Resource Intensity and Dematerialization ... - PublicationsList.org

Series A: Discussion Paper 2000-01

Resource Intensity and Dematerialization Potential of Information Society Technologies Lorenz M. Hilty Thomas Ruddy Daniel Schulthess

January 2000

© Solothurn University of Applied Sciences Northwestern Switzerland and the author. Reproductions, and/or parts thereof, independent of medium, is allowed solely with the permission of Solothurn University of Applied Sciences Northwestern Switzerland and the author.

Solothurn University of Applied Sciences Northwestern Switzerland, Series A: Discussion Paper 2000-01

Solothurn University of Applied Sciences Northwestern Switzerland Solothurn University of Applied Sciences Northwestern Switzerland offers at the School of Management majors in Economy such as Controlling, Human Resource Management, Marketing, and Information and Knowledge Management. In addition, it offers both a full-time and part time course of study in Information Systems. It is well-known for its further education activities ranging from conferences, seminars, and examination preparation to full-fledged graduate studies. The institute offers graduate programs in Non-Profit Organisation, Logistics, Corporate Design Management, and Personnel Management. Solothurn University of Applied Sciences Northwestern Switzerland is active in widely varied areas of economics research . The most noteworthy topics of research are in the areas of Industry, Innovation and Strategic Management, Human Resource Management, and Information and Knowledge Management. The results of this research are presented in our publication series and research seminars.

Publication Series In this series, Solothurn University of Applied Sciences Northwestern Switzerland, publishes the results of this research, with the aim of ensuring that colleagues as well as the public are informed on research activities and their ensuing results. To place orders for these publications, please refer to the order form at the end of this brochure.

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Abstract This study provides an overview of Life Cycle Assessments (LCAs) and estimates of future resource consumption in the area of Information Society Technologies (ISTs). Special attention has been given to those findings which are relevant for estimating the dematerialization potential of ISTs. Complete LCAs were done mainly for personal computers (PCs) and workstations as well as for colour televisions. Various investigations concentrating on individual aspects such as energy consumption, toxic materials and recycling technologies also exist. We focus on energy and material intensity as rough indicators of the environmental relevance of the production, use and disposal of electronic devices. The most significant findings in this area can be summarized as follows: •

The primary energy used for the production of a PC is about the same as that for a refrigerator; it would suffice to produce 4 colour TV sets or 1/8 of a car.

•

Up to 90% of the total energy demand of a PC life cycle can occur during production, and more than 98 % of the material used in PC production is not part of the product.

•

Digital electronics has the potential to be dematerialized further by a factor of as high as 64, CRT monitors and flat panel displays excluded.

•

Only 52 % of the total energy demand of Public Network Operators is needed for network operation, while one third of this energy consumption is due to HVAC (heating, ventilation , air conditioning).

•

The energy demand for operating one telephone line lies roughly on the order of magnitude of 100 kWh per year.

•

Under current framework conditions the most probable 1ST scenario predicts a continuing exponential growth of the 1ST market until 2015, resulting in linear growth of the total physical mass contained in the 1ST devices that are in use.


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Acknowledgments This study was done on behalf of the Research Institute for Applied Knowledge Processing (FAW), Ulm. It is part of the project · Evaluating the Sustainability Potential of the Information Society·. We would also like to thank Roger Willi from Sinum AG, St.Gall, for his esteemed collaboration .

Authors Prof. Dr. Lorenz M. Hilty received his degree in Computer Science from Hamburg University in 1986, where he worked as a graduate research assistant. After finishing his dissertation on cognitive aspects of programming in 1991, he has been managing several research projects in the area of environmental information processing, 1992 -1993 at the University of St.Gallen, Institute for Economics and the Environment, 1993-1995 at Hamburg University, Department of Computer Science, and - since 1996 - at the Research Institute for Applied Knowledge Processing (FAW), Ulm. At present he is professor for Information Systems at Solothurn University of Applied Sciences Northwestern Switzerland.

Thomas Ruddy earned a B. A. from Stlawrence University, Canton NY in 1969. He edits a climate change newsletter on his homepage, http://members.tripod .com/ruddyconsultlarchive1999.htm. He has recently completed a 100-page study for the European Commission, DG XIII, on how the South mistrusts the North for the latter's insistence on ecological standards at the World Trade Organization . Currently he is a research fellow at Solothurn University of Applied Sciences Northwestern Switzerland, where he strives to reconcile globalization and information technology with sustainable development.

Daniel Schulthess was born in a village near Aarau and visited elementary and high schools in Aarau. After two years of military services, he began his studies of business administration in late 1987 at the University of st. Gall. After two years of basic studies he's chosen finance and accounting as his special topic. After he passed his licence-exams in business administration in autumn 1993, his career developed in two main directions. On one hand, he worked as an assistent to the CEO of a consulting enterprise. On the other, he began work on his PhD. Two semesters of further study gave him a profound knowledge of qualitative and quantitative scientific working. Since the first of June 1998 he has been working as a scientific assistant in the research and development department of Solothurn University of Applied Sciences Northwestern Switzerland .

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Contents 1 Introduction .................. ...... .. ..... .... .......... ... .. ....... ........... ... .. ... .. .. ..... ... ..... ... ... .. .... ... .... .. ..... ... 1 2 Synopsis of relevant literature ... ...................... ...... ...... .. .. .. ...... .. .. ............ .... ........ .. ................ 1 2.1 The Energy and Material Intensity of PCs and Networks ...... .... .. ... ............ ..................... 1 2.2 The Dematerialization Potential of PC Technology ......... ..... ................. ... ........... .......... .4 2.3 Technological Trends ............... ... .......... .. ....... ... ..... ..... ............... .... ...... .. .. .... ... ... .... .. ...... 5 2.4 Market Trends ....... ... ... .... ............. ... ... ................ ... ......... .... .. .. .. ... ... ... .... .... .. .. ...... ....... ... 6 3 References .. .... ...... ..................... ....... ... ... ...... ... ..... ..... ............ ... ... .. .. ..... ...... ..... ... .... ..... ......... 8 Publications to date: ............................... ....... .... ... ..................... ....... .... .... .. .............. ................ 11 Orders .................................. .................. .. .... .. ....... ...... .... .. .... ............... ... .. ... .. .. .. ...... .. .. ........ ... 13


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Introduction The objective of this study is to present the state-of-the-art about the resource consumption and environmental stress caused by Information Society Technologies (1ST). We include estimates of the future technical development of ISTs and the 1ST market. Including these trends makes it possible to estimate the dematerialization potential of individual technologies and the exhaustion of these potentials under existing economic conditions. For this study, more than 50 recent books and articles were scanned. Then we cut down the sources to those which were meaningful as regards the following basic aspects of ISTs: •

energy consumption and conservation potential

•

material intensity and conservation potential

•

trends of technology developments

•

trends of market developments

Evaluating these sources revealed that TV sets and PCs with CRT monitors have been examined most thus far, whereas in the areas of flat panel displays, networks, mobile phones and satellite communication there are still many questions open. We have excluded from the study the broad discussion about toxic compounds in electronic devices, their environmental effects, recycling technologies aimed at them and legal regulations regarding waste from consumer electronics. Instead we concentrate on energy and material intensity as rough indicators of the environmental relevance of the production, use and disposal of electronic devices. We assume that reducing material intensity over the entire product life cycle would cause an approximately proportional reduction of toxic effects over the entire product life cycle. Quantitatively precise data cannot be expected from LCAs or similar investigations. It is even more unlikely that estimation of future developments could produce precise results. The following synopsis of selected literature therefore contains only very rough numbers and information with great variation in some cases, which resulted from considering more than one study on the same topic. This has been done intentionally, in order not to give a misleading impression of quantitative precision.

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Synopsis of relevant literature

2.1

The Energy and Material Intensity of pes and Networks According to the ENQUETE COMMISSION "PROTECTION OF MANKIND AND THE ENVIRONMENT" OF THE GERMAN BUNDESTAG (1998), the primary energy demand for PC production lies in the range of Solothurn University of Applied Sciences Northwestern Switzerland, Series A: Discussion Paper 2000-01

10-12 GJ . For purposes of comparison: the production of a colour television set requires around 2.8 GJ, that of a refrigerator around 13 GJ of primary energy. A passenger car has an energy consumption that is higher by a factor of 7-8 than that of a PC (around 83 GJ). Depending on how intensively a PC is utilized, the production-related energy share of a PC can comprise as much as 90% of the total energy consumption over its life cycle. In making this claim, the ENQUETE COMMISSION RELIES ON LCAs DONE BY THE OEKO-INSTITUT (1996) AND BY SOLDERA (1995). The study by GROTE (1994,1995) estimates energy demand to be much higher, namely 37.5 GJ. The Commission does not regard this figure as plausible. For technically more powerful workstations, a study done by the Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation (MCC) estimated the production-related energy demand to be 25 GJ (MCC 1993), a value that has remained uncontested thus far. However, one has to note that the border between PCs and workstations is becoming more and more gradual. If a PC is equipped accordingly, its production-related energy consumption could well exceed that of what the Enquete Commission regarded as typical for "average PCs" at the time. Although the material and components for a PC are transported over great distances, the estimated energy needed for all transports up to the sale of the PC to the final customer is 0.8 GJ, and thus under 10 % of the total energy used in the production phase (GROTE 1994). A PC can consume very different quantities of energy during its utilization phase depending on the length of this phase and its utilization intensity. Estimates range from 2.9 to 4.4 GJ of primary energy demand for private PC use and from 11.6 to 100.0 GJ for professional use, whereby the 100 GJ applies to workstations that are normally not shut down (assumption: 4 years of continuous operation, computer without power management). Here again, it is impossible to draw a sharp border because PCs can be used in this form as well. Depending on the assumptions on utilization duration and intensity, the share of energy demand attributed to the utilization phase lies between 10% and 80%. All figures cited thus far refer to PCs or workstations with CRT monitor. During the utilization phase, most energy demand is attributable to the CRT monitor. The power demand of a PC without monitor lies between 27 and 70 W (depending on processor speed, RAM and harddisk capacity), that of the CRT monitor between 45 and 110 W (depending on size and resolution; UBA 1996). Quite different is the power demand of flat panel computer displays at between 10 and 35 W (depending on size and technology). However there are no reliable data available on the energy demand needed to manufacture flat panel displays as compared with CRT monitors. Some analyses indicate that, under "design as usual" conditions, the environmental impact of electricity consumption during the utilization phase of an LCD counts for 50%-80% of the life cycle, depending on the assumed scenario (EENHOORN 1997, DOELMAN 1996, cited in VEEFKIND 1999). The PC's share of electric energy input into German households in 1994 was 0.7 %, whereas all ICTs' share (including TV/audio/video/PC) was 7-10.3 % (UBA 1996). This figure should be assumed to increase rapidly, because the number of new PCs sold grows every year by a factor of around 10% (GROTE 1999). The material intensity of the PC's life cycle was investigated by the Wuppertallnstitute using the MIPS method (GROTE & MALLAY 1997, MALLAY 1998). These authors arrived at 16-19 metric tonnes. This value, though, is only meaningful when compared with other values determined

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using the same method . It should be interpreted with caution if taken as an isolated absolute value. These authors conclude that only about 0.1 % of the physical mass transformed to produce one PC goes into the product itself. IBM arrives in its study of this issue at a value of 1.4 % (cited in GROTE 1996). That varies widely from the result of the Wuppertallnstitute, but does not contradict the qualitative conclusion that the physical mass transformed to produce one PC lies more than one order of magnitude above the mass of the PC itself. The comparison between a PC and a passenger car that hit the headlines is only meaningful if the car is regarded without its on-board electronics. Otherwise it is obvious that a modern car would display a higher material intensity alone because of its numerous microprocessors and other electronic components. The figures 1:3 to 2:3 have been quoted in popular scientific articles for purposes of comparison between a PC and a car without electronics. Material intensities calculated by the MIPS method are the basis in each case (FACTS 1997, GROTE & MALLAY 1997). An expanded view of material intensity of PC life cycles should also cover the material consumption in the utilization phase. Presumably the most important area here is paper consumption. There are not any figures here yet, but an idea can be found in the fact that at least 2 of 3 PCs (ENQUETE COMMISSION 1999) or 4 of 5 PCs (GROTE 1999) are sold with a printer. This fact indicates that usually the purchase of a PC is not done with the intention of substituting a PC for paper. The long-term trend for paper has remained virtually level for the past 60 years (EHRENFELD 1997). The Energy Consumption of Telecommunications Networks was investigated by European Public Network Operators (PNOs). Eight PNOs formed a workgroup to identify ways to implement energy savings. Most of them were able to proVide reliable figures on their current energy use for purposes of comparison . Analysis of their current needs revealed that about 70% of the energy consumed by PNOs is in the form of electricity, the other 30% being for mineral oil (petrol and heating oil) and natural gas. Thus, they concluded that electricity is the area where the reduction potential is greater. Among the purposes for which electricity was used, the most obvious one was the exchange itself. The second most significant one was heating, ventilation and air conditioning HVAC for the exchange. In fact, this thermal application of energy consumed roughly 30% of electricity demand. HVAC thus ranked before radiocommunications, the third most significant purpose. Exchange, radiocom and HVAC together comprise network needs, accounting for 71.5% of the 70 % electricity budget. When non-electrical needs are considered, the share of total energy needed to run the network itself drops to only 52 %. Not surprisingly, most heating falls under non-electrical needs. But the use of different energy sources can differ widely among PNOs (e.g. electric heating instead of oil-based heating). In order to compare energy needs among PNOs in the way of benchmarking, the study introduced an indicator called "energy consumption per telephone line." Results varied from 90 to 144 kWh/a (324-518 MJ/a) , also due to the different amounts of attention paid to energy conservation by PNOs and the different climatic conditions under which PNOs operate. Looking towards future work, the study stated that "indicators which take into account the environmental impact of the possible substitution of some telecom services such as, for instance, videoconferencing and teleworking, leading to a general reduction of [road] traffic, should also be defined." (EURESCOM 1997).


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As regards the production of the lines themselves, it has been known for some time now that fiberglass technology has a higher ecological efficiency than copper: 1 tonne of copper can be replaced by a about 25 kilograms of fiberglass cable, which can be produced with only 5 % of the energy needed to produce the copper wire (HERMAN ET AL. 1989, cited in EHRENFELD 1997). In the area of mobile telephony there are LCAs from Nokia, the results of which, though, have not yet been published. Likewise, data on the resource consumption and environmental stress caused by satellite communications are not available yet either. Over the last 40 years, 3800 rocket launches took place to put satellites into geostationary earth orbit. Overall, around 10,000 objects are in orbit, only 6 % of them intact satellites. The rest are so-called space debris, which comprise a problem themselves due to the increasing likelihood of collisions with functioning satellites (GROTE 1997).

2.2

The Dematerialization Potential of PC Technology According to the so-called Moore's law, digital electronics dematerializes by a factor of 4 every 3 years. This hypothesis has not been contradicted empirically since Gordon Moore stated it in the early 7oties. It is assumed to hold until 2010 (64-Gbit chip) . Further continuation of this development, though, will require profound technological changes for physical reasons. That raises the question as to why this continuing dramatic dematerialization of digital electronics has not caused a corresponding reduction of the total energy and material flows caused by ISTs. On the contrary: electronics' share of energy consumption continues to increase, and the amount of electronics waste indicates that material throughput is growing just as fast. This apparent contradiction is a typical example of the rebound effect: the rapid dematerialization has been compensated for - even definitely overcompensated for - by growth in the demand for computing and communication power for several years now. This continuing dematerialization is even comprising an additional cause for material consumption, because the short innovation cycles are causing devices to be disposed of long before the end of their technical service lives. If a way could be found to counteract the rebound effect by resetting the framework conditions, a dramatic reduction of the energy and material flows caused by digital electronics could be possible before 2010. On the basis of Moore's Law, a factor of 64 would be achievable in this time frame. CRT monitors do not count as digital electronics. Instead they are analog devices that can only be changed a little. Studies on TV sets also reflect this problem. The effect of ecological optimization and recycling of a TV set is, under optimistic assumptions, definitely below factor 2 for material and energy consumption (STRUBEL 1997, BEHRENDT ET AL. 1998). At least another factor of 2 could be had under the - very unrealistic - assumption that one could dispense with colour and revert to grey-scale monitors. It is to be expected that CRT monitors will be replaced by flat panel displays in PCs (see also Section 2.4). The methods used to manufacture the TFT-LCD displays in wide use today are generally known (EPA 1998), but no reliable LCA data are available yet. Furthermore, the manufacturing methods are subject to rapid change, so that the effects of replacing CRT monitors by flat panel displays cannot be predicted on the basis of data published thus far. However it is known that the disposal of LCDs can cause environmental problems (Proesler 1999).

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Laptop computers are much more efficient in energy consumption in the utilization phase than desktop computers. This is attributable not only to their use of LCD monitors, but also to the energetic optimization of other components and better power management. If laptops had a market share of 100 %, the energy demand for PC use could be reduced by a factor of 2-4 (estimate on the basis of figures from EPA 1998, UBA 1997, and VEEFKIND 1999) or even a factor of 10 (NEGROPONTE 1998). It is unclarified what effect this scenario would have on the energy and material throughput of the whole life cycle, because data on LCDs' life cycle are missing. Independent of technical developments, a dematerialization effect could be achieved by expanding the use duration of the devices because of the important role played by material and energy consumption in the manufacturing phase as described in Section 2.1 above.

2.3

Technological Trends There is a general trend, according to which new technologies penetrate the market in evershorter times (see the following table, ENQUETE COMMISSION 1998).

Technology

Time to reach 10 million customers (years)

Telephone

40

Cable TV

25

Fax

22

Video Recorder

10

Mobile Phone

10

PC

7

Therefore one must assume that newer Information Society Technolgies will enter the market in even shorter times than their predecessors. Right now the relevant trends are: •

thin client technology or network computers that break away from the PC dogma that hardware resources always have to be available locally. That unlocks the potential of using remote hardware resources better and thus of achieving a considerable dematerialization. However, these gains must be seen in relation to a more intensive use of data communication and corresponding energy and material flows caused by networks. (A similar development is taking place in audio communication on a lesser scale, where central voice mailbox systems are replacing local answering machines.)

•

the integration of various services, for which separate devices are used today, for instance, audio communication and the Internet), with corresponding potential savings: for example, the telephone could develop into a simple multimedia communication tool, which provides access to the most important Internet services; the PC as we know it today would become superfluous wherever it is used exclusively for this purpose.


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•

ubiquitous computing, requiring the installation of microprocessors in a variety of devices and consumer appliances. This technology will on the one hand make possible improvements in the efficiency of various devices, while on the other, it will produce innumerable new applications that use digital electronics poorly and increase standby energy consumption.

2.4 Market Trends It is not possible to quantify reliably in a forecast the speed at which new technologies will spread that have yet to reach the market's entrance threshold . There are only market forecasts that predict the development of markets for technologies that exist today (PCs, CRT and LCD monitors, mobile phones): •

Worldwide PC demand will grow to 100 million in 2000, while most of these PCs will still be desktop applications (NIKKEI YEARBOOK 1997, cited in EPA 1998).

•

Worldwide CRT monitor demand will grow to 100 million in 2002, reaching 113.5 million in 2003 (Stanford Resources Inc. Web Site, cited in EPA 1998).

•

Worldwide LCD monitor demand will grow to 6.4 million in 2001 (NIKKEI YEARBOOK 1998, cited in EPA 1998).

•

After the first few years of the next century, LCDs will begin to erode the CRT stronghold (EPA 1998, see also VEEFKIND 1999).

•

There will be 1 billion mobile phone users in 2000 (Salomon Smith Barney, cited in GROTE 1999)

In 1998 the Enquete Commission of the German Bundestag did a study of future scenarios, but could not attempt a quantitative forecast because too many factors were then, and still remain , unknown . Instead, it wanted merely to show the range for potential improvement through environmental policy. That range is the area sketched between the business as usual, or "TREND" scenario, and the "BEST" scenario. First, from the standpoint of resource consumption, the comparison is made using service life; TREND stays at 5 years, BEST rises to 8 years through standardization and modular construction. As regards weight, TREND drops by a factor of 2, thanks to miniaturization and flat panel displays; BEST drops by a factor of 3 before 2015 through users sharing computers, design for the environment and the re-use of components; see Figure below. The market for computers develops differently in the two scenarios, and is measured by the number of computers, which rises by 3.5% p.a. under TREND, and only 3.3 % under BEST. Total mass rises in an almost linear fashion by a factor of 2.5 until 2015 under TREND. Under BEST, it grows by a factor of 1.8 to a maximum around the year of 2008 and begins to fall slightly after this point.

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Fig.: Divergent forecasts of number of ICT devices (top dark range) and total mass of ICT stock (cross-hatched).

Secondly, from the standpoint of energy consumption, the comparison is made using values for the power consumed during actual computer operation. The Enquete Commission only estimated these using US data from 1993. At that time, computer operation was expected to rise throughout the Nineties from 5% to 10% of total energy consumption. The power consumed by computers during standby is calculated using more current values projected in 1995 for the years up to 2010. The Enquete Commission expects the power consumed by home users to rise from 14 to 16.7 TWh under TREND, and to fall from 14 to 8 TWh under BEST. Professional use is assumed to be similar to home use.


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References BEHRENDT S. , KREIBICH R., LUNDIE S., PFITZNER R. & SCHARP M. (1998) 6kobilanzierung komplexer Elektronikprodukte. Innovationen und Umweltentlastungpotentiale durch Lebenszyklusanalyse. Heidelberg: Springer. DOELMAN P. & KROZERJ . (1996) Life Cycle Approaches for Ecodesign: Pilot Project for a Philips Minitor, TME, The Netherlands. EENHOORN G.-J . (1997) Environmental Benchmarking of Computer Monitors, DUT, Sub-faculty of Industrial Design Engineering, Delft: Delft Universty of Technology. EHRENFELD J. R. (1998) Will Information Technology Produce Factor 4-10 Reductions in Energy and Material Consumption? Presented at the European Telematics Conference and Exhibition , Barcelona, February 4-7, 1998. ENQUETE-KoMMISSION · SCHUTZDES MENSCHEN UND DER UMWELT " DES 13 . DEUTSCHEN BUNDESTAGES (ED. 1998) Innovationen zur Nachhaltigkeit - okologische Aspekte der Informations- und Kommunikationstechnik Berlin: Springer. EPA (1998) Computer Display Industry and Technology Profile. EPA 744-R-98-005, Cincinnnati: National Service Center for Environmental Publications. EURESCOM (1997) Telecommunications and the Environment, Deliverable 3.4, Measures for Benchmarking Network Energy Consumption, April 1997, prepared by EURESCOM permanent staff, Project Leader: Chris Tuppen , ST. FACTS (1997) Gefrassige Siester. Erste Oeko-Silanz: Sis zu 19 Tonnen Rohstoffe verschlingt ein PC von der Herstellung bis zum Schrottplatz. 27.3 .97, Zurich . GROTE A. (1994) Grune Rechnung. Das Produkt Computer in der Okobilanz 1994, in: c't, Computer und Technik, Heft 12, S. 82-98. GROTE A. (1995) Ermittlungen. Stoffdatenbank der TU Munchen konkretisiert PC-Okobilanz 1995, in: c't, Computer und Technik, 8/95, S. 108. GROTE A. (1996) Punktgenau . Schweizer Studie prazisiert die Oekobilanz des PC, in: c't, Computer und Technik, Heft 10, S. 102-104. GROTE A. (1997) Schwarme im Orbit, in: c't, Computer und Technik, Heft 8, S. 100-103.

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Solothurn University of Applied Sciences Northwestern Switzerland , Series A: Discussion Paper 2000-01

GROTE A& MALLAY J. (1997) Schwergewicht, in: c't, Computer und Technik, Heft 5, S. 170. GROTE A (1999) Kreislaufer. Die Elektronikschrott-Verordnung kommt nicht voran, in : c't, Computer und Technik, Heft 8, S. 90-94. HERMAN R., ARDEKANI S. A & AUSUBELJ. H. (1989) Dematerialization, in: Technology and Environment, ed. J. H. Ausubel and H. E. Siadovich. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, pp. 50-69. MALLEY J. (1998) Ein einfacher PC mit Bildschirm verbraucht 19 Tonnen Ressourcen. Telepolis aktuell http://www.heise.de/tp/deutsch/inhalt/te/1367/1.html. MCC (1993) Environmental Consciousness: A Strategic Comptetitiveness Issue for the Electronics and Computer Industry. Austin TX: Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation . NEGROPONTE N. (1999) Powerless Computing, in: Wired 6.02, http://www.media.mit.edu/people/nicholas/Wired/WIRED6-02.html. NIKKEI YEARBOOK (1997) Nikkei Microdevices' Flat Panel Display 1997 Yearbook, Nikkei Business Publications, Inc.. NIKKEI YEARBOOK (1998) Nikkei Microdevices' Flat Panel Display 1997 Yearbook, Nikkei Business Publications, Inc.. OEKO-INSTITUT (1996) in: Nutzen statt Besitzen, Band I, Heft 47, Stuttgart: Ministerium fOr Umwelt und Verkehr Baden Wuerttemberg. SOLDERA M. (1995) akocomputer. Vergleich eines ako-PC mit einem herkommlichern PC anhand von Lebenszyklusanalysen LCA 1995, Gebenstorf: Eigenverlag. STRUBEL V. ET AL. (1997) Einsparpotential 40 Prozent, in : akologisches Wirtschaften 1/97, S. 27-29. UBA (1996) Perspektiven eines Umweltzeichens fOr Elektro- und Elektronikgerate im Haushalt. Bestandsermittlung und Energieverbrauch von ausgewahlten Gerategruppen - deutsch/englisch - Projekt Nr. 96/42. Berlin: Umweltbundesamt. VEEFKIND M. (1999) Assessment of Business Effectiveness of Green Disgin Options. Proc. International Conference on Engineering Design ISED 1999 Munich, August 24-26th 1999.

Solothurn University of Applied Sciences Northwestern Switzerland, Seri es A: Discussion Paper 2000-01

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Publications to date: In Series A 'Discussion Papers' of Solothurn University of Applied Sciences Northwestern Switzerland, the following publications have appeared: No. 98-01

THOMAS M. SCHWARB (July 1998) «Ich verpfeife meine Firma» ... Einfuhrung in das Phinomen ((Whistle-Blowing».

No. 98-02

MATHIAS BINSWANGER (December 1998) Stock Market Booms and Real Economic Activity: Is this Time different?

No. 98-03

GONTER SCHINDLER (December 1998) Unscharfe Klassifikation durch kontextbasierte Datenbankanfragen.

No. 99-01

MATHIAS BINSWAGER (January 1999) Co-Evolution Between the Real and Financial Sectors: The Optimistic ((New Growth Theory» View versus the Pessimistic ((Keynesian View».

No. 99-02

MATHIAS BINSWANGER (June 1999) Die verschiedenen Rollen des Finanzsektors in der wirtschaftlichen Entwicklung.

No. 99-03

LORENZ M . HILTY (June 1999) Individuenbasierte Verkehrssimulation in Java.

No. 99-04

ALBERT VOLLMER (June 1999) Mobile Arbeit in der Schweiz - Telearbeit und Desksharing.

No. 99-05

NAJIB HARABI (July 1999) The Impact of Vertical R&D Cooperation on Firm Innovation: an Empirical Investigation.

No. 99-06

MAIKE FRANZEN (July 1999) Konstruktives Lernen mit dem E-Book. Entwicklung einer Lernumgebung fur konstruktives Lernen.

No. 99-07

MATHIAS BINSWANGER (December 1999) Technological Progress and Sustainable Development: Different Perspectives on the Rebound Effect.

No. 2000-01

LORENZ M . HILTY, THOMAS RUDDY, DANIEL SCHULTHESS (January 2000) Resource Intensity and Dematerialization Potential of Information Society Technologies.

In Series B 'Special Prints' of Solothurn University of Applied Sciences Northwestern Switzerland, the following publications have appeared: No. 98-01

NAJIB H,ARABI (October 1998) Channels of R&D spillovers: An Investigation of Swiss Firms. Reprinted from : Technovation, 17 (11/12) (1997) 627-635.

No. 98-02

MAX ZUBERBOHLER (October 1998) Virtualitit - der zukunftige Wettbewerbsvorteil.

Reprinted from : io Management, 67 (1998), 18-23.

Solothurn University of Applied Sciences Northwestern Switzerland. Series A: Discussion Paper 2000-01

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No. 98-03

NAJIB HARABI (October 1998) Les facteurs determinants de la R&D.

Reprinted from : Revue fran~aise de gestion, n° 114, 1997, p. 39-51 . No. 98-04

NAJIB HARABI (December 1998) Innovation through Vertical Relations between Firms, Suppliers and Customers: a Study of German Firms. Reprinted from : Industry and Innovation, Volume 5, Number 2, pp. 157-178.

No. 99-01

CHRISTOPH MINNIG, RUED! NIEDERER, THOMAS SCHWARB (January 1999) Imagestudie Erziehungsdepartement des Kantons Solothurn. Schlussbericht.

No. 99-02

NAJIB HARABI (January 1999) Der Beitrag von Profit- und Nonprofit-Organisationen zum technischen Forstschritt: Ergebnisse aus der Schweiz. Reprinted from : Wagner, R. (1997). Festschrift zum 60. Geburtstag von Antonin Wagner. ZUrich : Turicum.

No. 99-03

LORENZ M. HILTY, KLAUS TOCHTERMANN, JORG VON STEINAECKER (July 1999) The Information Society and the Environment - A Survey of European Activities. Reprinted from : Proc. 1st International Environmental Management Systems Conference, Vienna! Austria 1998.

No. 99-04

THOMAS M . SCHWARB (August 1999) Das Arbeitszeugnis als Instrument der Personalpraxis. Reprinted from the dokumenation at the conference "Arbeitszeugnis" at Solothurn University of Applied Sciences Northwestern Switzerland , Olten.

No. 99-05

THOMAS M. SCHWARB, ALBERT VOLLMER (December 1999) Telearbeit Reprinter from : Schwarb Th. M. (ed .) (1999) Erfolgsfaktor Human Resource Management, ZUrich : Weka.

In Series C 'Guest Lectures' of Solothurn University of Applied Sciences Northwestern Switzerland, the following publications have appeared:

No. 99-01

PATRIK DUCREY, BARBARA HOBSCHER (July 1999) Aktuelle Probleme der Wettbewerbspolitik Lectured at School for Management on May 31 st 1999.

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