, Mucor pucillus, Chaetomium thermophile, Thermoascus auranticus, Torula thermophila are also involved in composting. The criteria considered in composting are C: N ratio should be 23-25; particle size 10 mm to 50 mm; moisture content 50-60%; temperature 55-600C for three days; agitation at 7-15 days gap; heap size any length, 1.5 m high, 2.5 m wide. The methods used for composting are Indore method, Bangalore method, Coimbatore method, Anstead's method, ADCO method, NRL method, NADEP method, phosphocompost method, vermicompost method, EM-method etc. (Kabi,2006). Composting is a microbiological, nonpolluting and safe method for bioconversion of farm residues and wastes to organic fertilizers.
EM-Method It has been developed by Teuro Higa of Japan. EM stands for effective microorganisms i.e. 80 different strains of beneficial and effective microbes both aerobic and anaerobic. They are Lactobacillus, photosynthetic bacteria, yeast and filamentous fungi. The raw material required is weeds/ green foliage 7 q, crop residue 1 q, cow dung 1.5 q, Poultry litter 1.0 q, oilcake 0.5 q, EM 650 ml, Jaggery 650 g. The compost is ready in 35-45 days (Kabi 2006). Preparation of liquid manures Several types of liquid manure preparations are used by farmers in various states which are good to enrich the soil fertility for organic agriculture (Yadav 2007). Sanjivak Cow dung 100 kg, cow urine 100 l and jaggary 500g are mixed in 300 l water in a closed drum of 500 l capacity. The mixture is fermented for ten days. It is diluted 20 times with water and applied in one acre as spray or along with irrigation water. Jivasurut Cow dung 10 kg, cow urine 10 l, jaggary 2 kg , ant pulse grain flour 2 kg and live soil one kg are mixed in 200 l water and fermented for 5-7 days with stirring three times a day. This is used in one acre with irrigation water.
NADEP Method The method is named after Narayan Deorao Pandhari Pandey who invented it. It requires organic waste (green foliage, straw, cattle shed waste, house refuge etc.) 1500 kg, cow dung 100 kg, FYM/soil 1500 kg , water 1300 litre. It is made in a structure 10 x 5 x 3.5 ft of bricks. The compost is ready in 90-120 days (Kabi 2006).
Panchgavya Cow dung slurry 4 kg, fresh cow dung one kg, cow urine 3 l, cow milk 2 l, curd 2 l, cow deshi ghee 1 kg are mixed and fermented for seven days with stirring twice a day. Three l of Panchgavya is mixed with 100 l water
2
and sprayed over soil. In each acre 20 l Panchgavya is required for soil application along with irrigation water.
used for vermicomposting are Lampito mauritti, Perionyk excavates, Dichogaster faints, Eisenia foetida, Pheretima elongate, Metaphire posthuma, Eudrilus eugeniae. The selection of worms is based on their capability of inhabiting in specific organic matter, high adaptability and high fecundity rate with low incubation period, least interval from hatching to maturity, high growth, consumption, digestion, assimilation rate and least time of inactivity after initial inoculation.
Enriched Panchgavya Fresh cow dung one kg, cow urine 3 l, cow milk 2 l, cow deshi ghee one kg, sugarcane juice 3 l, coconut water 3 l, banana paste of 12 fruits are mixed and fermented for seven days. This also applied in soil like Panchagvya.
Various microorganisms are harboured in the intestine of earthworm in high concentration like fungi, bacteria and protozoans which intensify the microbial activity with the help of several enzymes like proteolytic, amylase, hydrolyzing, lipase, invertase, cellulase, chitinase etc. and hormones, antibiotics etc. The consumed food materials by the earthworms are released as excreta which is further decomposed and this nutrient rich organic manure is termed vermicompost. Besides N, P, K micronutrients like Fe, Cu, Mn and Zn are also available in higher quantity. Very high concentration of phosphate solubilising bacteria (PSB) has been observed in vermicast making vermicompost a potential phosphatic biofertilizer also. It also increases the concentration of nitrogen fixing bacteria. The vermicomposting technology is being used in small as well as at large scale. The vermicompost is made in small pits or above ground avoiding water stagnation in 2 x 1 x 1 m beds (Chattopadhyay 2006). The compost is applied in the field directly and mixed in soil. In situ application is better in case of fruit trees and plantation crops.
Biodynamic formulations The biodynamic formulations are prepared from soil, cow excreta and plant refuge. The cow horn manure is made by filling intact, cleaned cow horn with fresh cow dung and buried at 30 cm depth in root free zone in soil in October-November. It is incubated for six months or till proper decomposition of manure. The application dose is 62.5 g/ha. Cow horn silica is prepared by filling silica powder instead of cow dung. It is made in MarchApril. The application rate is 2.5 g/ha at 2-4 leaf stage and at fruit set. Cow Pat Pit (CPP) or 'soil shampoo' is prepared in a pit 60 X 90 X 45 cm in shade and root free zone. The inner walls are pasted with fresh cow dung. Cow dung 60 kg is thoroughly mixed with 250 g each of bentonite and egg shell powder. Biodynamic preparations of yarrow, chamomile, Nettle, oak bark, Dandelion and Valerian are added in the pit and covered with gunny bag. The compost gets ready in 75-90 days depending on temperature. It is used as seed treatment or foliar application by dissolving 1 kg CPP in 40-45 litres water and kept for 12 hours overnight. It contains 0.7-2.24% N, 0.21-0.43% P and 0.72-0.93% K (Dey 2006).
Biofertilizers Biofertilizers are auto or hetrotrophic microorgamisms which enhance soil fertility and supply or mobilize plant nutrients for crop nutrition. They are grouped into four categories-N fixers; P-solubilizing microorganisms; Pmobilizers and organic matter decomposers. They are cyanobacteria, symbiotic and free living bacteria and Arbuscular Mycorhizal fungi.
Vermicompost Earthworm acts as biocatalytic regulator by decomposing organic wastes and increase soil fertility. About 3600 species of earthworms are known to exist in the world of which 402 species and subspecies belonging to 66 genera and 10 families are in India. They recycle the organic waste as vermicompost and improve structure, aeration, nutrient status of soil by ingestion of soil, partial breakdown of organic matter, intimate mixing of these fraction and ejection of this material as surface or subsurface cast and by bringing sub soil to the surface by burrowing through the soil. They breakdown coarse particles to fine powder by the gizzard. Some native and exotic earthworms commonly
Blue - green algae (BGA) These are important components of organic farming in rice. Neutral or alkaline soils ( pH 7.5 to 10.0) rich in available P, turbidity free shallow water, moderately high temperature (30-350C), bright sunlight and less frequent rains favour growth and N fixation by BGA. The fresh biomass of BGA ranged from 4 to 28 t/ha with N contribution of 4-32 kg/ha. The main genera of N fixing
3
etc. In case of BradyRhizobium, B. japonicum (Glycine), B.ciceri (Cicer), B. vignae (Vigna), B. cajani (Cajanus) are important species. The culture is available with inert matter for seed treatment. They fix nitrogen symbiotically. To maintain the quality, standards have been fixed. The formulation must contain a minimum of 108 viable Rhizobium cells/g on dry mass basis. Crops inoculated with Rhizobium leave 20-60 kg N in the soil after harvest. They give 10-30% extra yield. High soil temperature above 350C reduces survival of Rhizobium in soil; the optimum soil pH is between 5.8 and 8.0, below and above this limit nodulation is reduced; soils poor in phosphorus do not form required nodules; some seed treating fungicides inhibit the Rhizobium growth. Rhizobium fertilizer is usually applied as seed treatment. Species of Azotobacter and Azospirillum when used in cereals increased grain yield, plant biomass nutrient uptake , tissue nitrogen contents, nitrogenase activity, early flowering, tiller numbers, more plant height, leaf size, increased number of spikes, grains per spike, thousand grain weight, better root length and volume, less insect pests and diseases. Commonly used species of Azotobacter are A. croocorum and of Azospirillum are A. lipoferum, A. brasilense. Neutral to slightly alkaline soils rich in organic matter and available P favour multiplication of these two bacteria and N fixation. Azotobacter can fix 10-30 kg N/ha in aerobic soils and Azospirillum upto 15-20 kg/ha. The grain yield is increased 8-30% over uninoculated control. Azotobacter has its utility in cereals (wheat and paddy) vegetables (potato, tomato), oilseeds (mustard, rapeseed), fiber crops (cotton, jute) etc. It increased yield of potato (3-11%), onion (18-22%), cotton (1538%), tomato (19%), cabbage (40%) and cauliflower (28%). Azospirillum gives overall increase in nitrogen uptake, plant biomass and grain yield due to increased branching of roots, production of plant growth promoters, antimicrobial substances, enhanced N fixation, better water status and increased nitrate reductase activity (Dey 2006).Besides fixing nitrogen Azotobacter secretes certain hormones like IAA, gibberellic acid and cytokinin which enhance vegetative growth and root development. The metabolites check certain soil borne pathogens. They perform better in well aerated light to medium soils. Azospirillum is microaerophillic hence perform better in medium heavy to heavy textured soils with high moisture levels. They can withstand water logging for some times. They depend on root exudates for their nutrition. They also enter into the root system and multiply in intercellular spaces usually in cortex and at nodes in stem. The bacterium benefits the crop by 20-35 kg N/ha and increase the grain and vegetative growth 20-30%. Both Azotobacter
blue green algae are Anabaena, Anabaenopsis, Aphanizomenon, Aulosira, Cylindrospermum, Nodularia, Nostoc, Scytonema, Tolypothrix, Microchaete, Calothrix, Dichothrix, Fisherella, Hapalosiphon, Stigonema, Mastigocladus, Chloroaloea, Raphidiopsis, Gleotrichia, Rivularia, Oscillatoria, Lyngbya, Trichodesmium, Plectonema, Nostoc. Besides fixing nitrogen BGA elaborate vitamins, growth factor, enhance plant growth, oxygenate water, excrete organic acids which solubilize phosphates and check loss of water from paddy fields. In MP rice grain yield increased upto 19% over control with BGA. The residual effect was on the succeeding chickpea (Panda 2006). BGA biofertilizer 5-10 kg is required for one ha. The BGA inoculum is mixed with 10-20 kg soil or saw dust and sprinkled in the field after 7-10 days of transplanting. Azolla Azolla is a small floating pteridophyte growing in ponds. The biomass of Azolla increases 2-6 fold every week. It has symbiotic association with Anabaena azollae which grows in leaf cavity. Azolla is grown in shallow ponds or pits or plots for 2-3 weeks. When a thick mat is formed it is harvested and spread in paddy fields. It contributes 25-30 kg N/ha. Azolla suppresses weed growth also. Standing water 5-10 cm deep, pH 6-7, high available P and low organic C, 25-300C temperature and high light intensity favour growth of Azolla and nitrogen fixation (Panda 2006). Azolla pinnata is a commonly available species, A. caroliniana is better species and Azolla hybrids are also available. These can be obtained from Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack, Orissa. Nitrogen fixing bacteria
Several bacteria, photosynthetic like Rhodospirillum rubrum, Rhodopsuedomonas capsulata, species of Rhodomicrobium, Chromatium, Chlorobium and nonphotosynthetic like species of Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Azotococcus, Azomonas, Beijerinckia, Bacillus, Azospirillum, Clostridium, Klebsiella, Erwinia, Spirillum, BradyRhizobium etc. fix nitrogen for the benefit of plants. Most commonly used genera are Rhizobium and BradyRhizobium for legumes and Azotobacter and Azospirillum for nonleguminous crops. The genus Rhizobium was established by Fred et al. in 1932. The important species are R. phaseoli (Phaseolus spp.), R.meliloti (Medicago spp.), R.trifolli (Trifolium), R.viciae (Vicia spp, pea), R.fredii (Glycine),
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Sulphur oxidizing microbes
and Azospirillum are used as seed treatment, seedling root dip and as soil treatment. They are used for upland cereals millets, vegetables, cotton, fruit and plantation crops.
Main sulphur oxidizing bacteria are species of Thiobacillus, Beggiatoa, Thiothrix. Biosulphur is a product from Thiobacillus thiooxidans. Among fungi species of Aspergillus, Penicillium and Microsporium also oxidize sulphur.
Endophytic diazotrophs The endophytic diazotrophic bacteria are present not only in roots of sugarcane plant but also in stem and leaves in large numbers fixing nitrogen. Besides sugarcane their association has been reported on other crop plants as well.
Phosphate solubilising microbes Important phosphate solubilising bacteria are Bacillus megaterium, Psuedomonas sp., Arthrobacter sp. etc. Phosphobactin is a product based on B. megaterium. Several species of Aspergillus, Cephalosporium, Cldosporium, Penicillium, Trichoderma, Thielevia, etc. also solubilize phosphates. The most efficient mesophilic species are Psuedomonas striata, Bacillus polymyxa, B. circulans, B. subtitis, Aspergillus awamori, A. niger, A. fumigatus, A. terreus solubilize insoluble inorganic phosphates. The organic phosphates are solublized by P.striata, B. pulvifaciens, A. awamori, P. digitatum and Sewanniomyces occidantalis. The phosphate solubilzing microorganisms synthesize growth promoting substances which augment plant growth like auxins, gibberline, vitamins, indole acetic acid, cytokinin etc. According to the requirement of the crop and soil conditions a suitable combination of these organisms is used. They are applied as seed, seedling root and as soil treatment. They secrete various organic acids like citric, fumaric, glutamic, glyoxalic, lactic, malic, succinic and ketogluteric. They help in dissolving mineral phosphates and phosphorylated minerals. They also secrete fungistatic and growth promoting substances. The uptake of P2O5 is increased by 3060% and yield 10-20%. The temperature requirement for all PS microorganisms ranges from 28-320C. Fungi can tolerate upto 370C . The pH should be 6-7.5but for acidic soils pH 6 is better for A.niger and A.awamori. Soil should be rich in organic matter.
Acetobacter Acetobacter was identified first in Brazil for sugarcane. It is rod shaped aerobic diazotrophic bacterium. A. diazotrophicus is a selected strain fixing as high as 300 kg N/ha providing a hope for complete elimination of the requirement of chemical nitrogen. Acetobacter is an endophyte living inside the plant tissue. A quantity of 5 kg carrier based inoculants is suspended in sufficient quantity of water and sugarcane setts are dipped in suspension for 30-60 minutes. The bacterium enters through the damaged tissue of setts. Once the bacteria are properly established in plants, further planting can be done by using such infected cane setts. A.diazotrophicus also produces indole acetic acid (IAA) growth hormone influencing the development of canes. Glucoacetobacter Glucoacetobacter diazophoricus is also a nitrogen fixing bacterium inhabiting roots, stem and leaves of sugarcane plants having endophytic colonization. The nitrogen is fixed efficiently as the plant directly provides photosynthates for them and low oxygen environment created which favours nitrogenase enzyme. The cane growth is also enhanced due to IAA production.
AM fungi
Burkholderia sp.
An Arbuscular Mycorrhiza (AM) fungus is an excellent biofertilizer. They accelerate the plant growth, nutrient uptake specially P and Zn, reduce soil borne diseases and increase productivity. They establish hyphal association with cortex of root and increase surface area for nutrient absorption and exchange. Its association increases nodulation due to nitrogen fixing bacteria in leguminous plants. The important genera are Glomus, Gigaspora, Aculospora, Endogone etc. The commonly
Burkholderia sp. is a promising endophytic diazotroph for sugarcane as it not only contributes nitrogen but also produces IAA which enhances growth. Revathi et al. (2005) conducted basic and applied research on Burkholderia sp. in Tamilnadu.
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microbes (PSM) and Phosphate mobilizing microbes (VAM); Potash mobilizing microbes, Frateuria aurentia; Zinc and Sulphur solubilising bacteria (Thiobacillus spp.) and Manganese solublizers (Penicillium citrinus). Dormant Aqueous suspensions are also formulated in which growth suppressants, contaminant suppressants are used. Dormant oil suspensions are also available. The details are given in the booklet (Krishan Chandra et al. 2005).
found species of Glomus with crops in India are G. monosporum, G. fasciculatum, G. epigacum, G. mossae, G. constrictum. AM fungi are obligate parasites hence they are maintained on living hosts. Species of Glomus have been reported in association with maize, soybean, chickpea, sorghum, mungbean, wheat, groundnut, cotton etc. The hyphae of AM fungi possess surface acid phosphatases which help in solubilizing organic and inorganic phosphate, the phosphate so released is efficiently absorbed at the root-soil interface. These fungi also produce hydroxamate, siderophores that chelate micronutrients Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn resulting in more availability to plants (Dey 2006).
Biointensive disease and insect pest management It is essential to control diseases and insect pests by nonchemical means to avoid the use of hazardous chemical fungicides and pesticides. Cultural, physical and biological methods including cropping system approach to avoid diseases and pests are preferred. Besides the use of microorganisms, parasites, predators, pheromone traps etc. botanicals are of great use in controlling pathogens and insect pests. Khare (2005) has dealt with production, use and quality control of biopesticides for organic agriculture.
Though the vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi are obligate parasites, they are symbiotic as host plant provides nutrients to the fungus and the fungus provides phosphorus to the plant roots. On infection they form characteristic arbuscules and vesicles in plant roots. Vesicles serve as storage organ and arbuscules as interface between host root and fungus for exchange of carbohydrates and phosphates. Hence, mycorrhizal fungi also contribute in increasing drought tolerance, uptake of some micronutrients, nodulation due to Rhizobium in legumes as disease resistance. They also protect plant roots from toxicity of heavy metals. The mycorrhizal fungi have been found useful in legumes, cereals, potato, Lucerne, vegetable crops, fruit crops, plantation crops, ornamentals and orchids. Mycorrhizal fungi biofertilizers are available as soil root mix or as carrier based spore formulations and are used as seed treatment in agricultural crops and as soil treatment in nursery beds in horticulture crops, fruit trees and forestry plants.
Microorganisms in crop disease control A number of microorganisms reduce the survival and activity of plant pathogens through their interactions. Many are used against soil-borne pathogens as they make the soil inhospitable for such pathogens through antagonism, fungistasis, competition, hyperparasitism, toxic exudates, lytic enzymes, antibiotic production etc. They make the rhizosphere zone inconducive for pathogens. Important soil borne pathogens are species of Fusarium, Sclerotium, Sclerotinia, Rhizoctonia bataticola, R. solani, Pythium, Phytophthora causing wilt, collar rot, stem rot, charcoal rot, root rot, damping off, seedling rot respectively in various crops. The antagonistic fungi to these pathogens are Trichoderma viride, T. harzianum,T. virens, T. lignorum, T. hamatum, T. longibrachiatum, Gliocladium virens, G. roseum. These are applied into the soil directly or through seeds (Khare and Jharia 2002). Seeds are also treated with these antagonists to control seed borne pathogens. Some species of trichoderma are used as spray to check foliar diseases. Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) which include fluorescent psuedomonads like Psuedomonas fluorescens and Bacillus spp. are highly antagonistic to fungal, bacterial, viral pathogens (Singh et al. 2006; Mall 2004).
Actinorrhizae About 200 plant species belonging to 19 genera and 8 families are actinorrhizal plants which nodulate with a nitrogen fixing actinomycetes, Frankia can fix upto 150 kg/ha N depending on the host plant, symbiotic actinorrhiza and the environmental conditions. N fixation occurs in terminal swellings of the hyphae called vesicle (Dey 2006). Liquid biofertizers The liquid formulations of biofertilizers have long shelf life or more than two years, zero contamination, quality controlled and easy to apply. These are available as Nitrogen fixing microbes (NFM); Phosphorus solubilizing
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Use of AM fungi
produce lethal septicemia (Dhaliwal and Arora 2000). Several formulations are available under different trade names, like Delfin, Spicturin,Biolep HALT etc.
The Arbuscular Mycorrhizal fungi grow in association of roots of various crops. The term mycorrhiza was introduced by A.B.Frank in 1885 which is a Greek word meaning 'fungus root'. They live as symbionts. AM fungi provide greater tolerance to toxic heavy metals, root pathogens, drought, high soil temperature, soil salinity, and adverse soil pH and transplantation shock. Their association results in better growth of plants. They act as biocontrol agent against root pathogens-fungi, bacteria and nematodes like species of Phytophthora , Fusarium, Rhizoctonia, Sclerotium, Pythium, Pseudomonas syringae, P. solanacearum, Meloidogyne, Tylenchulus semipenetrans, Pratylenchus, Radopholus similis etc. (Bagyraj 2006).
Predators and Parasitoides The eggs and larvae of predators are released in the field for the control of insect pests. Chrysoperla carnea is released as egg or larva @ 1000/acre in cotton ecosystem to control cotton insect pests. Cryptolaemus montrouzieri adults or grubs are released @ 600/acre to control pests of grapevine and coffee. Adonia variegata, Brumoides suturalis, Monochilus sexmaculatus, Micraspis discolour, Nephus regularis, Saynus coccivora, Propylea dissecta etc, are also used as predators against insect pests.
Among bacteria the plant growth promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) like fluorescent psuedomonadsPsuedomonas fluorescens and species of Bacillus like, B. subtilis, B. putida, B .cereus, B. circulans etc. are also used as antagonistic to plant pathogens.
Trichogramma chilonis an egg parasitoid is released @ 2,40,000/acre in pupal or adult stage to control cotton boll worm. T. chhilonis and T. japonicum are used against sugarcane top shoot borer and rice yellow stem borer @ 1,00,000/acre. Goniozus nephantidis and Bracon brevicornis are released @ 1200/acre for controlling coconut caterpillar (Opisinia arenosella) as larval parasitoid. Epiricana melanoleuca introduction has given good control of Pyrilla perpusella by releasing 4 to 5 thousand Cocoons and 4-5 lakhs eggs/ha. Other parasitoids used are Apanteles angaleti, Brachymeria nephantidis, Copidosoma koehleri, Leptomastic dactylopii, Telenomus remus etc. (Gautam 1992).
Biocontrol of insect pests Insects damaging crops are controlled by biopesticides like fungi, bacteria, viruses, nematodes and predators and parasitoids. More than 750 fungal species belonging to about 100 genera are entomopathogenic. Metarhizium anisopliae has a wide range of insect pests belonging to Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Diptera, Homoptera, mosquito and brown plant hopper of rice. Beauvaria brassiana against white grubs, corn borer, pine beetle, Helicoverpa, Spotoptera spp; Verticillium lecanii to control Homopher like Aphids, white flies, Scale insects etc.; Verticillium chlamadosporium against subterranean pests, cysts of nematodes etc.; Entemopthora spp. to control Aphids. Several bacteria are used as pesticides. Pseudomonas aeruginosa is used against green hoppers; P. septica against scarabacid beetles, striped ambrosia beetle; Vibrio leonardii to check wax moth, European corn borer; Bacillus thirungiensis controls insect pests of four orders Lepidoptera, Diptera, Coleoptera and Acarina; B. cereus against butterflies and moths, B. popillae, B. lentimorbus to control scarabacid beetles; Clostridium novyi, C. perfringgens to check wax moth.
Baculoviruses These are Nuclear polyhedrosis viruses (NPV) with species specific, narrow spectrum insecticidal application. They have no negative effect on plants, mammals, birds, fish and non-target insects. Baculoviruses are generally unaffected by pesticides, although some chlorine compounds damage them if applied at the same time. More than 50 Baculovirus products are in use to control different insect pests worldwide. The use of Anticarsia gemmetalis NPV (AgMNPV) to control A. gemmetalis in soybean in Brazil has been most successful (Moscardi 2007). In china Helicoverpa armigera SNPV(HaSNPV) was produced and used in cotton, soybean, pigeonpea, maize, tomato crops, was first authorized as commercial microbial insecticide in 1993 (Sun and Peng 2007). In India Nuclearpolyhedrosis viruses (NPV) and Granulovirus (GV) are used against Helicoverpa armigera, Spodoptera litura as they are highly virulent, non
Bt is a crystalliferous, spore former, produces parasporal crystal which contain delta-endotoxin. After entry into the insect it changes to active toxins which kill the insects. The bacteria also invade the haemocoel from the gut and
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insect larvae besides other insects. It is useful against root weevils like black vine weevil. Heterorhabditis magidis is cold tolerant attacking insects even below 150C. It controls black vine weevil and soil insects. Tetradonema pelicans checks sciarid flies and insect pests of mushrooms. Neoaplectana carpocapsae infects insect pests of ten different orders. One strain DD-136 is used to control insect pests of orchards, vegetables and field crops.
polluting and ecofriendly. Liquid and wettable powder formulations are mostly used. The cultivators know the technique to make the liquid formulation in the field (Narayanan 2005; Easwaramoorthy 2005). Codling moth granulosis virus (cyd-Xa) is used against codling moth in apple, pear, walnut, plum, cabbage army worm nuclear polyhedrosis virus (memestrin) against cabbage moth, potato tuber moth, grape berry moth in cabbage, tomato, cotton; Spodoptera littoralis nuclear plyhedrosis (Sodopterin) against Spodoptera littoralis in cotton, corn, tomato; S.exigua nuclear polyhedrosis virus (Spod-x) against beet armyworm (S.exigua) in vegetables, green house flowers; Helicoverpa zea nuclear polyhedrosis virus (Gemstar Lc, Biotrol, Elcar) against tobacco budworm H.zea, cotton bollworm, H. virescens in cotton and vegetables; Autographa californica nuclear polyhedrosis virus (Gusano Biological Pesticide) against Alfalfa looper (Autographa californica) in Alfalfa etc.
Protozoa Many protozoa are pathogenic attacking the insects and making them weak affecting their vigour, longevity and fertility. Farinocystis triboli is pathogenic on Tribolium castaneum, Nosema lacustae on grasshoppers, Vairimorpha nectaris infects 36 lepidopteran pests (Dhariwal and Arora 2006).
In China 13 viral insecticides were registered and released into market as pesticides, including nine NPV, three GV, one densonucleosis virus (DNV) and one Cytoplasmic polyhedrosis virus (CPV) (Yang et al. 2012).
Botanicals in insect pest and disease control According to Dev and Koul (1997) about 2400 plants from 189 families possess insecticidal properties. Pyrethrins, rotenone, nicotine, syanodin, sabadilla, neem based products with azadirachtin like Ozoneem, Trishul, Margocide OK, Godrej Achook, Nimbicidin, Bioneem, Neemark, Neem gold, Neemam, Rakshak, Econeema, Limnool, RD-9 repelin, Neemezal are all plant products used as insecticides. Neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) , neem leaf extract, neem cake powder are also used as pesticides. Essential oils with mono and sesquiterpenoides are insect toxins, repellent and deterrents like cinnamate, Valero, Eco PCO, Rosemary oil which are used against aphids, whiteflies, thrips and mites on a number of crops (Koul, 2003; Pawar and Singh 1993).
Nematodes Entomopathogenic nematodes parasitize insects and are characterized by certain properties like, they are specialized to carry and introduce symbiotic bacteria into the insect hemocoel; have broad host range; can be cultured artificially for fast multiplication; limited impact on nontarget organisms and are not disruptive to the environment. These are mostly soil-inhabiting nematodes most effective to control soil borne insect pests. Steinernema carpocapsae is effective against lepidopterous larvae including webworms, cutworms, armyworms, girdlers, weevils, wood borers. The preferred temperature range is 22-280C (Hussaini 2005). Steinernema foltiae is effective against dipterons insects like mushroom flies, fungus gnats, tipulids and lepidopterous larvae. It is effective even at 100C. It controls Spodoptera litura and H. armigera (Dhaliwal and Arora 2000). Steinernema kushidai parasitizes scarab larvae. Steinernema scapterisci is effectively controls mole crickets. Steinernema riobrave is used against citrus root weevils. Steinernema glaseri is harmful to Coleopterous larvae particularly scarabs. Heterorhabditis indica was first reported from India. It is heat tolerant, infects insects at 300C and above and is useful against Helicoverpa armigera. Heterorhabditis bacteriophora attacks lepidopterous and coleopterous
The plants contain chemicals antipathogenic to plant pathogens with reference in Vrakshayurveda written by Surpala (Sadhale, 1996). For the last many years the plants have been used to control plant pathogens and diseases caused by them. The active principle involved in mode of action has been isolated and identified. Khare and Shukla (1998) and Khare et al. (2012) have reviewed the work on plants used to control crop diseases. Mawar and Lodha (2008) have also listed some plants used to control plant pathogens. Various parts of plants like bark, stem, root, kernel, flowers, pollen grains, bulbs, rhizomes, corms, seed etc. are used in this endeavor. Plant products used are oils, oilcakes, resins, latex etc. The commonly used formulations are cold water extracts, hot water extracts,
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and organic solvent extracts of plant parts fresh or dry. Leaf powder, resins, plant latex are collected and used as such or after dilution.
synthetic inputs are avoided and promotes and enhances agro-ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity and is accomplished by using on-farm agronomic, biological and mechanical methods. In India organic agriculture was promoted from January 1994 when "Sewagram Declaration" was made. Several states have formulated policies for development of organic agriculture. Sikkim and Nagaland states are total organic and defined organic pathway and policies. Various methods have been evolved for production of high quality manures, biodegrading microorganisms, biofertilzers, biocontrol agents which are useful in sustainable crop production under organic farming. Advances have been made in microbial technology to support organic farming. Investigations are underway to explore better and beneficial strains of microorganisms for sustainable organic agriculture besides other methods.
Seed treatment of wheat by stem, leaf flower extracts of Chrysanthemum roseum and C. caronarium at 100 percent concentration for 30 and 60 minutes checked 12 seed borne fungi completely. Leaf extract of Mentha piperita reduced seed borne Drechslera oryzae in rice. Seed treatment with oil of Cymbopogon citratus controlled Colletotrichum garminicola in sorghum. Seed treatment of lentil with neem bitter extract controlled Fusarium moniliforme, F. oxysporum and F. semitectum associated with seed. Besides seed treatment diseases on standing crops have been controlled by the application of plant formulations (Khare et al. 2012). Chilli fruit rot due to Aspergillus niger was effectively controlled by three successive sprays of partially purified metabolic extract of bitter temru fruit (Diospyros cordifolia Roxb.) and Datura leaves (Bagri et al. 2011). They have described the method of making fruit extract of bitter temru in detail. Prasad and Simlot (1983) also found bitter temru extract quite effective against Fusarium udum causing wilt of pigeonpea.
References Bagri RK, Yadav RK, Singh D, Choudhary, SL, Jain KL (2011) Antifungal activity of partially purified plant products against fruit rot of chilli caused by Aspergillus niger. J Mycol Plant Pathol 41:391-394 Bagyaraj DJ (2006) VA mycorrhizal fungi and their role in plant disease control. In Current Status of Biological Control of Plant Diseases using Antagonistic Organisms in India. Eds. Ramanujam B, Rabindra RJ, Project Directorate of Biological Control, Bangalore. p 125-134 Chattopadhyay GN (2006) Use of earthworms in sustaining soil productivity. In Organic Farming: Resurgence of Indian Traditional Agriculture. Ed. Bisoyi RN Regional Centre of Organic Farming, Govt. of India, Bhubaneswar. p 20-29 Deshpande MV (2005) Formulations and Application of Mycopathogens. In Microbial Biopesticide Formulations and Application. Eds. Rabindra RJ, Hussaini SS, Ramanujam B, Project Directorate of Biological Control, Bangalore. p 150-158 Dev S, Koul O (1997) Insecticides of Natural Origin. Harwood Academic Publishers Amsterdam Dey P (2006) Organic farming in Horticulture: Principles and Practices. In Organic Framing: Resurgence of Indian Traditional Agriculture. Ed. Bisoyi RN Regional Centre of Organic Farming, Govt. of India Bhubaneswar p 37-44 Dhaliwal GS, Arora R (2000) Principles of Insect Pest Management. Kalyani Publishers Ludhiana p 297 Easwaramoorthy S (2005) Granulovirus formulations in pest management in India. In Microbial Biopesticide Formulations and Application. Eds. Rabindra RJ, Hussaini SS, Ramanujam B, Project Directorate of Biological Control, Bangalore p 41-48 Gautam, RD (1992) Biocontrol of insects, pests and diseases.
Besides fungal pathogens, bacteria, nematodes and viruses can also be controlled by botanicals (Khare et al. 2012). Sustainability in organic agriculture Agricultural produce from organic farming is being preferred for human consumption. To meet the ever increasing demand sustainability in organic agriculture is a must. It is based on locally available natural sources. The seed and planting material should be grown organically and should be certified. Synthetic inputs should not be used. Properly processed manures are used. To build up soil fertility green manurring is a must. Crop rotation, intercropping, mixed cropping; mulching should be followed as per need. For plant protection synthetic materials should not be used, biological control with antagonists, botanicals, cultural, physical practices should be adopted. Care is needed during harvesting, transport and storage. Prescribed Certification procedure must be followed. The usual crop production programme involves a lot of synthetic inputs which affect the produce endangering the human life. The use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, weedicides hormones deteriorates the environment. The residual and nontarget affects of chemicals used spoil the produce and kill the beneficial microflora. Organic farming is a system in which
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In National Seminar on Organic farming. Eds. Rai MM, Verma, LN, JNKVV, College of Agriculture, Indore. p 40-49 Hussaini SS (2005) Formulations of entomopathogenic nematodes. In Microbial Biopesticide Formulations and Application. Eds. Rabindra RJ, Hussaini SS, Ramanujam B, Project Directorate of Biological Control, Bangalore. p 159-167 Kabi MC (2006) Principles and practices of different types of composting and its utility in organic farming. In strategies for Successful Organic Farming Ed. Bisoyi RN Regional Centre of Organic Farming, Govt. of India Bhubaneswar. p 19-24 Khare MN, Shukla BN (1998) Utility of Plants in Crop Disease Control. Vasundhara 3:1-15 Khare MN, Jharia HK (2002) Trichoderma: a potential biocontrol agent against seed and soil borne pathogens for sustainable crop production. In Plant Pest Management. Ed. Trivedi PC Avishkar Publishers. Distributors, Jaipur. p 262 -277 Khare MN (2005) Production, use and quality control of biopesticides. Organic Agriculture. Chief Editor Bisayi RN, Regional Centre of Organic Farming, Jabalpur p 45-47 Khare MN, Tiwari SP, Sangvikar Roopa V (2012) Botanicals in crop disease control. In Modern Trends in Microbial Biodiversity of Natural Ecosystem. Eds. Sinha A, Sharma BK, Srivastava M, Biotech Books, New Delhi. p 455-492 Koul O (2003) Utilization of plant products in pest management: A global perspective. In Proceedings of the National Symposium on Frontier Areas of Entomological Research, IARI, New Delhi. p 331341 Krishan Chandra, Greep S, Ravindranath, Srivathsa, RSH (2005) Liquid Biofertilizers. Regional Centre of Organic Farming, Bangalore. p 64 Mahajan SS, Kumawat RN, Mertia RS (2011) Organic seed production of cluster bean (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba L.) with foliar application of Panchgavya and plant leaf extracts. Seed Res. 39:28-33 Mall S (2004) Microbial technology in sustainable agriculture. In Advances in Biotechnological Research. Eds. More DR, Baig MMV Lal Bahadur Shstri College , Dharmabad, MS. India. p 33-40 Mawar R, Lodha S (2008) Yes! Our sick soils can be cured eco-friendly. In Disease Management in Arid Lands. Eds. Lodha S, Mawar R, Rathore BS Scientific Publishers (India) Jodhpur. p 379-430. Mishra HP (2006) Biological pest management in organic farming. Ed. Bisoyi, R.N. Regional Centre of Organic Farming, Govt. of India, Bhubaneswar. p 25-30
Mosccardi F (2007) A Nucleo-polyhedro-virus for control of the velvet bean caterpillar in Brazilian soybeans. In Biological Control: A Global Perspective, Eds. C Vincent MS, Goethel, G. Lazarovits, Oxford shine, UK and Cambridge, USA: CAB International. pp 344352 Narayanan K (2005) Current Status of Baculovirus Formulations and Application in India. Eds. Rabindra RJ, Hussaini SS, Ramanujam B, Project Directorate of Biological Control, Bangalore. p 27-40 Panda D (2006) Biological nutrient management in organic farming. Ed. Bisoyi RN Regional Centre of Organic Farming, Govt of India, Bhubaneswar. p 46-53 Pawar AD, Singh B (1993) Prospects of Botanicals and Biopesticides. In Botanical and Biopesticide. Eds. Parmar BS, Dev Kumar C. p 188-196 Prasad B, Simlot MM (1983) Efficacy of Temru preparation against Fusarium udum. J Mycol Plant Pathol 13:1519 Revathi G, Govindrajan M, Vadivelu M, Lakshminarasimham C, Muthukumarasamy R (2005) Burkholderi sp.Another promising endophytic diazotroph for sugarcane. Biofertilizer Newsletter. 13: 3-13 Sadhale Nalini (1996) Surpala's Vrikhayurveda. Asian AgriHistory Foundation, Secunderabad. p 104 Selveraj N (2006) Dasgavya: Organic growth promoter for plants. In The Hindu. p 18 Singh US, Zaidi NW, Joshi D, Varshney S, Khan T (2006) Current status of Trichoderma spp. for the biological control of plant diseases. Eds. Ramanujam B, Rabindra RJ Project Directorate of Biological Control, Bangalore. p 13-48 Sun XL, Peng H (2007) Recent advances in biological pest insects by using viruses in China. Virol. Sin. 22:158162 Vishwanath K, Prashanth, HM, Pallavi Reddy A, Sultana BS, Dudresh, DL (2008) Organic seed production- A flourishing industry. Rashtriya Krishi 3(1):7-8 Yadav AK (2007) Organic Agriculture- going main stream. National centre of Organic Farming, Ghaziabad. p 38 Yang MM, Li ML, Zhang Y, Wang YZ, Qu, LJ, Wang QH, Ding JY (2012) Baculoviruses and insect pests control in China. African J. Microbiology Research, 6: 214-218. Zhang GY, Sun XL, Zhang ZX, Zhang ZF, Wan FF (1995) Production and effectiveness of new formulation of Helicoverpa virus pesticides-emulsifiable suspension. Virol. Sin. 10: 242-247
(Manuscript Receivd : 16.02.2012; Accepted 20.06.2012)
10
JNKVV Res J 46(1): 11-17 (2012)
Estimation of seed, feed and wastage ratios for wheat production in Rewa district of Madhya Pradesh S.K. Gupta and P.K. Mishra Office of the Dean Faculty of Agriculture and Directorate of Instruction Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya Jabalpur 482 004 (MP)
Abstract
of the total cultivated area is under foodgrains (cereals and pulses). Foodgrains production has increased fourfold since independence, from 51 million tonnes during 1950-51 to 212.85 million tonnes during 200102. Of all the food articles, foodgrains constitute the most significant part of the Indian diet. Nearly 60 per cent of an average Indian's income gets spent on foodgrains. Due to increased foodgrains production, the net per capita availability of foodgrains increased from about 395 grams per day in 1951 to 455 gms/day in 2000.
Wheat crop was selected as this crop occupied highest area in cereal groups in Rewa district for estimation of seed, feed and wastage ratios. From Rewa district, four tehsils / blocks were selected on the basis of highest area under wheat crop. From each block, five villages were selected and from each village a sample of 15 farmers (5 each from small, medium and large size) was randomly selected. In this way, a total of 300 farmers (100 farmers from each size group) from 20 villages of 04 tehsils / blocks were selected. Simple averages and percentages were used for estimation of seed, feed and wastage ratios for wheat production. For the production of wheat crops, the quantity of seed used by the farmers was 4.93 per cent of the current year's production and kept 5.63 per cent grains as seed for the next year. Considering all size groups, the quantity of seed kept for next year's production was more than the quantity of seed used for current year's production. The overall production and disposal of wheat showed that 16.11 per cent grains was used for domestic consumption and 5.80 per cent grains kept as seed for next year's production. The grain used as animal feed was 3.43 per cent and poultry feed was 0.28 per cent of the total production. The marketed surplus of wheat was 57.64 per cent. Marketed surplus was lowest in case of small group and highest in case of large group of farm. The total wastage of wheat grain in small, medium and large size groups came to 8.17, 6.84 and 5.88 per cent respectively. The losses was highest in small group and lowest in large group. The overall quantity retained for seed, feed and wastage decreases as the size of farm increases.
India is the third largest producer of wheat in the world. The production of wheat has increased from 6.18 million tonnes in 1951-52 to 71.81 million tonnes (about 1062 per cent) in 2001-02, Net per capita availability of wheat increased from 65.7 gms. per capita per day in 1951 to 164.4 gms. per capita per day in 2002. In india, the trend regression of the per capita availability of cereals and foodgrains indicates that in the recent years, the growth rate has showed down in foodgrains and negative in pulses. This has resulted in stagnancy in per capita availability of foodgrains. This was due to relatively stagnant of only marginal increase in the production and steady increase in population. The recent slow down in the grain output raises concerns about the growth of agricultural sector. It has been estimated that India's demand for foodgrains in 2020 will be 351 million tonnes assuming 5.5 per cent growth in per capita income. If economic growth is also accompanied by significant reduction in the proportion of poor people, demand could further increase to 370 million tonnes by 2020. Therefore, the surging growth of demand for food must be met with largely through technological change in agriculture because of the limited option to expand the land area.
Keywords: Wheat grain, seed, feed, wastage and marketed surplus More than 70 per cent of population of India lives in rural areas where the main occupation is agriculture. In India, agriculture continues to be the engine of economic growth. Over the last century, productivity has been a major focus of agricultural research as feeding the population was the major concern. Around 66 per cent
Safe storage of foodgrains is as important as production of foodgrains. However, storage losses still continue to be quite high in India. The state of Madhya
11
Pradesh is no exception. Recognizing the fact, the Department of Food of the Government of India in cooperation with the State Government launched the "Save Grain Compaign" (SGC) in Madhya Pradesh in 1973. This programme (SGC) needs more attention of the Government so that every grain which is produced with a hard labour and high cost could be preserved and made available for consumption without affecting its quality and quantity.
The reference year for the study was agricultural year 2007-08.Both primary and secondary data were collected. Primary data was collected from the sample farmers and secondary data was collected from Agricultural Statistics, at a glance, Economic Survey, Annual Reports of various Ministries / Departments of the Government of Madhya Pradesh, Bhopal and Government of India. The data published in reputed english newspapers / magazines and reports have also been used in the study. Simple averages and percentages were used for the estimation of seed (used and kept for next year), feed (feed fed to bovines and poultry) and wastage ratios for wheat production at different stages.
In a country like India, where about 26 per cent of the population live below poverty line, these foodgrains losses are a criminal wastage. There is no doubt that these losses can not be brought at the zero level but can be significantly reduced through better management and infrastructure. The specific objectives of the study are : to estimate the total quantity of wheat consumed for seed, feed and wastage, and; to estimate the net availability of wheat for human consumption.
Results and discussion The total number of farmers in the selected villages of Rewa district was 4,230. Of this the highest number (3,066) of farmers belonged to small size group followed by medium size group (747 farmers) and large size group (417 farmers). The average size of holding of the district was 3.20 ha In small group, the average size of holding was 0.76 ha, followed by medium group (2.61 ha) and large group (6.24 ha). None of the farmers adopted the practice of leased in / leased out of land. The overall net cropped area (per household) of the district was 3.37 ha and gross cropped area (per household) was 6.24 ha The overall cropping intensity of the district was 185.16 per cent. The cropping intensity of small group was 191 per cent followed by medium group (182.45 per cent) and large group (185.71 per cent). Of the total number of farmers in the selected villages (4230), 300 farmers (100 from each group i.e. small, medium and large) were selected. The overall average size of holding of the selected farms was 3.45 ha In the case of small group, the average size of holding was 1.01 ha followed by medium farms (3.06 ha) and large farms (6.28 ha) Table-1.
Methodology For the study, Madhya Pradesh State was selected purposively. Out of 48 districts of the state, Rewa district was selected for cereals as the area under cereals was highest in the district. Wheat crop was selected for this study as this crop occupied highest area in cereal groups in Rewa district. A three stage stratified random sampling design was used to select the blocks, villages and farmers of Rewa district. From Rewa district, four tehsils / blocks were selected on the basis of highest area under wheat crops. From each selected blocks, a list of all the villages was prepared and 5 villages were selected from each block in consultation with the Deputy Director of Agriculture and SDO of Agriculture of the Rewa district. Further, from each of the selected village, a list of farmers was prepared. The farmers were grouped in to three size groups viz. small (0.0 to 2.00 ha), medium (2.01 to 4.00 ha) and large (above 4.00 ha). Then, a sample of 15 farmers (5 small, 5 medium and 5 large) from each village was randomly selected. In this way, a sample of 75 farmers from 5 villages were selected and a total of 300 farmers (100 farmers from each size group) from 20 villages of 4 tehsils / blocks were selected.
Cropping Pattern The main crops grown by the sample farmers of Rewa District were paddy, soybean, urd and arhar in kharif and wheat, gram, masoor, barley and linseed in rabi season. The area under wheat was highest in all the size groups. The overall gross cropped area of the sample farms was 1867.89 ha Of this, 32.10 per cent area (599.99 ha) was under wheat followed by paddy (26.49 per cent), gram (11.24 per cent), soybean (10.60 per cent), masoor (7.54 per cent), urad (6.58 per cent), arhar (2.25 per cent), barley (1.28 per cent) and linseed
Data on household members, land inventory, crop inventory, animal inventory, area and production of wheat were collected from each selected farmers. Information of seed, feed for bovines (cattle + buffaloes + poultry) and wastage (by various ways) of wheat production were collected from all the selected farmers by using a well designed pre-tested questionnaire by personal interview method.
12
Table 1. Selection of farmers from four tehsils/blocks and 20 villages of Rewa district for wheat Stratum Tehsils
Name of Taluka/blocks
Name of the selected villages
Total number of farmers in the village
Raipur Karchuliyan
Raipur Karchuliyan
Hanumana
Hanumana
Sirmour
Sirmour
Rewa
Hazoor
Etaura Mahsua Navagaon Sonaura Varrehi Alva Khurd Majhigawa Masuriha Noun kala Salaiya Delahi Gaura Kanji Karaudaha Nakta Azgarha Khadda Khaur Kothi Vasi
139 139 126 198 462 120 182 114 536 265 458 194 139 114 85 202 107 108 217 325 4230
Total
Total No. of farmers selected Small Medium Large 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 100
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 100
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 100
Table 2. Size class wise distribution of number of farmers and average size of holding for wheat crop, Rewa district Size of holding
No. of farmers in the village
Av. size of holding
Leased in/ out area as % of total area
Net cropped area (av.)
Gross cropped area (av.) per HH
No. of sample farmers selected
(Nos)
(Ha)
(%)
Per HH
(Ha)
(Nos)
Av. size of holding selected sample farmers (Ha)
Small Medium Large
3,066 747 417
0.76 2.61 6.24
0 0 0
0.99 3.02 6.09
1.89 5.51 11.31
100 100 100
1.01 3.06 6.28
Total
4,230
3.20
0
3.37
6.24
300
3.45
(0.96 per cent). In small group, kharif crops occupied 46.23 per cent area and rabi crops occupied 53.77 per cent area of the gross cropped area. Similarly, in medium group, the area occupied by kharif crops was 45.02 per cent and rabi crops was 54.98 per cent. In large group, 46.08 per cent area was under kharif crop and remaining 53.92 per cent area was under rabi crops. The cropping pattern of Rewa district was rabi crops dominated and wheat was the major crop of this district
which occupied highest area in cropping pattern (Table 3). Seed requirement In small size group the total area under wheat for the selected farmers was 78.56 hectares and total production was 1,86,650 kg. For the production of
13
Table 3. Cropping pattern of the sample farmers of Rewa district Sizeof holding
Area share and the crop (proportion to GCA) per cent Crops Paddy
Small Medium Large All
Soybean
Urd
Arhar
Wheat
Gram
Masoor
Vege-tables
Barley
Linseed
GCA (In ha.)
65.51
4.12
15.49
1.30
78.56
9.35
6.26
3.00
1.13
1.18
185.90
(35.48)
(2.15)
(8.06)
(0.54)
(42.48)
(4.84)
(3.23)
(1.61)
(0.54)
(1.07)
(100.00)
139.90
62.69
35.06
11.15
175.46
63.03
36.10
6.61
10.73
10.33
551.06
(25.42)
(11.25)
(6.35)
(2.00)
(31.94)
(11.43)
(6.53)
(1.27)
(1.81)
(2.00)
(100.00)
291.53
131.23
70.26
28.33
345.97
135.09
99.27
9.65
12.92
6.68
1130.93
(25.74)
(11.67)
(6.19)
(2.48)
(30.59)
(12.02)
(8.75)
(0.88)
(1.15)
(0.53)
(100.00)
496.94
198.04
120.81
40.78
599.99
207.47
141.63
19.26
24.78
18.19
1867.89
(26.49)
(10.60)
(6.58)
(2.25)
(32.10)
(11.24)
(7.54)
(0.96)
(1.28)
(0.96)
(100.00)
Note:- Figures in brackets denotes percentage to gross cropped area
wheat, small farmers used 9,589 kg. of seed from previous year's production and kept 10,050 kg. of seed from current year's production. The percentage quantity of seed used with current year's total production was 5.14 and kept 5.38 per cent seed from current year's production for the next year. In medium group, the area under wheat was 175.46 hectares and production was 4,39,300 kg. The farmers of this group used 21,704 kg. of seed which was 4.94 per cent of the current year's production of wheat. They kept 6.30 per cent seed for next year's production. The large size farmers covered 345.97 hectare of land under wheat crop and produced 8,93,600 kg. of wheat. For the production of wheat crop, the quantity of seed used by farmers was 44,075kg., i.e. 4.93 per cent of the current year's production and kept 5.63 per cent grains as seed for the next year. In all size groups, the quantity of seed kept for next year's production was more than the quantity of seed used for the current year's production (Table 4).
1866.50 qtls. Of this 39.60 per cent quantity of wheat was used for home consumption purpose and 5.39 per cent grains was kept for seed purpose for the next year's production. The produce used as animal and poultry feed was 5.18 per cent and 0.46 per cent respectively. The marketed surplus of wheat in small group was 35.69 per cent and marketable surplus was 46.46 per cent of the total quantity of wheat produced. In medium size group, the selected farmers produced 4,393 qtl. wheat. The farmers of this group kept 19.09 per cent grains for home consumption and kept 6.27 per cent grains as a seed for the next year's production. Nearly 4.59 per cent and 0.56 per cent of wheat production was kept for animal and poultry feed respectively. About 4.23 per cent of the produce was given to labour as kind wages. The marketed surplus of wheat was estimated to be 51.88 per cent. The total production of wheat in large size group was 8936.00 qtls. The farmers of this group kept 5.61 per cent grains as seed for next year's production and 9.72 per cent produce for home consumption. Of the total production of wheat, 2.52 per
Production and disposal of wheat In small size group, the total production of wheat was Table 4. Seed requirement for wheat, Rewa district Size of holding
Area (ha.)
Production (Kg.)
Quantity of Seed (Kg.) Used
Kept
Percentage quantity of seed with production (%) Used Kept
Small Medium Large
78.56 175.46 345.97
1,86,650 4,39,300 8,93,600
9,589 21,704 44,075
10,050 27,700 50,300
5.14 4.94 4.93
5.38 6.30 5.63
All
599.99
15,19,550
75,368
88,050
4.96
5.79
Note: Seed used means seed from previous year's production, seed kept means seed kept from current year's production
14
Wastage of wheat at harvest and post harvest stages
cent grains was used by animal as feed and 0.12 per cent grains was used by poultry as a feed. The marketed surplus of wheat in this group was 64.96 per cent of the total produce. The overall picture of production and disposal of wheat showed that 16.11 per cent grains was used as home consumption and 5.80 per cent grains kept for next year's production. The grains used as animal feed was 3.43 per cent and poultry feed was 0.28 per cent of the total production. The marketed surplus of wheat was 57.64 per cent.
The total production of wheat in small size group was 1,86,650 kg. Nearly 2.29 per cent loss of grain was observed during harvesting of crop. Wastage of grains due to rats, dampness and insect pest was 3.12 per cent of the total produce. During home consumption, the loss was 0.85 per cent. Nearly 0.36 per cent feed left as unconsumed by animals and poultry during feeding. The total loss was observed in small group was 8.17 per cent. Mostly the ratio of losses during harvesting, threshing, grain left in straw and transportation are similar in all the size groups. The losses during storage was highest in small groups (3.12 per cent) and lowest in large size group (1.60 per cent). In medium group the losses during storage was 2.28 per cent. Similar trend in losses of grains was observed during home consumption and animal and poultry feed. The total wastage of wheat grains in small, medium and large groups came to 8.17 per cent, 6.84 per cent and 5.88 per
It was observed that the quantity of marketed surplus increases as the size of farms increased. It was lowest in small group and highest in large group. Similar trend was observed in the case of wages given to labour. In the case of home consumption, the picture was opposite. The quantity of produce kept for home consumption was maximum in small group and lowest in large size group (Table 5).
Table 5. Production and disposal of wheat in different size of holdings, Rewa district (Quantity in quintals) Size of holding
Total production (qtl)
Small
1,866.50
95.89
100.50
0
0
739.00
54.50
96.50
9.00
867.00
666.00
(100.00)
(5.13)
(5.39)
0
0
(39.60)
(2.90)
(5.18)
(0.46)
(46.46)
(35.69)
4,393.00
217.04
277.00
0
0
841.00
187.00
202.00
24.00
(100.00)
(4.91)
(6.27)
0
0
(19.09)
(4.23)
(4.59)
(0.56)
8,936.00
440.75
503.00
0
0
869.00
390.00
225.00
11.00
(100.00)
(4.92)
(5.61)
0
0
(9.72)
(4.37)
(2.52)
(0.12)
15,195.50
753.68
880.50
0
0
2,449.00
631.50
523.50
44.00
(100.00)
(4.93)
(5.80)
0
0
(16.11)
(4.14)
(3.43)
(0.28)
Medium Large All
Previous Kept seed Exyear's for next change seed used year as seed
Sold for seed
Home Kind consump- wages to tion labour
Used as animal feed
Used as poultry feed
Marketable Marketed surplus surplus
2,862.00 2,285.50 (64.94)
(51.88)
6,938.00 5,806.00 (77.62)
(64.96)
10,667.00 8,757.50 (70.19)
(57.64)
Note: Figures in brackets denote percentage to total production
Table 6. Wastage of wheat at different harvest and post harvest stages Size of holding
Total production
Wastage (kg.) Harvesting
Threshing and shattered
Straw
Transportation
Storage
Home consumption
Left for animal/ poultry feed
Total wastage %
1,878.00
381.70
631.50
5,817.00
1,585.00
668.00
8.17
(kg)
Small
1,86,650
4,285.00 (2.29)
(1.01)
(0.20)
(0.34)
(3.12)
(0.85)
(0.36)
Medium
4,39,300
9,940.00
4,455.00
909.00
1,539.00
10,033.00
1,947.00
1,239.00
(2.26)
(1.01)
(0.21)
(0.35)
(2.28)
(0.44)
(0.29)
Large
8,93,600
20,342.00
9,061.00
1,857.00
3,223.00
14,305.00
2,302.00
1,423.00
(2.28)
(1.01)
(0.21)
(0.36)
(1.60)
(0.26)
(0.16)
34,567.00
15,394.00
3,147.70
5,393.50
30,155.00
5,834.00
3,384.00
(2.27)
(1.01)
(0.20)
(0.35)
(1.98)
(0.38)
(0.22)
All
15,19,550
Note: Figures in brackets denote percentage to total production
15
6.84 5.88 6.41
Table 7. Percentage of seed, feed and wastage in production of wheat, Rewa district Size of holding
Area (ha)
Total production (kg)
Seed used
Qty. kg
Small Medium Large All
%
78.56 1,86,650 9,589 5.14 175.46 4,39,300 21,704 4.94 345.97 8,93,600 44,075 4.93 599.99 15,19,550 75,368 4.96
Seed kept
Used as feed
Wastage
Consumption as seed, feed and wastage Qty. kg %
Qty. kg
%
Qty. kg
%
Qty. kg
%
10,050 27,700 50,300 88,050
5.38 6.30 5.63 5.79
10,550 22,600 23,600 56,750
5.65 5.14 2.64 3.73
15,245 30,116 52,513 97,875
8.17 6.86 5.88 6.44
35,384 18.96 74,420 16.94 1,20,188 13.451 2,29,993 15.13
Table 8. Net availability of wheat for human consumption Size of holding
Small
Area (ha.)
Total production (kg.)
Consumption of production as seed, feed and wastage (kg.)
Availability of wheat for human consumption (kg.)
78.56
1,86,650 (100.00)
35,384 (18.96)
1,51,266 (81.04)
Medium 175.46 4,39,300 (100.00) 74,420 (16.94) Large 345.97 8,93,600 (100.00) 1,20,188 (13.45) All 599.99 15,19,550 (100.00) 2,29,993 (15.13) Note: Figures in brackets denotes percentage to total production
3,64,880 (83.06) 7,73,412 (86.55) 12,89,557 (84.87)
Availability of wheat for human consumption
cent respectively. The losses was highest in small group and lowest in large group (Table 6).
Availability of wheat for human consumption is derived by deducting the "consumption of production as seed, feed and wastage" from total production of wheat. In small size group, of the total production, the availability of wheat for human consumption was about 81 per cent. In medium and large size group, the availability of wheat for human consumption was 83.06 per cent and 86.55 per cent respectively. The overall net availability of wheat for human consumption was 84.87 per cent of the total production (Table 8).
Seed, feed and wastage in production of wheat The total area under wheat in small size group was 78.56 hectares with a total production of 1,86,650 kg for the production of so much quantity of wheat, 9,589 kg of seed (5.14 per cent) was used. A total of 10,550 kg. of produce (5.65 per cent) was used as animal and poultry feed and the wastage during harvest and post harvest stages was 15,245kg (8.17 per cent) of the total production of wheat. The consumption of total production of wheat as seed, feed and wastages was 35,384 kg (18.96 per cent). In medium size group, the percentage of seed, feed and wastage in total production of wheat was 4.94, 5.14 and 6.86 respectively. In large size group, the percentage of seed, feed and wastage in total production was 4.93, 2.64 and 5.88 respectively. The consumption of seed, feed and wastage came to 18.96 per cent in small group, 16.94 per cent in medium group and 13.45 per cent in large group. The overall consumption of seed, feed and wastage was 15.13 per cent. The figures for consumption of wheat grains as seed, feed and wastage decreases as the size of holding increases (Table 7).
Recommendation and Policy implication Safe storage of foodgrains is as important as production of foodgrains. However, storage losses still continue to be quite high in India. The state of Madhya Pradesh is no exception. In fact, storage losses in Madhya Pradesh are considered to be higher than the All-India average. This is so because storage facilities available in this state are far from satisfactory. Recognizing this fact there is a need to create awareness among rural masses about the extent of losses and a need for adopting scientific storage practices. There is no doubt that these losses can not be brought at the zero level but can be
16
Krishnamurhy K (1975) Post-Harvest Losses in Foodgrains, Bulletin Grain Tech 13: 33-49 Ramzan M, Judge BK (1994) Assessment of storage losses in wheat at farm and public sector levels in Punjab. J Insect-Science 7(2): 187-190 Saran Rohit (1999) Harvest of Waste, India Today 24 (35): 6264
significantly reduced through better management and infrastructure. References Ahuja DL, Tyagi KK (2000) Estimation of seed, Feed and Wastages ratios for Food grains, Indian Agril. Stat 54th Annual conference of ISAS NDUAT Kumarganj, Faizabad- Uttar Pradesh 28th - 30th November 2000
(Manuscript Receivd : 16.02.2012; Accepted 20.11.2012)
17
JNKVV Res J 46(1): 18-21 (2012)
Seed enhancement studies in tomato for germination and seedling emergence Sathrupa Rao* and Subrata Sharma *Department of Plant Physiology Seed Technology Research Unit Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics College of Agriculture Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya Jabalpur 482 004 (MP)
Abstract
valuable in terms of health and industrial development as are mainly cash crops. Being recalcitrant in habit, most horticultural seeds require enhancement treatment for their viability maintenance. Seed enhancement accelerates rapid germination and growth of seedling and is an important morphological adaptation in plants that helps in drought resistance without any adverse effect on productivity (Natarajan and Jeeva 2003). A number of enhancement treatment with botanicals, chemicals and polykotes have been developed and are feasible in large scale adoption and are cost effective. The present investigation has been conducted with an objective to evaluate the quality enhancement in terms of germination and vigour of tomato genotype.
Tomato seeds of variety Pusa Ruby were coated with synthetic dyes, botanicals and polykotes in varying concentrations with an objective to evaluate their quality enhancement in terms of germination and vigour. The treated seeds were tested in the laboratory for germination and vigour parameters viz. germination %, speed of emergence and vigour index. Seed coating with 0.5% Congo red and Jade green, 0.75% Diechem and Bromocresol green and 1% Sky blue and Diechem were found to be effective in enhancing seed quality, Among natural plant extracts seeds treated with 160ml / l beetroot extract followed by seed treatment with Hibiscus and Heena extract gave maximum germination. The seedling emergence and their speed was maximum when coated with blue polykote @ 5g / kg seed and was at par with one and two g / kg seed in clear type of polymer. While, the vigour index was higher 3g/ kg in clear and 1g blue polymer coated seeds.
Material and methods Tomato seeds of variety Pusa Ruby were tested for its initial germination, and vigour. Later, these were subjected to coating treatments with various synthetic dyes, extracts of botanicals and different types of polykotes as mentioned. The seeds were treated with seven synthetic dyes viz. Sky blue, Pink, Diechem, Bromocresol green, Congo red, Tusk blue and Jade green @0.5%, 0.75% and 1.0% / kg seeds. Among the botanicals, the seeds were treated with extracts of flower of Hibiscus rosasinensis, leaves of Lawsonia inermis, flower extract of Marigold, tuber extract of Beta vulgaris, seeds of Bixa and rhizomes of turmeric @ 120, 160 and 200 ml / kg seed and with four types of polymers viz. Black, Clear, Blue and Red @ 1,2,3,4 and 5 ml / kg seeds. The treated seeds were then shade dried, kept in petri plates and kept in the germinator at 200C. The observations were recorded for germination, speed of emergence and vigour index (by mass).
Keywords: Speed of emergence, vigour index(mass), synthetic dyes, polykotes, botanicals Early and uniform establishment of vigorous seedling is of utmost importance and a pre-requisite for higher yield. In general, low productivity of the crops is mainly due to inadequate soil moisture and poor fertility status of the soil during development. The water balance of a crop is upset by drought and as a consequence the physiological functions are affected resulting in poor growth and yield (Srimathi et al. 2003 ). To overcome the adverse effect of low rainfall and soil moisture condition, pre-sowing seed enhancement treatment is highly effective in dry land agriculture. Heydecker (1972) advocated seed invigoration to promote vigour, viability and field performance of crop seeds. Horticultural crops are more nutritious and
18
19
86.0 76.0 85.0 82.0 87.0 85.0 87.0 69.0
0.5%
2.05 4.46 NS
80.5 79.5 87.0 87.0 82.0 84.0 79.0 69.0
Germination% 0.75% 91.0 78.5 90.0 88.0 84.0 86.0 82.5 69.0
1%
Hibiscus Heena Marigold Beetroot Bixa Turmeric control C.D. Dye (D) Level (L) DXL
Natural dye / treatment/kg seed
85.0 78.0 76.5 84.0 84.0 78.0 69.0
120ml
2.05 4.46 NS
92.0 92.0 76.5 99.0 79.0 80.0 69.0
Germination% 160ml 79.0 67.0 67.5 81.0 77.0 79.0 69.0
200ml
Table 2. Effect of natural dyes on germination and vigour of tomato
Sky blue pink Diechem Bromocresol green Congo red Tusk blue Jade green Control C.D. Dye (D) Level (L) DXL
Synthetic dye / treatment/kg seed
Table 1. Effect of synthetic dyes on germination and vigour of tomato
17.30 14.90 17.20 16.78 15.95 16.42 15.45 12.52
14.35 15.15 16.20 15.40 16.15 15.02 12.52
NS 0.80 NS
16.80 17.50 15.17 17.72 15.40 16.52 12.52
15.05 15.67 13.52 15.52 14.85 14.50 12.52
Speed of emergence 120ml 160ml 200ml
NS 0.80 NS
15.39 15.02 16.57 16.52 14.80 15.95 15.15 12.52
Speed of emergence 0.75% 1%
16.42 14.87 16.30 15.52 16.60 16.37 16.75 12.52
0.5%
1.03 0.81 1.06 1.12 1.06 1.25 1.06
120ml
0.95 0.83 1.16 1.05 1.16 1.15 1.04 1.06
0.5%
NS 0.12 0.30
1.54 1.16 0.91 1.11 0.91 1.12 1.06
Vigour index 160ml
NS 0.12 0.30
1.53 1.06 0.81 1.01 0.30 1.08 1.15 1.06
Vigour index 0.75%
1.04 0..97 1.21 1.24 1.07 1.25 1.06
200ml
1.14 0.98 1.28 1.23 1.09 1.24 1.17 1.06
1%
0.46 0.49 0.48 0.70 0.66 0.4 0.53 1.06 0.45 0.66 12.82 12.05 16.30 13.65 12.52
0.07 0.07 0.13
0. 0.55 0.32 0.64 0.66
0.52 `.07 0.69 0.64 0.66
0.58 1.00 0.62 0.57 0,66
Seed treatment with synthetic dyes in varying concentration exhibited a significant effect on germination %, speed of emergence and vigour index and were superior over control. 0.5% Congo red and Jade green dye, 0.75% Bromocresol green, 0.75% and 1% Diechem and 1% Sky blue were effective in enhancing seed germination (Table 1). 1% concentration of different dyes performed superior over other concentrations for all the parameters recorded. Interaction DXL was significant only for vigour index. Dajode and Raturi (1987) also reported that germination and yield potential of tomato increases due to hardening treatment. The requirement of chemical by seed treatment is very low and serve in enhancing establishment in problem soil. Significant differences existed due to coating with different levels of plant extracts for germination % and vigour index (Table 2). As observed, the germination% was maximum in seeds coated with 160ml / kg of the extract of the tubers of Beta vulgaris followed by Hibiscus rosasinensis flower extract and leaf extract of Henna. An increase in germination % was observed on treatment with all the plant extracts @ 160 ml / kg seed except Bixa. Thereafter, the seedling emergence rate decreased on increase in exudate concentration. Speed of emergence was observed to be maximum in seeds treated @ 160ml / kg seed with Beta vulgaris. The vigour index recorded values at par with 160ml and 200ml / kg seed and was maximum in seeds treated with flower extract of Hibiscus rosasinensis. Heydecker (1972) advocated seed invigoration treatment to promote vigour, viability and field performance of crop seeds. Use of botanicals makes it eco-friendly, low cost and easily adaptable to small as well as big entrepreneurs. Geetarani (2002) reported an increase in germination and vigour of tomato seeds due to hardening treatment. Umarani and Jerlin (2003) have reported that physiologically active substances may be present in botanical extract which might have activated the embryo and other associated structures resulting in increased water absorption due to elasticity of the cell wall leading to development of stronger and efficient root system and higher vigour index.
0.68 1.12 2.23 2.54 4.52 9.04
Significant difference were noted due to varying doses of different polykotes on germination and vigour related parameters (Table 3). Germination and speed of emergence was maximum in seed coated with blue polykote @ 5g/kg seed and was at par with 1.0 and 2.0 g clear polykote, while vigour index was maximum in seed treatment with 3g/kg Clear and 1.0g/kg blue
Black Clear Blue Red Control C.D. Polykote (P) Level (L) PXL
71 66 66 63.5 60 59 86 78 65.5 69 63 84 60 80 69
62 68 59 61 69
73 64 87.5 68 69
11.87 16.22 11.35 15.37 12.52
11.47 16.12 14.85 11.97 12.52
13.20 12.52 11.45 12.70 12.52
12.10 13.65 11.15 11.40 12.52
1g 5g Germination% 2g 3g 4g 1g Polykote/ treatment/kg seed
Table 3. Effect of polykote on germination and vigour of tomato
1g
Speed of emergence 2g 3g 4g
5g
2g
Vigour index 3g 4g
5g
Results and discussion
20
Heydacker W (1972) Interrelated effects of imbibition, temperature and Oxygen on seed germination in Seed Ecology ed. Heydecker, W Butterworths London : 157-169 Natarajan N, Jeeva B (2003) Role of chemicals, growth stimulants and botanicals in seed hardening in Seed hardening and pelleting technologies for rainfed / gardenland ecosystems ed. K. Vanangamudi et al. Department of Seed Sci & Tech Centre of Plant Breeding & Genetics TNAU Coimbatore : 62-69 Srimathi P, Shele D M, Natarajan K (2003) Seed hardening research around the world in rainfed and gardenland ecosystems in Seed hardening and pelleting technologies for rainfed / gardenland ecosystems' ed. K. Vanangamudi et al. Department of Seed Sci & Tech Centre of Plant Breeding & Genetics TNAU: 48-61 Umarani R, Jerlin R (2003) Genesis and improvement of concept of seed hardening in Seed hardening and pelleting technologies for rainfed / gardenland ecosystems ed. K. Vanangamudi et al. . Department of Seed Sci & Tech Centre of Plant Breeding & Genetics TNAU Coimbatore 36-41
polykote treatment. The effect of different polykotes, botanicals and dyes on crop plants is based primarily on the changes occurring in the physico-chemical properties of the cytoplasm like, greater hydration of colloids, the higher viscosity and elasticity of the protoplasm, intense metabolism variations in xerophyll structure, more intense transportation and ability to retain more quantity of water associated with a more efficient root system which occur as a result of these changes.(Natarajan and Jeeva 2003 ). These enhancement treatments are effective in accelerating rapid germination and growth rate of seedling. References Dajode S D, Raturi G (1987) Seed Res 15 (2) : 156-169 Geetharani (2002) Studies on mid storage seed treatment and productivity in tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum Mill.) and Solanum melangona L MSc. (Ag) thesis TNAU Coimbatore
(Manuscript Receivd : 05.01.2012; Accepted 09.08.2012)
21
JNKVV Res J 46(1): 22-27 (2012)
Ethnobotanical aspects of plants from east zone of Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh Karuna S. Verma, Sandhya Swarnkar, Aparna Awasthi and Tabassum Ansari Aeroallergens Immunology & Angiosperms Diversity Laboratory Department of Post Graduate Studies and Research in Biological Science Rani Durgawati University, Jabalpur 482001 (MP)
Abstract
Plant has been used as ailment to cure several diseases with the dawn of civilization. The primitive man used raw material and raw extracts of plants to relieve them from sickness and other ailments, without the scientific knowledge of their active ingredients. With the growth of civilization, the multifarious uses of plant products began to unfold indifferent field which has been developed extensively. Plants play a dynamic role in human life. There is not even a single aspect of human life, where plants do not play direct role, for every basic need like food, fuel, shelter, clothing, medicine etc.
India is the treasure of several herbal medicines; it is a source of several folk medicines. During the ethanomedicinal survey period of 4 wards of Jabalpur city plants, belonging to 33 families were recorded in selected sites that included 52 genus and 55 species. The most dominant families of plants were from Euphorbiaceous and Apocynaceae. Out of 55 plants studied, 14 plants were of herbs, 9 plants were of shrubs, 4 plants were identified as climbers and 28 belonged to the trees. The ethanomedicinal aspects of plants claimed to be useful to cure several drastic diseases.
Material and methods
Keywords: Ethnomedicinal, Jabalpur, drastic diseases
Ethno medicinal data were collected through consultation with traditional healers, and elder people in the field investigation of east zone of Jabalpur city (Seetla mai ward, Dwarika Prasad ward, Acharya Vinobha Bhave and Sarwapalli Radha Krishnan ward).During the interviews from January 2011 to Dec. 2011 which included winter, summer and rainy season. Local names, useful plant parts, method of preparation and dosage were recorded. The methods of plant collection and preparations of herbarium have been followed by Jain and Rao (1997). After collection an attempt will be made to identify the plants from fresh material those could not be identified on the spot or in laboratory will preserved and identified with the help of Flora of Jabalpur (Oommachan and Shrivastava 1996).
India is rich in ethnobotanical information. The 500 tribal communities, belonging to 227 ethnic groups present perhaps the richest heritage of India. Diversity of flora in India richly contributes to plant medicine. Ethnomedicine deals with direct relationship of plants with man. Large numbers of wild plants are used by them for treatment of various ailments and diseases. The abstract relationship of man with plants includes faith in the good or bad powers of plants, taboos, avoidances, sacred plants, worship and folklore (Jain 1987). In India, the main traditional systems of medicine include Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha use over 7,500 plant species have been reported. Traditional healers provide considerable information about the use of many plants or plant parts as medicine. Among the Angiosperm plants 4,20,000 flowering plants were reported from the world (Govaerts 2001) and many tropical species are not yet named. More than 50,000 plants have been used for medicinal purposes (Schippmann et al. 2002).
Preservation of plants and preparation of herbarium Colleted plant material was pressed and dried by changing the blotters every day for 6-10 days or more
22
Table 1. Species diversity of plants at selected sites Family
Botanical name
Acanthaceae Apocyanaceae
Adhatoda vasica Nees. Tabernaermontana divaricata (L.) R.Br. Nerium indicum Miller. Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don. Achyranthus aspera L. Amaranthus spinosus L. Anacardium occidentale L. Mangifera indica L. Annona squamosa L. Calotropis procera (Ait.) R.Br. Helianthus annus L. Brassica campestris L.Var. Dolinix regia (Boj.)Rafin. Terminalia arjuna (DC.)Weight & Arn. Terminalia chebula Retz. Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt. Convolvulus pluricaulis Canna indica L. Carica papaya L. Phyllanthus emblica L. Jatropha curcas L. Euphorbia hirta L. Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. Clitoria ternatea L. Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. Acacia catechu (L.f.) Willd Albizzia lebbak (L.) Benth. Bauhinia variegata L. Ocimum sanctum L. Mentha arvensis Allium cepa L. Allium sativum L. Asparagus recemosus Willd. Lawsonia inermis L. Ficus benghalensis L. Ficus racemosa L. Artocurpus integrifolia non.L.f. Morus indica L. Acacia Arabica (Lamk.)Willd. Mimosa pudica L. Moringa oleifera Lamk. Hibiscus rosa- sinensis L. Bombex ceiba L. Azadirechta indica A.Juss. Eugenia jambolana Lamk. Abrus precatorius L. Dolichos lablab L. Aegle marmelos (L.)Correa. Anthocephalus chinensis Madhuca indica J.F. Gmel. Datura metel L. Coriandrum sativum L. Lantana camara L. Clerodendron serratum (L.) Moon.
Ziziphus jujuba Mill.
Amaranthaceae Anacardiaceae Annonaceae Asclepiadaceae Asteraceae Brassicaceae Caesalpiniaceae Combretaceae Cucurbitaceae Convolvulaceae Cannaceae Caricaceae Euphorbiaceae
Fabaceae
Lamiaceae Liliaceae
Lythraceae Moraceae
Mimosaceae Moringaceae Malvaceae Meliaceae Myrtaceae Paplionaceae Rutaceae Rubiaceae Sapotaceae Solanaceae Umbelliferae Verbenaceae
Zingiberaceae
23
Genus
Species
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Herb
Shrub
Climber
Trees
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
+
Table 2. Plant part used to cure different diseases Family
Botanical name
Acanthaceae Apocyanaceae
Adhatoda vasica Nees. Tabernaemontana divaricata (L.) R.Br. Nerium indicum Miller. Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don. Achyranthus aspera L. Amaranthus spinosus L. Anacardium occidentale L. Mangifera indica L. Annona squamosa L. Calotropis procera (Ait.) R.Br. Helianthus annus L. Brassica campestris L.Var. Dolinix regia (Boj.)Rafin. Terminalia arjuna (DC.)Weight &Arn. Terminalia chebula Retz. Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt. Convolvulus pluricaulis Canna indica L. Carica papaya L. Phyllanthus emblica L. Jatropha curcas L. Euphorbia hirta L. Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. Clitoria ternatea L. Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. Acacia catechu (L.f.) Willd Albizzia lebbak (L.) Benth. Bauhinia variegata L. Ocimum sanctum L. Mentha arvensis Allium cepa L. Allium sativum L. Asparagus recemosus Willd. Lawsonia inermis L. Ficus benghalensis L. Ficus racemosa L. Artocurpus integrifolia non.L.f. Morus indica L. Acacia Arabica (Lamk.)Willd. Mimosa pudica L. Moringa oleifera Lamk. Hibiscus rosa sinensis L. Bombex ceiba L. Azadirecta indica J.Juss. Eugenia jambolana Lamk. Abrus precatorius L. Dolichos lablab L. Aegle marmelos (L.)Correa. Anthocephalus chinensis Madhuca indica J.F. Gmel. Datura metel L. Coriandrum sativum L. Lantana camara L. Clerodendron serratum (L.) Moon. Ziziphus jujuba Mill.
Amaranthaceae Anacardiaceae Annonaceae Asclepiadaceae Asteraceae Brassicaceae Caesalpiniaceae Combretaceae Cucurbitaceae Convolvulaceae Cannaceae Caricaceae Euphorbiaceae
Fabaceae
Lamiaceae Liliaceae
Lythraceae Moraceae
Mimosaceae Moringaceae Malvaceae Meliaceae Myrtaceae Papilionaceae Rutaceae Rubiaceae Sapotaceae Solanaceae Umbellifera Verbenaceae Zingiberaceae
Leaf
Bark
+ +
+ +
flowers
+ +
+
+
+ + + + +
Roots
+ +
+ +
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
+ +
+ +
+ + + + +
+
+
+
+ +
+
+ + + +
+
+ + + +
+ + + + +
+ + + +
+
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
+
+
+ + + +
+ + +
+
+
+ + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + +
+
+
24
+ +
+ + +
+
+ +
+
+ + + +
+ + + + +
+ +
+ + +
+
+ + + + +
+
+ +
+ +
+ +
fruits Seeds Stem
+
+ + + + +
Table 3. Ethnomedicinal plants used in different human disease Family
Botanical name
Acanthaceae Apocyanaceae
Adhatoda vasica Nees. Tabeaermontana divaricata (L.) R.Br. Nerium indicum Miller. Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don. Achyranthus aspera L. Amaranthus spinosus L. Anacardium occidentale L. Mangifera indica L. Annona squamosa L. Calotropis procera (Ait.) R.Br. Helianthus annus L. Brassica campestris L.Var. Dolinix regia (Boj.)Rafin. Terminalia arjuna (DC.)Weight &Arn. Terminalia chebula Retz. Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt. Convolvulus pluricaulis Canna indica L. Carica papaya L. Phyllanthus emblica L. Jatropha curcas L. Euphorbia hirta L. Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. Clitoria ternatea L. Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. Acacia catechu (L.f.) Willd Albizzia lebbak (L.) Benth. Bauhinia variegata L. Ocimum sanctum L. Mentha arvensis Allium cepa L. Allium sativum L. Asparagus recemosus Willd. Lawsonia inermis L. Ficus benghalensis L. Ficus racemosa L. Artocurpus integrifolia non.L.f. Morus indica L. Acacia Arabica (Lamk.)Willd. Mimosa pudica L. Moringa oleifera Lamk. Hibiscus rosa sinensis L.. Bombex ceiba L. Azadirecta indica J.Juss. Eugenia jambolana Lamk. Abrus precatorius L. Dolichos lablab L. Aegle marmelos (L.)Correa. Anthocephalus chinensis Madhuca indica J.F. Gmel. Datura metel L. Coriandrum sativum L. Lantana camara L. Clerodendron serratum (L.) Moon. Ziziphus jujuba Mill.
Amaranthaceae Anacardiaceae Annonaceae Asclepiadaceae Asteralaceae Brassicaceae Caesalpinaceae Combretaceae Cucuritaceae Convolvulaceae Cannaceae Caricaceae Euphorbiaceae
Fabaceae
Lamiaceae Liliaceae
Lythraceae Moraceae
Mimosaceae Moringa Malvaceae Meliaceae Myrtaceae Pupilionaceae Rutaceae Rubiaceae Sapotaceae Solanaceae Umbellifera Verbenaceae Zingiberaceae
Respiratory
Heart
Urinary
Skin
Stomach
+ + +
+ + +
+ + + + + + +
+
+ +
+
+
+ +
+ + +
+
+
+ + +
+ +
+ + +
Eye
+ + + + + + + +
+ +
+
+ +
+ +
+
+ +
+
+ +
+
+ +
+
+ + +
+ + + +
+ +
+ + + +
+ + +
+ +
+
+ + +
+
+
+
+ + +
+ +
+ +
+
+
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + +
+ + + +
+ + +
+
+ +
+ +
+
25
+ +
for unit loss of total moisture. Specimen will be mounted on herbarium sheets after drying. Herbarium technique will be mostly adopted from Santapau (1961), Jain & Rao (1976).
global level, the efforts to recognize and promote the un-codified folk system of medicinal knowledge is still inadequate. Traditional healers were found to play tremendous role in the primary healthcare system of the local people. Poor peoples who had little access and couldn't afford the cost of modern medications. Can make use of traditional medicine used by traditional healers.
Identification The collected fresh specimens were identified on the spot or in the laboratory with the help of flora of British India (Hooker 1872, 1897), Flora of Bhopal and Jabalpur (Oommachan and Shrivastava 1996), flora of Bilaspur District (CG) Volume G Panigrahi SK Murti (1989). The species were confirmed by compare and consulting the specimen at the herbaria of Bioscience Department Rani Durgawati University Jabalpur and preserved (Verma and Dahake 2005), Verma and Baksh (2006, 2009), Verma et al. (2010, 2011) and other literatures.
There is always a hunt for ethno botanical studies of medicinal plant. The traditional healers are the main source of knowledge for medicinal plants. But such knowledge is restricted to a few people in rural area. There it is necessary those suitable requirements are with reference to medicinal plant utilization. Acknowledge The authors are thankful to the Dean and Head, Department of Biological Science, R.D. University, Jabalpur for their encouragement and support during the tenure of work.
Result and discussion The ethno medicinally important plant collected from the Jabalpur used to treat various diseases like cold fever, cough , diarrhea , dysentery, skin diseases, laxative, diabetes and jaundice. This is constant with the other general observation which reported earlier. In relation to medicinal plant studies by the Indian traditional systems of medicine like sidha and Ayurvedha (Kirtikar & Basu 2001, Anonymous 1992: Asolkar et al.1992).
References Anonymous (1992). Wealth of India: Raw materials, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research Publication, New Delhi, (Revised). 3: 591-593 Asolkar LV, Kakkar KK, Chakra OJ (1992). Second supplement to glossary of Indian medicinal plants with active principles. Part I (A-K). Publication and Information Division, CSIR, New Delhi, India, pp. 205-206. Govaerts R (2001) How many species of seed plants are there? Taxon 50:1085-1090 Jain SK (1987) A manual of Ethnobotany. Scientific Publishers Jodhpur India Jain SK, Rao R R (1976). A handbook of field and herbarium methods. Today and Tomorrow Pub., New Delhi, pp. 1-182. Jain SK, Rao RR (1997). Hand book of Field and Herbarium Methods.(Today and Tomorrow Printers and Publishers), Calcutta Kirtikar KR, Basu BD (2001). Indian Medicinal Plants, Vol. 1. Lalit Mohan Basu, Allahabad, India, pp. 35-45 Oommachan M, Srivastava JL (1996) Flora of Jabalpur, Sci. Pub. Jodhpur 1 - 354. Sahu PK, Shrivastava Atul , Verma Karuna (2011) Ethnomedicinal Study on Tribal Area of Achankamar Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve, Central India. Biozone. Int J Life Science 3 (1&2) :498-503 Santpau (1961). Critical notes on the identify and nomenclature of some Indian plants .Bull.Bot. Survey.Indian.3:11-21.
During the investigation, plants belonging to 33 families were found which included 52 genus and 55 species. The most dominant families were Euphorbiaceous and Apocynaceae. During the survey period of various plants belonging to different families were studied. Out of the total 55 plants studied, 14 plants were found to be herbs 9 plants were shrubs, 4 plants were climbers and 28 were trees. The ethanomedicinal importance of the various plants was also studied that belonged to different families. In 40 plants, leaves were used as medicine. In 23 plants, bark was used as medicine. In 20 plants, roots were used as, medicine. In 16 plants, flowers were used as medicine. In 24, fruits are used as medicine. In 22 plants the seed were used as medicine and in 14, seeds were used as medicine. Conclusion The review of local medicinal plant knowledge systems reveals that though medicinal plants and associated knowledge system are gaining wide recognition at the
26
Schippmann U, Leaman DJ, Cunninghan AB (2002) Impact of cultivation and gathering of medicinal plants on biodiversity: Global Trends and Issues. In (FAO). Biodiversity and Ecosystem Approach in Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. Satellite event on the occasion of the Ninth regular session of the Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture Rome :12-13 Verma K S, Baksh Zareen (2009) Traditional ethanomedicinal plants knowledge and use by local healers in Jabalpur District (MP). Biozone Int J Life Sci 1(2): 150-156. Verma K S, Baksh Zareen (2010) Phytochemical screening &medicinal importance of Ricinus communis Linn. Int J Bioscience Reptr 8 (1): 15-17 Verma K S, Dahake Deepa (2010) An introduction of tribal root medicines of Jabalpur District (MP). Int J Biosci Reptr 8 (1): 51-55 Verma K S, Dahake Deepa (2011) Diversity of exotic weeds in the flora of Jabalpur. Biozone Int J Life Sci 3 (1&2): 478-785 Verma K S, Deepa Dahake (2005) Taxonomic study of the unisexual of Jabalpur (MP). J Bot Soc Univ. Sagar 40:51-62
Verma K S, Sahu Prem Shankar, Porte Pradeep Singh,Yadav Savita (2010) Enumeration of angiosperms of cantonment area in Jabalpur District. Indian J Trop Biodiversity 18 (1):73-79 Verma K S, Sinha Rajshree, Dahake Deepa (2010) Survey of Ethnomedicinal plants of selected sites of Jabalpur and Mandla districts. Indian J Trop Biodiversity 18(1):119-122 Verma K S, Trivedi Deepika, Awasthi Aparna ,Sangeeta Dolly Juda (2011) Indigenous Knowledge and Conservation of Endangered Angiosperm flora of Jabalpur with special emphasis of Herbs, Shrubs and Climbers. Anusandhan 5:60-63 Verma K S, Vishwakarma Raju (2009) Angiosperm flora of Dumna Nature Reserve in Jabalpur (MP). Anusandhan 3: 37-43 Verma KS, Zareen Baksh (2006) Antidote ailments- through medicinal plants- as observed in tribals of Jabalpur district. Visleshana 10(1): 15-17 Verma K S, Deepika Trivedi, Aparna Awasthi, Sangeeta Dolly Juda Indigenous Knowledge and Conservation of Endangered Angiospermic flora of Jabalpur with special emphasis of Herbs, Shrubs and Climbers Anusandhan 5 :60-63 (Manuscript Receivd : 05.02.2012; Accepted 06.09.2012)
27
JNKVV Res J 46(1): 28-32 (2012)
Influence of soil moisture stress on dry matter production, partitioning, biochemical constituents and productivity in chickpea Ganesh Mishra, A.S. Gontia, Anubha Upadhyay and Sathrupa Rao Department of Plant Physiology Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi VishwaVidyalaya Jabalpur 482004 (MP)
Abstract
Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is an ancient legume crop believed to have originated in south eastern Turkey and the adjoining part of Syria. It covers 15% of the cultivated area and contributes 14% (7.9 million tonnes) of the world's pulse production out of total production of 58 million tonnes (Singh et al. 1997). In India, chickpea ranks in the first position among all the pulses occupying about 30% of total cultivated area and 40% of the total pulse production (Reddy et al. 2007). Nearly more than 85% of chickpea is grown as rainfed, mostly on the residual soil moisture after the harvest of kharif crops. Besides being an important source of human and animal food, chickpea also plays an important role in the maintenance of soil fertility, particularly in the dry rainfed areas (Katerji et al. 2001) In India.
The Present investigations were conducted in the polyhouse having controlled conditions during the Rabi season of 20092010. The results revealed reduction of (52.5%) in leaf dry weight, (48.10%) in stem / branches dry wt, (78.44%) in pods dry wt and (59.1%) in total dry matter, 65.34% in number of flowers/plant, 68.75 % in number of pods/plant, 73.68 % in number of seeds/plant, 71.44 % in seed index, 52.94 % in seed yield and 57.38% in biological yield, 51.42% in protein, 50.14% in Fat, 42.10 % in Fibre, 16.10% in carbohydrate, 55.88% in phosphorus, 48.38 % in iron, and 33.33% in calcium was noted when the moisture content of soil was reduced to 10% from 30% i.e. control.
Key words: Dry matter, leaf area index, moisture stress
The most important effect of water deficits is observed on the transport of nutrients and water to the roots and on the root growth and extension. Frequent drought besides lowering the crop yield also decreases seed quality by reducing seed size. The component traits & drought resistance in pulse crops include drought avoidance, root trait and transpiration efficiency (Serraj et al. 2004). Partitioning of dry matter to the seeds is considered to be a major determinant for agricultural yield. This is dependent on the efficiency of photosynthate translocation in crops during grain filling period when developing grains are storing sink Sharma et al. (2008). The development of moisture stress leads to a wide range of changes in partitioning of plant dry matter like diversion of biomass to undesirable plant parts. Therefore, the improved chickpea genotypes with better partitioning efficiency in to economic parts, water use efficiency and high yield will be suitable for cultivation in drought prone areas and can prove a boon to improve the economy of poor farmers of dry land areas. The investigations were
The major constraints for low productivity are abiotic stresses like; water, temperature, nutrient and salts. Among them water and temperature stresses are the important abiotic stresses for growth and productivity, because drought is the major constraint that reduces the productivity of crop. It is known that chickpea thrives well under drought prone conditions. However, there is a greater variability for yield performance in different chickpea genotypes under drought conditions. Gupta et al. (1995) opined that there is a positive correlation between drought period with plant height, leaf area, and leaf dry weight reduction. Stress is measured in relation to plant survival, crop yield, growth (Biomass accumulation) or the primary assimilation processes (CO 2 , photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) interception and mineral uptake) which are related to overall growth. Water deficiencies if severe can injure crops and induce them to adapt with certain physiological and morphological processes. Yield plateau of chickpea under water stress is an important issue.
28
Table 1. Leaf dry matter (g/plant) Treatments 30 DAS
60 DAS
90 DAS 120 DAS
undertaken to assess the influence of moisture stress on dry matter production, partitioning and productivity in chickpea.
Av
T1
0.50
0.73
1.03
0.95
0.80
T2
0.43
0.60
0.80
0.73
0.65
T3
0.40
0.51
0.72
0.71
0.59
T4
0.30
0.49
0.69
0.57
0.51
T5
0.24
0.28
0.57
0.42
0.38
SEm±
0.01
0.01
0.03
0.02
0.02
CD5%
0.03
0.03
0.08
0.05
0.05
Materials and methods The Present investigations were carried out in the polyhouse having controlled conditions under Department of Plant Physiology, JNKVV, Jabalpur (MP) during the Rabi season of 2009-2010 in a complete randomized design with four replications. The treatments consisted of five moisture levels viz; 30%, 25%, 20%, 15% and 10%, respectively, while 30% moisture level was considered as control. The moisture level was maintained by allowing the soil to dry close to the selected moisture regimes by withholding water supply as described by Goyal et al. (1998) which was determined gravimetrically on a parallel set of identical pots maintained for this purpose in the polyhouse and then maintained by adding requisite amount of water if required. These pots were maintained for various moisture stress treatments. The pots of 491.07 cm2 filled with garden soil were used in the investigations. The seed sowing of chickpea collected from their natural populations was carried out in each pot so as to maintain 10 seedlings/pot. The average temperature in the polyhouse was kept 250C ± 30C.
Table 2. Branches dry matter including stem (g)/plant Treatments 30 DAS
60 DAS
90 DAS 120 DAS
Av
T1
0.55
0.70
0.90
1.00
0.79
T2
0.45
0.60
0.80
0.91
0.67
T3
0.37
0.52
0.69
0.82
0.60
T4
0.31
0.45
0.62
0.71
0.52
T5
0.26
0.30
0.45
0.62
0.41
SEm±
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.03
0.02
CD5%
0.04
0.04
0.03
0.09
0.05
Table 3. Pod dry weight (g/plant) Treatments
90 DAS
120 DAS
Average
T1
1.90
2.45
2.18
T2
1.50
2.17
1.84
T3
0.93
1.87
1.40
T4
0.84
0.96
0.90
T5
0.40
0.53
0.47
SEm±
0.08
0.10
0.09
CD5%
0.25
0.30
0.28
The leaf area index (LAI) and leaf area duration (LAD) were quantified as per specifications of Gardener et al. (1985) and Watson (1952), respectively. For determining the dry matter production and its partitioning the plants were uprooted from the pots and partitioned in to leaves, branches / stem and pods etc. and kept in an electric oven at 800C for two or more days till constant weight. Dry weight of individual plant part as well as whole plant was recorded accordingly during each interval. Results and discussion
Table 4. Total plant dry matter (g/plant) Dry matter accumulation (DMA) in leaves Treatments 30 DAS
60 DAS
90 DAS 120 DAS
Av
T1
1.05
1.43
3.75
4.49
2.69
T2
0.91
1.21
2.60
4.30
2.26
T3
0.87
1.03
2.33
3.41
1.91
T4
0.61
0.89
2.19
2.37
1.52
T5
0.50
0.59
1.59
1.72
1.10
SEm±
0.02
0.02
0.17
0.13
0.09
CD5%
0.05
0.06
0.51
0.39
0.25
The leaf area influenced the biomass production in any crop (Welbank et al. 1985) and dry matter production in leaves was related to yield (Flood et al. 1995). The leaf dry matter showed a continuous increase with the advancement of growth till 90 days after sowing (DAS) (Table 1) due to increase in LAI (Table 5) and LAD (Table 6) thereafter it exhibited a reduction which may be attributed to the movement of assimilates from the leaves and senescence and drying of leaves. The
29
Harvest index (%)
34.29
35.72
45.57
42.06
39.01
3.54
10.67
Biological yield (g/plant)
19.83
18.43
15.94
13.61
8.45
0.78
2.34
leaves act as source to supply photosynthates to other parts of the plants particularly to the seeds as indicated by corresponding increase in dry matter in sink. The moisture stress treatments influenced the leaf area development which declined as the moisture stress becomes severe due to reduction in water content of leaf tissues resulting in reduced leaf water potential. Both cell division and enlargement are necessary for the leaf growth which appears to be hampered due to water deficits in leaf cells. There has been a decline of 52.5% in leaf dry matter when the moisture content was reduced to 10% from 30%.
20.14
19.05
17.97
16.47
5.75
0.56
1.70
8.31
7.40
5.79
5.71
3.91
0.59
1.76
14.25 20.00
Seed index (g) Seed yield (g\plant) Number of seeds\Plant Number of pods/plant
It has been observed that the branches/stem dry matter increased continuously as the age of the crop advanced till maturity suggesting (Table 2) almost no contribution of stem/branches in transporting food materials to the seeds. Investigations have shown that besides leaves other parts also contribute to transfer food material to the sink. (Haley and Quick 1998). However, the moisture stress treatments were found to reduce the dry matter production in branches. This has been attributed to the reduction in rate of most physi-
3.90 2.19
1.29 0.73
3.75 6.25
Treatments
30-60 DAS
60-90 DAS
90-120 DAS
Av
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 SEm± CD5%
1.20 1.08 0.75 0.37 0.25 0.09 0.28
2.46 1.79 1.67 1.24 0.91 0.12 0.36
2.00 1.64 1.38 0.73 0.60 0.17 0.50
5.66 4.51 3.8 2.34 1.76 0.38 1.14
2.49
Treatments
30-60 DAS
60-90 DAS
90-120 DAS
Av
CD5%
0.83 SEm +
8.75
Table 6. Leaf area duration (cm2.days)
T5
8.00 12.50 15.75 T4
14.23 16.00 18.00 T3
15.00 17.00 24.75 T2
25.25
Table 5. Leaf area index
T1
Number of flowers/plant Treatments
Table 7. Yield & yield components under various soil moisture levels
DMA in branches/stem
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 SEm± CD5%
64.62 60.36 51.92 36.60 33.19 6.42 20.26
90.22 99.58 92.77 80.86 74.05 4.61 13.89
50.28 45.67 39.99 26.33 24.66 3.89 11.72
205.12 205.61 184.68 143.79 131.9 14.92 45.87
30
0.02
0.01
0.12
0.13
0.15
0.17
0.18
Calcium
ological processes required for dry matter production and growth. 48.10% reduction in stem / branches dry matter was noted with reduced soil moisture content to 10%.
0.00144 0.0041
The proper balance between source and sink is the key for yielding ability of a genotype as well as crop. The higher sink demand accelerates the movement of assimilates to the sink through the vascular system. If the source efficiency is greater than the sink the yield is limited by sink and if the source efficiency is less than the sink efficiency the yield is limited by inefficient source. For obtaining higher yield source efficiency has to be improved under these conditions. The dry matter production in pods has been linear which may be attributed to the transport of food material from various sources particularly leaves to the sink and also contribution of pods itself to the photosynthesis as they possess the photosynthetic pigments themselves (Table 3). Reduced moisture level to 10% from 30% has been found to reduce the pod dry matter to 78.44% attributed to the reduced translocation of photosynthates from the source to the sink. The gradient of decreasing phloem turgor pressure drives the assimilates flow from the source to the sink which gets reduced due to water scarcity in the veins of leaf and leaf mesophyll cells. For higher phloem turgar pressure in veins of leaf mesophyll cells the water availability should be in abundance Gardner et al. (1985).
0.42
Total dry matter accumulation The biomass or dry matter production under given environment is a balance between photosynthesis and respiration which are the functions of LAI, photosynthetic capacity/ unit area and LAR . However, the increase was associated with increase in LAI to a stage where the mutual shading of leaves does not takes place after that with increase in LAI the rate of dry matter production decreased (Watson 1958). During early stage of growth, dry matter production mainly depends on development of leaf area, while the later period was strongly influenced by respiratory consumption. The total DMP was found to be related with the yield (Flood et al. 1995).
2.32
0.47
2.85
0.00048 0.00137 0.14
The TDM had a continuous increase as the growth of the crop progressed till maturity (Table 4). This has been attributed to the contribution of different plant
CD5%
SEm +
0.77
0.16
0.94
0.0032 0.015 3.30 T5
10.2
1.67
53.75
0.0052 0.020 4.10 T4
14.5
3.00
54.75
0.0057 0.028 4.65 T3
17.5
3.85
60.00
0.0072 0.033 5.20 T2
19.7
4.55
61.00
0.0062 0.034 5.70 T1
21.0
3.35
64.00
Iron Phosphorus Carbohydrate Fibre Fat Protein Treatments
Table 8. Biochemical constituents in chickpea as influenced by different treatments (%)
DM accumulation in pods/plant
31
parts in DM production. On the other hand the moisture stress treatments study revealed that decreasing soil moisture levels from 30% to 10% were associated with 59.1% reduced dry matter production as also reported by Essa (2003). The reduced soil moisture levels had significantly reduced leaf area and other growth parameters which appears to be affecting adversely net photosynthesis rate, PAR absorption and other morphophysiological characteristics required for growth and increment in dry matter.
References Essa T A (2003) Evaluation of growth and dry matter production of cereal crops under severe drought stress. Ann Agril Sci Cario 48 (1) : 173-184 Flood R G, Martin P I, Gardner W K (1995) Dry matter accumulation and partitioning and its relationship to grain yield in wheat. Aust J Expt Agril 35(4) : 495502 Gardner F P, Pearce R B, Mitchell R L (1985) Growth and development In Physiology and crop plants. The Iowa State Uni Press 187-208 Goyal V, Jain Sudha, Bishnoi N R (1998) Effect of terminal water stress on stomatal resistance, transpiration, canopy temperature and yield of pearl millet (Pennisetum americanum L. Leek) under field condition. Ann Agri & Bio Res 3 :119-122 Gupta S N, Dahiya B S, Malik B P S, Bishnoi N R (1995) Response of chickpea to water deficits and drought stress. Haryana Agri Uni Res J 25:11-19 Haley S P, Quick J S 1998 Methodology for evaluation of chemical desiccation tolerance in winter wheat. Cereal Res Comm 26 (1) : 73-79 Keterji N, Van Hoorn J W, Harndy A, Mastrorilli M, Owies T, Malhotra R S (2001) Response to soil salinity of chickpea varieties differing in drought tolerance. Agri Water Manag 50 : 83-96 Reddy A A, Mathur V C, Yadav M, Yadav S S (2007) Commercial cultivation and protiability, In S S R Redden, W Chen and B Sharma (eds), Chickpea Breeding and Management, pp. 291-230. CABI Publishing, Walling Ford Serraj R, Bahuriwalla H K, Sharma K K, Gaur P M, Crouch J H (2004) Crop improvement for drought resistance in pulses. A holistic approach. Ind J Pulse Res 17 : 1-13 Sharma K M, Sharma D D, Shukla K B, Upadhyay B (2008) Growth partitioning and productivity of wheat as influenced by fertilization and foliar application of bio - regulators. Indian J Plant Physiol 13(4) : 387-393 Singh S P, Ram R S, Lal K B, Singh G S (1997) Physiological variability and inter relationship in chickpea. Agri Sci Dig 17 : 97-100 Watson D J (1952) The physiological basis for variation in yield. Adv Agron 4 : 101-145 Watson D J (1958) The dependence of net assimilation rate on leaf area index. Ann Bot (NS) 22: 37-54 Welbank P J, Witts K J, Thorne G N (1965) Effect of radiation and temperature on efficiency of cereal leaves during grain growth. Ann Bot 32 : 79-95
The study of biochemical constituents indicated (Table 8) a reduction in all the constituents with decreased soil moisture levels. A reduction of 51.42% in protein, 50.14% in Fat, 42.10 % in Fibre, 16.10% in carbohydrate, 55.88% in phosphorus, 48.38 % in iron, and 33.33% in calcium was noted when the moisture content of soil was reduced to 10% from 30% i.e. control. Conclusions Thus results revealed that there was a reduction of (52.5%) in leaf dry weight, (48.10%) in stem / branches dry wt, (78.44%) in pods dry wt and (59.1%) in total dry matter, 65.34% in number of flowers/plant, 68.75% in number of pods/plant, 73.68% in number of seeds/plant, 71.44% in seed index, 52.94% in seed yield and 57.38% in biological yield, 51.42% in protein, 50.14% in Fat, 42.10 % in Fibre, 16.10% in carbohydrate, 55.88% in phosphorus, 48.38 % in iron, and 33.33% in calcium was noted when the moisture content of soil was reduced to 10% from 30% i.e. control.
izLrqr vUos"k.k tokgjyky usg: d`f"k fo'ofo|ky; ds ikni dkf;Zdh foHkkx esa fu;af=r okrkuqdwfyr ikWyh gkml esa jch l= 2009&10 esa fd;s x;sA iz;ksxksa esa ;g ik;k x;k fd e`nkvknzrk 30 izfr'kr ls de gksdj 10 izfr'kr rd vkus esa ifr;ksa] rus vkSj 'kk[kkvksa] ?ksafV;ksa ,oa ikS/k ds 'kq"d Hkkj esa dze'k% 52-2%] 48-10%] 78-44% ,oa 59-0% izfr ikS/k iq"iksa] ?ksafV;ksa] chtksa] cht lwpd] tSfod iSnkokj ,oa cht iSnkokj esa dze'k% 65-34%, 68-75%, 73-68%, 71-44%, 57-38% ,oa 52-94%, izksVhu] olk] js'ks] dkcksZgkbMªsV] QkLQksjl] yksgk ,oa dSfY'k;e esa dze'k% 51-42%] 50-14%, 42-10%, 1610%, 55-88%, 48-38% ,oa 33-33% rd deh ik;h x;hA
(Manuscript Receivd : 24.12.2011; Accepted 07.07.2012)
32
JNKVV Res J 46(1): 33-36 (2012)
Identification of selection components for linseed breeding S.K. Tiwari, Rajmohan Sharma* and Ramakant Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding Chandra Shekhar Azad University of Agriculture and Technology Kanpur 208002 (UP), India *College of Agriculture, JNKVV, Ganjbasoda
effective selection to achieve the goal of high seed yield varieties of linseed.
Abstract The present study was carried out on populations of four generations (F1s, F2s, B1s, B2s) constructed through diallel cross including six diverse parents in two consecutive rabi season 2000-01 and 2001-02 for ten quantitative traits. Moderate to high genotype and phenotypic coefficient variability, heritability and genetic advance in per cent of mean was observed for branches per plant, capsules per plant, 1000seed weight and seed yield per plant. Seed yield had significant positive association with tillers per plant, branches per plant, and capsules per plant and 1000-seed weight. Path analysis revealed that capsules per plant, seeds per capsules, 1000seed weight and oil content had considerable positive direct effect indicating direct selection for these characters could be effective for enhancement in seed yield of linseed (Linum usitatissimum L.).
Material and method The materials consisted 15 F1s, 15 F2s, 15 B1s and 15 B2s derived from six diverse parents / strains viz., RLC 29, LCK 9313 (Shekhar), LCK-88062, Kangra Local, EC-1465 and Omega -1, develop in two consecutive rabi season 2000 and 2001. Those populations were grown in randomized block design with three replications during rabi 2002-03 at Students Instructional Farm of C.S. Azad University of Agriculture and Technology, Kanpur. Each replication comprised 66 plots, 21 single row plot for each parent and F1s, 30 three row plot for B1s and B2s and 15 six rows plot for F2 population with row length three meter and spaced 50 cm apart. The plant to plant distance was 15 cm. Ten plants from non segregating generation (Parents and F1s) and 20 plants from segregating population were randomly taken from each replication for recording the observation on ten attributes. Data recorded were subjected to analysis of variance (Steel and Torrie 1980). Statistical measures of variability such as genotypic and phenotypic coefficient of variability (GCV, and PCV), heritability (h2 bs), genetic advance (GA) in per cent of mean, genotypic and phenotypic correlations (rg and rp) were computed (Know and Torrie 1964) and path coefficient analysis was made (Deway and Lu 1959) Interpretations on path analysis was done as per Lenka and Mishra (1973).
Linseed or flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) belong to the family Linaceae is a cool temperature annual herb with erect slender stem. The seed of linseed contain 3040% per cent oil, which comprises mainly linolenic acid, is mainly used for industrial purpose for manufacturing of paints surface coating oils varnish, printing ink and similar others, on global scenario India ranks first in Area ( 572.2 thousand ha) and third in production 22.93 thousand tones (Anonymous 2003). Because of self pollinated nature of crop selection is most important breeding procedure for developing high yielding and biotic and abiotic resistance varieties for different geographical region. Thus, the seed yield is complexly inherited traits governed by many physiological processes with in the plants and influenced by many environmental factors in which plant is grown. Therefore, the selection parameters variability, heritability and genetic advance, correlation and path coefficient analysis for yield and its attributes could be provide an effective basis to identify selection components for
Results and discussion There were highly significant differences among mean values of populations (parents, F1s, F2s, B1s and B2s) for all the traits studied except number of seeds per
33
Table 1. Mean squares for analysis of various for seed yield and its components in linseed Characters
Replications Treatments
d.f. Days to flower Plant height Tillers per plant Days to maturity Branches per plant Capsules per plant Seeds per capsule 1000-seed weight Oil content Seed yield per plant
Parents
F1s
F2s
B1s
B2s
2
65
5
14
14
14
14
4.37 35.84 0.822 20.125 7.718 1481 0.063 0.023 0.984 0.677
71.07** 261.5** 3.67** 26.42** 727.4** 11614.6** 2.68** 3.94** 10.97** 11.38**
75.8** 252.5** 1.96** 47.43** 206.2** 8585.8** 1.39** 6.8** 5.1** 20.8**
55** 252** 3.85** 29.68** 407.2** 4039.2** 3.41** 3.62** 10.0** 8.1**
58.74** 241.9** 2.04** 18.3** 661.7** 9092.8** 1.13** 3.1** 7.00** 10.5**
118.2** 123.14** 3.89** 17.2** 628.2** 8024** 0.92NS 2.9** 8.2** 6.4**
37.2** 408.9** 4.63** 29.13** 826.9** 13673.9** 4.87** 2.6** 21.7** 10.9**
*, ** significant at 5 and 1 per cent level, respectively; NS = Non-significant
Table 2. The estimates of genetic parameters of different quantitative traits in linseed Characters
Mean
Days to flower Plant height Tillers per plant Days to maturity Branches per plant Capsules per plant Seeds per capsule 1000-seed weight Oil content Seed yield per plant
85.5 59.2 9.4 140.4 63.0 301.9 8.1 7.3 39.8 13.6
Range
PCV
Min.
Max.
75.9 43.8 7.2 133.3 39.0 179.0 5.4 5.2 35.6 7.9
93.8 83.0 12.0 147.6 108.0 451.3 9.5 10.5 43.4 18.7
h2(b)
GCV
GA
GA as % of mean
5.9 16.3 12.7 2.5 25.5 21.4 11.9 15.8 6.5 14.9
5.5 15.4 11.1 1.8 24.2 20.1 11.4 15.3 3.6 13.8
88.6 89.8 76.2 52.2 90.4 88.0 92.3 94.5 30.1 85.8
9.24 17.8 1.8 3.8 29.9 117.8 1.8 2.2 1.6 3.6
10.8 30.2 20.1 2.7 47.5 39.0 22.5 30.8 4.0 26.5
PCV – Phenotypic coefficient of variation, GCV – Genotypic coefficient variation h2(bs) – Broad sense heritability, GA – Genetic advance
Table 3. Genotypic (rg) and phenotypic (rp) correlation of various traits with seed yield in linseed Characters
1
Days to flower
rg rp rg rp rg rp rg rp rg rp rg rp rg rp rg rp rg rp
Plant height Tillers per plant Days to maturity Branches per plant Capsule per plant Seed per capsule 1000-seed weight Oil content
2
3
0.076 NS 0.217 NS 0.070 0.204 -0.22 NS -0.16
4 0.483 ** 0.35 -0.006 NS -0.007 0.29 * 0.26
5
6
0.42 ** 0.23 NS 0.37 0.20 0.29 * -0.12 NS 0.26 -0.10 0.35 ** 0.39 ** 0.30 0.34 0.15 NS 0.11 NS 0.13 0.11 0.53 ** 0.52
7 -0.22 NS -0.19 0.09 NS -0.09 0.13 NS -0.10 -0.50 ** -0.37 -0.07 NS -0.07 -0.19 NS -0.18
rg – genotypic correlation coefficient, rp- phenotypic correlation coefficient; NS = Non-Significant *, ** - Significant at 5 and 1 % respectively
34
8
9
-0.21 NS -0.31 ** -0.18 -0.19 -0.42 ** 0.02 NS -0.39 0.007 0.17 NS -0.28 * 0.15 -0.13 0.009 NS -0.13 NS 0.008 -0.12 -0.11 NS -0.27 * -0.10 -0.14 0.10 NS 0.18 NS 0.09 -0.09 0.04 NS 0.18 NS 0.04 0.11 0.17 NS 0.09
Seed yield/ plant -0.02 NS -0.004 -0.21 NS -0.18 0.34 ** 0.30 -0.02 NS -0.02 0.32 ** 0.29 0.66 ** 0.60 0.22 NS 0.22 0.55 ** 0.52 0.18 NS 0.07
capsule in B1s (Table 1). Measurement of variations, heritability and expected genetic advance in percentage of mean are given in table-2. The range of genotypic and phenotypic coefficient of variation (GCV and PCV) was 1.85 to 24.24 and 2.56 to 25.53, respectively. The maximum value of genotypic and phenotypic coefficient of variation was observed for branches per plant followed by capsules per plant, plant height, 1000-seed weight and seed yield per plant. Moderate to high heritability (broad sense) with high expected genetic advance was observed for branches per plant, capsules per plant, 1000-seed weight, plant height, seed yield per plant, seeds per capsule, tillers per plant and days to flower indicating amenable scope for simple selection. These results are in conformity with the reports of Yadav et al.(1998); Pradhan et al.(1999); Ramakant et al. (2005).
tillers per plant and branches per plant. To find out the clear picture of the association of various traits with seed yield, direct and indirect effects were worked out using path analysis at genotypic level. Considering the direct effect of each character on seed yield capsules per plant had highest positive direct effect followed by 1000-seed weight, seeds per capsule and oil content. The direct effect of tillers per plant on seed yield was negative but it exerted maximum indirect effect via capsules per plant suggesting that these traits may be considered for selection. Branches per plant had highly significant positive correlation with seed yield per plant but negligible direct effect. This development traits had high positive indirect effect via capsules per plant and very low positive indirect effect via tillers per plant. Number of seeds per capsules and oil content had weak association with grain yield but exhibited considerable positive direct effect. The weak association was due to negative or low positive indirect effect via 1000-seed weight and number of capsules per plant. The low positive residual effect (0.18) indicated that most of the yield contributing traits have been included in the present study.
The study of inter-character association (Table 3) depicted that genotypic correlation coefficient were greater that phenotypic correlation indicating the masking effect of environment. Seed yield was significantly and positively correlated with tillers per plant, branches per plant, capsule per plant and 1000seed weight. This indicated that simultaneous selection for these traits might brings an improvement in seed yield. Khan et al. (1998), Akbar et al. (2001) and Akbar et al. (2003), concluded same results. Days to flower had significant positive correlation with days to maturity and branches per plant while plant height showed positive significant association with branches per plant. Tillers per plant had highly significant positive correlation with days to maturity, branches per plant and capsule per plant. Similarly capsule per plant was strongly correlated with branches per plant Oil content had nonsignificant correlation with seed yield per plant which was minimized via negative correlation of days to flower,
So for the evolving of high yielding varieties of linseed the developmental traits viz. capsules per plant, 1000-seed weight, tillers per plant, seeds per capsule and oil content should be given more consideration while making selection of genotypes from the populations of segregating generations. References Akbar M, Khan NI, Sabir KM (2001) Correlation and path coefficient studies in linseed. On line J Biol Sci 1 : 446-447
Table 4. Direct and indirect effects of various traits on seed yield per plant in linseed Characters Days to flower Plant height Tillers per plant Days to maturity Branches per plant Capsules per plant Seeds per capsule 1000-seed weight Oil content
1 2 3 (-0.032) 0.001 0.014 -0.002 (0.011) -0.014 -0.007 -0.002 (-0.006) -0.015 0.000 0.02 -0.13 0.003 0.023 -0.007 -0.001 0.026 0.007 0.001 -0.008 0.007 -0.005 0.011 0.010 0.000 -0.019
4 0.047 -0.001 0.028 (0.095) 0.014 0.010 -0.048 0.001 -0.012
5 0.030 0.021 0.025 0.010 (0.072) 0.038 -0.005 -0.008 -0.019
*,** Significant at P = 0.05 and 0.01 level, respectively; Blood diagonal values indicated direct effect.
35
6 0.15 -0.077 0.259 0.070 0.35 (0.65) -0.126 -0.066 -0.115
7 -0.08 0.031 -0.044 -0.178 -0.026 -0.068 (0.35) 0.012 0.063
8 -0.09 -0.18 0.072 -0.004 -0.049 0.045 0.015 (0.44) 0.073
9 -0.06 -0.004 -0.057 -0.026 -0.054 -0.035 0.036 0.033 (0.200)
rg with yield -0.02 -0.21 0.34** -0.02 0.32** 0.66** 0.22 0.55** 0.18
Akbar M, Mahmood T, Anwar T, Ali M, Shafio M, Salim J (2003) Linseed improvement through genetic variability, correlation and path coefficient analysis. Internatl J Agric & Biol 5 (3) : 303-305 Anonymous (2003) Annual Progress Report. All India coordinated research project on linseed. Project Cocoordinating unit (Linseed) CSAUA&T Kanpur Deway DR, Lu KH (1959) A correlation and path coefficient analysis of components of crested wheat grass seed production. Agron J 51 : 515-518 Khan MI, Din F, Naseerrullah M, Shahid MTH (1998) Genetic variability and association of traits of linseed (Linum usitatissimum L.) J Agric Res 36 : 83-87 Kwon SH, Torrie JH (1964) Heritability and interrelationship of traits in soybean population. Crop Sci 4 : 196-198 Lenka D, Mishra B (1973) Path coefficient analysis of yield in rice varieties. Indian J Agric Sci 43 : 376-379
Pradhan B, Mishra A, Mishra RK, Mishra A (1999) Evaluation of linseed (Linum usitatissimum L.) varieties in the west central land zone of Orrissa. Environ and Ecol 17 (1) : 91-93 Ramakant, Singh P, Tiwari SK, Sharma Rajmohan (2005) Study of heritability and genetic advance of yield components and oil content in diallel cross of linseed (Linum usitatissimum L.) Agric Sci Diges 25 (4) : 287-290. Steel R G D, Torrie JS (1980) Principles and Procedures of Sstatistics. Mc Graw Hill Books Company Inc New York Yadav RK, Gupta RR, Singh L (1998) Genetic variability and heritability for quality traits under different environments in linseed. Indian J Agric Biochem 11 (2) : 63-64 (Manuscript Receivd : 10.07.2010; Accepted 05.02.2012)
36
JNKVV Res J 46(1): 37-43 (2012)
Evaluation and identification of suitable horse gram cultivars for higher productivity and seed quality traits K. Kanaka Durga and M. Ganesh Seed Research and Technology Centre ANGRAU, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad
Abstract
quality. Hence the present study was taken up to evaluate 23 horse gram cultivars for productivity and quality traits to identify superior lines for future use in the breeding programme.
Twenty three cultivars of horse gram were evaluated for different productivity and quality traits. Among the 13 productive traits, it was found that, HG 11 and AK 38 recorded superior performance for 9 and 7 important and desirable productivity and quality traits, respectively. Keeping in view with the important productive traits viz., leaf length, plant height, primary branches plant-1, secondary branches plant-1, seeds pod-1, pod hulm plant-1, seed yield plant-1 and 100 seed weight possessed by the genotypes, it can be utilized in future breeding programmes. Since the number of varieties developed is meager and the variability present at optimum level among the genotypes for various characters. Thus breeder can use the potential genotypes which are having certain productive and desirable traits it will act as a fuel for creation of variability and allows the selection of genotypes for different agro-climatic situations.
Material and methods The material for the present study consisted of 23 cultivars of horse gram comprising of released varieties, germplasm collections and land races. The experiment was laid out in a randomized block design with three replications at Seed Research and Technology Centre, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad. The plot size for each genotype was 4 x 0.6 m with 2 rows of 4 m length at spacing of 60 cm between rows and 30 cm between plants. Recommended agronomic practices and plant protection measures were adopted to raise a healthy crop.
Key words: Horse gram, evaluation, productivity and seed quality
Five competitive plants of each genotype in each replication were randomly taken to record observations on qualitative characters (plant, stem, leaf, pod and seed morphological characters), quantitative characters (plant height, primary branches plant -1, secondary branches plant-1, pods axil-1, pods plant-1, seeds pod-1, pod length, pod hulm plant-1, seed yield plant-1 and 100 seed weight) and seed quality parameters (germination, seedling length, seedling dry weight, seedling vigor index I and seedling vigor index II). The seeds of all the cultivars were tested for laboratory germination (paper towel) as per the ISTA rules (ISTA 1985). The final count was recorded and expressed in percentage. After final germination count, ten normal seedlings were selected at random in each replication for recording seedling length in centimeters (cm) and the same seedlings were oven dried at 80oC for 17 h and weighed (g) for seedling dry weight. Seedling vigor index I and II were calculated by multiplying germination per cent with seedling length and dry matter production,
Horse gram is one of the important lesser known beans. It is also known as Gohat, Kulath or Kulthi (Hurali) in India and is grown here to be used as feed and fodder. The whole seeds of horse gram are generally utilized as cattle feed and silage for livestock production. However, it is mainly utilized as a whole seed, sprouts or whole meal by a large population in rural areas of Southern India. Being a pulse crop fixes atmospheric nitrogen and enriches soil fertility. It is a drought resistant annual crop. Seeds are rich in proteins (23%). In India it occupies an area of 1.84 m ha. It covers an area of 0.022 m ha in A.P with a production of 9 t. Productivity of horse gram is 400 kg ha-1 which is less than the national average (500 kg ha-1). Very little research progress has been made in this crop and little efforts have been made to evaluate the germplasm, identify superior lines and develop suitable horse gram cultivars with higher productivity coupled with superior
37
respectively (Abdul- Baki and Anderson 1973). The analysis of variance was carried out according to the method suggested by Panse and Sukhatme (1985).
overall mean performance of all the 17 characteristics. Of these, 5 traits were used for assessing seed quality and the remaining 12 characteristics could be used for determining specific attributes. Of the 12 characters, 2 characters are related to source and the remaining 10 characters are related to yield. The important yield attributing traits contributing to horse gram yield comprised of primary branches plant -1, secondary branches plant-1, pods axil-1, pods plant-1, seeds pod-1, pod length and 100 seed weight. The cluster means for different characters along with the relative contribution of different characters towards the expression of genetic divergence showed that seed yield plant-1 (33.20%) contributed maximum to the genetic divergence followed by seedling vigor index I (27.27%), test weight (10.28%), seedling vigour index II (9.49%) and pod hulm plant-1
Results and discussion Analysis of variance indicated significant differences among the genotypes for all the characters under study. The data presented in Tables 1a and 1b revealed presence of genetic diversity in the material chosen for the present study. The range for different characters along with plot averages for different characters are presented in Tables 1a and 1b, respectively. For identifying suitable horse gram cultivars, comparative assessment was made on the basis of
Table 1. Top five superior genotypes of horse gram identified for different characters Characters Leaf length (cm) Leaf width (cm) Plant height (cm) Primary branches plant-1 (no.) Secondary branches plant -1 (no.) Pods axil-1 (no.) Pods plant-1 (no.) Seeds pod-1 (no.) Pod length (cm) Pod hulm plant-1 (g) Seed yield plant-1 (g) Test weight (g) Germination (%) Seedling length (cm) Seedling dry weight (g) Seedling vigour index I Seedling vigour index II
I AK 38 6.7 HG 49 4.8 AK 38 66.0 HG 18 12.4 HG 35 11.70 Palem 1 4.4 AK 38 156.0 HG 49 6.6 HG 35 6.4 AK 38 13.88 HG 11 21.98 HG 24 3.745 HG 59 99.8 Palem 1 28.40 HG 49 0.0296 Palem 1 2808.4 HG 49 2.936
II HG 49 6.4 HG 72 4.3 HG 11 65.4 HG 32 12.0 Palem 1 11.6 HG 35 4.2 HG 35 128.4 HG 59 6.2 HG 18 6.0 HG 11 12.30 AK 38 20.96 HG 15 3.695 HG 54 99.8 HG 63 27.53 HG 24 0.0256 HG 75 2775.3 HG 50 2.459
III HG 58 6.3 HG 15 4.2 HG 46 60.9 HG 11 12.0 HG 11 11.1 HG 14 4.1 HG 18 122.0 HG 32 6.2 HG 46 6.0 HG 32 8.09 Palem 2 20.08 HG 11 3.560 HG 18 99.8 HG 11 27.38 HG 50 0.0252 HG 63 2732.0 HG 24 2.332
38
IV V HG 72 HG 15 6.3 6.1 HG 11 andHG 58 HG 14 4.1 4.0 Palem 2 HG 72 60.8 60.1 HG 14 HG 41 11.7 11.5 AK 38 HG 41 10.7 10.6 HG 49 HG 32 and HG 75 3.9 3.8 HG 41 Palem 2 103.8 103.0 HG 24 HG 35 6.2 6.2 HG 72 HG 41 and HG 52 5.9 5.9 Palem 2 HG 38 7.92 7.75 HG 38 HG 32 16.90 16.88 HG 32 Palem 2 3.486 3.430 AK 38 HG 17, HG 41 and Palem 2 99.6 99.5 HG 17 HG 14 27.32 27.16 HG 72 HG 52 0.0245 0.0236 HG 17 HG 11 2717.4 2716.0 HG 72 HG 52 2.327 2.299
(7.11%). Bovak and Khan (2002) reported that plant height and seed yield plant-1 were considered to be the most important characters contributing towards genetic divergence in cowpea.
possessed majority of the desirable traits for attaining higher productivity in horse gram. The next best lines are AK 38 (6 productive traits), Palem 2 (5 productive traits), HG 32 (6 productive traits) and HG 35 (5 productive traits). Of the four lines AK 38, Palem 2 and HG 32 were found to possess good performance for majority of the desirable characters directly contributing to seed yield, while HG 35 was found superior for those characters whose contribution to yield was indirect. Of the former three lines, AK 38 and Palem 2 are the varieties while HG 32 is a germplasm line which can be used as an economic germplasm line in future breeding programmes.
Horse gram is an indeterminate crop owing to its twining habit. Of all the genotypes studied, AK 38, a variety, recorded more number of pods plant-1 (156.0) implying that production of additional sink was the characteristic of this genotype due to its tall plant behavior of 66.0 cm. On the other hand, HG 54 was found to be dwarf (36.9 cm). Besides dwarfness, this particular line also recorded less number of pods plant1 (31.6) with minimum pod length (4.7 cm) and it is also a low yielder (6.76 g plant-1). Hence, it is pertinent to note that dwarfness is not considered as a productivity trait in horse gram and tallness should be taken as a selective criterion for an adoptable genotype to enhance high productivity.
AK 38 exhibited superiority for six important productivity traits viz., leaf length, plant height, secondary branches plant-1, pods plant-1, pod hulm plant1 and seed yield plant-1. Similarly Palem 2, HG 32 and HG 35 exhibited superiority for 5, 6 and 5 important productive and desirable characteristics, respectively.
Top 5 superior genotypes for seed yield plant-1 were HG 11 (21.98 g) which was on par with AK 38 (20.96 g) but significantly different from Palem 2 (20.08 g). The other genotypes which recorded above average plot yield were HG 38 (16.90 g), HG 32 (16.88 g), HG 35 (16.06 g), HG 14 (15.37 g), HG 72 (14.38 g), HG 24 (13.96 g) and HG 18 (13.35 g).
Pod hulm plant-1 is also considered as an important economic trait as the pod hulm is fed to the buffalo’s for realizing higher milk production. Hence this trait is also taken as important and economic productive traits along with other yield contributing characters. Comparison of different horse gram cultivars across the seed quality traits indicated that germination and seedling vigor are the important quality parameters to judge the seed quality. HG 11 cultivar with superior traits for productivity also exhibited superior/ improved vigor index I, besides recording higher germination %. While AK 38 (99.6) and Palem 2 (99.5) were found superior for germination.
The genotype, HG 11 besides its advantage for yield, was also found superior for leaf length (6.0 cm), plant height (65.4 cm), primary branches plant-1 (12.0), secondary branches plant-1 (11.1), seeds pod-1 (5.5), pod hulm plant-1 (12.30 g), seed yield plant-1 (21.98 g) and 100 seed weight (3.56 g). Similarly, AK 38 was tall (66.0 cm) with above average plot values for primary branches plant-1 (10.4), secondary branches plant-1 (10.7), pod axil-1 (3.6), pods plant-1 (156.0), pod length (5.6), pod hulm plant-1 (13.88 g) and seed yield plant-1 (20.96 g) (Fig1-7.).
Among the different horse gram cultivars identified on the basis of important productivity and quality traits, germplasm line HG 11 was predominantly identified in the elite category for each trait implying its superiority, desirability and further utilization in the breeding programmes compared to the other cultivars. It is also superior for pod hulm which is obtained as an important and economic by - product after threshing of horse gram seed and could be used as cattle feed.
Comparison among different superior cultivars across the traits indicated that HG 11 gave superior performance for seven important productive traits viz., leaf width, plant height, primary branches plant-1, secondary branches plant-1, pod hulm plant-1, seed yield plant-1 and 100 seed weight. Therefore this germplasm line can be used as one of the parent in future breeding programmes to obtain higher productivity in horse gram. This is further confirmed by the observations of high genetic distance between HG 11 and HG 50. Surender et al. (2009) identified two elite hybrids, HM 4 and HQPM 1 in maize for baby corn purpose and these were found superior for most of the important productivity traits for cultivation viz., husked cob yield plant-1, de husked cob yield plant-1, number of cobs picked plant-1 and fodder yield plant -1. Thus in the present study, HG 11
It is pertinent to note that critical assessment of various characteristics would be fruitful in selecting most desirable genotypes as indicated by studies in various countries (Almeida et al. 2005 and Itala Paula de et al. 2005) In India, a very little progress has been made to evaluate and identify the available lines for their suitability in the breeding programmes/cultivation. In addition to productivity, there is a need for emphasis
39
40
6.0
5.3 5.8
5.3
HG 15 HG 49
HG 50
HG 52 HG 46
PALEM 1
PALEM 2 AK 38
16 17
18
19 20
21
22 23
17.53
C.D. (5%) 3.57
1.22 1.72
10.11
60.8 66.0
45.6
54.7 60.9
48.5
48.6 59.0
47.7
55.4 58.9
65.4
51.8 60.1
45.9
58.5 58.6
47.5
46.6 48.9
50.9
53.3 36.9
Plant height (cm)
15.83 17.05 36.9 -66.07.7 –12.4
5.99 8.47
C.V. (%) Range
53.51
G. Mean
3.2 3.4
3.4
3.2 3.1
3.4
4.2 4.8
3.3
2.8 2.5
4.1
4.1 4.3
2.2
2.9 3.3
2.7
3.1 4.0
2.6
2.5 2.7
Leaf width (cm)
S.Em. S.Ed.
4.6 6.7
5.1
6.1 6.4
5.1
HG 41
15
4.7 4.6
HG 35 HG 38
HG 11
6.3 6.3
4.6
4.9 5.5
13 14
12
4.7
HG 17
HG 58 HG 72
9
HG 18
HG 32 HG 24
6
7 8
10 11
5.2 4.8
HG 63 HG 14
4 5
4.3
HG 59
3
3.7 4.7
Leaf length (cm)
HG 75 HG 54
Treatments
1 2
S. No.
21.23 4.8 –11.7
3.55
1.21 1.71
8.08
11.4 10.4
10.0
8.7 8.5
7.7
9.7 10.1
11.5
8.7 11.1
12.0
10.1 9.9
11.1
12.0 9.5
12.4
7.7 11.7
10.1
Primary branches plant-1 (no.) 9.9 8.6
35.88
12.26 17.33
79.34
3.4 3.6
4.4
3.2 3.4
3.1
2.1 3.9
3.4
4.2 3.0
3.3
3.5 3.2
2.9
3.8 2.6
3.6
3.0 4.1
3.1
3.8 3.3
Pods axil-1 (no.)
0.55
0.19 0.26
5.65
103.0 156.0
83.5
60.0 70.8
42.0
47.1 70.1
103.8
128.4 79.0
73.3
90.9 75.7
45.0
80.1 92.7
122.0
43.8 77.3
61.4
87.8 31.6
Pods plant-1 (no.)
11.78 21.85 4.66 2.1 –4.4 31.6 –156.0 3.9 –6.6
0.82
0.28 0.40
3.38
10.2 10.7
11.6
5.4 8.6
4.8
5.4 5.8
10.6
11.7 7.0
11.1
8.6 10.1
6.7
6.0 7.4
8.5
4.8 5.1
10.0
Secondary branches plant-1 (no.) 8.5 7.5
0.84
0.29 0.41
6.28
5.4 5.6
5.2
5.9 6.0
5.3
5.5 5.7
5.9
6.4 5.4
5.2
5.8 5.9
5.4
5.7 5.7
6.0
5.5 5.1
5.6
5.8 4.7
Pod length (cm)
1.25
0.43 0.60
13.00
7.92 13.88
5.64
4.77 5.80
2.55
4.09 6.25
5.52
6.88 7.75
12.30
6.30 7.72
3.34
8.09 6.24
6.03
4.52 6.89
3.88
4.98 3.08
Pod hulm plant-1 (g)
0.260
0.089 0.126
3.216
20.08 20.96
12.32
9.96 12.42
6.03
9.22 11.79
12.46
16.06 16.90
21.98
12.80 14.38
7.13
16.88 13.96
13.35
8.44 15.37
8.14
11.74 6.76
3.430 3.133
3.377
3.259 2.675
2.372
3.695 2.910
3.115
3.036 3.331
3.560
3.231 3.246
3.406
3.486 3.745
3.239
3.196 3.227
3.339
2.796 3.167
Seed 100 seed yield weight plant-1 (g) (g)
4.24 6.45 4.63 3.905 4.7 –6.4 2.55 –13.886.03 –21.98 2.372 –3.745
0.49
0.17 0.24
5.59
5.4 3.9
5.4
5.2 6.0
5.2
5.1 6.6
5.9
6.2 5.5
5.5
5.5 5.8
5.8
6.2 6.2
6.1
5.8 5.7
6.2
5.7 5.3
Seeds pod-1 (no.)
Table 1a: Yield and yield component characters for different accessions of horse gram during Rabi, 2008-09
Table 1b: Seed quality parameters for different accessions of horse gram during Rabi, 2008 - 09 S. No.
Treatments
Germination %
Total seedling length (cm)
Seedling dry weight (g)
Seedling vigor index I
Seedling vigor index II
1
HG 75
98.9
28.09
0.0194
2775.3
1.921
2
HG 54
99.8
25.10
0.0170
2503.6
1.692
3
HG 59
99.8
26.58
0.0213
2651.1
2.122
4
HG 63
99.3
27.53
0.0206
2732.0
2.038
5
HG 14
99.0
27.16
0.0192
2688.8
1.903
6
HG 18
99.8
26.04
0.0202
2597.5
2.012
7
HG 32
99.4
23.92
0.0211
2377.0
2.095
8
HG 24
92.0
26.12
0.0256
2391.9
2.332
9
HG 17
99.5
27.32
0.0189
2717.4
1.879
10
HG 58
96.6
25.64
0.0200
2475.9
1.929
11
HG 72
95.0
26.46
0.0245
2513.2
2.327
12
HG 11
99.1
27.38
0.0215
2716.0
2.132
13
HG 35
96.6
24.45
0.0219
2362.1
2.112
14
HG 38
98.0
26.92
0.0229
2632.9
2.239
15
HG 41
99.5
26.41
0.0223
2626.3
2.216
16
HG 15
99.0
21.89
0.0231
2167.3
2.284
17
HG 49
99.1
26.47
0.0296
2625.5
2.936
18
HG 50
97.5
21.07
0.0252
2055.6
2.459
19
HG 52
97.6
24.60
0.0236
2401.0
2.299
20
HG 46
98.9
26.03
0.0221
2571.9
2.180
21
PALEM 1
98.9
28.40
0.0220
2808.4
2.171
22
PALEM 2
99.5
25.06
0.0217
2491.8
2.162
23
AK 38
99.6
26.15
0.0220
2604.2
2.189
G. Mean
98.36
25.86
0.0220
2542.89
2.158
S.Em.
1.42
1.46
0.001
150.46
0.110
S.Ed.
2.01
2.06
0.002
212.75
0.155
C.D. (5%)
4.16
4.26
0.004
440.40
0.322
C.V. (%)
2.04
7.97
0.776
8.37
0.720
Range
92.0 – 99.8
21.07 -28.40
0.0170- 0.0296
2055.6 -2808.4
1.692 – 2.936
41
42
on seed quality and also on economic returns.
References
In the present study, HG 11 was found superior for majority of the productivity and quality traits of horse gram and can be used as one of the parent in the hybridization programme. Further AK 38 and Palem 2 can be recommended for cultivation in the horse gram growing areas of AP and can also be used in the future breeding programmes for incorporation of economic and desirable productivity traits.
Abdul-Baki AA , Anderson JD( 1973) Vigour determination in soybean seed by multiple criteria. Crop Sci 13: 630633 International Seed Testing Association (1985) International rules for seed testing. Seed Sci & Technol 27(Supplement):30-35 Panse VG , Sukhatame PV( 1985) Statistical Methods for Research Workers. ICAR Publication New Delhi Surender K Chauhan, Jitender Mohan, Sain Dass , Gadag RN( 2009) Evaluation and identification of suitable maize cultivars for baby corn productivity traits. Indian J Pl Gen Resources 22(3): 229-238 Almeida IP, De C, Le Silva, PS, Negreiros, MZ de , Barbosa Z( 2005) Baby corn, green ear and grain yield of corn cultivars. Botucatu, Brazil: Sociedade de Olericultura do Brasil, UNESP – FCA. Horticultura – Brasiliera 23(4): 960-964 Itala Paula de C Almeida, Paulo Sergio Le Silva, Z Maria de Negreiros , Zenaide Barbosa. (2005) Baby corn, green ear and grain yield of corn cultivars. Horticultura Brasiliera. Brasilia 23(4): 960-964
Further in view of wide genetic diversity noticed for various productivity as well as quality traits exhibited in these cultivars, they could serve as useful genetic resources and be effectively utilized as base material in deriving better and useful genotypes by hybridization and directional selection for specific characters in developing new varieties (Surender et al. 2009).
mRiknu lacf/kr rsjg xq.kks ds v/;;u ea ;g ik;k x;k fd dqYFkh dh HG11 rFkk AK38 tkfr us lokZf/kd iz’kluh; mRiknu fn[kk;k A mRiknu lacf/kr xq.kksa tSls iŸkh dh yEckbZ] ikS/ks dh Å¡pkbZ] 'kk[kk,sa] izfr Qyh cht dh la[;k] cht dk otu bu tkfr;ksa esa Fkk ftUgsa fd Hkfo"; esa ikni iztuu dk;Z esa iz;ksx esa yk;k tk ldrk gS A
(Manuscript Receivd : 16.02.2012; Accepted 20.06.2012)
43
JNKVV Res J 46(1): 44-46 (2012)
Relative performance of new single cut oat genotypes to different nitrogen levels under agro-climatic condition of Kymore plateau zone of Madhya Pradesh A.K. Jha, Arti Shrivastava, N.S. Raghuvanshi and J.K. Sharma Department of Agronomy Jawahrlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya Jabalpur 482 004 (MP)
determinate the adequate supply of nitrogen to the oat based on field experimentation for realizing the genetic yield potential of newly evolved varieties. A vast varietals diversity of oat enables its cultivation over wide range of oat have been evolved which have high yield potential are grown for producing green fodder as well as seed. These varieties are highly responsive to high doses of fertilizers. Hence, the necessity for selection of suitable varieties and their nitrogen requirements for different Agro-climatic regions through well planned varietal cum manorial experiments is self evident.
Abstract A field investigation was conducted at Department of Agronomy, Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur (M.P.) during Rabi season of 2007-08 with the objective of to determine the relative performance of new single cut oat genotypes in combination of nitrogen levels. The treatments consists of five new oat genotypes (JO-0391,OS-396, UPO-06-1, UPO-06-2 and Kent ) and four nitrogen levels (0, 40 ,80 and 120 ) under split plot design replicated thrice. The variety JO 03-91with 120 kg N/ ha proved significantly superior in producing maximum green fodder yield (503.9 q/ha), dry matter yield (121.1 q/ha) and crude protein yield (9.6 q/ha) and maximum monetary advantage ( Rs 53729) and proved most remunerative with benefit: cost ratio of 2.87.
Material and methods Investigation was conducted under AICRP on Forage Crops, Department of Agronomy, Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur (MP) during Rabi season of 2007-08. The soil of experimental field was clay loam in texture, neutral (7.2) in reaction with low organic carbon (0.44%) and normal electrical conductivity (0.34 dS/m) and analyzing low in available N (228 kg/ha), medium in available P (16.2 kg/ha) and available K (297 kg/ha) contents. Treatments were laid out in split plot design with three replications, keeping four levels of each of N (0, 40, 80 and 120 kg/ha) and varieties (JO 03-91, OS 396, UPO 06- UPO 06-21 and Kent). Sowing was done on November 20, 2007 by using 100 kg/ha of each variety in rows 25 cm apart with uniform dose 40 kg P2O5 + 20 kg K2O /ha .Nitrogen was applied as per treatments. At the harvest, green fodder yield and growth parameters, viz. plant height, tiller number, leaf area index and leaf- stem ratio were recorded. The crude - protein yield was calculated by a factor of 6.25 formula suggested by Mehrez and Zraslox
Keywords: Oat, forage, N levels, varieties, green fodder yield Oat (Avena sativa L.) is one of the important cereal fodder crop in the temperate climate of the world. Oat is grown in India mainly for its nutritive grain and fodder values especially suited for horses, dairy cows, and buffaloes. Under the situation water supply is limited and farmer can not grow legumes like berseem and lucerne, oat promises as a better choice as an alternative fodder crop. Being a gramineceous fodder, oat responds well to nitrogen application, which produces more tonnage in per unit area per unit time under favorable environmental conditions (Agrawal et al. 1993). However, excess application of nitrogen to oat under certain environmental conditions causes large quantities of nitrate accumulation in plant leaves, which may be toxic to ruminants. These facts necessitate to
44
3.66 4.17 4.84 5.18 -
5.03 3.96 3.98 4.67 4.68 -
B:C ratio
(1977). The dry matter yield was recorded.
33676 41297 51763 57910 366.5 417.5 485.5 518.8 4.4 12.6 85.1 98.0 115.9 124.8 2.41 6.9 1.24 1.04 0.91 0.88 0.09 0.27 6.4 7.6 9.2 10.0 0.1 0.3
1.05 0.86 0.09 NS
Different growth parameters like plant height, number of tillers per plant, leaf area index, and dry matter accumulation by plant have directly correlated with the green fodder yield. The growth parameters like plant height, number of tillers and leaf area index gradually increased under all treatments with the advancement in growing periods till the harvesting of crop. Similarly, the LAI showed rapid rate of increment during the period between 30 DAS to 60 DAS. Increasing level of nitrogen dose from 0 to 120 kg/ha resulted corresponding increase in plant height, LAI and number of tillers, because of nitrogen attributed synthesis of food materials, resulting in greater cell division and cell elongation (Kumar et al. 2000). Therefore, elongation in plant increased with increasing nitrogen application. Application of 120 kg/ha was also recorded highest LAI, number of tillers/m2. As regardless the varieties, the varieties JO 03-91 attained maximum plant height ,number of tillers and LAI than other genotypes. The quality of fodder is determined by leaf -stem ratio and it was almost comparable among all the varieties, however variety JO 03-91 was numerically superior to others with regard to leaf-stem ratio. The similar finding supported by on growth parameters enhanced greatly by application of nitrogen (Sharma and Verma 2004).
3.00 3.12 3.48 3.72 0.12 0.24
Effect on yield The crud protein, dry matter and green fodder yield significantly influenced by different varieties and nitrogen levels (Table 1). The production of green fodder was directly correlated ith various growth parameters and yield attributes of crop. The JO-03-91 produced the highest green fodder yield as well as dry matter yield of 503.9 and 121.1 q/ha respectively followed by UPO-06-2 (467.7q/ha green fodder and 110.3 q/ha dry matter yield). Varieties and UPO-06-1 and OS-396 were next to these two in descending order for green fodder yield along with green fodder and dry matter yields of these varieties ranged between 467 to 398; and 110. 3 to 110.9 q/ha, respectively. The minimum green and dry fodder yield was found with varieties Kent. These varieties mainly attributed to their genetic ability and influence of macro and micro environmental conditions. These results are in close conformity with the findings of Pradhan et al. (2005). Among the different nitrogen
157.20 174.60 189.40 199.80 1.1 3.1 125.0 132.6 137.5 142.2 0.5 1.6
310.60 379.30 416.54 434.10 1.56 3.60
316.60 384.30 432.50 444.80 1.56 4.58
3.08 3.80 4.83 6.45 0.13 0.34
503.9 398.7 467.7 468.3 396.9 8.8 28.6 121.1 94.1 110.3 110.9 93.4 1.8 5.9 9.6 7.2 8.9 8.6 7.3 0.2 0.5 4.95 4.44 4.64 4.61 4.16 0.12 0.38 3.56 3.24 3.42 3.40 3.22 0.11 0.28 380.40 346.20 371.89 363.00 344.30 1.56 4.76 365.90 332.10 345.67 348.50 335.80 2.20 3.60 182.80 158.00 161.40 168.00 154,87 1.04 2.96 138.6 133.1 143.3 130.4 126.3 0.3 1.1
60 DAS 30 DAS 60 DAS At harvest 30 DAS At harvest
Effect on growth pattern and yield attributes
Varieties JO-03-91 OS-396 UPO-06-1 UPO-06-2 Kent SEm± CD at 5% N(kg/ha) 0 40 80 120 SEm± CD at 5%
Leaf Area Index Number of tillers/m2 Plant height(cm) Treatments
Table1. Characteristics of oat varieties influenced by different nitrogen levels
Crude protein yield (q/ha)
Leaf: stem ratio
1.11 1.05
Dry matter yield (q/ha)
Green fodder yield (q/ha)
53729 39506 39738 48980 48855 -
NMRs (Rs/ha)
Results and discussion
45
levels green and dry matter and crud protein yields correspondingly increased with increase in N levels up to 120 kg/ha. Thus, it is obvious that oat is highly responsive to this nutrient and oat responded to a very level of N application even up to 160 kg/ha depending on the varieties (Rohitashav et al. 1998.). Dry matter production also influenced with increasing levels of nitrogen up to 120 kg/ha mainly due to their corresponding increase in plant height, number of tillers/ m2 and leaf area thereby more photosynthetic area which ultimately increased the sink size and produced more dry matter in plants. These findings are closer with results of Mahale et al. (2004).
References Agrawal SB, Dubey SK, Tomar GS (1993) Response of oat varieties to nitrogen. JNKVV Res J 27 (2):133 Mahale BB, Nevase VB, Throt, ST (2004) Effect of cutting management and nitrogen on forage yield of oat. J Soils and Crops 14 (2):469-472 Mehrez AZ, Zraskov ER (1977) A study on the artificial fibre bag technique for determining the digestibility of seeds in the rumen. J Agric Sci Cambridge 88:645650 Pradhan L, Mishra SN (1994) Effect of cutting management, row spacing and level of nitrogen on fodder yield and quality of oat. Ind J Argon 39(2):233-236 Rohitashav Singh, Sood, BR, Sharma VK, Rana NS (1998).Effect of cutting management and nitrogen on forage seed yield of oat. Ind J Argon 43(2):362366 Sharma KC, Verma RS (2004) Effect of chemical and biofertilizers and growth behavior of multicut fodder .Range-Management and Agro-Foresty 25(1):57-60
Effect on Economics Variety JO 03-91 (5.03) with respect of B-C ratio being close to UPO 06-2 (4.68) and UPO 06-1 (4.67) and Kent (3.96) resulted into lesser B-C ratio. Application of nitrogen i.e.120 kg N /ha markedly gave maximum B-C ratio 5.18 than other levels.
Kumar Arvind, Jaisawal RS, Verma ML, Joshi YP, Kumar A (2001) Effect of nitrogen level and cutting manament on yield and quality of different variety of oat fodder. Indian J Animal -Nutrition. 18: 262-266
tokgjyky usg: Ñf"k fo'ofo|ky; ds vf[ky Hkkjrh; pkjk vuql/a kku ifj;kstuk ds vUrxZr nkseV feVVh okys iz{ks= ij tbZ dh ubZ tkfr;ksa ij fofHkUu Lrjks ds u=tu dk izHkko ns[kus ds fy;s o"kZ 2007&08 ds jch ekSle es iz;ksx fd;k x;kA iz;ksx esa tbZ dh pkj tkfr;kW ts-vks- 03&91] vks-,l- 396] vks-ih-vks- 06&1] vks-ihvks- 06&2 ,oa dsUV yh xbZ tcfd fofHkUu u=tu Lrj 0] 40] 80 ,oa 120 fd-xzk@gs- dks fLfIyV IykV fMtkbu ds vUrxZr rhu ckj nksgjk;k x;kA izkIr ifj.kkeksa ds vk/kkj ij tkfr ts-vks-&03&91 dk u=tu Lrj 120 fd-xzk-@gs- ds lkFk vPNk gjk pkjk ¼503-9 q/ha) lw[kk vo'ks"k (121.1 q/ha), ØqM izksVhu (9.6 q/ha) ,oa vf/kd ykHk ( Rs. 53729/-) izkIr gqvkA
(Manuscript Receivd : 15.02.2012; Accepted 17.05.2012)
46
JNKVV Res J 46(1): 47-51 (2012)
Influence of staggered date of sowing on eco-physiological studies of soybean varieties combating climate change under Kymore plateau zone of Madhya Pradesh, India Karuna Meshram, S.D. Upadhyaya, K.K. Agrawal, Anubha Upadhyay and Noor Afsan Khan Department of Plant Physiology Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya Jabalpur 482004 (MP)
Abstract
of 5.2 million ha and the production is 5.5 tonnes with an average productivity of 1040 kg/ha. The state had substantial contribution around 605 of total area and production of India therefore, it is also known as "Soya State". About 60% (85 million ha) of cultivated land, supporting 40% of population, 60% livestock, contributing 40% of agricultural production is rain dependent. After having developed all water resources, 50% sown area shall still continue to be un-irrigated, complex, diverse, fragile, risky and distress prone. Extreme weather events and climatic anomalies have major impacts on crop productivity and food security. Losses in production happen due to drought, flash floods, untimely rains, frost, hails and high temperatures and heat waves etc. during crop season. In recent years extreme weather and climatic anomalies have increased manifold. This requires continuous efforts to develop and optimize agricultural technologies to cope up with emerging trend of climatic changes and vulnerability. It has been projected by the recent report of IPCC and other global studies that unless we adapt, there is probability of 10-40% loss in crop production in India by 2080-2100 due to global warming. Indian studies confirm a similar trend of agriculture decline with climate change. The droughts of 2002 and 2009 have brought down the total food grain production to alarming levels. An increase in these events could result in greater instability in food production and threaten dream of food security. Scientific evidence about the seriousness of the climate threat to agriculture is now unambiguous, but the exact magnitude is uncertain because of the complex interaction and feed back processes in the ecosystem and economy. In India, agriculture sector contributes ~22% of the total greenhouse gases (GHG) emission (Samra et al. 2005).
Differential response of staggered date of sowing among different varieties of soybean was observed in relation to climate change. The experiment with 3 sowing dates viz., 1 July, 15 July and 30 July and 3 soybean varieties viz., JS 9305, JS 97-52 and JS-335 was conducted in split-plot design with three replications. Highest number of pods plant-1 (59.8), pod dry weight plant-1 (g) (17.03), No. of hard seed 100 seed1 (7.22), seed weight g plant-1 (11.38) and seed index 100 seed-1 (9.48) weight were observed with 15 July sowing while 30 July sown crop showed the lowest (57.37) number of pods plant-1. However, number of hard seeds 100 seed-1 (3.56) was found with 15 July sowing and highest seed weight g-1 (11.38) and pod dry weight g plant-1 (17.03), number of hard seed 100 seed-1 were found in the variety JS 97-52. The interaction effect of sowing dates and varieties were also found significant and hence 15 July sowing coupled with JS-97-52 variety gave the best performance regarding pod development and seed production.
Keywords: Hard seed, seed weight Soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merrill] contains all the three macro-nutrients required for good nutrition, as well as fibre, vitamins and minerals. It provides the highest protein (approximately 40%) among the pulses, reasonably good amount of vegetable oil (approximately 20%) in seeds. It is used in the food industry for flour, oil margarine, cookies, biscuits, candy, milk, vegetable cheese and many other products. Being a leguminous crops it also improves soil fertility by fixing atmospheric nitrogen at the rate of 65-115 kg/ha (Hermann 1962). In Madhya Pradesh soybean is grown in an area
47
Material and methods
land was fertilized with N2 P2O5 and K2O @ 20, 60, 20/ ha respectively were applied in the form of urea, superphospohate and murate of potash during final land preparation at each sowing date. The seeds of soybean varieties were sown at 40 cm apart rows using 100 kg seeds of crop varieties. High seed rate was used to ensure adequate plant population in each plot. Intercultural operations such as weeding thinning, spraying of insecticide and fungicide were done uniformly, in all plots. Weeding were done two times at 15 and 25 days after sowing (DAS) and thinning at kept 5 cm. No irrigation was required in the field. Soybean plant infested by girdle-beetle was controlled by application of Endosuflan 35 EC @ 1.25 l/ha in first week of August. After this spraying of Qunilophos 25 EC @ 1.0 l/ha was done in 4th week of August to control the damage of green semilooper.
The investigation was conducted during July to November 2010 to find out the effect of sowing date and variety on the soybean seed yield and quality. During the period the maximum temperature ranged from 29.3 to 37.4 0C and the minimum temperature ranged from 15.3 to 25.4 to and the average temperature ranged from 22.3 to 31.4, The maximum and minimum atmospheric humidity was from 59 to 82% (Table 1). Three sowing dates viz., 1 July (S1), 15 July (S2) and 30 July (S3) and three soybean varieties viz. JS 93-05 (V1), JS 97-52 (V2), JS 335 (V3) were included in the investigation. The experiment was laid out in a split-plot design with three replication. The sowing dates were allocated in the main plot and varieties in the sub plots. The unit plot size was 5.20 x 4.20 m2. The spaces between the main plots and that between two sub-plots were 1 m and 0.50 m, respectively.
The crop was harvested from the central 5.20 m2 area with traditional sickle at full maturity (i.e. when 95% pods become brown). The plants of JS 93-05 shown early maturity than JS 97-52 and JS 335. Withine 100110 DAS all plants matured. Randomly selected five plants were choosen from each sample plant and average number of pods plant-1 was determined.
The experiment land was opened with a power tiller and then ploughed twice with a country plough followed by laddering to achieve a medium tilth. The
Table 1. Weekly meteorological parameters during crop season (end of June to end of October, 2010-11) Meteo. week
26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Temperature (0C)
Max.
Min.
37.4 33.1 31.7 33.5 30.7 31.5 31.9 33.3 32.9 33.5 33.0 31.9 30.4 32.0 32.3 32.7 31.8 30.9 29.3 30.3
25.4 24.8 24.2 25.2 24.5 23.5 23.1 23.3 23.7 23.6 23.3 23.6 22.5 20.6 20.8 19.7 19.8 18.1 15.3 16.3
Av. Temp Sunshine Rainfall (hrs.) (mm)
31.4 28.95 27.95 29.35 27.6 27.5 27.5 28.3 28.3 28.55 28.15 27.7 26.4 26.3 26.5 26.2 25.8 24.5 22.3 23.3
6.5 3.0 2.5 5.1 2.7 1.6 4.2 4.2 4.6 5.1 2.7 5.0 4.3 8.7 8.4 7.4 4.3 8.2 7.6 7.3
44.0 82.4 148.2 41.0 170.3 122.0 102.5 128. 24.0 95.0 312.7 80.0 118.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 79.4 0.0 0.4 0.0
RH (%)
Morn.
Even.
76 86 89 88 89 88 88 85 86 84 93 90 93 88 89 86 94 92 91 91
42 71 75 63 75 75 63 64 73 70 70 69 69 47 51 45 60 42 42 48
48
Av. RH
59 78.5 82 75.5 82 81.5 75.5 74.5 79.5 77 81.5 79.5 81 67.5 70 65.5 77 67 66.5 69.5
Wind speed (km/hr)
7.3 5.3 7.8 4.5 6.1 5.0 7.2 4.6 5.5 4.5 5.3 4.7 4.0 2.8 2.8 3.3 4.3 2.5 2.7 3.0
Vapour pressure (mm) Morn.
Even.
21.6 23.0 22.6 24.3 23.3 22.4 22.7 23.0 22.8 22.4 23.6 22.3 21.7 19.7 19.3 18.4 20.1 16.1 13.9 14.9
19.1 22.9 24.1 23.8 23.6 22.1 21.4 22.5 26.8 24.8 22.9 22.2 20.7 16.0 17.8 15.8 19.2 13.7 12.4 15.2
Evapo. (mm)
Rainy days
6.5 4.1 3.6 3.6 4.0 6.8 7.9 8.0 7.6 8.1 6.5 3.1 3.0 3.8 3.5 3.5 3.3 3.0 2.6 2.7
1 3 3 1 2 5 2 4 2 5 6 2 5 0 0.0 0.0 4.0 0.0 0.0 0
Data were analysed using analysis of variance (ANOVA) technique and the mean differences were adjudged by Miller et al. (1958).
sowing after 15 July the number of pods plant-1 again started to decreased (Ehsanullah et al. 1989) observed that number of pods plant-1 was significantly affected by sowing time.
Result and discussion
Due to the effect of variety the number of pods plant-1 was affected significantly (Table 2). The highest number of pods plant-1 (74.88) was found in variety JS 97-52 and the lowest number of pods plant-1 (46.67) was found in variety JS 93-05 which was statistically identical with JS 335 (Table 2). The result shows that JS 97-52 produced higher pods plant-1 than JS 93-05 and JS 335 respectively.
Number of pods Due to the effect of sowing date the number of pods plant-1 was significantly affected (Table 2). The highest number of pods plant-1 (59.58) was found 15 July sowing which was statistically identical with 1 July. The lowest number of pods plant-1 (57.37) with 30 July sowing (Table 2). The result shows that the number of pods plant-1 was increased with each successive delay in sowing after 1 July upto 15 July and further delay in
Due to the interaction effect of sowing date and variety the number of pods plant-1 was significantly affected (Table 2). The highest number of pods plant-1 (76.46) was found in variety JS 97-52 sown 15 July and
Table 2. Impact of staggered sowing dates and varieties on number of pods plant-1, pod dry weight (g) plant-1, number of hard seeds 100 seed-1, seed weight (g) plant-1 and seed index 100 seed weight-1 No. of pods plant-1 Main treatment sowing date (D) D1 58.46 D2 59.58 D3 57.37 SEm± 0.51 CD 5% 2.00 Sub treatment variety (V) V1 46.67 V2 74.88 53.86 V3 SEm± 0.35
Pod dry weight (g) plant-1
No. of hard seed 100 seed-1
Seed weight (g) plant-1
Seed index 100 seed weight-1
16.52 17.03 16.16 0.18 0.71
4.44 7.22 3.56 0.57 1.71
11.16 11.38 11.22 0.08 0.33
9.44 9.48 9.42 0.01 0.03
12.97 21.73 15.02 0.17
9.44 2.11 3.67 0.40
8.31 15.49 9.96 0.08
8.87 10.27 9.21 0.01
CD 5% Interaction D1V1 D1V2 D1V3 D2V1 D2V2 D2V3 D3V1 D3V2 D3V3 SEm±
1.07
0.53
1.23
0.26
0.04
46.67 74.47 54.24 47.68 76.46 54.61 45.65 75.72 52.75 0.60
12.97 21.61 14.97 13.25 22.18 15.65 12.69 21.39 14.43 0.30
7.33 2.33 3.67 14.33 1.67 5.67 6.67 2.33 1.67 0.69
8.31 15.26 9.92 8.49 15.67 9.99 8.13 15.94 9.99 0.15
8.87 10.27 9.19 8.89 10.29 9.25 8.84 10.26 9.18 0.02
CD 5%
1.85
0.91
2.14
0.46
0.08
49
No. of pods/plant
Pod dry weight (g)/plant
No. of hard seed 100/seed
Seed weight (g)/plant
Number of hard seed
Seed index 100 seed/weight
80
The significant results were recorded in relation to number of hard seed/100 seed by the sowing date (Table 2). The highest number of hard seed/100 seed (7.22) and found in 15 July sowing crop and the least number of hard seed/100 seed (3.56) in 30 July sowing (Table 2). The result indicate that the number of hard seed/ 100 seed was increased with each successive delay.
70 60 50 40 30 20
Variety had significant influence on number of hard seed/100 seed (Table 2). The highest number of hard seed 100/seed (9.44) was found in JS 93-05 and the lowest number (2.11) was found JS 97-52 also it is statistically identical with JS-335 (Table 2). The result revealed that the production of number of hard seed/ 100 seed was more JS 93-05 compared with JS 97-52 and JS 335.
10 0
Fig.1: Impact of staggered sowing dates and varieties on number of pods/plant, pod dry weight (g)/plant, number of hard seeds 100/seed, weed weight (g)/plant and seed index 100seed/weight
Significant variation was found due to the interaction effect of sowing date and variety on number of hard seed/100 seed (Table 2). The highest number of hard seed/100 seed (14.33) was found in variety JS 93-05 with 15 July sowing on the lowest number (1.67 in JS 97-52 with 30 July which is also statistically identical with JS 93-05 and JS 335 on same sowing (Table 2).
the lowest number (45.65) was found in JS 93-05 on 30 July sowing. Which was statistically identical with JS 335 at same date. Dry weight of pods The significant variation was found due to the effect of sowing date in pod dry weight (g) plant-1 (Table 2). The highest pods dry weight g plant-1 (17.03) was found with 15 July sowing and the lowest pod dry weight (16.16) was found with 30 July sowing (Table 2). The result shows that the pod dry weight (g plant-1) was increased with each successive delay in sowing after 1 July upto 15 July further delay in sowing after 15 July the pod dry weight (g plant-1) again started to decreased.
Seed weight There was significant influence on seed (g) plant-1 by sowing date (Table 2). The highest seed weight (g) plant-1 (11.38) was found in 15 July sowing and lowest (11.16) in 1 July sowing (Table 2). The significant result found on seed weight (g) plant-1 due to the effect of variety (Table 2). The highest seed weight (g) plant-1 (15.49) was found in JS 97-52 and the lowest (8.31) in JS-335 which was statistically identical with JS 93-05 (Table 2).
The effect of variety on pod dry weight (g plant-1) was significant (Table 2). The highest pod dry weight (g) plant-1 (21.73) was found in variety JS 97-52 and the lowest pod dry weight (g) plant-1 (12.97) was found in variety JS 93-05 was statistically identical with JS-335 (Table 2). The result shows that JS 97-52 produced higher pod dry weight (g plant-1) than JS 9305 and JS-335 respectively.
The interaction effect of sowing date variety on seed weight (g) plant-1 was found significant (Table 2). The highest seed weight (15.94) was found in the variety JS 97-52 with 15 July sowing. The lowest seed weight (g) plant-1 (8.13) was found in the variety JS 93-05 with 1 July sowing.
Due to the interaction effect of sowing date and variety the pod dry weight (g) plant-1 was significantly affected (Table 2). The highest pod dry weight (g) plant-1 (22.18) was in variety JS 97-52 with 15 July sowing and the lowest pod dry weight (g plant-1) (12.69) was found in JS 93-05 with 30 July sowing which was statistical identical with JS 335 in same sowing date.
References Bhatia VS, Tiwari SP, Joshi AP (1999) Yield and its attributes as affected by planting dates in soybean (Glycine max) varieties. Indian J Agril Sci 69(10): 696-699
50
Billore SD, Joshi AP, Ramesh A (2000) Performance of soybean (Glycine max) genotype on different sowing dates and row spacing in vertisols. Indian J Agric Sci 70(9): 477-580 Ehsanullah JB, Mir H, Khalie SK, Zahir S (1989) Effect of different sowing dates on yield and yield components of 20 soybean cultivars. Sarhad J Agric 5(1) : 15-19 Kumar MS, Singh D, Rao VUM (2005) Effect of planting dates on yield and yield components of soybean genotypes. Haryana J Agron 21(2): 202 Miller, P.A., Willians, H.F., Ribinson, H.K. and Constock, R.K. (1958) Estimates of genotypic and phenotypic variances and covariances in upland cotton and their implications in selection. Agron J 50 : 126-131
Navarro Jr, HM, Costa JA (2002) Yield potential expression of soybean genotypes. Pesquisa Agropecuaria Brasileira 37(3): 275-279 Parmar A (2002) Effect of plant densities on growth, yield attributing parameters and productivity of soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merrill] genotype. M Sc (Ag) Thesis JNKVV Jabalpur Singh H, Hundal SS (2004) Effect of sowing dates and differential water application on microclimate and yield of soybean (Glycine max L.). J Agrometeorology 6 : 47-51 (Manuscript Receivd : 15.02.2012; Accepted 20.08.2012)
51
JNKVV Res J 46(1): 52-55 (2012)
Nutrient management for improving productivity and economics of Rabi niger M.R. Deshmukh, Alok Jyotishi and A.R.G. Ranganatha Project Coordinating Unit (Sesame & Niger) Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya Jabalpur 482 004 (MP)
Abstract
Materials and methods
Field experiments were conducted on niger cv JNC1 in clay loam soils of Jabalpur during rabi seasons of 2007 and 2008 to determine the appropriate nutrient management for improving the productivity and monetary returns. Results revealed that application of 40 kg N + 20 kg P2O5 through SSP + 5 kg PSB/ha proved to be highly efficient with seed yield of 557 kg/ha, the net monetary returns and benefit-cost ratio of Rs 9320/ha and 2.26 respectively for niger.
Field experiments were conducted for consecutive two years during rabi season of 2007 and 2008 at Research Farm, Project Co-ordinating Unit (Sesame and Niger), JNKVV, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh. The soil of the experimental field was clay loam in texture, neutral in reaction (pH 7.2) and low in organic carbon (0.39%), available N (220 kg/ha), available P (7.85 kg/ha) and high in available K (345 kg/ha) content. Twelve treatments (Table 1) consisting of 20 and 40 kg N/ha with 20 and 40 kg P2O5/ha along with phosphorus solubilizing bacteria (PSB) and sources of P as single super phosphate (SSP), Rock phosphate enriched in FYM (1:3) for 15 days (R,pen) and diammonium phosphate (DAP) were tested in randomized block design with four replications. Seed of JNC1 variety was treated with Thiram 3 g/kg seed. Sowing was done on 16 October, 2007 and 6 October 2008 in the two consecutive years by drilling 5 kg seed/ha in the rows 30 cm apart at about 3 cm depth. Seeds were covered by the soil immediately after sowing and then a light irrigation was given for germination of seeds. Nitrogen was applied through urea, while P was applied through single super phosphate, DAP and R,pen. All N and P fertilizers as per treatments were given as basal along with phosphorus solubilizing bacteria (PSB). Data on yield component characters and seed yield (kg/ha) were recorded. The economic analysis of the treatments was made on the basis of seed yield. The data were analyzed statistically for interpretation of the data.
Keywords: Nutrient Phosphorus sources
management,
Nitrogen,
Cultivation of niger is feasible under varying agroecosystems. It is grown successfully with low inputs on degraded soils, with wide range of sowing time from June to September under rainfed conditions and in rabi season with limited irrigations. It has tolerance to exstrems of weather fluctuations with less susceptibility to damage by the animals, birds, insects and diseases. (Sharma and Kewat 1998). Inspite of these advantages, the cultivation of this crop is confined to marginal and sub marginal lands with the negligible use of agro-inputs in the state resulting in low productivity of 224 kg/ha (Damodaram and Hegde 2010). Further, this crop has potential to produce yield upto 1000 kg/ha with the adoption of improved crop varieties and production technologies especially the appropriate nutrient management. The crop is responsive to application of N and P fertilizers depending on the agro-climatic conditions. The efficiency of applied P fertilizers varies according to various sources which can be further improved with the use of phosphorus solubilizing bacteria (PSB). However, such information is not available for agro-climatic conditions of Jabalpur. Hence, present investigation has been undertaken to ascertain proper nutrient management for improving the productivity and profitability of niger cultivation.
Results and discussion Productivity Seed yield of niger significantly varied with different nutrient management during both years of investigation
52
0.05 0.16 0.07 0.23 0.08 0.24 349 1101 358 1098 12.7 38.3 18.3 54.1 13.6 40.2
341 1034
2.21 2.33 2.10 9250 10210 8470 563 595 532
Thus it is evident that application of P particularly through SSP was found promising to improve the seed yield of niger. Application of 20 kg N/ha (421 kg/ha)-T2 different sources of P as 20 kg/ha along with PSB (T3, T4, T5 and T6) recorded significantly lower seed yield than higher level of N with 20 kg P2O5 (SSP)-T9. Hence, application of 40 kg N/ha proved efficient for increasing seed yield of niger. Application of PSB alongwith 20 kg N/ha-T3 reported numerically higher seed yield (434 kg/ ha) than application of 20 kg N/ha alone-T2 (421 kg/ ha). It is concluded from the above results that application of 40 kg N + 20 kg P2O5 (SSP) + 5 kg PSB/ ha-T9 was highly effective for increasing the productivity of niger. The increased seed yield of niger was mainly attributed to the superiority in branches/plant, capitula/ plant and seeds/capitulum under varying nutrient management practices. However, test weight of seed had no substantial influence due to different nutrient management practices (Table 2). Profitability The net monetary returns (NMR) values and B:C ratio significantly varied due to various treatments during both years of investigation and treatments followed almost similar trend in both years (Table 1). Based on a twoyear mean data, control-T1 recorded significantly the lowest NMR. (Rs 2890/ha) and B:C ratio (1.46) among
SEm± CD (P=0.05)
T12-
Mean
1.46 1.91 1.91 1.90 1.97 1.94 2.15 2.17 2.26 2.22 2.16 1.61 2.06 2.05 2.03 2.10 2.10 2.29 2.26 2.39 2.38 2.28
2008 2007
1.31 1.77 1.77 1.77 1.84 1.79 2.02 2.09 2.13 2.08 2.04 2890 6040 6220 6460 6990 6660 8100 8670 9320 8900 8840 3850 7000 7180 7420 7950 7770 9060 9330 10280 10010 9800 1960 5110 5290 5530 6060 5580 7170 8040 8390 7820 7910 304 421 434 454 473 457 503 534 557 538 548 336 453 466 486 505 494 535 556 589 575 580 273 390 403 423 442 421 472 513 526 502 517
Control N 20 kg/ha N 20 /ha + PSB 5 kg/ha N 20 kg/ha + PSB 5 kg/ha + P2O5 20 kg/ha through DAP N 20 kg/ha + PSB 5 kg/ha + P2O5 20 kg/ha through SSP N 20 kg/ha + PSB 5 kg/ha + P2O5 20 kg/ha through R,pen N 40 kg/ha + PSB 5 kg/ha N 40 kg/ha + PSB 5 kg/ha + P2O5 20 kg/ha through DAP N 40 kg/ha + PSB 5 kg/ha + P2O5 20 kg/ha through SSP N 40 kg/ha + PSB 5 kg/ha + P2O5 20 kg/ha through R,pen N 40 kg/ha + PSB 5 kg/ha + P2O5 40 kg/ha [20 kg/ha through DAP + 20 kg/ha through R,pen] N 40 kg/ha + PSB 5 kg/ha + P2O5 40 kg/ha [20 kg/ha through SSP + 20 kg/ha through R,pen] T1T2T3T4T5T6T7T8T9T10T11-
B:C ratio
Net monetary returns (Rs/ha) 2007 2008 Mean Seed yield (kg/ha) 2007 2008 Mean Treatment
Table 1. Effect of different nutrient management treatments on seed yield and economics of niger during 2007 and 2008, Jabalpur
(Table 1). Control treatment (T1) recorded significantly the lowest seed yield among all treatments during both years of investigation. Hence, application of N and P fertilizers proved efficient for improving the seed yield of niger. All treatments followed almost the same trend for seed yield during both years of investigation. Based on two years average data, seed yield was maximum (563 kg/ha) with T12-application of 40 kg N + 40 kg P2O5 (half each through SSP and R,pen) + 5 kg PSB/ha closely followed by T9-40 kg N + 20 kg P2O5 (SSP) + 5 kg PSB/ha (557 kg/ha), T11-40 kg N + 40 kg P2O5 (half each through DAP and R,pen) + 5 kg PSB/ha (548 kg/ ha), T10-40 kg N + 20 kg P2O5 (R,pen) + 5 kg PSB/ha (538 kg/ha) and T8-40 kg N + 20 kg P2O5 (DAP) + 5 kg PSB/ha (534 kg/ha). Application of 40 kg N + 5 kg PSB/ ha-T7 produced lower seed yield (503 kg/ha) than former treatments showing non-significant variation with T10. Application of 20 kg N/ha alongwith P and PSB (T3, T4, T5 and T6) also gave consistently higher seed yield than T2 however, variation was significant only with T5. These results confirmed Singh et al. (1990), Upadhyay and Paradkar (1992), Thakuria and Gogoi (1992) the need of 20 kg earlier reports of P2O5/ha, to niger crop.
53
54
N 20 kg/ha + PSB 5 kg/ha + P2O5 20 kg/ha through DAP
N 20 kg/ha + PSB 5 kg/ha + P2O5 20 kg/ha through SSP
N 20 kg/ha + PSB 5 kg/ha + P2O5 20 kg/ha through R,pen
N 40 kg/ha + PSB 5 kg/ha
N 40 kg/ha + PSB 5 kg/ha + P2O5 20 kg/ha through DAP
N 40 kg/ha + PSB 5 kg/ha + P2O5 20 kg/ha through SSP
T4-
T5-
T6-
T7-
T8-
T9-
1.08
CD (P=0.05)
1.41
0.47
6.56
-
-
6.16
6.00
5.80
6.08
5.86
5.36
5.40
5.61
5.56
5.33
5.30
#=Number, PSB=Phosphorus solubilizing bacteria, DAP=Diammonium phosphate, SSP=single super phosphate, R,pen=Rock phosphate enriched in FYM (1:3) for 15 days
0.37
SEm±
SSP + 20 kg/ha through R,pen]
T12- N 40 kg/ha + PSB 5 kg/ha + P2O5 40 kg/ha [20 kg/ha through 5.76
DAP + 20 kg/ha through R,pen]
6.40
T11- N 40 kg/ha + PSB 5 kg/ha + P2O5 40 kg/ha [20 kg/ha through 5.60
6.43
6.26
5.56
5.63
5.90
5.86
5.63
6.20
5.73
5.46
5.16
5.18
5.33
5.26
5.03
5.50
5.40
T10- N 40 kg/ha + PSB 5 kg/ha + P2O5 20 kg/ha through R,pen
N 20 /ha + PSB 5 kg/ha
T3-
5.10
N 20 kg/ha
T2-
3.97
3.40
Control
T14.55
Branches/plant (#) 2007 2008 Mean
Treatment
1.10
0.35
1.17
0.39
30.90 32.08
30.60 31.75
30.66 31.10
32.75 31.90
30.70 31.85
30.10 31.45
29.16 30.85
29.60 31.35
30.30 31.20
29.30 31.05
28.80 30.65
25.50 27.65
-
-
31.49
31.17
30.88
32.32
31.27
30.77
30.00
30.47
30.75
30.17
29.72
26.58
Capitula/plant (#) 2007 2008 Mean
1.02
0.34
1.08
0.36
21.80 22.65
20.70 22.35
20.80 22.15
22.00 22.75
20.90 22.45
21.00 22.15
20.60 22.15
21.20 22.35
21.40 22.55
21.60 22.75
21.00 22.15
19.90 20.05
-
-
22.22
21.52
21.47
22.58
21.48
21.58
20.83
21.78
21.98
22.18
21.58
19.48
Seeds/capitulum (#) 2007 2008 Mean
NS
0.16
3.9
3.8
3.8
3.2
3.3
3.8
3.8
3.9
3.4
3.9
3.9
3.8
NS
0.19
4.3
4.2
4.0
4.1
4.3
4.7
4.6
4.2
4.4
4.1
3.8
3.9
-
-
4.10
4.00
3.90
3.65
3.80
4.25
4.20
4.05
3.90
4.00
3.85
3.85
Test weight (g) 2007 2008 Mean
Table 2. Effect of different nutrient management treatments on yield component characters of niger during 2007 and 2008, Jabalpur
all the treatments. Application of 40 kg N + 20 kg P2O5 + 5 kg PSB/ha-T9 recorded the highest NMR (Rs 9320/ha) and B:C ratio (2.26) among all the treatments, however, these values did not differ significantly over T12, T10, T11 and T8 treatments. The NMR and B:C ratio ranged from Rs 8670 to Rs 9250/ha and 2.17 to 2.22 respectively with the later treatments. The other treatments with lower dose of N and P along with PSB recorded significantly lower NMR (Rs 6040 to 8100/ha) and B:C ratio (1.90 to 2.15) than above treatments with higher dose of N and P along with PSB. Thus, it is evident that application of 40 kg N along with 20 kg P2O 5 and 5 kg PSB/ha was quite remunerative.
References Damodaram T, Hegde, DM (2010) Oilseeds Situation : A Statistical Compendium. Directorate of Oilseeds Research Hyderabad, pp 128-136 Sharma RS, Kewat ML (1998) Niger does well under farming situation constraints. Indian Farming, 47(11):15-24 Singh PP, Singh RV, Singh S, Singh MP, Jain A, Khandait SL (1990) Effect of sowing date, fertility levels and densities on the growth and seed yield of winter niger [Guizotia abyssinica (L.f.) Cass]. Indian J Appl Pure Biology 5(2):89-92 Upadhyaya PC, Paradkar VK (1992) Influence of sowing dates and fertility levels on performance of niger cultivars. Symposium on Resource Management for Sustained Crop Production, Bikaner Rajasthan India 25-28 February 1992 Abstract p 38 Thakuria K, Gogoi PK (1992) Nutrient requirement of niger [Guizotia abyssinica (L.f.) Cass] under rainfed condition. Indian J Agron 37(3):608-610
ifj;kstuk leUo;u bZdkbZ] fry ,oa jkefry] t-us-d`-fo-fo- tcyiqj ds vuqlU/kku iz{ks= dh efV;kjh nkseV Hkwfe;ksa esa o"kZ 2007 ,oa 2008 ds jch ekSleksa esa jkefry dh fdLe ts-,u-lh & 1 ij mfpr iks"k.k izcU/ku dk jkefry dh mRikndrk ,oa vkfFkZd ykHk esa lq/kkj ykus ds mn~ns"; ls ijh{k.k iz;ksx fd;s x;s A ijh{k.kksa ds ifj.kkeksa ls 40 fd-xzk- u=tu + 20 fd-xzk LQqj ¼flaxy lqij QkWLQsV½ + 5 fdxzk- LQqj ?kksyd ftok.kq@gSDVs;j ds eku ls iz;qDr djus ij vf/kd mit ¼557 fd-xzk-@gSDVs;j½] 'kq) ykHk rFkk ykHk O;; vuqikr Øe'k% 9320 :Ik;s@gSDVs;j ,oa 2-26 izkIr gqvk gS A rFkk ;g iks"k.k izcU/ku jkefry esa ;ksX; ik;k x;k A
(Manuscript Receivd : 17.03.2012; Accepted 30.08.2012)
55
JNKVV Res J 46(1): 56-58 (2012)
Composting of obnoxious weeds through microbial treatment and subsequent vermicomposting Deepak Chourasiya, Anay Rawat, S.B. Agrawal and Gyanendra Mathankar Department of Agronomy College of Agriculture Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya Jabalpur 482 004 (MP)
degrader micro organisms like Trichoderma. More over, the phosphorus solublizers (pseudomonas) may also be used after aerobic decomposition for improving the quality of vermicompost with respect to phosphorus enrichment. Keeping the above facts in view the present study was carried out to explore the possibilities for converting of parthenium and water hyacinth into valuable manure through vermicomposting process.
Abstract Among the substrata, water hyacinth amended and inoculation with cowdung and Trichoderma recorded the maximum reduction in TOC from 32.7 to 18.8% and further 14.8% in the matter decomposed for 30 days and subsequent vermnicomposting, respectively. The same treatment produced higher grade of vermicompost with respect of N (1.15%), P (0.88%) and K (1.30%). Simultaneously, the inoculation of substrata with Trichoderma and PSB separately enriched the vermicompost and possessed the count of 26.4 and 7.8 x 105 cfu/g.
Method and materials A pot experiment was conducted at Vermicompost Production Unit, Deptt. Of Agronomy, JNKVV, Jabalpur during 2009-10. A total of six treatment combinations of two obnoxious weeds (Parthenium and water hyacinth) and three additives (control, Trichoderma and PSB) were arranged in a complete randomized design with four replications.
Key words : Water hyacinth, Parthenium, Vermicompost, Trichoderma, PSB Parthenium and water hyacinth are the as noxious weeds. They are popularly known as congress grass and jalkumbhi and consider as dreads of fallow and aquatic conditions. It abundantly prevails in respective sites in Madhya Pradesh and almost all the parts of the country. Available information's on the possibilities to utilize these weed as manures after composting for supply of nutrient to crop plants. The efficiency of epigeic earthworms has been successfully utilized for recycling of bio degradable wastes in crop fields as vermicompost (Ghose et al.1999).The species Eisenia fetida of earthworms had been widely preferred for vermnicomposting as it has an ability to colonies in a wide spectrum of organic substrata (Kale1993). The quality and properties of vermicompost depends upon the sources of organic waste (Mahto and Yadav 2003). Number of studies have shown that epigeic earthworms required pre decompost waste prior to release them. The processes of partial pre decompose waste prior to release them. The process partial decomposition may be enhanced by treating the wastes with certain lignin
The treatments consisted of fresh weed and cow dung in a proportion of 1:1 and inoculated with Trichoderma @10 g/kg dry substrata before partial decomposition and them, allowed for partial decomposition for 30 days. Partially decomposed substrata were inoculated as per treatment with PSB @ 10 g/kg dry weight of substrata. Earthworms species Eisenia fetida were released for further process in each treatment @ 100 g/pot . Moisture was maintained 5060 per cent through the process. Observations were recorded during process of vermicompostiong TOC, N,P,K content and counts of Trichoderma and PSB cells at different stage of Vermicompost. Vermicompost was chemically analyzed by total nitrogen (Kjeldahl digestion and distillation method), total phosphorus and potassium were determined spectro photometerically and flame photometer, respectively.
56
phorus content over without inoculation and inoculation with Trichoderma. Data pertaining to change in N, P and K during aerobic decomposition and subsequently vermicomposting are given table 1 and 2 respectively. Nitrogen content increased significantly in all the treatment combinations, during partial decomposition of parthenium and water hyacinth. The increment was maximum where the Trichodema and cow dung were added in either of the substrata. The presence of Trichoderma cells and the micro organisms in the dung accelerated the degradation process and supply the food for the other micro organisms that's why the dung might have contributing to that increment (Singh and Sharma,2002). The concentration of nitrogen in decomposing matter after 30 days aerobic decomposition is less as compared to final vermicompost might be due to the slow decomposition process and nitrogen utilized by microbes for their activities in the begning.There result are in accordance with the earlier worker of Vinceslas-Apka and Loquet (1997).Chemical analysis of the decomposing substrata and vermicompost under different treatment showed a significant increase in phosphorus and potassium concentration (Table2) over fresh substrata and partially decomposed matter. The
Result and Discussion A significant decrease in TOC in all the treatment after 30 days decomposition and vermicomposting both. TOC decrease in vermicomposting process indicating mineralization of organic matter. The markable results were obtained when the water hyacinth was amended with cow dung and inoculated with Trichoderma and PSB (Table 1 & 2). The TOC decreased from 31.94 - 42.50 per cent during aerobic decomposition and 43.58 - 54.74 per cent during vermicomposting over initial status of substrata. The losses in organic carbon from 20-43 % was observed during vermicomposting Elvira et al.(1998) in the paper mill and dairy slugs. In general, water hyacinth proved superior over parthenium with respect to content of N, P and K in vermicompost produced. On the other hand amendment of cow dung in the equal proportion along with inoculation of Trichoderma enhanced the content of nitrogen and potassium over without inoculation. Where as inoculation of PSB in the substrata increase the phos-
Table 1. Composition of different substrata after decomposition with and without inoculation for 30 days Treatment Parthenium + cd (1:1) Parthenium + cd (1:1)+ Trichoderma Parthenium + cd(1:1)+ PSB Water hyacinth + cd (1:1) Water hyacinth + cd (1:1)+ Trichoderma Water hyacinth +cd (1:1)+PSB
TOC (%)
N (%)
C/N Ratio
P (%)
K (%)
22.5 (33.5) 21 (33.5) 22.8 (33.5) 19.9 (32.7) 18.8 (32.7) 19.6 (32.7)
0.28 (0.18) 0.29 (0.19) 0.28 (0.18) 0.35 (0.21) 0.35 (0.22) 0.33 (0.19)
80.25 (186.11) 72.41 (176.31) 81.42 (186.11) 56.85 (155.71) 53.71 (148.63) 59.39 (172.10)
0.18 (0.11) 0.19 (0.13) 0.22 (0.10) 0.29 (0.13) 0.31 (0.12) 0.34 (0.14)
0.43 (0.26) 0.51 (0.30) 0.44 (0.27) 0.46 (0.24) 0.48 (0.32) 0.52 (0.27)
Figures in the parenthesis are composition of fresh substrata cd : cowdung, PSB : Phosphorus solublizing bacteria
Table 2. Composition of vermicompost after digestion by earthworm Treatment Parthenium+cd (1:1) Parthenium +cd (1:1) + Trichoderma Parthenium +cd (1:1)+ PSB Water hyacinth + cd (1:1) Water hyacinth + cd (1:1)+ Trichoderma Water hyacinth +cd (1:1)+PSB
TOC(%)
N (%)
C/N Ratio
P (%)
K (%)
18.9 17.6 18.0 16.3 14.8 15.1
0.66 0.87 0.80 0.92 1.15 0.91
28.63 20.22 22.5 17.71 12.86 16.59
0.65 0.80 0.84 0.79 0.88 1.05
1.07 1.18 1.09 1.11 1.30 1.26
cd : cowdung, PSB : Phosphorus solublizing bacteria
57
maximum increased content of phosphorus 0.34 % and 1.05 % was recorded under water hyacinth inoculated with PSB after aerobic decomposition for 30 days and vermicompost obtained, respectively. Higher concentration of potassium (0.52 and 1.26 %) was also noted in the same treatment combination in aerobically decomposed matter and vermicompost, respectively.
hyacinth amended with cowdung and Trichoderma simultaneously recorded maximum counts (26.4 x 105 cuf/g). While the vermicompost of parthenium under the same condition noted 22.0 x 105 cfu/g. The cells of PSB were maximum (8.4 x 105 cfu/g) with the vermicompost of parthenium inoculated with PSB culture followed by water hyacinth (7.8 x 105 cfu/g). More over the least counts of both the inoculants were observed under control treatment. Above finding showed the inoculation of Trichoderma and PSB culture before and after 30 days of pre-decomposition enriched the vermicompost with these microbes with are beneficial for crop and soil both.
Table 3. Counts of Trichoderma and PSB cells in various type of vermicompost Treatment Parthenium+ cd (1:1) Parthenium +cd (1:1)+ Trichoderma Parthenium +cd(1:1)+ PSB Water hyacinth + cd (1:1) Water hyacinth + cd (1:1)+ Trichoderma Water hyacinth +cd (1:1)+PSB
Trichoderma
PSB
(105 cfu/g)
(105 cfu/g)
2.4
0.6
22.0 0.2 1.4
0.8 8.4 0.4
26.4 0.4
1.2 7.8
vkifRr tud [kjirokj tSls xktj ?kkl] ty dqEHkh dks xk; ds xkscj ls ysfir dj ¼1%1½ VªkbdksMekZ fofjMh o ih-,l-ch- dYpj ls mipkfjr dj dsapqvksa }kjk [kkn rS;kj dh xbZ ftlesa ik;k x;k fd dqy dkcZu rRo dh ek=k 32-7 ls ?kVdj 18-8% 30 fnuksa rd vkaf"kd fo[k.Mu ds ckn ns[kh xbZ rFkk dsapqvksa }kjk rS;kj [kqn esa dqy dkcZfud cpk ek= 14-8 gh dqy dkcZfud dkcZu cpk dsapqvksa }kjk [kkn ds fofHkUu iks'kd rRoksa ds vkadyu ls Kkr gqvk fd rS;kj [kkn esa u=tu ¼1-15%½ QkLQksjl ¼0-88%½ ,oa iksVsf"k;e dk izfr"kr ¼1-30%½ fo|eku ik;k A blds lkFk gh rS;kj [kkn VªkbdksMekZ o ih,l-ch- thok.kqvksa ls ifjiw.kZ jgk A
cd : cowdung, PSB : Phosphorus solublizing bacteria
References Eivira C, Sampedro L, Benitez E, Nogales R (1998) Vermicomposting of sludges from paper mill and dairy industries with Eisenia andrei. A pilot - scale study Bioresource Technol. 63: 205-211 Ghose M, Chattopadhyay G N, Baral K, Munshi P S (1999) Possibility of using vermicompost in agriculture for reconciling sustainability with productivity. Proc. Seminar on Agro technology and Environment p 6468 Kale R D (1993) Earthworm resources and vermiculture. (ed. Director) Zoological Survey of India Calcutta p 4650 Mahto T P and Yadav R P (2003) Effect of vermicompost of different organic sources on stem fly (Ophiomyia phaseoli Tryon) incidence and productivity in vegetable peas. RAU J Res. 13 : 26-29 Ramaswami P P (1997) Potential uses of Parthenium, 1st Int Conf on Parthenium Management. University of Agril. Sciences Dharwad Karnataka India 77-80 Singh Anshu, Sharma Satyawati (2002) Composting of a crop residue through treatment with microorganisms and subsequent vermicomposting. Bio resource Technology 85 : 107-111 Vineslas Apka M, Loquet M (1997) Organic matter transformations in lignocellutosic waste composted or vermicomposted (Eisenia foetida anderei) Chemical Analysis and 13 C CPMAS NMR Spectroscopy Soil Biol Biochem 29 (3/4): 751-758
Plate : View the colony of Trichoderma and PSB cells
Data pertaining to counts of Trichoderma and PSB cells exist with the vermicompost prepared from different type of substrata treated differently with Trichoderma and PSB are given table 3 and plate 1 & 2. The counts of Trichoderma viridae and PSB cells revealed significant variations with respect to treatments. In general, the counts Trichoderma were higher in vermicompost prepared from water hyacinth as compare to parthenium. Where, as PSB cells were more in number under parthenium as compare to water hyacinth. The vermicompost get from the treatment in which the water
(Manuscript Receivd : 16.02.2012; Accepted 30.09.2012)
58
JNKVV Res J 46(1): 59-61 (2012)
Response of promising varieties of single cut forage oat to different nitrogen levels under agroclimatic conditions of Kymore plateau zone, Madhya Pradesh P.K. Roshan, K.R. Naik and Siddarth Nayak Department of Agronomy Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya Jabalpur 482004 (MP)
Abstract
appropriate nitrogen level and suitable variety of single cut oat for higher tonnage and monetary returns.
The present investigation was carried out under AICRP on forage crops at Research Farm, Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, JNKVV, Jabalpur (MP) during rabi season of 2009-10. The objective was to evaluate the performance of promising varieties of single cut forage oat to different N-levels under irrigated conditions. Nitrogen application @ 120 kg/ha resulted in significantly taller plants (145.00cm), more tillers/m2 (440) and higher green fodder (524.99 q/ha), dry matter (109.79 q/ha) and crude protein yield (9.9 q/ha) as well as N-uptake (158.8 kg/ha) by the crop in comparison to rest of the nitrogen levels. Among the different varieties, kent followed OS-6 was found superior in respect of growth yield attributes, yield and N-uptake. In general the net monetary return and benefit cost ratio were maximum under 120 kgN/ha and with oat variety Kent.
Investigation was conducted under AICRP on forage crops in winter season of 2009-10 at Research Farm, Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, JNKVV, Jabalpur (MP). The soil was sandy clay loam in texture, neutral in reaction (pH 7.2), normal in electrical conductivity (60.44 ds/m), low in organic carbon (0.42%) and available nitrogen (232 kg/ha), medium in available P (17.2 kg/ha) and K (302 kg/ha) contents. The winter rains received during the crop season was 20.2 mm. The experiment was laid down in split plot design with three replications. Four nitrogen levels (0, 40, 80, and 120 N kg/ha) were kept as main plot and seven varieties (SKO-105, SKO-109, NDO-7, Kent, SKO-90, OS-6 and JO-03-93) were assigned as sub plot treatments. The sowing was done in row 25 cm apart with 100 kg seed/ha on November 26, 2009. An uniform dose of 40 kg P2O5 and 20 kg K2O was given to all plots. Nitrogen was applied as per treatment in two splits half as basal and remaining half as top dressing at 20 days after sowing. The crop was harvested as per varieties at 50% flowering.
Keywords: Varieties, nitrogen, forage yield, monetary returns Among the various factors of production, varieties and nitrogen requirement greatly affect the productivity of forage oats. Thus, the identification of suitable single cut varieties of oats and their nutritional requirements especially concerned with nitrogen is important for getting higher forage yields under varying environments. Nitrogen plays a vital role in forage production besides increasing the quantity of forage; it improves the quality of herbage also. Oat responds well to nitrogen application, among the various nutrients which produces more tonnage in per unit area per unit time under favourable environmental conditions (Purushotham et al. 1995). Keeping the above facts in view, the present investigation was undertaken with the object to find out
Increasing nitrogen levels (0, 40, 80, and 120 N kg/ha) significantly increased the plant height, tillers/ m2, LAI and nitrogen uptake of crop up to 120 N kg/ha. The highest level of nitrogen i.e. 120 N kg/ha resulted in taller plants (145.0 cm) more tillers (440 /m2) and enhanced uptake of nitrogen by the crop (158.8 kg/ha). Variations in nitrogen level did not influenced LAI and dry matter content appreciably (Table 1). Green fodder (524.9 q/ha) and dry matter (109.7 q/ha) yields were significantly higher with the application of 120kgN/ha.
59
Table 1. Growth, yield attributes and N-uptake of forage oats as influenced by different nitrogen levels and varieties Treatments
Nitrogen levels (kg/ha) 0 40 80 120 SEm ± CD (P=0.05) Varieties SKO-105 SKO-109 NDO-7 Kent SKO-90 OS-6 JO-03-93 SEm ± CD (P=0.05)
Plant height (cm)
Tillers at 50% flowering (m2)
LAI at 50% flowering
Leaf stem ratio
Dry matter Content (%)
N-uptake (kg/ha)
118.5 127.2 139.9 145.0 1.14 3.94
328.3 381.3 409.4 440.0 5.79 20.05
4.54 5.43 5.68 5.89 0.16 0.57
1.25 1.13 1.01 0.91 0.11 NS
22.35 21.62 21.51 20.89 0.41 NS
87.93 119.26 141.26 158.78 1.75 6.07
119.0 120.8 141.7 144.3 124.9 144.2 133.5 4.42 12.58
352.7 382.1 400.8 410.3 386.4 404.4 391.7 11.16 31.72
4.48 5.03 5.46 6.38 5.11 5.54 5.34 0.16 0.47
1.23 1.18 1.02 0.99 1.12 1.00 0.98 0.24 NS
21.62 21.69 21.41 21.60 21.81 21.46 21.56 1.54 NS
96.08 104.27 140.34 149.95 114.60 142.35 140.06 4.34 12.36
Table 2. Yield and economics of forage oats as influenced by different nitrogen levels and varieties Treatments
Nitrogen levels (kg/ha) 0 40 80 120 N kg/ha SEm ± CD (P=0.05) Varieties SKO-105 SKO-109 NDO-7 Kent SKO-90 OS-6 JO-03-93 SEm ± CD (P=0.05) Comparison between two N-levels at the same variety SEm ± CD (P=0.05) Comparison between two varieties at same N-levels SEm ± CD (P=0.05)
Green fodder yield (q/ha)
Dry matter yield (q/ha)
Crude protein Yield (q/ha)
Net monetary returns (Rs/ha)
Benefit cost ratio
323.6 418.6 471.3 524.9 6.06 20.98
72.7 90.9 101.8 109.7 2.25 7.78
5.5 7.4 8.8 9.9 0.17 0.57
5367.2 10625.8 13355.7 16128.8 -
1.38 1.73 1.89 2.05 -
340.0 341.5 494.8 501.9 381.4 498.6 483.9 15.27 43.41
73.5 74.1 105.9 108.4 83.2 107.0 104.3 5.48 15.60
6.0 6.5 8.7 9.4 7.2 8.9 8.7 0.56 1.58
5695.0 5786.0 14980.7 15409.4 8181.7 14959.3 14323.4 -
1.37 1.38 2.01 2.04 1.55 2.02 1.96 -
30.53 NS
10.97 NS
1.11 NS
-
-
28.91 NS
10.41 NS
1.04 NS
-
-
Market price of green fodder = Rs.60/ quintal
60
¼524-99 fDoaVy@gsDVs;j½] 'kq"d inkFkZ ¼109-7 fdoaVy@gsDVs;j½ ,oa dq:M izkVs hu mit ¼ 9-9 fDoaVy@gsDVs;j rFkk Qly }kjk u=tu dk mi;ksx ¼158-8 fdyks@gsDVs;j½ esa mYys[kuh; o`f) ikbZ xbZ A
The difference in crude protein yield between 80 and 120 kg N/ha and was not significant. The increase in green fodder yield and dry matter yield with 120 kg N/ha was owing to increased availability of nitrogen and other nutrients which helped in production of more vegetative growth particularly plant height, tillers/m2 and LAI. Similar results were also reported by Jagdev et al. (2000) and Mahale et al. (2004). In general the net monetary return and benefit cost ratio were maximum (Rs16129/ha and 2.05) with 120 kgN/ha.
iz;ksx esa ijh{k.k dh xbZ vU; fdleksa dh rqyuk esa fdLe dsUV ,oa vks-,l- 6 gjs pkjs dh o`f) ds ?kVd ¼tSls ikS/ks dh ÅapkbZ] dYyks dh la[;kWa vkfn ½] gjs pkjs dh mit ,oa u=tu ds mi;ksx esa Js"B ikbZ xbZ A lekU;r;% tbZ fdLe dsUV esa 120 fdyks u=tu@gsDVs;j nsus ls 'kq) vkfFkZd vk; ,oa izfr :Ik;s [kpZ ij ykHk vf/kdre izkIr gqvk A
Among the different varieties tested in the experiment, Kent followed by OS-6 were at par to each other and exhibited their superiority by producing taller plants, more tillers/m2 and LAI, enhanced N-uptake by crop and higher green fodder, dry matter as well as crude protein yields (Table 2). The variations in growth parameter and yield, among the varieties may be due to their genetic constitution and their adaptability to the existing environmental conditions. Similar pattern of crop growth in forage oats have also been reported by Waseem et al. (2000) and Kumar et al. (2001). On an average, the net monetary return and benefit per rupee invested were maximum (Rs.15409/ha and 2.04) with the popular variety Kent. On the basis of above findings it could be concluded that an application of 120 kgN/ha and with Kent or OS-6 variety proved superior to obtained higher forage yield and monetary returns from single cut forage oats.
References Jagdev Singh, Yadav JS, Kumar, Virendra Yadav, BD (2000) Response of oat to Azatobacter at different nitrogen levels. Indian J Agron 45 (2) : 433 – 436 Kumar Arvind, Jaiswal RS, Verma ML, Jahid YP, Kumar A (2001) Effect of nitrogen levels and cutting management on yield and quality of different varieties of fodder oat. Indian J. Animal Nutri. 183 : 262-266 Mohale BB, Nevase VB, Throt ST (2004) Effect of cutting management and nitrogen levels on forage yield of oats. J Soil and Crops 14 (2) : 469 – 472
izLrqr iz;ksx pkjk Qlyksa ij vf[ky Hkkjrh; leufor vuqla/kku ifj;kstuk] lL; foKku foHkkx] —f"k egkfo|ky;] t-us-—-fo-fo-] tcyiqj ¼e iz½ ds vuqla/kku iz{ks= ij o"kZ 2009&10 ds jch ekSle esa fd;k x;k A ftldk mn~ns’; tbZ pkjs dh ,d dVkbZ okyh ubZ fodflr fdLeksa dk u=tu dh fofHkUu ek=kvksa ds lkFk flafpr voLFkk esa mRiknu {kerk dk voyksdu djuk Fkk A u=tu dh fofHkUu ek=kvksa ¼0] 40] 80 ,oa 120 fdyks u=tu izfr gsDVs;j½ dh rqyuk esa 120 fdyks u=tu@gsDVs;j½ nsus ls ikS/kksa dh ÅapkbZ ¼145 lsa-eh-½] dYyksa dh la[;k ¼440 izfr oxZ ehVj½] gjk pkjk
Purushotham S, Manjumatha M, Umesha K (1995) Grain yield of oat as influence by cutting and nitrogen management. Indian J Agron 39 (2) : 233 – 236 Waseem-ul-Hassan S, Anees SM, Bajio AH (2000) Evaluation of oat cultivar for high yielding green fodder under environmental conditions of Balochisthan (Pakistan). Balochisthan J Agri Sci 1 (1) : 15 - 21
(Manuscript Receivd : 08.11.2011; Accepted 13.04.2012)
61
JNKVV Res J 46(1): 62-68 (2012)
Assessment of soil test based fertilizer recommendation under rice-wheat cropping sequence and its impact on soil quality under agroclimatic condition of Kymore plateau zone of Madhya Pradesh, India K.S. Keram, G. Puri and S. D. Sawarkar Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya Jabalpur 482004 (MP)
situation. Under such a situation, integrated plant nutrient system (IPNS) has assumed a great importance and has vital significance for the maintenance of soil productivity. Organic manures, particularly FYM, not only supply macronutrients but also meet the requirement of micronutrients, besides boosting yield and improving soil health.
Abstract A field experiment was carried out during 2007-08 with rice and wheat on a Typic Haplustert at the Research Farm of Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, J.N. Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur (M.P.) for the assessment of fertilizer recommendation and its impact on soil quality. The results indicated that inorganic fertilizer application based on targeted yield along with organic manure (FYM) i.e. IPNS approach, resulted in higher grain yield 4.04 and 6.94 t ha-1 of both rice and wheat, respectively thereby showing superiority to GRD in terms of total uptake in biomass while STCR approach was more superior in soil fertility build-up in rice and wheat. The soil respiration was found to be more in plots receiving no fertilizer, GRD and STCR approaches, with high level of microbial activity. The ideal state of biological activity was recorded in IPNS approaches, which was due to higher CO2 sequestration rate (54.60 Mg ha-1) as compared to other treatments like GRD and STCR approach.
The soil quality, soil health and soil condition are interchangeable as all describe the soil's ability to support crop growth. Soil quality indicators are needed to facilitate the measurement of soil quality. The indicators of soil physical, chemical and biological properties, reflects soil functions, are easy to measure for a variety of users and under various field conditions and respond to changes in climate and management. Key soil quality indicators are soil texture, bulk density, aggregation, available water capacity, pH, EC, NPK reserve, soil organic carbon (SOC) and microbial biomass. Restoration of soil health through SOC management is a major concern for Indian soils. Soil productivity can certainly be lost through erosion, nutrient mining or other processes such as salinization, sodification, compaction and waterlogging. The linkage between soil productivity and soil quality is apparent when change in soil is attributed to assess soil quality are linked to causes of productivity loss.
Key words: Rice-wheat cropping sequence, yield target, fertilizer calibration equations, soil fertility status, nutrient mining, soil quality index Rice (Oryza sativa) and wheat (Triticum aestivum) form the staple food for more than one billion people and a livelihood for millions of workers or farmers all over the world. Intensive cultivation, growing of exhaustive crops, use of imbalance and inadequate fertilizers accompanied by restricted use of organic manures and biofertilizers have not only made the soils deficient in the nutrients, but also deteriorated the soil heath resulting in decline in crop response to the recommended dose of fertilizer. Non-judicious enhancement of the fertilization further worsened the
The present studies were undertaken to evolve soil test based fertilizer recommendations to quantify the net changes in soil fertility (N, P and K) and thereof nutrient mining under different approaches of nutrient recommendations and to study the soil quality index vis-à-vis different fertilizer recommendations practices under rice-wheat cropping sequence.
62
Materials and methods
Table 1(c). Fertilizer adjustment equations used for ricewheat cropping sequence
The field experiment was conducted on rice and wheat crops during 2007-08 at the Research Farm of the Department of Soil Science & Agricultural Chemistry, Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur (23 o 10" N latitude and 79 o 57" E longitude). The experimental soil was medium black belonging to Kheri series of fine montmorillonitic hyperthermic family of Typic Haplustert and had pH of 7.0, electrical conductivity 0.23 dS m-1 (1 : 2.5 soil : water ratio) and organic carbon 7.0 g kg-1. Treatments schedule for ricewheat cropping sequence comprising of T1-control, T2general recommended dose (GRD), T3-soil test crop response (STCR) recommendation for target yield-I (IYI), T4-STCR for TY-II, T5- integrated plant nutrient system (IPNS) approach-I : STCR for TY-I + 5 t FYM ha-1, T6IPNS approach-II : STCR for TY-II + 5 t FYM ha-1. There were six treatments replicated four times in a randomized block design for both the crops. Treated seeds of rice (JR 201) and wheat (GW 273) were dibbled in rows at proper spacing in the first week of July and November 2007, respectively after basal application of fertilizers as per treatments. The soil samples were collected before sowing and after the harvest of both rice and wheat crops during 2007-08 with the help of a tube auger (stainless steel) from each plot at 0-15 cm soil depth. Basic soil parameters were estimated by using standard laboratory procedures.
Rice
Wheat
F N = 4.25 T - 0.45 SN
F N = 4.40 T - 0.40 SN
F P2O5 = 3.55 T - 4.09 SP
F P2O5 = 4.00 T - 5.73 SP
F K2O = 2.10 T - 0.18 SK
F K2O = 2.55 T - 0.16 SK
Where, FN F P2O5 F K2O T SN SP SK -
Fertilizer nitrogen (kg ha-1) Fertilizer phosphorus (kg ha-1) Fertilizer potassium (kg ha-1) Desired yield target (q ha-1) Available soil nitrogen (kg ha-1) Available soil phosphorus (kg ha-1) Available soil potassium (kg ha-1)
were 3 and 4 tonnes ha-1 and for wheat 4.5 and 6 tonnes ha-1 were fixed. 100 % NPK dose for rice and wheat crop was given. The fertilizer materials used were urea, single super phosphate and muriate of potash. Full dose of P and K and half dose of N were applied and mixed thoroughly with soil at the time of sowing. The remaining half dose of N was top-dressed in two splits at tillering stage and boot stage. The crops rice and wheat were cultivated adopting proper package of practices. All climatic conditions were favourable for growth and development of both crops. The rice crop was grown as rainfed while wheat was grown under irrigated condition. The grain yields of rice and wheat were recorded at the harvest of each crops on maturity for each treatment. The soil and plant samples were analysed by standard laboratory procedure. Thus, data generated were analysed statistically.
To compute fertilizer doses for any yield target based on soil test value fertilizer adjustment equations were used {Table 1(a), (b) and (c)} as per procedure of Ramamoorty et al. (1967). The targeted yields for rice
Table 1(a). Basic data for targeted yield equation of rice and wheat Parameter
Nutrient requirement (kg q-1) N P2O5 K2O
Nutrient contribution from soil (%) N P2O5 K2O
Nutrient contribution from fertilizer (%) N P2O5 K2O
2.3 2.6
6.8 6.3
41.5 46.4
Rice (JR 201) Wheat (GW 273)
0.9 0.6
1.9 1.8
39.7 42.3
6.2 11.5
18.5 12.5
73.8 70.2
Note: Composition of FYM: N-0.92%, P2O5-0.72% and K2O-0.90%
Table 1(b). Soil test value for rice-wheat cropping sequence Crops Rice Wheat
Results and Discussion Effect of different nutrient management practices on nutrient uptake (N, P and K)
Available soil nutrient (kg ha-1) N P K 160 10 321 254 12 311
The aim of rational fertilizer application is to provide the plant with an adequate supply of nutrients at the
63
18.20 3.51 19.87 5.97 2.15
8.54 1.65 9.37 2.80 0.99
110.18 31.65 120.31 49.10 10.82
193.41 63.57 219.46 86.49 21.44 86.49 T6 :T.Y.4 t ha-1 + 5 t FYM ha-1
143.81 41.89 158.26 59.16 13.39 59.29 -1 -1
125.54 38.65 134.61 T4 :T.Y.6 t ha-1 62.97 14.47 62.14 T4 : T.Y.4 t ha-1
The relative distribution of these nutrient uptake values in rice and wheat indicates that addition of FYM to inorganic fertilizer enhances the nutrient uptake which is apparent on comparison of treatments pairs T3-T5 and T4-T6 (Table 2). Sharma and Bali (2001) confirmed that nutrient uptake (N, P and K) values were of higher order in FYM treated plots and these further improved with graded levels of nutrient application. Yadav et al. (2002) and Sharma et al. (2003) corroborate the similar findings, under rice-wheat cropping sequence.
T6 :T.Y.6 t ha-1 + 5 t FYM ha-1 2.80
5.97
SEm±
CD (5%)
49.10
Relationship between observed post harvest soil test values and predicted soil test values
Mean
T5 :T.Y.3 t ha + 5 t FYM ha
-1
T5 :T.Y.4.5 t ha + 5 t FYM ha
-1
25.17 95.63 T3 :T.Y.4.5 t ha-1 46.47 8.73 41.44 T3 : T.Y.3 t ha-1
89.35
15.21 72.58 T2 :GRD 28.62 4.76 28.38 T2 : GRD
67.57
5.44 41.37 T1 :Control 18.88 2.16 16.91 T1: Control
41.44
Wheat Total uptake (kg ha-1) N P K Treatments Rice Total uptake (kg ha-1) N P K Treatments
Table 2. Effect of different nutrient management practices on total nutrient uptake in biomass of rice and wheat
time it needs and utilizes them most towards grain production. It is obvious that the total uptake is the function of nutrient concentration and yield and dealt data is the testimony of this fact. These characteristics relations go hand to hand in same glove. The test technology of fertilizer recommendation i.e. STCR technology for TY 4 t ha-1 in paddy and TY 6 t ha-1 in wheat, combined with 5 t FYM ha-1, each has shown cutting edge over convectional technology of fertilizer recommendation in terms of yield, removal and residual effect of nutrients (N, P and K).
An attempt was made to evolve relationship between post-harvest soil test value and predicted soil test value, under rice-wheat cropping sequence. The characteristic functional relation is represented by linear equations. These are: Y = 0.9294 X - 67.62 (R2 = 0.1332) for N, Y = 1.064X (R2 = 0.8432*) for P and Y = -0.2121 X + 379.47 (R2 = 0.0115) for K, where "Y" is predicted, post-harvest soil test values and "X" is observed post-harvest soil test values. In case of soil P, there was significant association between predicted and observed post-harvest soil test values (Table 3). Further, a wayward behaviour of this nutrient could be due to variable nutrient release efficiencies from different sources i.e. soil, inorganic fertilizer and organic manure and their utilization by plants. Suri and Verma (1999) reported that, in Typic Halpludalfs, though recommendation based fertilizer doses are somewhat higher initially, but if this approach is adopted continuously, there is build-up of nutrients (NPK) in the soil which results in reduction in fertilizer doses with time for attaining targeted yield, under maizewheat cropping sequence. Effect of different nutrient management practices on net change in soil fertility variable (N, P and K) under ricewheat cropping sequence
64
(GRD) were noted in wheat.
Table 3. Relationship between post harvest soil test values observed and predicted soil test values under rice-wheat cropping sequence Parameters Nitrogen
Regression equations Y=0.929X-67.629
It indicates that, the nitrogen and potassium efficiencies are accelerated due to addition of FYM in rice and wheat. These findings are further confirmed by Kumar and Prasad (2003) on clay loam soil, who recorded similar observations.
Co-efficient of predictability (R2) 0.1332
Phosphorus Y=1.046X
0.8432*
Potassium
0.0115
Y=-0.2121X+379.47
Effect of different nutrient management practices on soil quality index under rice-wheat cropping sequence
Table 4. Effect of different nutrient management practices on net change in soil fertility variables (N, P and K) in rice-wheat cropping sequence Treatments
Initial soil test values of rice (ISTV) (kg ha-1) N P K
Post harvest soil test values after wheat (PHSTV) (kg ha-1) N P K
Buildup(+)/Depletion(-) (kg ha-1) N
P
K
T1 T2 T3
185 172 164
10 9 10
344 322 339
221 226 227
9 9 10
352 389 380
36 54 63
(-1) -
8 67 41
T4 T5 T6 Mean
147 152 139 160
11 12 16 11
311 291 319 321
245 223 214 226
10 11 14 11
368 264 332 348
98 71 75 66
(-1) (-1) (-2) -1
57 3 13 32
N = Available soil nitrogen, P = Available soil phosphorus and K= Available soil potassium
Under rice-wheat cropping sequence, there were positive changes (build-up) in post harvest soil test values (PHSTV) - N and PHSTV- K in treatment T4, as compared to the other treatments (Table 4). While in case of PHSTV- P status, depletion was observed in all treatments from its initial soil test values (ISTV) - P. Singh et al. (1998) reported similar findings who observed that application of only 100% N resulted in a decrease in the available P contents. Similar results were reported by Yaduwanshi (2003) and Singh et al. (2004).
As per guideline of Soil Quality Test Kit, proposed by USDA (1999) the data given in table-6 revealed that the soil belongs to non-saline and neutral category and it has more than 45% clay with ideal bulk density. Similar observations were recorded by Khan et al. (2004) in Vertisols. The soil respiration was more in plots receiving no fertilizer, followed by GRD and STCR approaches, with high level of microbial activity, whereas ideal state of biological activity was recorded by IPNS approaches. This variation in soil respiration could be due to temperature, moisture and edaphic factors. It is also affected by the nutrient status of soil and cultural practices such as inorganic fertilizer or FYM application and various biological, microbial and soil activities which regulates the CO2 evolution rates. Similar findings were reported by Kang et al. (2005) and Chaudhury et al. (2005).
Effect of different nutrient management practices on nutrient mining of rice and wheat The highest N mining was recorded in treatment-T6 (IPNS approach), K mining in treatment-T3 (STCR approach) and P mining in treatment-T1 (control) in rice (Table 5). The data further revealed that the highest N mining in treatment-T3 (STCR approach), P mining in treatment-T1 (Control) and K mining in treatment-T2
Effect of different nutrient management practices on soil organic carbon (SOC) density and stock (0-10cm) under
65
66
52 100 64 150 110 196 112 5 60 96 174 132 210 113 60 30 65 104 110 149 76 17 28 41 62 59 86 42 2 5 9 14 13 21 11 19 29 46 63 59 93 52 41 73 96 134 158 220 120 5 15 25 39 42 64 27 41 68 89 126 144 193 80
Total nutrient removal (kg ha-1) Rice Wheat N P K N P K
6.95 - Neutral (Optimum for most crops) 6.92 - Neutral (Optimum for most crops) 7.00 - Neutral (Optimum for most crops) 7.06 - Neutral (Optimum for most crops) 7.08 - Neutral (Optimum for most crops) 7.15 - Neutral (Optimum for most crops)
Source: Soil Quality Test Kit (1999)
IPNS approach : II
IPNS approach : I
STCR approach: II
STCR approach: I
GRD
Control 0.21 - Non-saline (Crop response is not affected) 0.23 - Non-saline (Crop response is not affected) 0.23 - Non-saline (Crop response is not affected) 0.21 - Non-saline (Crop response is not affected) 0.21 - Non-saline (Crop response is not affected) 0.22 - Non-saline (Crop response is not affected)
1.18 - Ideal (> 45% clay) 1.19 - Ideal (> 45% clay) 1.21 - Ideal (> 45% clay) 1.21 - Ideal (> 45% clay) 1.24 - Ideal (> 45% clay) 1.34 - Ideal (> 45% clay)
100 6 13 14 13 15 27 25 73 766 235 111 83 216 80 73 150 89 143 112 143 100 25 26 22 32 30 39
69 226 136 121 131 129 135
1.59-High level of microbial activity.
1.72-High level of microbial activity.
1.81-High level of microbial activity.
Soil respiration (g kg-1week-1) 3.95-High level of microbial activity.
54 35 16 63 58 93 53
N
Nutrient mining (%) Rice Wheat P K N P K
1.19-Ideal state of biological activity.
1.25-Ideal state of biological activity.
Table 6. Soil quality index card of Vertisols under rice-wheat cropping sequence Nutrient management Soil quality parameters practices pH EC(dS m-1) Bulk density (g cm-3)
Note: STCR approach: I = Lower yield target (t ha-1): Rice-3 and Wheat-4 STCR approach: II = Higher yield target (t ha-1): Rice-4.5 and Wheat-6 IPNS approach: I = STCR approach: I + 5 t FYM ha-1 IPNS approach: II = STCR approach: II + 5 t FYM ha-1
76 40 6 27 52 72 46
32 80 55 98 101 144 85
Control GRD STCR approach: I STCR approach: II IPNS approach : I IPNS approach : II Mean
2 70 67 103 103 139 81
Total nutrient added (kg ha-1) Rice Wheat N P K N P K
Treatments
Table 5. Effect of different nutrient management practices on nutrient mining in rice and wheat
Table 7. Effect of different nutrient management practices on soil organic carbon (SOC) density and stock (0-10 cm) under rice-wheat cropping sequence Treatments
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 Mean
SOC density (g m-2) Initial Final 8840 9650 8370 7970 8670 9710 8868.33
8300 8330 7550 7640 8010 8210 8006.66
SOC stock (Mg ha-1) Initial Final 88.40 96.50 83.70 79.70 86.70 97.10 88.68
rice-wheat cropping sequence
83.00 83.30 75.50 76.40 80.10 82.10 80.06
CO2 sequestration (Mg ha-1) 19.81 48.44 30.09 12.11 24.22 54.60 23.37
SOC change (g m-2year-1) 540 1320 820 330 660 1500 728.33
'olu fu;af=r] lkekU; vuqeksfnr moZjd ek=k vkSj e`nk ijh{k.k Qly izfrfdz;k izLrko esa vf/kd ik;k x;k A lw{ethoh fØ;kvksa dh vkn'kZiw.kZ n'kk ,dhd`r ikS/k iks"k.k iz.kkyh es T;knk fjdkMZ fd;k ftldh vf/kd dkcZu MkbZvkWDlkbM vuqØe.k xfr ¼54-60 esxk xzke izfr gsDVj½ ds dkj.k lkekU; vuqeksfnr moZjd ek=k vkSj e`nk ijh{k.k Qly izfrfdz;k izLrko ls vf/kd Fkk A
The aim of comprehensive studies is to quantify SOC density, SOC stock and SOC changes, under rice-wheat cropping sequence under different nutrient management practices over a period of time for sustainable productivity. The highest initial SOC density (9710 g m-2) and stock (97.10 Mg ha-1), at 0-10cm depth was observed in IPNS approach (T6), as compared to other nutrient management practices (Table 7). Consequently, the same treatment (T6) recorded maximum SOC change 1500 g m-2 year-1, due to higher CO2 sequestration rate (54.60 Mg ha-1) as compared to other treatments like GRD and STCR approach. This could be due to the capacity of the soil for storing organic carbon, depending on silt+clay, moisture, nutrient supply, pH, mineralogy and landscape. Incomplete and slower rate of decomposition of organic matter also affect the SOC density and stock. Singh et al.(2008) reported that, under rice-based cropping system with RDF+FYM was more efficient for enhancing SOC density (43.2%) and stock (40.6%) and in sequestrating CO2 (30.32 t ha-1). Similar findings were reported by Aulakh et al. (2001) in Typic Ustochrepts.
References Arshad MA, Lowery B, Grossmen B (1996) Physical tests for monitoring soil quality 123-142. In: Doran JW, Jones AJ (eds) method of assessing soil quality. Soil Sci Ame Spec Publ. 49 Madison WI Aulakh MS, Khera TS, Doran JW (2001) Managing crop residue with green manure, urea and tillage in a ricewheat rotation. Soil Sci Soc Ame J 65: 820-827 Chaudhury J, Mandal UK, Sharma KL (2005) Assessing soil quality under long-term rice-based cropping system. Comm in Soil Sci and Plant Ana 36: 1141-1161 Gupta RK, Rajput RP (2002) Soil related constraints to productivity of soybean based cropping systems in Central India. 67th Annual Convention of Indian Society of Soil Science. National Seminar on Development in Soil Science. JNKVV, Jabalpur 1115 Nov 33-44 Kang GS, Beri V, Rupela OP (2005) A new index to assess soil quality and sustainability of wheat-based cropping systems. Bio and Fert Soils 41: 389-398 Khan JA, Kurchania SP, Agrawal SB (2004) Yield maximization in rice-wheat sequence through agronomic manipulation. National Seminar-cumWorkshop on Challenges for enhancing riceproduction in fragile environments. 19-21 Oct 64-65 Kumar, V, Prasad B (2003) Integrated nutrient management for rice-wheat system. J Res Birsa Agril Uni 15: 2533
vuqla/kku iz{ks=] e`nk foKku ,oa —f"k gsIywLVVZ jlk;u"kkL= foHkkx] t-us-d`-fo-fo- tcyiqj ¼e-iz-½ ds fVfid gsiyLVVZ e`nk esa /kku&xsgwW Qlypdz ds LkkFk 2007&08 fd;s x;s iz;ksx esa ik;k x;k gS fd yf{kr mit ds vk/kkj ij jlk;fud moZjd dk dkcZfud [kkn ds lkFk la;ksftr mi;ksx] tks ewyr% ,dhd`r ikS/k iks"k.k iz.kkyh izLrko dgykrk gSa] Qlyksa dh mPpre mit ¼/kku&4-04 rFkk xsgwW&6-94 Vu izfr gsDVj½ izkIr gqbZ] ;g n"kkZrk gS fd rRoksa dk dqy mn~xzg.k lkekU; vuqeksfnr moZjd ek=k ls vf/kd gksrk gS] e`nk moZjrk o`f) e`nk ijh{k.k Qly izfrfØ;k izLrko esa vf/kd ik;k x;k tcfd e`nk 67
Singh RK, Singh SK, Tarafdar JC (2008) Influence of cropping sequence and nutrient management on soil organic carbon and nutrient status of Typic Rhodustalfs. J Indian Soc Soil Sci 56:174-181 Soil Quality Test Kit (1999) Background & Interpretive Guide for Individual Test. United State Department of Agriculture. Sec- II: 52-63. U S Govt Printing Office Washigton SW Suri VK, Verma TS (1999) Targeted yield concept for efficient and economic fertilizer use in a maize-wheat cropping system and build-up of fertility in a Typic Hapludalf. J Indian Soc Soil Sci 47: 67-72 Yadav RL, Tomar SS , Sharma C (2002) Output:input ratios and apparent balances of N P and K inputs in a ricewheat system in North-west India. Exp Agric 38: 457468 Yaduvanshi NPS (2003) Substitution of inorganic fertilizers by organic manures and the effect on soil fertility in a rice-wheat rotation on reclaimed sodic soil in India. Indian J Agric Sci 140: 161-168
Ramamoorthy B, Narsimham RL, Dinesh RS (1967) Fertilizer application for specific yield targets of Sonara-64. Indian Farm 17: 43-45 Sharma, MP, Bali SV (2001) Effect of row spacing and farmyard manure with increasing levels of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium on yield and nutrients uptake in rice -wheat cropping sequence. Indian J Agric Sci 71: 661-663 Sharma MP, Wali P, Gupta JP (2003) Long term effect of chemical fertilizers on rice-wheat productivity and fertility of an Inceptisol. Annals Agric Res 24: 91-94 Singh D, Rana DS, Kumar K (1998) Phosphorus removal and available P balance in Typic Ustocrept under ricewheat cropping and long term fertilizer use. J Indian Soc Soil Sci 46: 398-401 Singh G, Jalota SK, Sidhu BS (2005) Soil physical and hydraulic properties in a rice-wheat cropping system in India: effects of rice-straw management. Soil Use and Manag 21: 17-21 Singh M, Singh R, Dixit ML (2004) Soil test based fertilizer and FYM application for specific yield in paddy-wheat sequence. 69th Annual Convention: 27-30 Oct 110112
(Manuscript Receivd : 22.12.2011; Accepted 05.06.2012)
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JNKVV Res J 46(1): 69-74 (2012)
Production of Monascus sp. pigments from farm byproducts using solid state fermentation M.M. Khan, L.P.S. Rajput, S.S. Yadav, S. Kumar* and Kirti Tantwai Fermentation Technology laboratory Biotechnology Centre *Department of Food Science and Technology Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya Jabalpur 482004 (MP)
cholesterol (Babitha et al. 2009 and Endo and Monacolin 1980). A hyperpigment producing mutant of the fungus isolated after UV irradiation was found to produce a monacolin with antibacterial properties (Akishisa et al. 2005). The treatment of different nitrogen sources to the rice bran with monosodium glutamate in the higher pigments yield so rice bran is good sources of carbon (Rajput and Yadav 2009). Monascus grows in a wide variety of natural substrates. In order to minimize the production cost of pigments in the industries, efforts are required for utilization of abundantly available farm byproducts rich in carbon and nitrogen sources. The present investigation was planned keeping in view the cost, availability of carbon and nitrogen rich quality of agri byproducts used for bioconversion into microbial pigments.
Abstract Pigments obtained from fungus, Monascus purpureus are traditionally used as colouring agent and also as health protecting agent. Because of high production cost of pigment biosynthesis, studies are required to make use of cheaply available agro industrial byproducts. The present study was carried out with the objectives of optimization of blending carbon (rice bran, wheat bran) and nitrogen (mustard oilcake and cotton seed oilcake) sources in 1.5 : 1 and 2.5 : 1 ratios alongwith, optimization of different fermentable variables viz. moisture content, temperature, incubation period and inoculum size in solid state fermentation (SSF) for better recovery of microbial pigments. The findings indicated that among all the carbon and nitrogen sources, the combination of RB : MOC in 2.5 : 1 ratios resulted in the highest total yield of microbial pigments (122.4 OD units/gm dry biomass) which was obtained at initial moisture level of 55%, incubation temperature of 30o C, inoculum size of 1.5 x 106 (spores/ml) and incubation period of 12 days.
Materials and methods Rice bran (RB) was procured from rice milling industry situated in Ranjhi, Jabalpur (M.P.) Wheat bran (WB), mustard oilcake (MOC) and cotton seed, oilcake (CSOC), were procured from local market of Jabalpur City. Mustard oilcake and cotton seed oilcake were ground to fine powder using an electrical grinder to pass through 40-mash size sieve. The microbial pigment producing microorganism (strain) Monascus purpureus MTCC 410 was obtained from Institute of Microbial Technology (IMTECH), Chandigarh, Punjab. Different combinations of carbon sources viz. RB, WB and nitrogen sources viz. MOC and CSOC were used as substrates for the growth of Monascus purpureus MTCC 410 employed for the production of microbial pigments. Five grams of each combination of carbon and nitrogen sources were taken into a 250 ml Erlenmeyer flask and
Key word: Pigments, Solid state fermentation, Farm byproduct, Optimization The pigments produced by Monascus sp. have been used in processed food product as a colouring agent. Some synthetic colorants have been banned for use in food as they are identified as carcinogenic and allergenic agent. The existing authorized natural food colorants are of either plants or animal origin and have numerous drawbacks such as instability against light, heat or adverse pH, low water solubility and non availability throughout the year (Wong and Koehler 1983). The pharmaceutical application of azaphilones produced by Monascus are known by their antiinflammatory properties and ability to reduce body
69
gave the moisture content of fermented mass.
to this; a salt solution (2 ml) containing (g/lit.) viz. KH2PO4 2g, NH4NO3 5g, NaCl 1g and MgSO47H2O 1g was added. Initial moisture was set at 55% by adding the requisite amount of distilled water. The contents of the flask were mixed and autoclaved at 121oC at 15 psi for 20 min. cooled and inoculated with 1.5 ml spore suspension (1.5x106) of Monascus purpureus MTCC 410. The process of fermentation was carried out on NBS shaker incubator at 30o C for 12 days. A particular combination of carbon and nitrogen source that resulted into the best pigment yield was selected for further experiments. The method of solid state fermentation was used for carrying out different experiments for optimization of process parameters for attaining the maximum yield of microbial pigments. In the initial stage, first experiment at different moisture level (50, 55, 60, 65 and 70) for incubation periods of 12 days. The second with four ranges of temperature viz. 25, 30, 35 and 40o C at. Other was also conducted optimum with for different period of incubation (4, 6, 8, 10, 12, and 14 days). In order to asses the optimum inoculum size another experiment was conducted at moisture level of 55% incubation temperature of 300C and incubation period of 12 days with varied inoculum size (0.5x106, 1x106, 1.5x106, 2x106 and 2.5x106 spors/ml).
Estimation of pigments After suitable dilution of dry biomass with respective organic solvent, 2ml of each pigment extract was scanned in UV spectrophotometer with same solvent as blank. Optical density (O.D.) was measured at 500, 475, and 375 nm wavelength corresponding to red, orange and yellow pigment respectively. The pigment yield (OD units/g. dry biomass) of individual pigments was calculated using the following formula:
Pigment yield (O.D. units/gm dry biomass = substrate)
O.D. (Abs) x Dilution factor x Total vol. of pigment Dry weight of fermented mass
Results and discussion Pigment production Observations recorded in Table 1. showed that among the various combination of carbon and nitrogen sources combination of RB : MOC in 2.5 : 1 ratio was found to be the best resulting in the higher total yield (122.4 OD units/g dry biomass) of monascus pigment which comprised of 41.2 for yellow, 41.1 for orange and 40.1 (OD units/g dry biomass for red pigments using SSF technique for fermentation. These findings indicated that the combination of RB : MOC might have fulfiled the needed requirements of nutrients for the better growth of strain used for bioconversion of carbon and nitrogen sources into the value added end product pigment. It was also observed that with the relative increase in carbon level in two different combination of RB with MOC and CSOC there was a gradual increase in yield of microbial pigment. These findings revealed that the supplementation of rice bran as additional carbon source to the fermentation medium supported the growth of microorganism and hence resulted in increase of pigment yield. It was also interesting to note that when wheat bran was used as a carbon source and blended in the increasing ratio, the pigment yield got reduced to some extent. Low poor pigment yield with wheat bran as substrate may be due to poor digestion of substrate by the organisms. On the other hand, rice bran was found to be the best substrate producing highest yield with MOC in 2.5 : 1 ratio. This may be due to availability of 12-14% protein, 19-22% lipids, 50% carbohydrates (21% fibre) and high levels of vitamins and essential
Extraction of pigments 5 gram of the fermented biomass was suspended in 25 ml of acetone, incubated on rotary shaker at 30o C with 200 rpm for an hour. After this, the pigment extracted in acetone was decanted. This step was repeated till all the pigment was extracted completely from the fermented biomass. The total crude pigment extract in acetone was pooled together and flash evaporated in a rotary vacuum evaporator at 40oC with 100-120 rpm under 556 mbar vaccum to dryness to remove the acetone traces with the pigment. The dried extract was taken in 10 ml of distilled ethanol for spectrophotometric analysis. Estimation of dry weight from fermented biomass After extraction of total pigment, the fermented biomass was taken in a preweighed aluminium dish to which about 5 ml of ethanol was added. The dish was kept in an oven maintained at 105o C. After about 3-4 hour. the dish was transferred to a desiccator with the help of forceps. When the temperature of the dish reached ambient temperature, the dish with the dry fermented biomass was weighed. Drying was continued till the constant weight was obtained. The difference in weight
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Table 1. Optimization of blending different carbon and nitrogen sources for the maximum yield* of microbial pigments in Solid-State Fermentation (SSF) Initial moisture level Incubation temperature Incubation period Combination of Substrates
: : :
60% 30o C 12 days
Ratio of Combination
RB : MOC
1.5:1
2.5:1 RB : CSOC 1.5:1 2.5:1 WB:MOC 1.5:1 2.5:1 WB :CSOC 1.5:1 2.5:1 * Values are average of triplicates ** Highest value
Yield of Pigment (O.D. Unit/g of dry biomass)
Total Yield of Pigments (O.D. Unit/g dry biomass)
375 nm (Yellow)
475 nm (Orange)
500 nm (Red)
38.9
13.9
10.0
62.8
41.2 34.4 40.2 40.2 37.1 38.1 33.0
41.1 13.2 32.8 28.9 8.5 18.5 13.8
40.1 12.5 30.4 21.1 7.0 16.3 13.0
122.4** 60.1 103.4 89.2 52.6 72.9 59.8
Table 2. Effect of different initial moisture level on yield* of microbial pigments in Solid-State Fermentation (SSF) Substrate combination Incubation temperature Incubation period : Initial moisture level(%)
: RB : MOC (2.5 : 1) : 300 C 12 days
Yield of pigments (O.D. units/g dry biomass) 375 nm (Yellow) 475 nm (Orange) 500 nm (Red)
50 55** 60 65 70
35.5 41.2 37.5 36.9 33.0
28.8 41.1 28.1 27.0 25.0
28.1 40.1 27.5 26.3 22.1
Total yield of pigments (O.D. units/g/dry biomass) 92.4 122.4 93.1 90.2 80.1
* Values are average of triplicates ** Optimum initial moisture level
Table 3. Effect of different incubation temperature on yield* of microbial pigments in Solid-State Fermentation (SSF) Substrate combination Initial moisture Incubation period Initial moisture level(%)
: : :
RB : MOC (2.5 : 1) 55% 12 days
Yield of pigments (O.D. units/g dry biomass) 375 nm (Yellow) 475 nm (Orange) 500 nm (Red)
Total yield of pigments (O.D. units/g/dry biomass)
25
36.9
24.3
20.0
81.2
30**
41.2
41.1
40.1
122.4
35
25.9
19.8
17.9
63.6
40
22.2
12.4
9.9
44.5
* Values are average of triplicates ** Optimum incubation period
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Table 4. Effect of different incubation period on yield* of microbial pigments in Solid-State Fermentation (SSF) Substrate combination Incubation temperature Initial moisture level Incubation period (days)
: : :
R.B: MOC (2.5 : 1) 300 C 60%
Yield of pigments (O.D. units/g dry biomass) 375 nm (Yellow) 475 nm (Orange) 500 nm (Red)
4 25.0 6 30 8 32.1 10 38.5 12** 41.2 14 40.3 *Values are average of triplicates **Optimum incubation period
2.4 7.7 9.0 15.8 41.1 32.5
1.6 6.8 8.8 14.0 40.1 30.0
Total yield of pigments (O.D. units/g/dry biomass) 29.0 44.5 49.9 68.3 122.4 102.8
Table 5. Effect of different inoculum size (spores/ml) on yield* of microbial pigments in Solid-State Fermentation (SSF) Substrate combination Incubation temperature Initial moisture level Incubation period Inculum size (spore/ml)
: : : :
RB : MOC (2.5 : 1) 30o C 55% 12 days
Yield of pigments (O.D. units/g dry biomass) 375 nm (Yellow) 475 nm (Orange) 500 nm (Red)
Total yield of pigments (O.D. units/g/dry biomass)
0.5 x 106
35.7
27.9
25.8
89.4
6
1.0 x 10
40.0
32.8
30.2
103.0
1.5 x 106**
41.2
41.1
40.1
122.4
6
38.5
33.5
32.4
104.4
2.5 x 106
38.0
32.5
30.9
101.4
2.0 x 10
* Values are average of triplicates ** Optimum inoculum size
trace elements in rice bran. Rice bran contains the main nutrients for microbial growth which could be advantageous for the microbial production of secondary metabilites like polyketide pigments. Some reports have also been published in the literature showing that the supplementation of additional carbon sources increased the pigment production (Wong et. al. 1981). In study conducted by Wong et al. (1981) it was reported that mixed substrate fermentation using different ratios of glucose and ammonium nitrate in synthetic medium effected pigment production. It was further reported that with the increase of glucose concentration, total pigment production increased. In the present investigation, similar trends of observation have been recorded by using the mixed substrate combination with rice bran as a carbon source whereas wheat bran is a carbon
source when blended with MOC and CSOC in increasing ratio did not increase the pigment yield. Effect of different initial moisture levels on yield of microbial pigments At initial moisture level of 55%, the total pigment yield was found to be highest (122.4 OD units/gm dry biomass) and recorded as 41.2 for yellow, 41.1 for orange and 40.1 OD units/gm dry biomass for red pigment (Table 2). Likewise at initial moisture level of 50% there was slight, reduction in pigment yield (92.4 OD units/gm dry biomass) viz. 35.5 for yellow, 28.8 for orange and 28.1 OD units/gm dry biomass for red pigment.
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0.5 x 106 (spores/ml) there was reduction in the total pigment of yield of 89.4 OD units/gm dry biomass which consisted of 35.7 for yellow, 27.9 for orange and 25.8 OD units/gm dry biomass for red pigment. It was also observed that with the increase in inoculum size of 1 x 106 (spores/ml), there was a gradual increase in total pigment yield of 103.0 OD units/gm dry biomass consisting of 40.0 for yellow, 32.8 for orange and 30.2 OD units/gm dry biomass for red pigment. The total pigment yield of 104.4 OD units/gm dry biomass was observed with the inoculum size of 2 x 106 (spores/ml) which comprised of 38.5 for yellow, 33.5 for orange and 32.4 OD units/gm dry biomass for red pigment. Similarly with the maximum inoculum size of 2.5 x 106 (spores/ ml), the total pigment yield was found to be 101.4 OD units/g dry biomass consisting of different pigment fraction 38.0 for yellow, 32.5 for orange and 30.9 OD units/gm dry biomass for red pigment.
Similarly, there was reduction in total pigment yield (93.1OD units/gm dry biomass) at 60% moisture level which consisted of 37.5 for yellow, 28.1 for orange and 27.5 OD units/gm dry biomass for red pigment whereas it was 36.9 for yellow, 27.0 for orange and 26.3 OD units/gm dry biomass for red pigment, showing total pigment yield of 90.2 OD units/gm dry biomass at a initial moisture level of 65%. The values of pigment yield at 70% initial moisture level were recorded as 33.0 for yellow, 25.0 for orange and 22.1 OD units/gm dry biomass for red pigment showing total pigment yield of 80.1 OD units/gm dry biomass. Effect of different incubation temperature on yield of microbial pigments Incubation temperature of 30o C, the total pigment yield (122.4 OD units/gm dry biomass) was found to be highest and recorded as 41.2 for yellow, 40.1 for orange and 110.1 OD units/gm dry biomass for red pigment (Table 3). Similarly, there was much more reduction in total pigment (81.2 OD units/g dry biomass) which consisted of 36.9 for yellow, 24.3 for orange and 20.0 for red pigment at a incubation temperature of 25o C. The values of pigment yield were recorded as 25.9 for yellow, 19.8 for orange and 17.9 OD units/gm dry biomass for red pigment indicating total pigment yield of 63.6 OD units/gm dry biomass. Likewise, there was much more reduction in the total pigment yield to a level.
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