Rice in Nigeria Traditional Recipes and Research

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Rice in Nigeria Traditional Recipes and Research Needs

Editors Danbaba Nahemiah Principal Research Officer/Head Food technology and value addition research program National Cereals Research Institute, Badeggi, Nigeria PMB 8, Bida, Niger State, Nigeria [email protected] . Iro Nkama Professor, Food Science and Technology Department of Food Science and Technology University of Maiduguri, PMB 1016, Maiduguri, Nigeria [email protected] Mark, N. Ukwungwu Former Acting Executive Director/Head Research Operations National Cereals Research Institute, Badeggi, Nigeria. PMB 8, Bida, Niger State, Nigeria [email protected] Alhassan, T. Maji Assistant Director/Head Rice Research Program National Cereals Research Institute, Badeggi, PMB 8, Bida, Niger State, Nigeria [email protected]

© NCRI, Badeggi. All rights reserved, 2012 2

ISBN: XXXXXXXXXXX

Address: National Cereals Research Institute, Badeggi PMB, 8, Bida, Niger State, Nigeria. Copy rights: Neither this book nor any parts of it may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including recording and microfilming or any information storage and retrieval device without written permission from the publisher. Any such act is punishable under the Nigerian copy right laws.

Published in Nigeria by: Information and Documentation Division, National Cereals Research Institute, Badeggi Kilometer 12, Bida-Suleja Road, Private Mail Box 8, Bida, Niger State Nigeria

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PREFACE From rough, brown and milled rice to broken, rice flour, and rice starch, a wide range of traditional food products are produced in Nigeria with diverse taste and sensory properties. The form and ways people use certain part of plants or animal as food is significantly determined by their culture, food habits, availability of raw materials and economic status. Traditional foods therefore have been defined as foods that are indigenous or naturally produced in a locality based on the availability of raw materials and food habit and culture of the people. Documented findings suggest that as income increases significant changes occur in dietary patterns and consumers are able to substitute more preferred for less preferred foods in diets, and shift in food demand toward value added, nutritious foods with good functionality. Value added products based on recipes traditionally prepared and consumed by the people definitely provide opportunity for increased rice consumption and possibly income generation for the rural population. There is therefore a general consensus among researchers in the rice value-chain on the need for comprehensive information that will provide guide to students, instructors and researchers on the basic rice-based food recipes traditionally prepared and consumed in Nigeria among all the diverse cultures and ethnic groups. It is envisaged that this information will serve as a reference material for individuals engaged in food research, product development, food processing, nutrition and dietetics. Deliberate effort was made to involve Nigerian rice sector experts on the subject matter as contributors to this text. Considerable efforts were also made by the contributors to start with the basics and build up to clear understanding of each topic. We will therefore wish to acknowledge the time and efforts of our contributors and also management of National Cereals Research Institute, Badeggi for their cooperation and moral supports.

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Contributors A.T Maji A.I. Kassum A.A.K Jatau A.A. Adebowale A.S Sanni B.O. Siwoku C.I Omohimi C.C Nkwoala H.N Ene-Obong I. Nkama M.N Ukwungwu M.E Abo M.H Badau M.A Odenigbo N.Danbaba L.O Sanni V.U Asumugha V.I.O. Itabiyi

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CONTENTS Preface Contributors Contents CHAPTER ONE Introduction: Why value added production of rice based recipes in Nigeria? N. DANBABA, A.T MAJI, I. NKAMA

CHAPTER TWO Rice Research and Development in Nigeria: Status and prospects A, T. MAJI., M. N. UKWUNGWU., M.E. ABO, N. DANBABA

CHAPTER THREE Rice-Based Products of Nigeria: Research and Development Needs N. DANBABA, I. NKAMA, A.T. MAJI, M.H BADAU CHAPTER FOUR Traditional Rice Foods of Northern Nigeria M. H. BADAU, IRO NKAMA, A. L. KASSUM, A. A. K. JATO, AND N. DANBABA CHAPTER FIVE Rice Based Recipes from South-East Nigeria and its Research Needs ODENIGBO, M.A., ENE-OBONG, H.N., ASUMUGHA, V.U. AND NKWOALA, C.C CHAPTER SIX Rice Processing and Utilization in South-West, Nigeria SANNI L.O, ADEBOWALE, A.A; ITABIYI, V.I.O; SANNI, S. A, SIWOKU, B.O. AND C.I. OMOHIMI CHAPTER SEVEN Traditional Food Fortification Techniques for the Improvement of Rice-based Products I. NKAMA, M. H. BADAU, N. DANBABA

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CHAPTER ONE

Introduction: Why value added production of rice based recipes in Nigeria? N. Danbaba, A.T Maji, I. Nkama Available literatures suggest that rice cultivation in Nigeria dated back to 1500BC with the cultivation of low yielding indigenous red grain species (Oryza glaberrima Steud) around the Niger Delta area and Sokoto basins. The high yielding white grain (O. sativa L) with origin in Asia was later introduced into the country at about 1890, and in 1960 accounted for over 60 per cent of rice grown in the country. Paddy rice production from the two species in 1960 was around 0.134 million metric tons (MMT) and rose to 0.344MMT in 1970 from a cultivated land of 0.149 and 0.255 million hectares respectively. Tremendous increase in land put under rice cultivation, output and productivity in paddy rice production were achieved over the subsequent two decades that follows, amounting to 0.555 million hacters, 1.09 MMT and 2.07 tons/ha respectively. From 1980 to date, Nigeria has become the highest producer of rice in West Africa and third in Africa, after Egypt and Madagascar. The trend has made Nigeria to attain over 2.6 MMT of milled rice production. The increased production figure reported over the last two decades were attributed to expansion in area under rice cultivation, adoption of high yielding, diseases resistant and fertilizer responsive varieties. Also, the presidential initiative program on rice production, import restriction and NERICA rice dissemination program of the Africa Development Bank and the Agricultural Transformation Agenda (ATA) have significantly contributed to increased rice production in the country. Today’s statistics shows that Nigeria produces slightly above 3.00 MMT milled rice per annum from about 2.6 million hectare of land, with an average unit land area yield of 1.9 tonnes per hectare. The national rice demand and supply gap is therefore bridged through importation. The national rice development strategy (NRDS) of 2010 was launched as a modality on which rice production could be improved in Nigeria on sustainable basis. The document identifies three major components of the rice valuechain that will be pursued in order to substantially increase rice production within the next 10 years (in order of priority): 1. Processing and Marketing: the issues to be addressed under this includes the establishment of new comprehensive rice processing mills that will deliver good quality milled rice that can compete favorably with imported brands. It also involves the development of standards, grades, 8

branding, production of value added products and improved packaging of locally processed rice and adequate training for research and extension scientist, technicians, farmers group, processors, agro-input dealers, marketers and other actors in the rice value-chain. 2. Land and irrigation development and paddy production: under these components, 11 river basins will be rehabilitated and be operated on a Public Private Partnership (PPP) arrangement. With simultaneous land and farm power development. 3. Input supply development: seed will be subsidized to ease farmers’ access and affordability. Technical assistance will also be provided to National Agricultural Research Institute (NARIs) and the National Agricultural Seed Council (NASC) for the production of breeder, foundation and certified seeds. While fertilizer, herbicides and other chemical farm inputs will be made available and at affordable price to rice farmers. In sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), the demand for rice, the major component of food security of populations in most countries, is increasingly growing at the rate of 2.90% in view of the high population growth of 4.52%. This explains the widening rice supply gap and growing import of rice into SSA to bridge the strong demand for rice. During 2001-2015, rice consumption in SSA grew at 5.84% per annum. This development was largely attributed to strong demand in Southern and West Africa, where rice consumption grew on the average 11.58% and 6.55% per annum respectively. Average per capita rice consumption in SSA was 18kg per year during the same period. Nigeria was self-sufficient in rice production in 1960 and had an average per capita annual rice consumption was 3.5kg per person annum which increased to 18kg per person per year during the 1980s, reaching 22kg in the latter half of the 1990s. Since the mid 1980s, rice consumption has increased at an average annual rate of 11 percent with only 3 percent explained by population growth. Other factor reported to be responsible for the increase in per capita consumption are increased per capita income, and consumer preference shift from traditional staples, such as cassava, maize, sorghum, millet and yam to rice. Currently, national consumption exceeds 5.0 MMT per annum or more than 30kg per person per annum. This figure is significantly higher in urban areas exceeding annual per capita consumption 47kg per capita. Rice consumption demand projection for 2018 is 6.9 MMT. Consumer preferences is positively skewed toward parboiled imported long grains with good cooking qualities over locally processed rice by urban dwellers and among middle/high income groups, while reverse is the case in the rural areas. Urban rice consumers prefer and select rice based on perceived quality, (outward appearance, grain size, uniformity, absences of high level of broken grain, brightness etc.), brand and labeling. In the rural areas on the other hand, consumers tend to select rice based on level of affordability, freshness, taste, as will as compatibility with traditional dish preparation. This sharp demand for high quality parboiled rice and production gap has forced the government to commit a staggering sum of dollars in foreign exchange to milled rice import in recent years. Substitution of rice for coarse grains and traditional roots and tubers fuelled growth in demand at an annual rate of 5.6%. The Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations projected growth in rice consumption for Nigeria to remain high at 4.5% per annum beyond year 2000. 9

Because of the importance of rice in Nigerian diets, rice based foods has evolved from humble beginning as ceremonial foods to an important components of food security. Rice consumption in Nigeria before 1960 was restricted to the areas of production and for many years later rice in most households was used only for festival or other social occasions. Rice consumption was regarded as elitist, a special food only for well-to-do and urban consumption. Although this scenario has changed relatively little over the last few decades, with an evidence of increasing diversification in Nigerian diets. Consumers are exhibiting a shift in preference from traditional staples such as sorghum, cassava, maize and yam to rice especially in the urban areas where rice consumption is increasing rapidly. Documented findings suggest that as income increases significant changes occur in dietary patterns and consumers are able to substitute more preferred for less preferred foods in diets, and shift in food demand toward value added, nutritious foods with good functionality. Value added products from rice definitely provide opportunity for increased rice consumption and rural development. Most Nigerians consume rice in the form of cooked rice, which is served with prepared vegetable, tomato souse, poultry, beef, and others. It is also consumed as breakfast cereals, snack, fermented toasted dough and beverages. But, with changing diet pattern due to improved economic status and healthy eating, rice and rice-product will increasingly remain top on preferred food list for Nigerians. Changes in eating habits are also driving development. For example in northern European countries, more rice based products are eaten in form of pasta and noodles. This makes the food producers in this region to develop skills to produce these foods based on there food habits. This book aims to highlight some traditional rice-based recipes of Nigeria and possible research and development needs as a step toward sustainable rice development in Nigeria. Possible question that may come to the mine of the readers is ‘Why traditional based recipes? The answer is simple. Traditional foods are developed based on the available raw material and food habit of the people and therefore occupy a strategic position in developing novel foods that can be acceptable to the people. Secondly, rice has been reported to have hypoallergenic characteristics with bland taste and sparkling white color and therefore stand as one of the preferred raw materials in the production of snacks, puffed products, instant extruded products and others. Also, myriad of food products can be produced out of rice and these products are reported to be has been produced by small scale informal food producers with out proper packaging and branding creating a vast opportunity for prospective investor. This book therefore has been written with the following classes of readers in mine:

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Food professionals involved in the primary processing of rice, home makers, break fast cereal manufactures, and restaurant owners, food industries, etc. this will help in selecting rice based products that may be developed.

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Students of food science and technology interested in rice-based product development to develop food that will be acceptable to Nigerian and people having similar food habit.

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It also provides basic information for sharing among researchers of other crops that may wish to diversify into rice to create wealth and knowledge.

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CHAPTER TWO

Rice Research and Development in Nigeria: Status and prospects A, T. Maji., M. N. Ukwungwu., M.E. Abo, N. Danbaba . OUTLINES   

   

Introduction Rice varietal development Recent development in rice research in Nigeria  Plant breeding  Hybrid rice technology  Technology dissemination Released varieties of Nigeria Prospect for the future Conclusion Bibliography

INTRODUCTION There are only two domesticated species of rice out of the over 20 known species of the genus Oryza. One of these cultivated species, O. sativa is indigenous to Asia, while the other, O. glaberrima is indigenous to Africa. The latter was reported to be distributed mainly in the Savannah along the southern fringes of Sahara desert (Oka, 1988). The species was first grown as a crop in the central Niger delta and Sokoto basins among the places, but later the cultivation spread into bush fallow upland farming systems of the western forest zones. Today it is still being cultivated as a lowland crop in the Kebbi and sokoto States of Nigeria in the Rima River flood plains and as upland crop in the Zuru local Government Areas in Kebbi State. The species can also be found in mixtures and sometimes almost replacing the Asian species varieties in the farmers’ fields both in the shallow swamps and the inland valleys and flood plains of the Niger and Benue valley and also in the dry land rice fields of the southern parts of the country. However as a cultivated species, O. glaberrima is almost being replaced with by its Asian counterpart, O. sativa. The existence of O glaberrima to date as a volunteer crop can be attributed to its high level of adaptation to different African rice ecologies. It was reported that up to 1960s the yield of O. glaberrima in the Sokoto Fadams was still superior to those of adopted floating O. sativa cultivars (Carpenter, 1978). The route of O. sativa into Nigeria is not quite certain. Never the less, several theories were speculated. One of these believed that the 12

Asian rice arrived Africa through Madagasca from Java. It is likely that many African countries including Nigeria might have received the Asian rice through this route. The second theory was based on the report by (Poteres, 1950), that Asian rice was introduced to West Africa through Senegal, G/Besau and S/leon by the Portuguese about 1500 AD, and Nigeria could have also received the Asian rice through the same route. It should however be noted that Nigeria, like many other African countries established contact with the Arab traders and later Arab Islamic scholars and Missionaries through North Africa much earlier than the coming of the Europeans. These Arabs were also already in contact with the Asians and could also have introduced Asian rice into the country. Following the introduction of O. sativa and its wide adoption by the farmers, it gradually pushed the cultivation of O. glaberrima to marginal areas such as deep flooded plains and highly drought susceptible upland conditions, where the productivity of the new sativa varieties are limited. The major reasons for this shift was the superior yield potential under ideal production conditions and higher grain quality including non shattering ability of the sativa varieties. Consequently, the cultivation of sativa cultivars, mostly from Ceylon and Guyana, began to spread to the shallow swamps of the flood plains of the major rivers like Niger, Benue and Kaduna among others at the central and northern parts of the country. It also spread to the inland valleys and valley bottoms of the inter-lands. Although the adoption of Asian rice in Africa in general and Nigeria in particular was total, the farmers did not adopt the Asian rice culture of irrigation, hence the production remained up to date, predominantly rain fed. It was at a later development, with the introduction of improved semi-dwarf cultivars that farmers, researchers and in fact governments began to think of irrigation facilities to boost paddy yield. However the provision of irrigation water for rice production is still at its infancy in Nigeria, only about 30% of irrigable rice fields are currently under irrigation (Musa, 1993), this fact has not changed significantly today. Rice growing ecologies in Nigeria is vast and grossly underutilized. The potentials for expansion exists in upland which currently accounts for 35% of the paddy fields, rainfed lowland (45%), irrigated rice field (15%), deep water (8%) and mangrove ecology (< 1%). With the changing climate resulting in frequent drought, upland rice cultivation was becoming less attractive and attention was shifted to valley bottoms in the southern and eastern parts of the country where though the land mass is limited, the unit land output is much better than the upland crop. Fortunately however, with the advent of early maturing varieties pioneered by FAROs 45 and 46, reaching the farmers from researchers and of recent the introduction of yet earlier NERICAs even the northern parts of the country such as Kano, Kaduna, Zanfara and other states are now moving rice cultivation to the upland. The mangrove ecology remains grossly underutilized with less than 1% of available mangrove land been put to rice cultivation (Imolehin, 1991). The full exploitation of the Nigerian cultivable land to rice crop will strongly depends on the suitable high yielding, disease and pest resistant and good grain quality varieties in addition to the provision of irrigation facilities to mitigate current climate change challenges.

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RICE VARIETAL DEVELOPMENT The history of rice varietal development in Nigeria is as old as rice cultivation in the country. Like in all other parts of the world, crop varietal selection and adoption was started by the farmers, hence farmers were regarded as the pioneer plant breeders. In Nigeria as well as other parts of West Africa, where O. glaberrima was the first rice crop, a great range of variation could be observed in the field as one move from upland across the top sequence into the deep and flooded water. From short and early maturing varieties in the upland to intermediate plant height and medium maturity in the shallow swamps to the very tall, floating and photoperiod sensitive ecotypes seen in the flood plains of Rima River, which is still the predominant crop of that ecology in Birnin kebbi up to today. This variation is not only restricted to agronomic characters but can also be seen in grain colour and grain type. With the establishment of the rice research station Badeggi by the Federal Department of Agricultural Research in 1956, two nurseries were established as breeding effort. One was to evaluate select from collections of local germplasm while the other was to evaluate and select for submergence, drought, and pest and disease resistance varieties for low fertility soils. These early efforts yielded FARO 3 (Agbede) for upland ecology, FAROs 1 (BG 79) and 2 (D144), both from Guyana, for shallow swamp and FARO 4 (Kanvungipoothala) from India, for deep water ecology. Between 1960 and 1970, six varieties were released for shallow swamp, two for deep water ecology and additional one, FARO11 (OS 6) for upland. From 1970, the Badeggi Research Station started making effort in varietal development by creating its own variation for selection and combined this effort with continued introduction of materials from other parts of the world. Similarly, this era (1970s and early 80s) marked the evolution of semi-dwarf plant types with much higher grain yield and suitability to irrigated and shallow rain fed ecologies in Asia spear headed by International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) in Philippines. FAROs 14 to 17 and 25 to 30 were materials developed internally through hybridization of exotic germplasm selection from segregating population of such crosses. FAROs 18 to 24 were introduction from IRRI, Philippines Table 2. In 1986, the rice research programme of International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) started to contribute to the varieties in Nigerian rice farmers fields. FAROs 35 to 37 were the pioneer varieties developed by IITA rice program and released in Nigeria. Other varieties released in the 80s and early 90s were as a result of international rice germplasm exchange program than called international Rice Testing Program) IRTP. Also, was the activities of West Africa Rice Development Association WARDA now called Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice) with the national research institutions (NAREs), leading to the formation of Task Forces in different areas of rice research from breeding to natural resources management, and economic studies groups, which later developed into ROCARIZ. These activities provided forum for germplasm exchange and sharing of experiences by researchers in the sub region. Combined these collaborative activities led to the release of FAROs 38 to FARO 57, Table 3. FAROs 35, 36 and 37 and later FARO44 and 52 were the varieties that will revolutionize rice production in the shallow swamps and irrigated ecologies in Nigeria.

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RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN RICE RESEARCH IN NIGERIA Plant breeding: 1. For the past five to 10 years rice breeding in Africa in general has changed focus with the objective to stem too major problems that face food production. Climate change is one while the other is specific to rice. From time immemorial rice breeders has been putting effort in improving Oryza sativa to stem field production constraints. Even where genes are required from other species they are used only to address a particular problem in existing sativa variety. 2. The new focus however is to shift emphases to improving African rice species especially O. glaberima and O. bithii. With the advent of NERICAs which has low level of genes from O. glaberrima (about 13%) the new approach is to words having over 30% genes from African rice species in addition to the background cytoplasimic genes. We are approaching this through crossing African rice species directly with interspecifics (NERICAs) 3. In Nigeria we have also developed interspecifics with two O glaberrima backgrounds. These are Tog 6542 and TOg 7442.Crosses with the first line were already on farm, but have tall plant height and small grains as major setback. Our new effort is use these materials to improve O sativa elite lines. The second (Tog7442) was crossed with FARO 52 and BC3F3 pedigree lines are tested and screened for major stresses. On climate change, efforts are on to breed varieties that will mitigate climate change challenges such as drought, flood and nitrogen deficiency. Generation challenge Programme, Africa Agricultural Technology Fundation and others have initiated sponsored projects through the use of Molecular biology and genetically modified crop approach to come up with rice varieties that mitigate climate change. Hybrid rice technology 4. Until recently, hybrid rice technology has not been an attractive to Nigerian rice sector. This situation is changing for the better. National cereals research Institute is currently participating in hybrid rice development technologies in Nigeria. The first of this is a bill and Malinda Gate project under the Chinese Academy of Sciences code named Green Super Rice Project. With this funded project NCRI has evaluated over 100 Chinese hybrid rice varieties from 2009 to date. This project looks forward for commercial hybrid rice seed production and marketing in Nigeria. The second collaborative activity is with West Africa Seed Alliance introducing and evaluating India hybrid rice varieties in Nigeria. With the same objective, NCRI has evaluated 12 hybrid rice varieties in 2009 and re-evaluating promising lines in 2010, hopping for commercial release of promising lines in the near future. On larger scale, a Chinese engineering firm is has established a rice production company in Nigeria. They established an Agricultural outfit in 2006 by the name West Africa Agric. Company in Wara Kebbi State of Nigeria. The company has acquired about 25600 ha of agricultural land in the State and cultivated about 400 ha to rice in 2009. They have started testing some hybrid rice varieties in 2008 brought into the country from Philippines. It also plans to establish hybrid rice research and development centre 15

in Abuja. Of note is the ongoing commercialization of rice processing through the establishment of large milling companies in the country. Such companies include, Olam in Benue State, Zimbabwe farmers in Kwara State. Nongovernmental organizations especially USAID MARKETS is assisting such companies to organize and train farmers for good quality and large quantity paddy production to feed the mills. These efforts we hope shall go a long way in improving local rice quality and spring the country into self sufficiency in rice production in the near future. Technology dissemination: 1. Africa Rice Center and other NAREs partners are gearing effort towards dissemination of newly generated technologies to the Farmers in Africa and Nigeria inclusive. Three major technology technologies are in fore front. Rice production, post harvest and seed of improved varieties. Two methodologies are being used. Participatory Variety Selection (PVS) and direct information dissemination on using various means of communication and seed distribution either at no cost or subsidised prize. In Nigeria three Projects in partnership with AfricaRice are doing just that. Emergency Initiative to boost rice Production in sub Saharan Africa based in Kano is one the project distributing seed of improved rice varieties and production technology in Kano State. The project being sponsored by USAID through AfricaRice is targeting 10,000 farmers in two years. In addition to 15.5 kg of seed benefited by each farmer, the Project trained farmers and extension workers on new rice production practices and seed production. Also video tapes, cropping calendars and posters on rice production were given to each beneficiary farmer. Under the same umbrella, Japanese Government sponsored the production and dissemination of improved certified rice seeds to the tune of 30 metric tonnes using Nigerian seed companies and given to 2,400 farmers in 4 states of Niger, Kebbi, Zamfara and Katsina. Also 7.8 tonnes of foundation seed was also produced under the supervision of National Agricultural Seed Council of Nigeria to boost the seed sector. Though all these programmes are yet to take off, arrangement are at advance stages to commence the activities in Nigeria and development of transformed varieties are in various stages in advance partner bio tech laboratories 2. NERICA dissemination Project which is sponsored by the Federal Government and African Development Bank was aimed at introducing NERICA varieties to African farmers. In Nigeria the project was, within three years in six states of Nassarawa, Kaduna, Ogun, Osun, Ondo and Ekiti States was able to introduce two released upland NERICA varieties to farmers through PVS. Similarly two new upland NERICAs and three lowland varieties including two NERICAs are in the pipe line for release to Nigerian rice farmers through the effort of the Project. Farmers selecting rice variety during a farm walk in a PVS garden. PVS project also include some basic studies on the development of production packages or technologies that boost the productivity of NERICAs. These include seed priming, other agronomic practices and improved postharvest operations and rice processing.

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3. Development of rice based products and utilization of by-products of rice processing. Rice consumption and preference among Nigerian has grown significantly over the last few decades, due shift in demand from the main staples to rice and changing economic status of most Nigerian. Rice has stand out as the most sought after food commodity in the Nigerian food basket. To this end therefore, recent research has been directed toward the development of novel foods from rice to meet the changing taste of consumers. Rice husk and bran are the principal by-products of rice processing in Nigeria. This accounts for about 20% by weight of milled rice. Many communities in Nigeria have no environmentally friendly way(s) to manage the huge turn out of these products from small-scale mills scattered all over the country. Generally, large quantity of rice husk and bran are heaped (usually between 2-10 meters high even more) around rice mills and therefore cause serious environmental problem such as methane emission during its natural decomposition. Further more, due to its low density, these products are create dust leading to breathing problems to people living nearby. With assistance of the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice) and McGill University Canada, the National Cereals Research Institute (NCRI), Badeggi with its in-country partners are developing technologies for the production of briquettes, pellets, and heating gas production from rice wastes. Currently an instant porridge fortified with common legumes (cowpea, Soybean, and Bambara groundnut) has been developed by NCRI and ready for up scaling. Rice noodles, milk and candy have also been developed and consumer preference for these products was high indicating positive prospect for the products. RELEASED RICE VARIETIES IN NIGERIA (1954-2011) Over sixty improved rice varieties have so far been released to farmers for commercial production in all the rice agro-ecological zones of Nigeria (Table 1). Table 1: Origin, pedigree, ecology, growth duration, plant height and yield potential of released varieties in Nigeria (1954-2011) FARO No

Origin

Pedigree/parentage

Ecology

Year of release

FARO 1 FARO 2 FARO 3 FARO 4 FARO 5 FARO 6 FARO 7 FARO 8 FARO 9 FARO 10 FARO 11 FARO 12 FARO 13 FARO 14 FARO 15 FARO 16 FARO 17 FARO 18

Guyana Guyana Nigeria India Madagascar E/Gunea Thailand Indonesia Malaysia Kenya Kong/Zaire Surname Philippines NCRI Nigeria NCRI Nigeria NCRI Nigeria NCRI Nigeria Indonesia

BG79 D14 Abgede Kavungipoothala Makalioka 825 Indochinablank (ICB) Maliong Mass 2401 Siam 29 Sindano OS 6 SML 140/10 IR8 Chanza123 x ICB BG 79 x IR 8 MAS 2401 x SML140/10 MAS 2401 x TJINA TJINA

Shallow swamp Shallow swamp Upland Deep water Shallow swamp Deep water Deep water Shallow swamp Shallow swamp Shallow swamp Upland Shallow swamp Shallow swamp Deep water Shallow swamp Shallow swamp Shallow swamp Shallow swamp

1954 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1963 1963 1966 1969 1970 1971 1974 1974 1974 1974

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Growth duration (days) 135-174 135-145 95-120 189-220 135-154 176-198 160-217 155-160 189-220 115-162 115-120 145 135-140 170-198 145-160 140-160 145-160 179

Plant Height (cm) 105-120 100-115 95-100 145-150 111-115 156-160 160-165 120-125 120-125 125-130 115-120 135-140 90-100 150-160 115-120 90-100 110-120 145-150

Yield potential (ton/ha) 3.0-5.0 3.0-4.5 1.5-2.5 2.0-4.0 2.0-4.5 2.0-3.0 2.5-3.5 3.5-4.5 2.5-3.0 2.5-4.5 1.5-2.5 3.0-4.0 2.5-4.0 3.5-4.5 2.5-3.5 2.0-3.0 2.0-3.0

FARO 19 FARO 20 FARO 21 FARO 22 FARO 23 FARO 24 FARO 25

Philippines -do-do-do-doVietnam NCRI Nigeria

FARO 26 FARO 27

NCRI Nigeria NCRI Nigeria

FARO 28 FARO 29

NCRI Nigeria NCRI Nigeria

FARO 30

NCRI Nigeria

FARO 31

NCRI Nigeria

FARO 32

NCRI Nigeria

FARO 33 FARO 34 FARO 35 FARO 36

NCRI Nigeria NCRI Nigeria IITA Nigeria IITA Nigeria

FARO 37

IITA Nigeria

FARO 38 FARO 39 FARO 40 FARO 41

Cote d Ívoire Cote d Ívoire NCRI Nigeria Cote d Ívoire

FARO 42 FARO 43

IAR&T Nigeria IITA Nigeria

FARO 44

Taiwan

FARO 45

IITA Nigeria

FARO 46

IITA Nigeria

FARO 47

IITA Nigeria

FARO 48

IITA Nigeria

FARO 49

IITA Nigeria

FARO 50 FARO 51

IITA Nigeria INDONESIA

FARO 52

WARDA

FARO 53 FARO 54 FARO 55

WARDA WARDA WARDA

IR 20 BPA 76 TACHUNG NATIVE 1 IR 6271-31-27 IR 5-47 -2 DEGAULE JETE X TJNA x FAROX 56/30 TOs 78 (TOs 103) IR 400-15-12-10-2 x IR 662 TJNA x IR 8 (FAROX 118A) PESA/TN IREMADJA (BG 90-2) FARO15 /IR 26 (FAROX 228-23-1-23) FARO 12/IR8 (FAROX 2281-1-1) IR 28/FARO 12 (FAROX 233-1-1-1) FAROX 239-1-1—1 FAROX 239 -1-1-2 ITA 212 BG 90-2/Tetep ITA 222 (MAUSHURI/ET 1444) ITA 306 (TOx 4943696/TOx711/BG6812) IRAT 133 (IRAT 13/!RAT10) IRAT 144 (IRAT 13/!RAT10) FAROX 299 (composite) ITA 170 (IRAT 13/PALAWAN ART 12 ITA 128 (63-83/IGUAPE CATETO/IET144) SIPI 692033 (IRAT 13/DOURARDO689/TOx4901 ITA 257 (IRAT 13/DOURADO PRECOCE 689/TOx490-1 ITA 150 (63-83/DOURADO PRECOCE/ROKI SE 363 ITA 117 (13a-18-1-8-31/TOx7) ITA 301 (IRAT 13/DOURADO PRECCE 689/PADIPAPAYAK) ITA 315 (IR 43/IGUAPE CATETO) ITA 230 (BG 90-2/TETEP) CISADANE (PELITAI-1-11/IR789-92-3/IR 2157-3 WITA 4 (TOX 3100-44-1-23-3) ITA231 WAB 189-3-H-HB NERICA 1 (WAB 450-1-BP38)

Shallow swamp Shallow swamp Shallow swamp Upland Irrigated/SS Shallow swamp Upland

1974 1974 1974 1974 1974 1974 1974

135-140 125-130 90-110 145-150 145-150 135-145 115-120

90-100 90-100 80-90 90-100 90-100 135-145 105-100

2.0-3.0 2.5-4.0 2.5-4.0 2.0-3.0 2.0-3.0 2.5-3.5 2.5-3.5

Shallow swamp Shallow swamp

1982 1982

130-135 110-115

105-100 90-100

2.5-3.5 3.0-4.0

Shallow swamp Shallow swamp

1982 1984

135-140 125-135

125-130 100-115

3.0-4.0 2.5-3.5

Shallow swamp

1986

110-115

120-125

4.0-5.0

Shallow swamp

1986

110-115

120-125

4.0-5.0

Shallow swamp

1986

110-115

110-120

4.0-5.0

Shallow Shallow Shallow Shallow

swamp swamp swamp swamp

1986 1986 1986 1986

110-115 105-115 120-135 125-140

115-125 115-120 100-115 100-115

4.0-5.0 4.0-5.0 4.0-5.0 4.0-5.0

Shallow swamp

1986

100-105

100-115

4.0-5.0

Upland upland Shallow swamp Upland

1986 1986 1986 1986

100-110 100-110 120-125 90-100

100-110 95-105 115-120 80-90

2.0-3.0 2.0-3.0 1.5-2.5 2.0-3.5

upland upland

1986 1986

110-120 115-120

110-115 110-115

2.0-3.0 2.5-3.5

Shallow swamp

1992

90-100

80-100

3.0-4.0

upland

1992

90-100

110-115

2.0-3.0

upland

1992

100-110

90-100

2.0-3.0

upland

1992

115-120

110-120

2.0-3.0

Shallow swamp

1992

120-125

90-100

3-3.5

Shallow swamp

1992

120-125

90-100

3-3.5

Shallow swamp Shallow swamp

1992 1992

125-135 125-135

90-115 90-110

3.0-4.0 3.0-4.0

Shallow swamp

1997

125-135

100-120

3.5-5.0

upland upland upland

2003 2003 2003

120-130 100-110 100-110

100-115 100-115 100-115

2.0-2.5 1.5-2.0 2.0-3.0

18

FARO 56 FARO 57 FARO 58 FARO 59 FARO 60 FARO 61 FARO 62

WARDA WARDA

NERICA 2 (WAB 450-? TOX 4004-8

upland Shallow swamp

2003 2003

100-110 125-135

100-115 110-120

1.5-2.5 3.5-5.0

Note; FAROs 58, 59 and 60 were released in 2011.

PROSPECT FOR THE FUTURE Results over the last few years of evaluation for yield potentials of new rice varieties on station and in multi-locational trials showed that we have reach the plateau of yield potential (Maji et al., 2002). Many years of evaluation have not revealed any new variety with better yield potential than earlier released varieties. Though there are few promising varieties expected to make a major impact on rice production in the near future in all the rice ecologies in Nigeria. There are numbers of IITA developed but WARDA/NCRI selected and evaluated lines that are still highly promising in the lowlands, including some WITA lines. It is therefore critical in the future research to adopt new approaches and innovations to break the yield ground of the current released materials and secondly to bridge the gap between experimental yield and farmers’ yields. Breeding for varieties with good cooking, eating and milling qualities will also take centre stage in near future as economic status of average Nigerians improves and food habit changes toward high quality rice. The global warming and changes in climatic conditions across the world has necessitated the urgent need for the development of rice varieties that are drought, flood, and high sunlight intensity tolerant. This will form core research focus for rice development in Nigeria in the near future and long time to come. CONCLUSION Rice research and development efforts since the early days of the colonial era have produced a total of sixty improved rice varieties some which have lost identity with the farmers. Although great successes in rice development have been achieved through direct introduction or hybridization and selection using the traditional conventional breeding methods, success through these methods are not exhaustible. It could also be summarized that Nigeria has diverse germplasm of the two cultivated species of rice which provide unlimited genetic materials for rice varietal development. Development of varieties superior in cooking and eating quality and abiotic stress tolerant will dominate research in the next decades. While post production technology development will attract substantial research fund for the development of the rice post harvest value chain especially in the development of rice based product for people with special health needs and the utilization of rice processing waste products for energy generation, construction and animal feeds. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Carpenter, A.J. 1978. The history of rice in Africa. In Buddenhagen, I.W and Persley, G.J (eds.). Rice in Africa, p. 3-10. London, Academic Press. 2. Oka, H.I. 1998. Origin of cultivated rice. Tokyo, Japan Scientific Society Press. 19

3. Porters, R. 1950. Vieillia Agric. Africaines arrant le xvic Siecle, Berceaux d’agric et centres de variation. L’Agrion. Trop. 5 :489-507. 4. Maji A.T., B.N. Singh., M.E. Aken’Ova., O. Okoroda and A. Fawole (2002). Inheritance of resistance to Africa Rice Gall Midge in Oryza glaberrima Steud. 2nd Biennial Regional Rice Research Review 4Rs 2002 proceedings pp. 87-91.

20

CHAPTER THREE Rice-Based Products of Nigeria: Research and Development Needs

N. Danbaba, I. Nkama., A.T. Maji, M.H Badau

             

OUTLINE Introduction Quality characteristics of rice used in traditional recipes of Nigeria Methods of rice cooking Cooking in medium amount of water Cooking in large amount of water Steaming over boiling water Major traditional rice food of Nigeria Rice beverage Boiled and fried rice Beyond boiled and steamed rice Research and development needs Challenges and opportunities for commercialization of rice-based value-added products Conclusion References INTRODUCTION Rice is the only crop which is grown in all the agro-ecological zones of Nigeria. From the desert in the far north, through the savannah grass land of the middle belt to the coast of the south, Nigeria is inhabited by people of diverse cultural orientation, food habits and religious believes. But, irrespective of these diversities, rice is cultivated and eaten by all ethnic groups of Nigeria. Rice consumption in Nigeria before 1960 was restricted to the areas of production and for many years later rice in most households was used only for festival or other social occasions. Rice consumption was regarded as elitist, a special food only for well-to-do and urban consumption. Though these scenario has changed relatively little over the last few decades, with an evidence of increasing diversification in Nigerian diets. Consumers are exhibiting a shift in preference from traditional staples such as sorghum, cassava, maize and yam to rice (National Rice 21

Development Strategies, 2009) especially in the urban areas where rice consumption is increasing rapidly (USAID, 2009). Based on the available annual consumption of 5MMT in Nigeria, per capita consumption is 32kg/annum. This consumption is higher in urban areas averaging 47kg/annum (USAID, 2009). Rice is used in various ways in each of the regions, states, and communities, but there are few common preparations. In the north, rice is prepared and eaten at all meals. For break fast, common dishes are; kunun shinkafa (a thin porridge), waina (masa) (a kind of pan cake), danwaki (steamed rice dough) etc. Lunch and dinner usually features a simple preparation of boiled rice, tuwon shinkafa, tuwon laushi, fried rice and jallof rice. In the south, in addition to these preparations, the most novel and popular rice dish is cocoa nut rice. During festive season like Christmas, Ramadan, New Year, weeding, naming and burial, rice is a common dish. The most important rice dishes for these special ceremonies are boiled white rice served with tomato stew and either garnished with salad, boiled egg, and carrots. Tuwon shinkafa served with vegetable soup or beans soup, jallof and fried rice in some cases. Generally, rice are processed and used in three major ways in Nigeria in the preparation of traditional dishes. It may be processed and used directly as a whole grain in the preparation of jallof rice (tomato and pepper based stew to which rice is added and boiled in, and usually served with chicken, salad and fried plantain), boiled white rice, tuwon shinkafa, fried rice, cocoa nut rice or processed into coarsely ground rice products (grits) to be used as thin porridge. It could also be processed into fine flour to be used in the preparation of tuwon laushi (a thick gruel). In this chapter, emphasis will be on the technical components of the traditional rice foods prepared locally in Nigeria, explore research areas that will facilitate new product development, and commercialization for sustainable income and livelihood of the smallholder rice farmers. The approach will be on tradition food recipes and is based on the belief that traditional dishes are part of people’s cultural heritage and are well known and accepted by the consumers and therefore can provide strategic ground for the development of local food industries. This we believe will not only preserve national heritage and improve agricultural development, but also stimulate rural development and sustainable food security. QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF RICE USED IN TRADITIONAL RECIPES OF NIGERIA The subject of rice grain quality is broad and multi-dimensional as different interest groups in the rice value-chain view rice quality from different perspectives, so also is the quality of rice-based products. For example, rice miller based the concept of quality on upon the total milling recovery and the head rice verse broken kernel recovery. While homemakers on the other hand, based their concept of quality on the physical 22

appearance, size and shape of the grains, the behavior upon cooking, the taste, and tenderness of cooked rice. But the bottom line is that rice quality varies according to the preparation for which the grains are to use. In Nigeria, most of the popular varieties, FARO 44, FARO 52, NERICA 1 are long grains and have appreciable high milling recovery. They are medium amylose rice and cook tender and fluffy. The processing of rice into various products is based on the understanding of the physical and chemical constituents of the whole grain and the intended end-use. In Nigeria, food processing technologies and strategies are being oriented toward increasing and diversifying food production and utilization in order to alleviate poverty and malnutrition. In many sub-Saharan countries, the level of broken grains after milling can be 40% or more (Manful et al., 2004). The rice is often not graded and whole grains and broken grains are mixed together and sold on the market. Such poor-quality rice is sold at a discount price, reducing the potential margins that can be obtained by rice value-chain actors. Most rice miller’s process un-parboiled rice for utilization in tuwon shinkafa, kunun shhinkafa and waina (masa). While highly broken rice obtained from varieties with low head rice recovery even after parboiling are used for this products. Raw rice could also be ground into flour for many uses like beverages, cakes, danwake, noodles and rice porridge. The advantage of the use of rice flour for food production is its lack of gluten which makes it suitable for people on gluten-free diet. There are varieties of rice processed and consumed in Nigeria and there main distinction is between long, medium and short grains. The long grains (medium and high amylose) tend to remain intact after cooking and therefore preferred by most consumers. Steaky (high amylopectine) rice varieties are used for sticky products requiring molding into solid shapes like tuwon shinkafa. METHODS OF RICE COOKING Rice is one cereal crop that is consumed mainly as a whole milled and boiled grain. Though some products are made out of rice using rice flour singly or in combination with other crop flour, only 5% of the total world rice production is processed and used as processed foods, industrial products and alcoholic beverages; 95% is consumed as whole grain (Chaudhary and Tran, 2001). Rice cooking process in Nigeria is not much different from the methods reported by Simpson et al (1965) and Batcher et al. (1963) based on International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) commissioned survey of methods of rice cooking quality determination. Cooking in a medium amount of water In a covered sauce pan, water is brought to boil and a given quantity of milled rice added and covered. It is allowed to cook for few minutes (5-8 minute) and the rice 23

drained and washed in excess water before second cooking. During the second phase, salt is added to taste. Rice is then said to done when it has absorbed all the water and is tender and fluffy. The first cooking and washing is usually done to reduce solid in cooking gruel as a strategy to reduce cooked grain sticking together. Cooking in large amount of water In this method, the first cooking is avoided and rice cooked in excess amount of water (1-10 rice-water ratios). Salt and oil sometimes are added to the cooking water and water drained when the rice done in a plastic basket before serving. The oil added improves cooked rice flavor and help reduce surface tension, thereby reducing stickiness due to starch particles leaching out of the grains during cooking. Steaming over boiling water In other parts of the country, especially in the north where rice to be cooked is to served to special guest, soaked rice is steamed over a boiling water in a perforated mold pot placed on top of another pot containing the boiling water. This method usually produced cooked rice that intact, fluffy and tender. MAJOR TRADITIONAL RICE FOODS OF NIGERIA The form and ways people use certain part of plants or animal as food is significantly determined by the culture, food habits and economic status of the people in a given geographical location. For the purpose clarity, traditional food has been defined as foods that are indigenous or naturally produced in a locality. They are first developed on the basis of raw materials first available in the area (Nkama, 1993) and the food habit of the local people. While food habit is the way in which individual or group of people in response to social and cultural pressure, choose, consumed and make use of available foods (Nkama, 1986). From rough, brown and milled rices to broken, rice flour, and rice starch, a wide range of food products are made. In the following section, detail description will not be given on the traditional food processing techniques, as this has been dealt with in other chapters of this book. But to extract simple technical practices adopted to increase nutrient quality, functional characteristics and overall value of the rice based products produced in Nigeria. Rice beverages Rice is being extensively used in the preparation of non alcoholic beverages in Nigeria. They are mostly taken as appetizer or breakfast meal. It is also an important weaning foods and used extensively during Muslim fasting period of Ramadan. Some tribes in northern part of Nigeria (Hausa, Kilba, Marghi, Kajis and others) usually add groundnut paste or tiger nut milk to improve the nutritive value of the porridge. Spices (ginger, 24

cinnamon, kanunfari, borokono) and sugar are usually added. The addition of spices adds variety and flavor to the products, thus promoting appetite and aiding consumption. In most food consumed in many parts of Nigeria, the flavors are bland and texture smooth and spiced food therefore is an essential component of most meals. The spices are usually added in small quantity, though not to contribute to the nutritional quality of the food but to add taste and flavor and to help preserve the food as it contain phenolic compounds. Where milk is added it substantially increases protein content, while sugar added increase energy density. Boiled and fried rices When rice is cooked as a whole grain or molded into solid ball like in the case of jollof rice and tuwon shinkafa, they are usually served with soup containing, oil, assorted meat and fish, vegetables and other condiments. These ingredients add to the nutritive value of the food and also its appeal and flavor. The shelf stability of most rice products is poor due to their high moisture content. They production are also on small scale batches and made usually for a day or two under ambient storage conditions.

Rice snacks BEYOND BOILED AND STEAMED RICE Although, rice may be consumed mainly as table rice in boiled or steamed forms, it can also be processed into various value-added products. Juliano et al. (2004) described some of these foods and the grain quality characteristics required. Among the quality parameters, amylose content is probably the most important factor that needs to be considered. Table 1 shows the different classification of rice based on amylose content, their characteristics and the possible products that can be made from them. Table 1: classification of rice based on amylose content and possible products that can be made from them S/No 1 2

Amylose type Waxy or glutinous (0 – 4%) Very low (5 – 9%)

3

Low (10 – 19%)

4

Intermediate

Characteristics Absorbs little water, little volume expansion; cooked products are soft and sticky.

Suitable products

Tasty, elastic, remain soft when cooked

Rice cakes and congee

Tend to be moist, sticky and glossy; gives soft textured bread crumbs; good stabilizer. Fluffy and soft; adequate optimum

25

Rice cakes, desserts, sweets, puffed rice.

Rice puddings, bread and cakes, baby foods/weaning foods. Batter, waffle, steamed cake,

(20 – 24%) 5

High (˃24%)

softness; gives whiter, harder, crispier texture but crumbles. Has good cooked rice stability but tends to have harder texture.

breakfast cereals, expanded molded rice, baked cakes. Noodles, rice paper.

Sources: M.V Romero (2009) and Juliano, B.O (2007).

In competitive markets, rice is traded mainly according to its physical and cooking qualities. Rice with good physical quality and not contaminated with foreign materials, such as weed seeds and small stones, translucent and contains little or no broken grains is highly preferred. The level of broken grains is importantly used in grading rice. In sub-Saharan Africa, the level of broken grains obtained after milling using the popular village mills was reported by Manful et al., 2004 to averages 40% or more. This is a quality threat to the development of rice sub-sector of the economy. The rice is often not graded and whole grains and broken grains are mixed together and sold on the local market. Such poor-quality rice is sold at a discount price, reducing the potential margins that can be obtained by rice value-chain actors. Prices for rice are set by the amount of head rice kernels in each unit of rice (Gannon, 1997). In Nigeria, no special utilization is attached to broken rice fractions (large, small and brewer). Milled rice is usually traded without grading and therefore no interest is given to rice quality (USAID, 2009). The huge volume of broken rice produced and the low price paid for them is a opportunity for the development of value-added rice-based products from them for sustainable growth. Formulation and production of value-added products from rice that meet the taste of the consumers will definitely provide opportunities for entrepreneurship development, especially in rural areas lacking in enterprises that can generate more jobs and income. It is good to note here that value-addition in rice is not confined only to food or drink production, but also the use of rice by-products such as straws, hull and the bran. Straws has been reported to used in paper production used in craft and packaging material manufacturing, hull when carbonized, is additive in organic fertilizer and charcoal briquette, or used as soil conditions. Rice brains used mainly as animal feeds, but more importantly, it is a raw material for the production of vitamin B complex-rich extract. In Thailand, rice bran cooking oil is highly commercialized, and it is perceived as the healthiest plant-based edible oil in the world. Besides the differences due to varietal physical attributes, milling fractions (brown, head and broken rice), there exist within the same variety differences in physiochemical properties (Proctor and Goodman, 1985). Traditionally, product like rice milk is produced from whole kernels of milled and brown rice. However, the large amounts of broken rice produced during the rice milling process can be utilized in rice milk production.

26

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT NEEDS Rice research in Nigeria over the years has been focusing largely on developing high yielding, diseases and pest resistance and abiotic stress tolerant varieties with little or no attention given rice-based product development. The new varieties usually lasted for few years before resistance break down and therefore, breeders has keep on breeding new ones to replace them. As at the end of 2011, about 60 improved rice varieties have been released for commercial production in both rain-fed and irrigated ecologies. The successes recorded for the high yielding improved varieties are attributed to high use chemical fertilizer, water, pesticides and the use of modern farming technologies. Like of or short supply due to high cost improved farm imports have forced resource poor smallholder rice farmers to keep to their traditional varieties and processing technology. But fertilizer and other chemical inputs utilization has been increasing steadily and these chemical are not properly applied and handled. Based on the statistics from International Center for Soil Fertility and Agricultural Development (IFDC), there are 8,000 to 10,000 input dealers in Nigeria out of which only 400 to 450 of them had recived any formal training on the use and abuse of agro-chemicals. The increasing utilization of chemical fertilizers, herbicides and other agricultural inputs and misuse has been reported to affect grain quality characteristics of rice. The grain qualities characteristics of rice determine to a great extend the end-use to which particular rice could be put. Currently in Nigeria there are vast document on the various foods produced from rice and about 90% of this foods are prepared for family consumption or for sale by both formal and informal food vendors. Systematic research has not been carried out on the standardization of most rice based recipes and the changing consumer taste has put a great pressure on the research actors to develop value-added products that are convenient and nutritious. Though brand identification of Ofada rice (ofada is a name given to some rice varieties cultivated in some rice producing cluster of Ogun State and other neighboring states of Western Nigeria) was commissioned by ProPCom, as a strategy to improve the ofada rice value chain, no deliberate action has been taken on other rice varieties. To improve rural income through value addition in rice therefore, there will be need to upgrade the quality of already existing traditional foods. This will require a wide range of research activities in the uses of rice and rice by-products and products formulation. The rice value-chain actors must be aware of the strategies to upgrade the present standard and quality attributes of rice to reduce losses. Using rice and its by-products in the production of valu-added products such as functional foods, pharmaceuticals, and other products is a key strategy for increasing the value and profitability of rice farming families. The higher incidence of chronic illness such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases and diabetes has created a surge in demand that will help to prevent or minimize their occurrences. Since per capita consumption of rice in 27

Nigeria is growing faster than any of the staple cereal crops, research activities focusing on the health benefits of rice and rice-based products should be pursued. The National Cereals Research Institute, Badeggi has the national mandate for genetic improvement of rice and development of cost effective, adaptable production and post production technologies in Nigeria, but like most rice deficient countries, research and development activities at the institute are mainly geared towards improvement of rice production and processing into good quality parboiled milled rice. There was no deliberate effort to promote the develop rice value-added products. The recent creation of Food Technology and Value-addition Program (FT&VA) to lead research activities into processing and utilization of its mandate crops is a step in the right direction in the development of rice through postharvest and value-addition. Finally, there should be concerted effort towards better partnership between public and private actors in rice value-chain toward successful extension of research results in value-added product development in Nigeria. CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR COMMERCIALIZATION OF RICE-BASED VALUE-ADDED PRODUCTS IN NIGERIA The major challenges likely to stand against the way of commercializing rice based product development in Nigeria will be the issue of rice self-sufficiency. Since national production currently stands at slightly above 2 million metric tons (MMT) and 2.5 to 3 MMT is imported to meet up with the national demand of 5MMT per year (USAID, 2009), the argument against the use rice for other purposes other than table will remain strong. Secondly, most rice based products produced in Nigeria contain high moisture content; have short shelf lives, lasting only few days. This will require huge investment in quality assurance and shelf live extension studies and research. Another problem is the use minimal packaging, for instance, the use indigenous plant materials such as banana leaves, Tomatococcus danielli leaves for packaging of cooked ofada rice. While this practice enhance ethnicity of the products and add emotional value and satisfaction, these materials unfortunately do not provide the necessary protection from factors that affect the quality and shelf life of the products. Aside from competition for available raw materials and possibly high cost and improper packaging, standardization of ingredients or process and hygienic preparation is also a great challenge. Despite these challenges, opportunities exist in rice post-harvest value-chain in terms of the use of rice for the manufacture of rice-based products. Per capita consumption is currently 32kg/annum and this is expected to increase due to the versatility in rice preparation, health image, and its close association with several ethnic foods. Today’s consumers are health conscious, and therefore demand for safe, value-added products that are convenient and of consistent high quality and produced from local food materials that use in their common diet. The widespread acceptability of rice as nonallergenic cereal allowed the substitution of rice for corn or sorghum in the preparation 28

of products of comparable consistency and superior nutritional value. This will be the driving force for entrepreneurship development and investment in rice based product development. As the national rice production is increasing and government has placed greater emphasis on the increase rice production through the National Rice Development Strategies (NRDS, 2009), Nigeria is expected to be self-sufficient in rice in a short possible time and therefore places big burden on research and development for new application and utilization of rice based products. Documented findings also suggest that as income increases significant changes occur in dietary patterns (Bouis, 1989; Mark and Yetley, 1988) and consumers are able to substitute more preferred for less preferred foods in diets, and shift in food demand toward value added, nutritious foods with good functionality (Duff, 1991). Value added products from rice definitely provide opportunity for increased rice consumption and rural development and therefore investment opportunity. Finally, public research activities in value-addition should be linked to the private sectors for commercialization purposes REFERENCES 1. Chaudhary, R.C and Tran, D.V 2001. Speciality rices of the world: a prologue. In: Speciality rices of the world, Breeding, production and marketing, FAO, Rome, Science publisher, Inc. USA pp 3-12.

29

CHAPTER FOUR

Traditional Rice Foods of Northern Nigeria M. H. Badau, Iro Nkama, A. L. Kassum, A. A. K. Jato, and N. Danbaba

OUTLINE      

Introduction History of traditional rice foods of northern Nigeria Types of rice traditional foods of northern Nigeria Rice weaning foods Research needs Bibliography INTRODUCTION Northern Nigeria is located north of the equator and enjoys humid tropical climate. The climatic conditions in the region exhibit prolonged dry season and short wet season. The long dry season period extends from October to mid-May with harmatan period during December-January. This is the period of little or no cloud cover resulting in wide range of temperature. The wet season covers relatively short period, from June to September. The rains are generally convectional, heavy and short in duration, often characterized by frequent storms. The few high plateaus of Jos and Biu, and the Adamawa highlands, experience climactic conditions which are markedly different from the generalized dry and wet period in northern Nigeria. Temperatures are 5 – 10oC lower due to high altitude than in the surrounding areas. Similarly, the annual rainfall figures are higher than in areas around them, particularly on the windward side. The climactic conditions in Northern Nigeria favour the growth of wide varieties of crops ranging from those suitable for temperate region to those that can do well in tropical areas. Hence the establishments of Lake Chad Research Institute in Maiduguri whose mandate crops include wheat, barley, pearl millet, sorghum and to a lesser extent rice, because it is cultivated in fadama areas in Dikwa, Zambarmari and Konduga. Agricultural Research Institute in Zaria to handle the crops grown in the savannah zone of Northern Nigeria and a whole research institute dedicated to cereals, that is; Cereal Research Institute Badeggi, Bida whose mandate crops 30

include inter alia (among others), rice and sugar cane. The foods prepared and consumed by the natives living in these areas are mostly from these grains along with soups prepared with vegetables and legumes grown along with the afore said grains. Therefore, information on the traditional foods prepared by the people living in Northern Nigeria is long overdue. This information is very important as it can form a base on how to enhance food security in northern Nigeria through the improvement of post harvest handling, marketing and the development of new food products from these grains. This chapter is in no way sufficient to cover traditional foods prepared by the natives from all these grains but only those from rice will be considered for obvious reasons.

HISTORY OF RICE TRADITIONAL FOODS OF NORTHERN NIGERIA The origin of rice traditional foods in northern Nigeria is lost in antiquity. It is believed to have started along with the time rice cultivation started in the region. The paddy rice after obtained from the farm by threshing by peasant farmers with sticks and winnowing, it is brought home and milled directly or parboiled using firewood and pots. In either case, it is milled with pestle and mortar done mostly or exclusively by women and the process is drudgery. The milled rice in this process will result in a lot of broken once and is separated to mostly whole and broken grains and various food products are prepared. TYPES OF RICE TRADITIONAL FOODS OF NORTHERN NIGERIA After processing the paddy to obtain parboiled milled and raw milled rice, several traditional food products are Prepared. The classification schemes for the various classes of rice traditional foods of northern Nigeria from rice are given in the Tables1. Tuwo, kunu, masa, burabusko, rice and stew, rice and beans, and jellof rice are the major foods made from rice, which cut across cultural barriers in northern Nigeria. The other food products listed are consumed but restricted to some major tribes. A brief description of the food products from rice is given. Masa (Fermented fried batter) Masa is a fermented batter from millet or rice mainly. Other cereals such as sorghum or maize can be used. During masa preparation, from rice, the grain is milled, cleaned to remove stones and washed to remove other dirt. It is then dried and then ground to powder. It is sieved to separate the flour from the grits and the grits are added to boiling water and cooked before mixing with flour in a ratio of 1:2. The resulting paste is inoculated with yeast or yoghurt, fermented for 12 –16 hours, then neutralized with trona (kanwa) and fried in pans with individual cup-like depressions. It is like a small cake. Masa is normally

31

served as a breakfast cereal with spices and groundnuts cake. Masa is a very important food item in the diets of many in Nigeria. Table 1: Traditional Nigerian rice based foods S No. 1

Name of Food Product Kunun gyada (*W)

2 3

Kunun zaki (*F) Kunun tsamiya (F)

4 5

Kunun kanwa (W) Masa (F)

6 7

Garabia Nakiya

8 9

Gwote (pate-pate) Sharba milk

10 11

Tawiska (F) Dafa duka (Jellof rice)

12 13 14

Shinkafa wara Sabban Danwake

15

Fura

16

Sinasin (kisra) ( F)

17 18 19 20 21

Tuwon shinkafa Shankawa-ngalo’a Bulum (W) Rango (shuwa) Basise

22 23 24 25 26 27 28

Kudon kaza Dakuwa Burabusko Tuwon laushi Rice and maize flour Rice and yam Rice and soybean gruel (Abinci yara) (W)

Ingredients (Raw Materials)

Product Description

Polished rice grain, groundnut, spices, tamarind fruit extract, sugar, water Polished rice, spices, sugar Polished Rice, tamarind-fruit extract, spices, sugar Polished Rice, kanwa, spices, sugar Polished Rice, yeast, groundnut oil or vegetable oil, kanwa, sugar Polished Rice, sugar, spices, maishanu Polished rice, spices, sugar, roasted groundnut Polished Rice, vegetable, spices, salt, oil. Polished rice, flour, sugar, lemon juice, and spices Polished Rice, yeast, yoghurt, water Parboiled rice, tomatoes, meat, or fish, onions, spices, water Parboiled rice, water, salt Milled polished rice, yoghurt, sugar, spices Polished Rice, flour, millet flour, baobab. Leaf flour, trona, water, groundnut oil.

Non-alcoholic beverage

Polished Rice flour, spices, water, milk or yoghurt (kindirmo) Polished rice flour or combination of polished rice, millet, maize and wheat, yeast, yoghurt, baking powder, trona water. Polished rice flour, water Polished rice, beans, water Polished rice, water, maishanu Polished rice, water Polished rice, milk, sugar, maishanu, onions Millet, sorghum, beans, rice Polished rice, groundnuts, sugar-syrup, salt Millet, polished rice-grits, water Polished rice flour, water Polished rice, maize flour, water Polished rice, yam, water Polished rice, soybean, water

Steamed porridge

Non-alcoholic beverage Non-alcoholic beverage Non-alcoholic beverage Fermented fried batter Snack food Cake Thick porridge Rice drink Fried rice dough Cooked rice mixed with stew Cooked rice Rice gruel Steam-cooked dumpling

Leavened pancake

Stiff porridge Parboiled rice and beans Thin porridge Cooked rice grits Rice gruel Mixed cereal dumpling Snack food Stiff porridge Stiff porridge Stiff porridge Cooked rice and yam. Gruel

*W = Weaning food *F = Fermented food

Kunun zaki (Non-alcoholic beverage) Kunu zaki is a very thin porridge prepared from rice, millet, sorghum, or maize flour. Kunu from rice is called kunun shinkafa. Whole grains is steeped for 12 – 24 hours, 32

washed and drained using a basket. The steeped grain is allowed to germinate and mixed with equal amounts of grits or dehulled grain and ground to make a paste. The pastes is allowed to stand for 3 hours and divided into 3 parts. Boiled water is added to 2 parts paste, stirred and allowed to stand for 5 – 10 minutes. It is mixed with the remaining one part paste and allowed to stand for 12 – 24 hours. Spices are added and the mixture sieved before serving. The resulting beverage is called “kunun zaki”. Kunun gyada Slurry of groundnut paste is prepared and is boiled followed by addition of either broken or whole grain preferably polished rice. The rice in the boiling groundnut slurry is allowed cook with continuous stirring until it becomes thicker, followed by addition of tarmarind fruit extract to desired degree sourness. Finally, sugar is added taste and the final product is called “kunun gyadda”. “Kunun gyadda” is mostly taken as an appetizer or a breakfast beverage. It is a very important food, most especially during the fasting period of Ramadan. The demand for kunu beverage now competes with that of soft drinks in Northern Nigeria in particular and the whole country in general. It is either served alone or with pancakes, chin-chin, bread, etc. Its consumption cuts across ethnic barriers. Kunun gyada is also used as a weaning food in some communities. It is marketed in most cities in Nigeria in plastic bowls. Nakiya (Hausa), Nyiya (Kanuri) African Cake Milled rice is ground, sieved and toasted in a hot pan until golden brown. Spices, sugar syrup (caramelized), honey and roasted groundnut paste are added. The mixture is pounded until it is smooth in pestle and mortar, and then moulded into flat shapes before serving. Danwake (Steam cooked dumpling) Danwake (meaning product from beans) is steam-cooked dough. Its consumption cuts across the various ethnic groups in the area. Danwake is prepared from beans (Cowpea flour) cereal (sorghum, millet, maize, or rice) and baobab leaf flour. Sometimes cassava flour is used in placed of cereal flour. Water and kanwa water are added and the mixture worked with hand or wooden pestle and mortar into smooth dough. The dough is moulded into small balls and gently placed into boiling water and then cooked to doneness. The cooked danwake balls are removed and cooled by placing them in cold water. The balls are then removed from the water to drain. Salt, pepper, magi and other condiments are added to the danwake, which is then sprayed with hot groundnut oil before serving. Danwake can also be served with soup. Fura (steam cooked product)

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Fura is unfermented dough which is steam cooked. It is prepared from millet primarily, although sorghum, maize or rice is also used. It is used as a breakfast meal. Milled rice grain is pounded in mortar, shaped into balls and placed in boiling water, cooked for 30-60 minutes. The cooked balls are repounded with hot water and spices until smooth slightly cohesive dough is formed. The dough is reshaped into small balls and dusted with flour. Fura is normally taken with milk, yoghurt, nono or kindirmo. Tuwo (stiff porridge) Tuwo is prepared from the flour of millet, maize, sorghum or rice. It is a thick gruel, which is popular in Nigeria. The cereal flour is stirred in boiling water and stirring is continued until the flour is completely gelatinized. Additional flour may be added and the cooking continued until a very stiff paste is formed. The paste is stirred vigorously while it is cooked. A color change of the paste indicates sufficient cooking. The thickness of tuwo depends on choice of individual families. Most people prefer tuwo that draws. It is served with vegetable soups and stew. In Burkina Faso, tamarind pods are steeped overnight in the cooking water. In Mali, alkali is added to the cooking water. When grits are used in preparing tuwo, it is called “tuwon shinkafa”. But when flour is used, it is called “tuwon laushi” Bulum (Kanuri) weaning food Rice grain is placed in a pot containing large amount of water and cooked until soft. It is sieved and the slurry mixed with maishanu before feeding to infants. Alternatively groundnut-rice flour is used which is then mixed with maishanu before feeding to infants. Burabusko (Steam cooked product) Burabusko is a common name for all coarse flour produced from millet, sorghum, maize, rice or wheat. The grits are placed in boiling water and stirred. The pot is covered and steamed for a few minutes. The grits form agglomerated particles. Burabusko is served with stew or soup. It serves the same purpose as semolina, or couscous. In the case of couscous finely ground flour is kneaded with water until the flour particles stick together. The particles are pushed through coarse screen. The particles are placed in a container with perforated bottom, which is placed on top of a pot filled with boiling water. Steam penetrates through the agglomerated particles. Usually ground baobab leaves, peanut butter, okra or some other additive is mixed with the couscous during steaming. Sometimes it is dried as a convenience food. Sinasin, Kisra (Fermented bread) Sinansin is a leavened product made from rice, sorghum, millet maize or wheat or a combination of these cereals. Sinasin is similar to Ethiopia’s injera. In the preparation of sinasin from rice, the grain is milled, washed, sun-dried and ground into flour. The flour is 34

divided into four parts. One part is added to boiling water and cooked, mixed with the remaining three parts flour. The mixture is diluted in the ratio of 1:3 (w/v) to form a paste which is inoculated with yoghurt or starter from previous batch and fermented for 12-16 hours overnight. It is then neutralized with trona (kanwa) water to reduce the acidity, whipped vigorously before baking on flat baking pan into a thin sheet ranging from 20 to 30cm in diameter. The shelf stability of sinasin is poor. It can store for about 2 days without refrigeration. Sinasin is served with kunu, spices, sauces, or suya mostly during festivals such as marriage or naming ceremonies.

Pate-Pate (Kanuri), Gwote (Hausa) thick porridge Vegetables, spices, onions are placed in groundnut oil in a pan and cooked for 5-10 minutes. Washed rice grits are added to the sauce and allowed to cook for 10-15 minutes. Water may be added if very thick and further cooked before serving. Kudon-Kaza (Mixture of grains) Dehulled millet, dehulled sorghum, milled rice and beans are blended together and boiled until well cooked. It is served with spices or sauces. Shankawa-ngalo’a Wash the beans and put into a pot in which water has been added and cooked for 20 minutes. Wash the rice, which has been parboiled earlier, and add to the beans and cook both to doneness. The food is eaten with stew or soup. Shinkafa pwa-pwa (Babur) Meat or fish is washed and then boiled, groundnut oil, salt are added and fried. Vegetables are cut, washed and placed in the pan containing groundnut oil, salt, meat or fish are mixed with milled parboiled rice and cooked to doneness and served. Basise Basise is prepared by boiling rice to doneness. Sugar and onions are added and left to cook for 5 minutes. Maishanu is added before mixing and serving. Mbuli This is tuwo made from polished rice that is soaked in water to dissolve, and then allowed to ferment naturally for two to three days. The water is then decanted and served or the dissolved tuwo is served with either sugar or without sugar. The remaining mbuli which is usually in pot is normally heated in pot every day. Garabia (Snack Food) 35

Garabiya is prepared from clean polished rice. It is milled into flour, followed by addition of spices, sugar and groundnut oil. The mixture is pounded with pestle and mortar and moulded until it becomes sticky. Using small cups or three-top bottle and good bottle cover, the mixture is shaped before it is fried and ready to serve. Shadaka Shadaka is made from rice grits or maize grits. The grits are placed into boiling water and allowed to simmer for about 10 minutes. They are poured unto trays where the hot grits are kneaded and molded into small balls. Onions, pepper, are fried in vegetable oil. Salt is added to taste. Sauce is served in the center of the shadaka before it is consumed. Sharba milk Sharba milk means drink out of milk in Shuwa. Polished rice is washed and then partially sun-dried for 1 hour or air dried for 30 minutes to 1 hour. The dry rice grits are ground and sieved to separate the grits from the flour. The grits are added to hot water together with I part of the flour. To the other half of the flour, add lemon juice, spices, sugar and lemon rind. Everything is mixed together, pounded to form a paste; cold water is added to the paste to make thin slurry (1:10 wt/vol). The slurry is sieved through fine cheese- cloth; it is allowed to cool before serving. Sharba milk is an important drink of the Kanuris. It is served during very important ceremonies like during the Sallah, wedding or naming ceremonies. Daffa duka (Hausa) Jellof rice In order to prepare jellof rice, parboiled rice is washed and boiled for 25 minutes; spices as well as meat, onions, pepper are put into another pot in which vegetable oil has been heated for some time and fried for 3-5 minutes. Following which the rice is poured into the stew mixed together and allowed to complete cooking till it is done. Before removing from the fireplace, the rice is garnished with some green leafy vegetables, salted to taste and then served. Dafa duka is eaten by all sections of the country although they may have different local names for the food as well as slightly varied method of preparing the food such as the addition of crayfish for added flavour. Shinkafa wara Parboiled rice is washed and added to boiling water together with salt to taste. The rice is cooked till it is done and soft and served with stew or soup. Sabban Steps involved in the preparation of sabban, which utilizes raw milled rice are washing the rice, cooking to doneness, addition of yoghurt and mixing thoroughly. Sweetening with sugar and then serving.

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Rango (Shuwa) Rango is a food from the Shuwa Arab tribe of Borno and Yobe States of Nigeria. It is prepared from cereals (that is maize, millet, sorghum, wheat, rice). The grits are made from the cereal by milling and sieving, and this is gently added to briskly boiling water and stirred continuously for about 10 minutes. It is covered with newspaper before using the lid and allowed to simmer for a while. It is served with soup. Rice and maize flour A stiff porridge is made using raw milled rice flour mixed with maize flour in which the flour is poured into briskly boiling water and allowed to simmer till done. It is served with soup or sauce. Rice and yam All ethnic groups in Nigeria eat this food. Rice, preferably parboiled rice is washed and put in a pot to cook. Yam is peeled, washed and diced into desirable sizes or it is sliced into desirable sizes and cooked together with the rice. When both are done, it is scooped out and eaten with sauce. Preparing the food like jallof rice involves the putting of diced yam pieces into the pot containing the stew ingredients together with rice and allowing simmering until it is well cooked before serving. Rice and soybean gruel Raw milled rice is ground to obtain flour after it has been properly cleaned. Soybean is cleaned and roasted till a golden-brown colour is obtained. It is then ground to obtain the flour. To the mixture of both the ground rice flour and soybean flour, it is then poured into a briskly boiling pot of water and allowed to simmer so that the mixture gelatinizes and cooked with gentle mixing. Some sugar is added to taste and allowed to cool before serving. The rice and soybean gruel is a weaning food for children and would provide the child with limiting amino acids that are absent from cereals but present in legumes in adequate amounts. The legumes also lack some amino acids. The child is provided with these amino acids in cereals, which possess these amino acids in adequate amounts. Thus the complementation of cereals with legumes helps to ensure that the protein content from plant sources is made more complete. Tawiska (Leavened pancake) Milled rice is ground and sieved to get grits and flour. The grits are added into boiling water, cooked and cooled. Malted rice grain and fine flour are added to the cooked grits and mixed thoroughly to form a batter. Yeast or yoghurt or a batch of previous fermentation is added to the batter and allowed to ferment for 14-24 hours. The fairly stiff batter is place on the back of a calabash, dipped in water and flattened. The flattened dough is allowed to drop into heated groundnut oil in a large pan. Both sides are toasted to 37

a golden brown colour. The fried tawiska is sprayed with granulated sugar before serving. Tawiska is prepared for wedding occasions and taken to the bride’s mother by the groom’s mother. It is also prepared during other special festivals. Fermented products from rice Fermented rice foods are essential components of diets in many parts of Borno and Yobe States and indeed in other parts of the country, especially in the northern parts of Nigeria. Fermentation improves the bioavailability of essential amino acids, thus improving the nutritional quality of rice. It also helps to eliminate antinutritional factors such as aflatoxins. The fermented products from rice (F) include masa, sinasin, and tawiska and kunun zaki to mention a few. RICE WEANING FOODS In Nigeria, the infant is weaned from his mother’s breast from the age of 3 to 24 months, either gradually or suddenly although there have been attempts to encourage breastfeeding for as long as 2 years now. If however the child must be weaned, they are now advised to wean at 6 months at least. Most infants are given the normal “family” foods as listed in Table 1. In other cases, the child is given semi-solid foods such as kunun gyada, kunun zaki, fura da nono, kunun kanwa, bulum and rice-soybean gruel (abinci-yara). These traditional rice foods of northern Nigeria are prepared mostly from rice flour. Therefore, it is a better way of adding value to broken rice which is regarded as of lower quality and attracts lower price in the market. Giving more attention to traditional rice foods of northern Nigeria will go a long way in enhancing food security in the region which will generally improve post-harvest handling and marketing of rice. RESEARCH NEEDS The traditional rice foods of northern Nigeria have not been studied extensively. The rice is either parboiled using traditional techniques that have been inherited from generation to generation, or mill the paddy rice in pistol and mortar to produce polished rice which usually contains plenty broken grain which has low market value. There is the need to standardize the processing methods, determine the quality of the various rice cultivars and their products. Most of the traditional rice foods of northern Nigeria are processed from milled polished rice with few from parboiled grains. The broken rice can be used for production of some of these traditional rice foods of northern Nigeria. The importance of adding value to the broken rice in order to improve the market value cannot be over emphasized. In order to have a sound knowledge about these traditional rice foods of northern Nigeria, research need to be carried out to: 1. Identify slower digesting varieties 38

2. Add value to broken rice by milling to flour to produce various food products 3. Improve the quality of the food products by fortifying the flour used for preparing the products with protein rich foods such as cowpea and soybean or with high mineral foods. 4. Determine the glycemic index and glycemic load of the rice varieties and the food products which are useful information for individuals who are conscious about quality (glycemic index) and quantity (glycemic load) of carbohydrates foods they consume. These individuals may be those with diabetes who are interested in controlling their blood glucose levels. BIBLIOGRAPHY Adair, C. (1972). Origin of Rice. In Rice Chemistry and Technology (D.F. HoustonEd.). America Association of Cereal Chemists. AACC Publishers. St. Paul, Minnesota. Ali, N and Ojha, T.P (1975). Soaking Characteristics of Paddy. J. Agric. Eng. Res., 20 (4): p. 353. Ali, S.Z. and Bhattacharya, K. R. (1980) “Changes in Sugars and Amino acids During Parboiling of Rice” J. Food Biochem. 4: 169 – 179. Araullo, D.E.V.; De Padua, D.B. and Graham, M (1976). Rice Post- harvest Technology. International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Ottawa, Canada. IDRC 053C. Badau, M. H., Muhammad A. U. and Silo, S. J. (2010). Composition of rice garabia as affected by addition of pearl millet and cowpea flours. Proceedings of 34th NIFST Conference/AGM held on 18 to 22 nd October, 2010 at Port Harcourt Badau, M. H., Bimba, S. and Kyari, F. Y. (2009). Composition of rice garabia as affected by addition of pearl millet flour. Proceedings of 33rd NIFST Conference/AGM held on 12 to 16th October, 2009 at Yola Bal, S; Ali, N and Ojha, T. P. (1974). Parboiling of Paddy. RPEC Publication No. 745. India Institute of technology, Kharagpur, India. Castillo-Nino, A (2003). Rice Quarterly: Improving rice milling yields. World Grain, 21(11), 51-53. De Datta, S. K. (1981). Principles and Practice of Rice Production. A Wiley and Sons, New York, Chichester, Brisbane, Toronto. Dominy, S. F. (2004). Rice Quarterly: High vitamin rice from the extruder. World Grain, 23 (11), 44. Dominy, S. F. (2003). Rice Quarterly: An inside peak at Japan’s newest and largest rice mill. World Grain, 21(4), 72-78. Duff, B and Toquero, Z. (1975). Factors Affecting the Efficiency of Mechanization in Farm Level Rice Production System. IRRI Pap. 74 – 04 AE Los Bonus, Philippines at Los Banos.

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Food and Agricultural Organization (2005). FAOSTAT Agricultural Data, United Nations, http://faostat.fao.org/faostat/collection?subset=agriculture. Gariboldi, F. (1972) Parboiled Rice In Rice Chemistry and Technology (D.F. Houston ed.) America Association Cereal Chemists. Inc. St. Paul, Minnesota. Gariboldi, F. (1973). Rice Testing Methods and Equipment. FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin No. 18, Published by Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome. Gariboldi, F. (1984). Rice Parboiling. FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin No. 56. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Rome. Grist, D. H (1965). Rice. Longmans. IFST (1987). Food and Drink Manufacture: Good Manufacturing Practice a Guide to tits Responsible Mamagement. Institute of Food Science and Technologist. United Kingdom. Juliano, B. O. (1972). “The Rice Caryopsis and Its Composition”. Rice Chemistry and Technology. (D. F. Houston ed.) pp 16 – 74. A.m. Assoc. of Cereal Chem.: St. Paul, Minn. Kanemoto, S. (2002). Rice Quarterly: New concepts for milling white rice. World Grain, 20(4), 54-59. Lyddon, C.(2003). World grain trade review. World Grain, 21(12), 30-37. Marr, K. M; Batten, G. D. and Blakeney, A. B. (1995). Relationships between Minerals in Australian Brown rice. J. Sci. of Food and Agric 68 (3): 285 – 291. Matz, S.A (1969) Cereal Science Avi Publishing Company Incorporated. West Connecticut. Mckee, D. (2003). Rice Quarterly: Rising rice trade. World Grain, 21(1), 52-61 Mohandoss, R and Pillaiyar, P. (1982). Influence of parboiled Rice. Madras Agric. J. 69: 185 – 193. Montemayor, R (2004). Rice Quarterly: Better rice in store. World Grain, 23(11), 43-47. Nayak, P. (1996). Problems and prospects of rice mill modernization: A case study. Journal of Assam University, 1(1), 22-28. Nkama, I (1986). The fate of aflatoxin during the processing of rice. PhD Thesis, University of Leeds, U. K. pp265. Nkama, I (1992). Rice Processing. A Paper Presented at the Monthly Technology Review Meeting (MTRM) for Taraba State Agricultural Development Programme (ADP). Nkama, I.; Abubakar, U; Kassum, A.L (2001) Improving Village Level Rice Processing Technology (Parboiling and Milling) in Borno State and Yobe States. A Final Year Project Submitted to the University of Maiduguri Senate Committee on Research, Maiduguri, Nigeria. Department of Food Science and Technology Faculty of Agriculture University of Maiduguri.

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Nkama, I., Angarawai, I. and Badau, M. H. Bank data, production, commercialization, Transformation and consumption survey report. ROCAFREMI – WCAMRN Project P5 – Food Technology of millet. Ojha, T. P. and Tiwary, S. (1981). Performance of Boilerless Parboiling System. Journal of Agricultural Mechanization in Asia and Latin America. 12 (1): 60 – 62. Osiname, O. (2002). Rice agronomy and management in Nigeria. In "The Nigerian Rice Memerobilia", Abo, M. E. & Abdulahi, A. S (Eds.). Project Synergy Limited, Abuja. xxxvi, 1146pp. PFA (2009). Parboiled rice Quality Standards http://www.nsic.co.in/schemes/documents/projprofiles/PARBOILED%2520RICE.pdf Raw Material Research and Development Council (1989). Report of the multidisciplinary taskforce on food, beverages and tobacco sector. Raw Material Research and Development Council (RMDC), Lagos, Nigeria.pp140. Raghavendra Rao, S N. and Juliano, B.O. (1971) Effect of Parboiling on some Physiochemical Properties of Rice. Food Chem., 18 (2): 289. Sesay, K and Verma, L. R. (1986). Rice Parboiling for Developing Countries Food Engineering and Process Applications Vol. 2 Unit Operation. Elsevier Appli. Sci. Publishers. Edited by Le Maguer, M. and Jelen, P. Subba Rao P. V. and Bhattacharya, K. R. (1996). Effect of Parboiling on Thiamine Content of Rice. J. Agric and Food Chem., 14 (5): 479 – 482. Suhrbier, R. and Buckley, E. (2003). Rice Quarterly: A modern Greek classic: Spanos Bros’ new rice facility in Sindos, Greece. World Grain, 21(8), 49-55. Unnikrishnan, K. R; Viraktamatch, C. S. Krishnamurthy, H; and Bhattacharya, K. R. (1982) Parboiling of Paddy by Simple Soaking in Hot water. J. Food Technol., 17: 499 – 506. Blackwell Scientific Publications. Velupillai, L and Verma, L. R. (1986). The Effects of Drying and Tempering on Quality of Parboiled Rice. Food Engineering and Process Applications. Vol. 2, Unit Operations. Elsevier Appli. Sci. Publishers. Edited by le Maguer, M. and Jelen, P. Witte, G. C (1972). Conventional rice milling in the United States. In Rice Chemistry and Technology (D.F. Houston ed.) America Association Cereal Chemists. Inc. St. Paul, Minnesota, 188-190. Wylie, S (2001) Rice Research: University of Arkansas research program focuses on postharvest processing. World Grain, 19(3), 21-25. rd http://www.onlinenigeria.com/linls/adv.asp?blurb=69 Retrieved 0n 23 September, 2011 http://www.onlinenigeria.com/linls/adv.asp?blurb=69 Retrieved on 23 rd September, 2011

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CHAPTER FIVE

Rice Based Recipes from South-East Nigeria and its Research Needs Odenigbo, M.A., Ene-Obong, H.N., Asumugha, V.U. and Nkwoala, C.C. OUTLINE  INTRODUCTION  RICE PREPARATION IN SOUTH-EAST NIGERIA  Consumption pattern of rice and rice-based dishes  Social significance of rice dishes in southern Nigeria  Traditional methods of rice preparation  Effect of rice preparation on nutrient content  RICE RECIPES IN SOUTH-EAST NIGERIA  Overview of rice based recipes  Critique of existing rice recipes from southern Nigeria  Nutritional value of rice recipes  Research needs in diversifying rice products and its utilization INTRODUCTION Rice is a staple food for large part of the world’s population and it is said to be the most consumed cereal grain in the world. Rice belongs to the genus Oryza. The genus Oryza belongs to the tribe Oryzeae of the family Poaceae. The genus Oryza contains about 22 species of which 20 are wild and two (2) (Oryza sativa Linn and Oryza glaberrima Steud) are cultivated/domesticated (Vaughan, 1994). Oryza sativa Linn is regarded as Asian rice, while Oryza glaberrima Steud is known as African rice (Maji et al., 1999). According to Linares (2002) O. sativa and O. glaberrima-sativa hybrids are replacing O. glaberrima in many parts of Africa due to higher yields. O. glaberrima was the first rice crop introduced in Nigeria but the selection practice did not improve the yield potential of this specie compared to the O. sativa. However, modern research efforts of both national and international organisations have contributed to the improvement and development of different rice varieties in Nigeria. Such organisations include: the National Cereals Research Institute (NCRI), AfricaRice, International Institute of

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Tropical Agriculture (IITA), International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) in Philipines and universities. All the agro-ecological zones in Nigeria are involved in rice cultivation. The North Central zone is the largest producer of rice in Nigeria (47%) followed by Northwest (29%), Northeast (14%), southeast (9%) and lastly the southwest (4%) (Akpokodje et al., 2001). Rainfed upland rice system is the predominant rice based system in the southern part of Nigeria. This system is common in Ogun, Ondo, Osun, Ekiti, Oyo, Edo and Delta states. Rainfed lowland rice system is the major source of the rapid increase in paddy production in recent years (FAO, 2001). This system is common in the southern part of Nigeria which include Abakaliki (Ebonyi State), Ogoja (Cross River State), Ondo, Ekiti, Delta, Edo, Rivers, Bayelsa, Akwa Ibom and Lagos. The irrigated rice production systems are found in Southeast (Anambra, Enugu and Ebonyi) and South- south (Cross River) States. Akpokodje et al. (2001) reported that yields are highest for the irrigated systems followed by the rain fed lowland systems. Results obtained from ten Nigerian rice varieties showed that most of the varieties were of high amylase content, hard gel consistency and low to intermediate gelatinizing temperature. It would seem that if properly parboiled most of the varieties would be acceptable to rice consumers, especially in Southern Nigeria, who prefer rice that cook fluffy and non-sticky (low cohesiveness score) with high volume expansion. There are indications that the preferred rice in most parts of Northern Nigeria are the short grain rice with more amylopectin and little to no amylase, they remain soft and sticky after cooking (high cohesiveness score). However, it will be important to further investigate and correlate these physicochemical properties with consumer acceptability particularly with respect to various rice cooking methods and recipes in Nigeria. RICE PREPARATION IN SOUTH-EAST NIGERIA Consumption pattern of rice and rice based dishes Rice consumption in West African as a whole has been steadily growing at an annual rate of 6% since 1973 (www.unep.ch/etu/etp/events/Agriculture/warda.pdf) whereas in Nigeria per capita rice consumption has grown significantly at 7.3% per annum; it has risen from 18kg in the 1980s to 22kg in 1990 (Akpokodje et al., 2003) and recently to 24.8kg per year, representing 9% of total caloric intake (IRRI, 2001). An estimated 2.1 million tons of rice are consumed annually (WARDA, 2004). In Southern Nigeria, rice was previously reserved for consumption only on special occasions and Sundays, but currently it has grown in importance as a component of daily diets. It has moved from a ceremonial to a staple food in many homes within the last two decades (Ume et al., 2007). It is also consumed as a food crop for household food security (Bamidele et al., 2010). Consumption of rice more than four times in a week indicates that rice was consumed almost every day in a week which reflected that rice was most preferred, available, and affordable and of the utmost importance for their 43

food and nutrition security (Maziya – Dixon et al. 2004). The most important factor contributing to the shift in consumer preference away from traditional staples and toward rice is rapid urbanization and associated changes in family occupational structures. In most homes, both parents are working class; the opportunity cost of their time increases and convenience food such as rice which can be prepared quickly rise in importance (Akpokodje et al., 2003). According to the World Bank, rice is no longer a luxury food but has become a major source of calories for the urban poor (World Bank, 1991). A documentation of Igbo traditional food system revealed that rice consumption has overtaken local available starchy staples in many households especially in the urban areas (Okeke et al. (2008). Okeke et al. (2008) reported that indigenes in Southern Nigeria indicated that the cream colour local variety tastes better than the exotic ones. However, the production of the cream coloured variety is low. The reddish colour local variety (O. glnaberrima), which is milled and used for rice “fufu” is least appreciated by both mothers and children. Nevertheless, the consumption of imported rice outweighs the consumption of local rice grown in this region. The consumption and preference for particular type (local or foreign) of rice are influenced by the socio-economic status of the population, urbanization and the quality of rice. Erhabor and Ojogho (2011) in their study found that middle income earners had the highest annual per capita rice consumption (37.5kg) while low income earners had the least (15.9kg), indicating that annual per capita consumption increases with increase in income to a certain level of income and then decreases. Their study also showed that rice consumption/demand was more prominent among the tertiary educated population and in the urban than rural centres of their area of study. Fakayode et al. (2010) reported that the major factors that significantly influence household preference for either a combination of local and imported rice or imported rice only were the income and educational level of the heads of households and household size. Studies have shown that quality is important in the demand for rice both in urban and rural areas of Nigeria. According to Erhabor and Ojogho (2011) quality is elastic, while quantity and expenditure are inelastic; thus when income increases, households will purchase rice of higher value. Another aspect of quality is the cooking characteristics of rice. While some prefer the grainy rice, others prefer the sticky type. This also depends on the type of rice dish to be prepared. Results obtained from ten Nigerian rice varieties showed that most of the varieties were of high amylose content, hard gel consistency and low to intermediate gelatinizing temperature. It would seem that if properly parboiled most of the varieties would be acceptable to rice consumers, especially in Southern Nigeria, who prefer rice that is cooked fluffy and non-sticky (low cohesiveness score) and with high volume expansion. There are indications that the preferred rice in most parts of Northern Nigeria are the short grain

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rice with more amylopectin and little to no amylase; they remain soft after cooking (high cohesiveness score). On the other hand, Akaeze (2010) noted that habit persistence and perceived quality differentials both play important role in explaining consumer preference for imported rice in Nigeria. The strong preference of imported rice, according to Akaeze (2010), maybe due to a cultural mindset that foreign products are generally more superior to domestic products rather than the actual quality between them. This is true in the Nigerian situation because some of the local varieties of rice are indeed sweeter and more nutritious that the foreign ones. This study also noted that the importance of income growth as a partial explanation for the growth of demand for imported rice in Nigeria increases when the effects of perceived quality differentials and habit persistence are included. Social significance of rice dishes in Southern Nigeria Among all the starchy staples, rice has risen to a position of pre-eminence in Nigeria. Rice now competes with yam, which was traditionally the food of choice for ceremonial occasions in Southern Nigeria. Rice dishes are now very prominent in marriage ceremonies (both traditional and white wedding), naming ceremonies, birthdays for parties old and young, graduation ceremonies, funerals, parties and other functions. Rice dishes are prepared in a variety of ways. Rice dishes prepared during ceremonies are quite different from the normal home prepared ones. More ingredients tend to be used for ceremonial rice dishes. The number and quality of ingredients used in rice preparation may also depict the socio-economic status of the individual. Cultures are shared and bonds are created when rice is shared. The consumption of rice has always generated a sense of fulfilment both to the host and the guest. Garnishing the rice with salad is always served to guest of honour. Although rice is eaten by almost every member of the household, it is important to note that in some traditional societies, the adults regard rice as “bird food” or food for children. As a result, most of these adults do not regard rice dishes as “full meals.” On the other hand children love rice dishes. Rice consumption decreased with increase in the age of a member of the households in the study conducted by Erhabor and Ojogho (2011) indicating the preference of rice by children. Traditional Methods of rice preparation Food preparation involves the treatment of food in the kitchen at home or in a catering establishment or take-away shop. It is a wider term than “cooking” which implies the use of heat (Truswell, 2003). Generally, food preparation is carried out for a lot of beneficial purposes. In the process of food preparation, numerous methods are used namely: boiling, frying, steaming and baking. In the Southern States of Nigeria, rice dishes are prepared mainly by boiling and consumed either singly or in combination of legume (e.g beans, cowpeas), stew (meat/fish/egg /tomato stew), sauce, soup (palmfruit/pepper soup), vegetables and other condiments. The traditional methods of rice preparation in Southern Nigeria also involve milling of the rice grains (rice meal) and steaming it into “fufu”. Frying and stewing techniques are also used in rice preparation in Southern Nigeria. Ofada rice 45

which is one of the most popular traditional rice in the eastern part of Nigeria is not prepared like any other common rice. It is prepared with local ingredients. Effect of rice preparation on nutrient content Different food preparation methods have their advantages and disadvantages which have a direct relationship with the nutrient content of the particular food prepared. Some losses of nutrients occur during domestic cooking processes. Nutrient losses are roughly predictable and can easily be measured by analysis at different stages. Water soluble vitamins dissolve into the cooking water and the more water used in cooking rice, the more vitamins are likely to be wasted. Lysine, the limiting amino acid in cereals, is the most unstable of the essential amino acids. One beneficial effect of food preparation on food can be exemplified by the liberation of bound niacin in cereals, which is applicable to rice preparation. The popular frying and stewing methods of rice preparation practiced within Southern Nigeria can be associated with the obvious negative effects of these cooking methods on nutrient content of rice. The likely harmful effect of these cooking methods includes increase in total fats intake due to types of cooking oil consumed. Considering the current place of rice in the family meal plan of households in southern Nigeria, there is need for continued vigilance. There is need to document the current rice preparation methods and consumption patterns since rise contributes significantly to the nutrient supply of these people. Researches have shown that the traditional food systems play significant roles in maintaining the wellbeing and health of indigenous peoples (Okeke et al., 2009). The dangers of toxicants produced during cooking of foods using certain methods such as boiling, frying, smoking, roasting and grilling should be noted. This occurs due to pyrolysis (breakdown) of lipids, proteins, carbohydrates and other food components. Various polycydic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHS) suspected to be carcinogenic are found in many common foods during cooking mainly by pyrolsis of fats (Ene-Obong, 2001). RICE RECIPES IN SOUTHERN NIGERIA Overview of some rice-based recipes eaten in South-Eastern states of Nigeria is presented below: 1. BOILED RICE (Commonest rice recipe in Southern Nigeria)       

2 cups of rice, water, Salt to taste Pick and wash the rice. Place in a good size pot and cover with cold water. Place on heat and allow boiling for 5minutes, removing from heat and washing away excess starch with cold water. Barely cover rice with cold water, add some salt. Cover pot and cook until all the moisture is absorbed. Fluff with a fork to separate grains and serve hot.

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2. ABALA (GROUND RICE) Ingredients:  4 cups ground rice, 3 tablespoon ground shrimps, 3 tablespoon ground crayfish, ¼ bottle palm oil, 3 tablespoon fresh ground pepper, 1 medium onion, 6 cups water, Leaves for wrapping, Salt to taste. Method of preparation  Boil water and slowly add ground rice.  Stir carefully until smooth  Add fresh ground pepper and salt.  Add onions palm oil, crayfish and shrimps; continue stirring until thick consistency is obtained.  Wrap in leaves  Steam for 20-25 minutes  Serve with fresh fish stew for supper. 3. ABALA RICE Ingredients  

2 heaped milk cups raw rice or 1 ½ cup ground rice, 1 cooking spoon palm oil, 1 small onion, 6 pieces fresh pepper 2 tablespoon crayfish, Boiling water (for ground rice), Salt to taste

Method of preparation        

Either pick the raw rice and soak in cold water for 30 minutes or soak the ground rice for 20 minutes with a milk cup of warm water. Wash the raw rice, wash and cut up the onion, add washed pepper and bled everything together. Blend onion and pepper and add to the soaked ground rice. Wash the leaves for wrapping or grease the tins fix the pot with small sticks and put over low heat. Warm the oil and add to blended or soaked rice with ingredients, mix thoroughly add 2 tablespoon of water Wrap spoonfuls of the mixture into the clean leaves or into the greased tins. Add crayfish by bits. Steam for 40 minutes Serve hot or as desired.

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4. OFE AKWU (PALM NUT) WITH BOILED RICE Ingredients  4 cups of fresh palm nuts, 8 pieces meat, 1 cup of crayfish, Pumpkin leaves (2 small bunches), Nchanwu leaves (1 small bunch), 4 Okpei small sizes, Fresh pepper 3medium sizes, 2 medium onions, Salt and magi cube to taste Method of preparation       

Wash and cook little quantity of palm nuts If cooked, drain and put in a mortar and use the hand-dry to squeeze it until it becomes juice. Add little water and drain into a pot. Put the pot on fire and cook until the palm nut juicy becomes thickened. Add other ingredients and cook for about 30 minutes. Finally add the vegetable leaves. Serve it with boiled rice.

5. BANGA JOLLOF RICE Ingredients: 

30 Palm fruits, 2 Cups of rice, 2 Medium smoked fish, 2 Tablespoonful ground crayfish, 1 Maggi cube, 4 Fresh tomatoes, 1 Medium onion, 4 Medium fresh pepper, Salt to taste

Method of preparation         

Boil palm fruits till soft Pound already cooked palm fruit in a mortar until the palm fibres leave the nuts Pour some clean water into already pounded banga, mix well, squeeze the palm fibres and sieve Wash and parboil rice Place the filtrate on fire to boil Add chopped tomatoes, onion, pepper, crayfish, magi cube, and salt; allow to boil Wash and debone fish; add fish to the mixture on fire Add the parboiled rice and stir. Allow to simmer until the rice is cooked and all the liquid is absorbed Serve hot

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6. JOLLOF RICE Ingredients:  3 cups rice, 1 cup groundnut oil, 3 fresh tomatoes, 2 large onions, 2 maggi cubes, 1 small tin tomato, 6 small , pieces of meat, 6-8 large peppers (red), ½ teaspoon dried thyme, I teaspoon curry, I teaspoon nutmeg, Salt to taste. Method of preparation         

Wash meat season to taste with salt Put meat on fire and cook till tender Wash the rice and leave in a sieve for the water to drain Cut up one onion and one tomato into rings Grind the remaining ingredients Remove the meat from stock, add the ground ingredients and tomato puree and a little oil, bring to boiling point. Add rice to the mixture, leave to boil for 10-15 minutes on a low heat. Add the sliced until rice is well cooked Serve hot in a dish

7. IWUK EDESI (NATIVE JOLLOF RICE) Ingredients 

Rice 2 cups (380g), Smoked fish (1 large size(200g), Palm oil (10 tablespoon (100ml), Onion (1 large size(180g), Fresh tomatoes 1 large size ( 200g), rayfish (ground) 2 tablespoon, dried shrimps 6 large size (15g), Pumpkin leaves 1 small bunch (80g), Maggi cubes 1 cube, Water 5 teacups (1 litre), Fresh pepper to taste, Salt to taste.

Method of preparation        

Wash and parboil the rice Strain off the water, wash and drain Wash and remove bones from the fish, skin the dried shrimps. Chop onions and shred the pumpkin leaves. Heat the oil and add all the ingredients except the rice and the pumpkin minutes. Add water rice and stir and taste for salt. Cook for about 30 minutes till the rice is cooked. Add the pumpkin leaves and leave for more five minutes. Remove from heat and serve.

8. EDEDI ISIP (COCONUT RICE)

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Ingredients 

3 cups of rice, 2 shelled coconut flesh, 1 cup shrimps, 1 cup dried fish, 2 medium dried fish, 6 lobsters, ½ cup ground crayfish, 2 tablespoon fresh ground pepper, 2 medium onions, 4 big green peppers, 1 bunch of green peas, Salt to taste

Method of preparation           

Put two cups of water on fire (allow to get warm) Wash and grate shelled coconut flesh Put grated coconut in deep bowl, and pour the warm water over it. Leave for few minutes, while par boiling the rice Squeeze the juice from coconut. Remove the rice and drain Prepare shrimps, pepper, onion etc Put coconut liquid on fire and all prepared ingredients except shrimps, green peas and slice green pepper Put rice as soon as liquid on fire begins to boil, and boil till soft. Taste for salt, and add the shrimps, green peas, green pepper, liver and simmer gently till water dries. Remove from fire and serve rice with salad/Avacado pear/sauted vegetable.

9. LEI ATAMGBALA ANGA (RICE) Ingredients  3 cups rice, 2 cups palm nut, 2 large dried or fresh fish, 1 medium onion, ½ teaspoon pepper, ½ cup crayfish, Water as desired, Salt to taste Method of preparation       

Boil the palm nut for 20 minutes Pound, add some water and sieve out palm nut Boil palm oil juice Wash rice and add to the palm nut juice Add other ingredients Allow to boil until rice is cooked Serve hot.

10. CHICKEN PEPPER SOUP WITH RICE Ingredients  1 whole or 4 portion of chicken parts, 6 small fresh tomatoes, 2 large onions, 5 sizable fresh peppers, Iko leaves or curry leaves, Rice

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Method of preparation      

Wash and season chicken parts Chop the tomatoes and onions Add ground fresh pepper and salt bring to boil for 10 minutes Lower the heat, add curry leaves or Iko and simmer, covering until chicken is tender Serve with boiled rice

11. BOILED RICE WITH FRESH FISH PEPPER SOUP Ingredients 

2 medium fresh fish, 2-3 tablespoon fresh pepper, 1 medium onion, 2 milk cup water, 2 maggi cubes, Rice, Salt to taste.

Method of preparation      

Wash meat and boil in water until tender Wash and cut fern stems Wash, boil, flake fish and add Mix and add all the ingredients Simmer for 30 minutes stirring occasionally Serve with boiled rice

12. BOILED RICE WITH MEAT STEW Ingredient 

8 pieces of meat, 1 medium onion, 4 large tomatoes, 2-3 red fresh pepper, 2 milk cups of water, 2 milk tins tomatoes puree, ½ tablespoon curry, thyme and grated nutmeg, Rice

Method of preparation     

Wash with meat, season with salt, pepper, thyme and curry and bring to boil till tender Blend all ground ingredients to a fine paste Fry meat, add the ground ingredients and simmer for 10 minutes Add the meat stock, continue to simmer for 5 minutes Serve the fairly dry stew with boiled rice

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13. BOILED RICE WITH EDIKANG IKONG Ingredients  2 bunches of pumpkin leaves, 1 bunch of waterleaf, 10-15 red fresh pepper, 1520 pieces beef/smoked bush meat, small stock fish, 1 medium smoked fish, 1 cup shelled periwinkle (optional), 20-30 shrimps (cooked), 2-4 cups of water, 1 cup crayfish (ground), 1 beer bottle red palm oil, 10-12 dressed snails (optional), Rice, Salt to taste. Method of preparation      

Pick and wash the leaves to drain Wash, season and boil stockfish, meat and dried fish till cooked Cut the leaves into tiny pieces Squeeze out excess water from the waterleaf and add while boiling continues Add ground crayfish and half of the palm oil and continue to boil Add the drained pumpkin leaves, other ingredients and boil for another 10 minutes, add the remaining palm oil  Serve with boiled rice Note: The consistency of the soup should be dry without water but oily 14. PUMPKIN POTTAGE WITH RICE Ingredients 

½ pumpkin, 1 cup of rice, 3 large fresh tomatoes, 1 medium of onion, 1.4 cup of groundnut oil, 2 cubes of magi, 1 medium fish.

Methods of preparation         

Wash and remove sand from the rice Put on fire and allow to cook for 20 minutes Peel the pumpkin, cut into small piece, wash and add into the rice Add the salt and maggi Add the groundnut oil Wash, cut and other ingredients (tomatoes, onion) Wash, debone and add the fish Allow to cook for about 10 minutes, remove from fire. Serve hot.

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15. EFO RIRO WITH BOILED RICE Ingredients 

Efo Sokoyotoko, Meat 10 pieces, Tripe 4 pieces, Liver 2 pieces, Kidney 2 pieces, Locust beans 1 small piece, Onions 2 bulbs, Ground pepper 2 desert spoons, Rice 2cups.

Method of preparation 

  

  

Boil meat, shaki, liver, and the kidney together with a little salt, onion, and garlic, boil without water. Allow to steam until they are soft and tender. Put these inside and fry very lightly not allowing to get dried. Wash and pour boiled water on the vegetable with a little salt, cover to steam for ten minutes. Clean the various dried fishes and keep in a separate plate, together with the red dried shrimps, removing its heads and tails. Pour either palm oil or groundnut oil in a pot allow to warm, also the same oil used for the frying of the various meats could still be used, then add iru, tomatoes, pepper and onions in the oil, allow to steam for ten minute. Add all the meats, fish and shrimps in the pot, add sliced onions and tomatoes, allow steaming for two minutes. Lastly, add the cooked vegetable and allow steaming for five minutes then stirring together. Serve with boiled rice.

16. SOYA BEAN JOLLOF RICE Ingredients 

Rice (2 Cups), Soya beans residue (1 Cup), Fish/Meat (½ kg), Groundnut oil (1 cup), Red pepper (6 small), Tomatoes (4 large), Onion (1 bulb), Salt to taste, Spices e.g curry, thyme etc.

Method of preparation        

Remove the stone and dirt from rice Wash the rice clean Cook the meat and fish Grind the ingredient Add the ground ingredients to the meat and oil Add enough water to cook the rice Add rice and soya bean residue cook until done Serve hot pilled in an oval dish.

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17. IRESI ELERAN-ONIYO Ingredients 

2 cups rice (ofada or Abakiliki rice), Meat, One large onion (sliced), Meat stock, Round pepper (sliced), Groundnut oil ¼ of a bottle, Spice and salt to taste.

Method of preparation     

Wash salted meat and cut into pieces. Add water to boil for ten minutes. Add pre wash ofada rice and cover up. Leave to cook and add sliced pepper, onion, and groundnut oil and leave to steam for ten minutes. Serve for dinner, preferably without stew.

18. IRESI ALAGBON (COCONUT RICE) Ingredients 

2 cups rice, 8 large peppers, 2 large coconuts, ½ teaspoon dried thyme, 1 clove of ground garlic, Spice

Method of preparation 

Grate coconut, add water and sieve. Pour the resulting coconut milk on fire, spice and salt to taste and boil. Add washed rice and sieve so that there won’t be much water. Cook for about 30-40 minutes. Serve with fried fish stew.

19. TOMATO RICE This colour rich dish is the ideal accompaniment for grilled meat and fish. Ingredients 

500g / llb boiled rice, 2lb groundnut oil, 1 onion (finely sliced), 2 cloves garlic (crushed), 2tsp tomato puree, 225§ / 8oz cooked green peas

Method of preparation 

Heat oil in a medium frying pan; add onion and garlic and fry until soft, and tomato puree, pear and rice. Mix well and fry for 5 minutes stirring frequently. Serve sprinkled with parsley.

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20. COCONUT RICE Ingredients 

225g/8oz long grain rice, 2tbs ground oil, 1 Onion, finely sliced, 600g/pint coconut milk, Salt to taste

Method of preparation 

Wash the rice in several changes of cold water and drain. Heat the oil in a saucepan: fry the onions for 30 minutes. Add the rice and coconut milk, season with salt. Cover and cook on low heat for 20 minutes, or until tender. Fluff the rice with a fork and serve hot.

21. NIGERIAN PEANUT(GROUNDNUT) STEW Ingredient: 

2 lbs. boneless lamb stew meat, 3 onions, sliced, 3 1/2 c. water, 1 1/2 tsp. salt, 3 lg. tomatoes, quartered, 3 chili peppers, 1 c. peanut butter, 2 c. beef bouillon, 3-4 c. hot rice, 3 hard cooked eggs

Method of preparing 



Put first 3 ingredients and 3 cups water in a sauce pan; bring to a boil and then simmer, covered, until almost tender, about 1 hour. Combine tomatoes, peppers, and 1/2 cup water. Bring to boil and simmer 10 minutes. Mix the peanut butter, tomato mix, and the bouillon. Add to meat. Simmer until tender. To serve: Put a helping of rice in each soup plate. Put an egg in center of rice and cover with stew. Makes 6 servings. In Nigeria this is called groundnut stew and they start by grinding peanuts. (Ponce Stahl.)

22. BOILED RICE AND BEANS SERVED WITH STEW Ingredients  Rice 4 cups, beans 4 cups Method of preparation  Remove stones from beans and wash.  Boil beans until half cooked.

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  

Wash the rice and add to the cooking beans for the lengths of cooking are different. Add more water if necessary. Season with salt and lower the heat for slow cooking without burning until water is dried. Serve with meat or chicken stew.

23. JALLOF RICE AND BEANS Ingredients 

One and half cup rice, One and half cup of beans, 1 cup palm or vegetable oil, 2 medium onion, I small tin, tomatoes, 3 medium size pepper, 2 cubes of Maggi, Salt to taste

Method of preparation       

Parboil rice and beans separately, wash and allow to drain. Heat oil in a medium frying pan. Add onion and fry until soft and translucent. Add tomatoes and peppers and cook until thick and well blended. Season with salt, stir in the beans mixing well and add the rice and water. Cover and cook until beans and rice are tender and all water is well absorbed. Stir and serve hot.

24. OFADA RICE Ingredients 

4 cups of Ofada rice, Locust beans (iru), 2 Maggi cubes, Unripe grind tomatoes, 1 medium onion, Unripe grind pepper, Assorted meat, Groundnut oil, Medium size dried fish, Grounded crayfish, Green leaves, Medium size stock fish, Palm oil, Salt, Water

Method of preparation 

Place your pot on fire with water inside allow to boil. Wash your ofada rice thoroughly and pour it in the boiling water on the fire. Make sure that you have enough water for the rice to boil.

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







When the ofada rice is done, sieve the water from it and put the rice in another pot and cover it very well. You must not allow the water to dry with the ofada rice. Cook the assorted meat with magi and salt half done, wash your stockfish and add it to the cooking meat. Then pick out the assorted meat and fry with groundnut oil. Put another pot on fire to dry, add your palm oil, allow it to be very hot i.e. (light). Put off the fire and allow to calm down a bit. Pour the grinded pepper, tomatoes and onion and fry them properly. Wash the locust beans (iru), crayfish, the dried fish and the stock fish to remove stone particles. Pour everything in the fried sauce including your assorted meat, add your magi and salt to taste. Allow to cook for 20 minutes. Wash your green leaves very well and place it on a plate. Serve your ofada rice on the leave and add your ofada sauce and it is ready to eat. The issue of the leaf is to make it look local with good aroma.

CRITIC OF RICE BASED RECIPES Rice-based recipes in Southern Nigeria are not standardized and vary a lot in the way they are prepared, particularly the ingredients used and the quantities. These variations depend on the socio-economic status, culture, individual preferences and culinary skills of the person preparing them. There are problems also associated with the measures used: while some are estimates, in most cases the measuring instruments are not specified. For example, measures for cups in Nigeria differ; one cup of an ingredient in Enugu State will differ in weight from that in Cross River State, since the cups used in the two markets differ. Local and foreign rice could be used to prepare these recipes; however, most of the recipes are based on foreign rice. Rice-based dishes are used as main meals in Southern Nigeria and have not been explored for the production of snacks. Apart from tomatoes, the use of leafy vegetable in the preparation of local rice dished was limited except in cases where vegetable soup was used as a sauce for eating rice. NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF RICE-BASED DISHES Rice is a valuable food in both developed and developing countries of the world. It provides 20% of the world’s dietary energy. The nutritional value of rice and rice-based recipes depends on the variety (e.g. brown or polished white rice, etc.), the ingredients used and other processing methods employed in their preparation. Rice as a single food is a good source of energy, complex carbohydrate, B-vitamins (thiamin, riboflavin and niacin) and a fair source of essential minerals and vitamins compared to other staples. For instance, brown rice (caryopsis) ranks higher than wheat in available carbohydrates, digestible energy (kilojoules [kJ] per 100 grams), and net protein utilization. Although rice has a relatively low protein content (about 8 percent in brown rice and 7 percent in 57

milled rice versus 10 percent in wheat), its protein is superior in lysine content to wheat, corn, and sorghum. Rice is rich in glutamic and aspartic acids but low in lysine. It contains very low amount of fat and no cholesterol (www.fao.org/rice.2004/en/fsheet/factsheet3.pdf). The crude fibre content of milled rice is lower than any other cereal, making rice powder in the boiled form suitable as infant food. However, the rice infant foods for growing children need to be supplemented by other protein sources (Hegsted 1969; Juliano 1985b). Fortunately, rice is usually eaten with meat, fish or other animal protein source foods or with beans (cowpeas) or other others indigenous legumes which help to compliment its amino acid profile and improve the nutrient profile of such recipes. Un-milled rice can make a substantial contribution to the dietary fibre intake of consumers. The nutritive value of rice recipes will vary greatly depending on the ingredients used in their preparation. A critical look at the available rice recipes suggests that they are valuable sources of essential macro- and micro-nutrients and will make substantial contributions to the nutrient intake of population groups in developing countries. Rice-based recipes can be considered as health foods if eaten in the right quantities. This is because rice (particularly brown rice) is said to have a low glycemic index. When mixed with legumes they are important source of dietary protein and fibre for vegetarians. RESEARCH NEEDS IN DIVERSIFYING RICE PRODUCTS AND ITS UTILIZATION There is need to standardize Nigerian rice-based recipes and analyse them for their nutrient composition. There is also need to diversify rice-based recipes by developing new recipes (for main meals and snacks) and also by including fruits and vegetables in these recipes. It may be necessary to carry out a food consumption survey to determine the contribution of rice and rice-based recipes to the nutrient intake of Nigerians Rice is also gaining importance in the industries in the making of infant foods, snack foods, breakfast cereals, beer, fermented products, rice wine and rice bran oil. Moreover, rice flour is free from allergens thus, suitable for infant formulas. REFERENCES Akaeze, H.O. (2010). Consumer preference for imported rice in Nigeria-perceived quality differences or habit persistence? M.Sc. theses submitted to Michigan State University. www.aec.msu.edu/theses/fulltext/akaeze_ms.pdf, retrieved 3/11/2011 Akpokodje, G, Lançon, F and Erenstein,O. (2001). Nigeria’s Rice Economy: State of the Art. Draft Report submitted to WARDA, Bouake, Cote d’ Ivoire November; 1-54.

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Akpokodje, G., Lancon, F. and Erenstein,O. (2003). The Nigerian rice economy in a competitive world: constraints, opportunities and strategic choices. Nigeria’s rice policy and development: A review. West African rice development association (WARDA) Abidjan, Cote d’ivoire. Pp1 – 20. Bamidele, F. S., O. Abayomi and O. Esther. 2010 “Economic Analysis of Rice Consumption Patterns in Nigeria.” Journal of Agriculture, Science and Technology, Vol. 12, pp. 1-11. Ene-Obong, H.N. (2001). Eating Right. (A Nutrition guide). The University of Calabar, press Calabar, Nigeria. Erhabor, P.O.I. and Ojogho, O. (2011). Effect of quality on the demand for rice in Nigeria. Agricultural Journal, 16 (5): 207-212. Fakayode, S.B., Omotesho, O.A. and Omoniwa, A.E. (2010). Economic analysis of rice consumption patterns in Nigeria. Science and Technology, 12 (2): 135-144. Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) (2004). Rice. Available on www.fao.org/rice2004/en/rice2.html) Accessed on December 20, 2005. Hegsted, D. M. 1969. Nutritional value of cereal proteins in relation to human needs. In Protein-enriched cereal foods for world needs, ed. M. Milner, 38—48. St. Paul, Minn. Janick, J. (2002). Tropical Horticulture. Purdue University. (Available on www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/tropical/lecture20/rice.html) Accessed on December 20, 2005. Juliano, B. O. 1985b. Polysaccharides, proteins and lipids of rice. In Rice: Chemistry and technology, ed. B. O. Juliano, 59—174. St. Paul, Minn. Linares, O.F. (2002). African rice (Oryza glaberrima): history and future potential. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the United States of America, 99: 16360-16365 Nwaobiala .C.U. (2010). Economic Analysis Of Swamp Rice Production In Ebonyi Southern Agricultural Zone Of Ebonyi State, Nigeria. Journal of Agriculture and Social Research (JASR), 10 (2):135. Maji, A.T., Gana, A.S., Ukwungwu, M.N., Imolehin, E.D.B. and Misari, S.M. (1999). Utilization of Rice Genetic Resources in Nigeria. In Genetic and food security in Nigeria 63-70. Maziya – Dixon, B., Akinyele, I.O., Oguntona, E.B., Nokoe, S., Sanusi, R.A., and Harris, E. (2004). Nigeria Food consumption and nutrition survey 2001 – 2003 summary. IITA, Ibadan, Nigeria. Pp14 – 15. Ofada Rice. http://www.cooknigeriandishes.com/2011/05/simple-nigeria-recipes-forofada-rice.html retrieved 25/09/2011 Okeke, E.C, Eneobong, H.N; Uzuegbunam, S.I; Ozioko, A.O; Umeh, S.I; Kuhnlein H. (2009).Nutrient composition of traditional foods and their contribution to energy

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and nutrient intakes of children and women in rural households in Igbo culture area. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition 8 (4): 304 – 312. Okeke, E.C, Eneobong, H.N; Uzuegbunam, S.I; Ozioko, A.O; Kuhnlein H. (2008). Igbo Traditional Food System: Documentation, Uses and Research Needs Pakistan Journal of Nutrition 7 (2): 365-376. Riceweb ,(2011): http://www.riceweb.org (accessed September, 2011) Saka, J.O. , Okoruwa, V.O. , Lawal, B.O. and Ajijola, S. (2005). Adoption of Improved Rice Varieties among Small-Holder Farmers in South-Western Nigeria. World Journal of Agricultural Sciences 1 (1): 42-49, 2005 Truswell, A.S. (2003). The ABC of Nutrition. Fourth edition. BMJ publishers. London Pg 113-119. USA Rice Federation (2002). Rice Nutrition. (Available on www.usarice.com/foodservice/nutrition.html ). Accessed on December 20, 2005). Vanghan, D.A. (1994). The Wild Relatives of Rice A Genetic Handbook. International Rice Resource Institute, Manilla. WARDA (2003). Rice Production in sub-saharan Africa, “Synthesis of statistics in Rice Production, Trade and Consumption” UK, Sayce Publishers. World Bank (1995). “Nigeria and the World Bank Learning from the past Looking to the Future”. The World Bank, Washington, D.C. Wudiri, B.B. (1992). Developing appropriate rice processing technologies for Nigeria: the NCRI experience. In: Rice Processing in Nigeria. Proceedings of the MFA Workshop in Niger State. Babaleye, T and Nwachukwu, I. (eds). IITA, Ibadan. pp. 24-31

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CHAPTER SIX

RICE PROCESSING AND UTILIZATION IN SOUTH-WEST, NIGERIA Sanni, L.O; Adebowale, A.A; Itabiyi, V.I.O; Sanni, S. A. , Siwoku, B.O. and C.I. Omohimi

Introduction Rice (Oryza sativa) is a cereal belonging to the Poaceae, a large monocotyledon family of some 600 genera and around 10,000 species (Abulude, 2004). Rice is cultivated in about 114 countries, most of which are developing countries and it is the primary source of income and employment for more than 100 million household in Asia and Africa (FAO, 2004). In developing countries, rice is one of the main dietary source of macro nutrient (carbohydrate and protein) as well as micro nutrient such as calcium, zinc, etc (Lieng et al., 2008). Nigeria is the largest rice producing country in the West African region. Rice production rose gradually over the years with area expansion to surpass major rice producing countries like Cote d Ivoire and Sierra Leone. The principal factors driving increased rice production in Nigeria is population growth and urbanisation. As a result of increase in human population in Nigeria, rice consumption has surpassed its production. In 2002, Nigeria accounted for nearly 44 % of the total rice output and 57 % of the total rice producing area in West Africa. The annual demand for rice in the country is estimated at 5 million tons, while production level is 3 million tons of milled rice resulting in a deficit of 2 million tons. Over the years the country had resorted to imports to bridge this deficit. For instance in 1999, the value of rice imports was US$259 million and this increased to US$655 million in 2001 and US$756 in 2002. Between 1990 and 2002, Nigeria imported 5,132,616 tons of rice valued at US$1,883,553 million. In 2002 alone, the country imported 1.882 million tons of rice (FAO 2002). Rice production in Nigeria between 2001 and 2003 was estimated as 2.03 million tonnes while consumption was 3.96 million tonnes. The balance of 1.93 million tones was obtained by importation (FAO, 2004).

The economic situation with its consequent shortage of foreign exchange has made it necessary for many developing countries to examine the possibility of replacing imported food products with improved ones. In West Africa there has been increase in breeding and planting of rice. Rice has become an important strategic and daily staple food crop in Nigeria. Despite the awareness of improved varieties and increased production of rice all over the world, Nigeria is still a chief importer of rice. This is because there is a preference for imported rice over that produced locally in the country. 61

One of the reasons is that the presentation of imported rice is more attractive for its flavor and lack of impurities compared to locally produce rice (Ebuehi et al., 2005). Most of the harvesting and processing methods employed in Nigeria are still traditional; hence the high prevalence of high levels of impurities, broken grains and off flavour in locally produced rice. As a result there is a higher acceptability of imported rice over home grown ones. The major constraints to its acceptability is the lack of consistent supply of good quality grain for processing as rice grain in available in markets are variable in kernel size, color and cleanliness (Sanni et al., 2005). For local rice to adequately compete with imported ones, it requires more efficient methods of threshing and cleaning of rice from other impurities (Simonyan, 2007; Adebowale et al., 2011). Table 1: Rice production trends in Nigeria and the rest of West Africa

Source: Computed from FAO-Agrostat by Akpokodje, et al.,( 2001)

RICE PROCESSING IN SOUTH WEST NIGERIA The purpose of this section is to briefly review the prevalent rice processing systems in South West Nigeria. The analysis in this section is somewhat limited because of the paucity of data. This underscores the urgent need for a comprehensive study of rice processing in Nigeria before appropriate policy action plan can be advanced on the relative efficiency or comparative advantage of each identified system. Processing technologies

Rice processing in south west Nigeria has witnessed a fairly basic processing technology in the aspects of parboiling and milling. Typical issues faced are lack of access to improved technologies, high costs of energy for parboiling, lower output quality (post processing), limited government incentives, etc. 62

Figure 1: Sun-drying of paddy rice at village level After the rice is harvested it is sun dried for some few hours after which the pedicles carrying the paddy are spread in barns as in Figure 1 and 2. The rice is kept like this (Figure 2) until the farmer decides to process it further for the market. Figure 2: Storage of paddies in barns Parboiling The usual practice is to parboil the paddy before delivery to the mills for milling. Where there is a mill nearby, farmers may parboil their own rice, then transport it to the mill for milling. The milled parboiled rice is then sold by the farmer in the local market or returned home for consumption. If bought as paddy, the parboiling is done by the trader’s family or given on contract. Before parboiling the paddy is first loosened from the pedicles and soaked in water for 7-10 days depending on local preferences and how white/clean the farmer want it the final milled rice to be. The grains are then drained and transferred into large metallic pots covered with jute bags (Figure 3) and heat until the grains show signs of splitting, whereupon the rice is removed for drying. The problem lies in the long soaking when fermentation commences. The parboiled paddy is then removed and sun dried for about 3-5 h depending on the intensity of the sun. Efforts are made not to over dry it so as to prevent breaking of the rice grain during milling.

Figure 3: Rice Parboiling Process in South west, Nigeria Drying There is lack of modern technology for the drying of parboiled paddy in south west, Nigeria. Often, drying is done by the road side under the sun. This accounts for the presence of foreign bodies such as stones in the final product. Sun drying in the open does not allow for drying during the rainy seasons. Again, this accounts for the low level of milling during such periods. Where it is possible to dry during the rainy season, often the paddies do not dry properly and this partly accounts for the foul odour of the final product.

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Milling Three systems of rice processing can be identified in south west, Nigeria. These are the Traditional or Hand-pounding System, the Small Mill Processing System and the Large Mill Processing System. The Hand-pounding system is a traditional system of processing rice paddy still used by some village rice farmers in Nigeria. This system involves soaking of paddy for about 24 hours. After, the paddy is boiled in water for about 20 minutes. The boiled paddy is then spread in the sun (usually by the road side) to dry. After drying, the paddy is pounded in a mortar to separate husks and bran from the grains. The last stage of this processing is the winnowing. A major feature of the traditional system is that it is very slow and labour intensive. Furthermore, the final product obtained often contains a high percentage of broken grains and foreign bodies. Given these limitations, this system is fast being discarded with. The small rice mills are the most predominant of the three processing systems. They can be found in major rice processing areas. There are several different types of small millers – those who mill primarily as a service and those who purchase paddy and then mill for their own account. Personal discussions with rice experts reveal that about 85 percent of local rice obtainable in south west, Nigeria is processed through the small milling system. The Engleberg-type steel roller and cage huller are used for the milling of the rice (Figure 4). Most of the time despite the control the farmer/processor try to take during parboiling and sun drying, lots of breakages are still obtained during milling. While some of the machines are diesel powered, others are electrically energized. The use of diesel powered engines is not unconnected with the epileptic power supply in the country. At the moment, most small rice mills operate at about 1 ton/hr. This is due to the lack of availability of sufficient paddy for processing. Some of the millers go far away to look for paddy to buy and sometimes they even go beyond the shores of the country in search of paddy. The final product of the small mills is generally superior to that processed under the traditional hand-pounding system. In some cases however, the final product contains a high percentage of broken grains and thus fetches a lower price in the market. The small milling units perform both hulling and milling operations. Usually, milling is done for a fee.

Figure 4: A Typical Rice Mill in South-West, Nigeria Opportunities exist in the rice milling sector if there is an inclination to invest in better processing technologies. The returns would be attractive given the large price spread between clean imported rice and the lower quality local rice, justifying investments into 64

latest technologies on areas like destoning. However the imported product supply/marketing chain is well established unlike the local rice market structure which typically involves many different agents across the production, processing and sales functions. This area needs significant improvement to be able to encourage more risk taking by large investors in the industry. Otherwise this market structure would not be able to achieve the economies of scale necessary to meet government objectives of selfsufficiency on rice.

Mechanized small-scale rice processing The production of white rice from paddy is complex and involves many operations. In large-scale plants the machinery and equipment used are very specialized, with each item only carrying out perhaps a single operation of the 20 or more that may be required for commercial rice milling. Large-scale plants must operate at high capacity to justify the investment in equipment. In small-scale rice milling, with capacities up to 500kg, a piece of machinery will carry out several of the operations in producing white rice from paddy, either in a single pass through the machine, or in several passes, with machine adjustments being made between each pass. Two or more identical machines may be used in successive stages of the process, each being adjusted to perform a specified task. In Nigeria rice production is mainly in the hands of subsistent farmers that most of the time, handle less than 500 kg because basic traditional farm implements are still being used. Stages in rice processing Rice cleaning: removes foreign objects such as hey, straw, stone, tree stump, and snail shell, from the paddy Rice husking: rubs excessive husks off cleaned paddy. Once removed, brown rice is separated from the husks through the ventilation process. Rice Paddy Separator: separates some unhusked paddy from brown rice by applying a difference in gravitational pull and surface friction. The unhusked paddy then re-enters the husking process Rice Milling: strips off the bran layer from brown rice. The bran layer is by air ventilation, which sucks in the bran layer. This process usually takes 2 to 3 cycles, depending on the required milling degree Rice Grading: separates milled rice (mixture of different sizes: whole grain, head rice and broken rice) by a sieve grader. The finished rice will be stored in individual pads according to its grade, and the rice is ready for delivery 65

The moisture content of harvested paddy will usually be in excess of 20 percent (wet basis). This must be reduced to 12-14 percent (wet basis) for efficient hulling and processing operations. Paddy can be hulled outside this moisture content range but the performance of the machines is poor. The normal prehulling operations are as follows: (a) Parboiling. This is a process which involves soaking the paddy, then steaming and drying it. Parboiling improves the nutritional quality of the rice, makes the hulling operation much easier, and gives a greater proportion of whole-grain white rice. Parboiled paddy must be dried before milling. Rice milled from parboiled paddy stores better than non-parboiled rice, and has a different taste, colour and cooking properties. Parboiling is a costly operation but its benefits generally outweigh its cost (b)Drying: There are two main methods of drying. The prevailing local method is sundrying. The paddy is spread out on a clean surface (tarpaulin, concrete slab or even smooth, clean earth) and regularly turned by hand. Excessively rapid drying results in the development of hairline cracks in the endosperm of the paddy grain (sunchecking). These cracks enlarge and produce a higher proportion of broken grains during subsequent operations. The incidence of cracks is reduced by a slower rate of drying which, in turn, can be achieved by increasing the thickness of the layer of paddy during sun-drying up to 150 mm, and by frequent stirring. If artificial drying is employed the manufacturer's instructions should be followed. With very wet paddy, and particularly after parboiling, it is common practice to dry in two stages separated by a resting period during which the paddy is aerated. Cleaning is an important operation; small stones and pieces of metal can damage the huller, while pieces of straw may cause an uneven flow of paddy to the huller. All impurities should be removed before the paddy is hulled. A combination of sieving and aspiration is commonly employed to separate the light impurities and a de-stoner is used to remove denser impurities. If the paddy is to be parboiled before hulling, it should be washed and drained before being soaked, in order to remove soluble impurities which may otherwise discolour the grains. Figure 5: A Flow Diagram of Rice Modern Rice Mill

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(c) Hulling operations. During this operation the hull (or husk, or shell) is removed from the paddy grain to produce brown rice. The husks have no nutritional value but may be used as fuel, perhaps in the parboiling operation. The ash can be used as a source of pure carbon for steel-making.  A variety of machines exist for hulling paddy. The three most popular are:  Engleberg-type steel roller and cage huller  Rubber roll huller  Disc huller

The Engleberg (Grant, Planter) huller represents an old design which is still widely used at the village level, and may also be used for processing maize. It consists of a fluted steel shaft operating inside a perforated steel screen, which also carries a projecting strip of steel whose distance from the shaft can be varied. To operate satisfactorily the huller must be full. The degree of hulling is regulated by the clearance between the steel strip and the shaft, and by the rate at which the mixture of rice, husks and unhulled paddy is allowed to discharge from the working chamber. An adjustable slide controls the discharge rate. Various accessories may be added to the Engleberg huller. The common attachments are a polisher, consisting of rotating cylinders fitted with leather strips which press the rice against a perforated housing, and a simple husk aspirator. In the rubber roll huller the paddy is passed in a single layer between rubbercovered rollers rotating in opposite directions and with different surface speeds; as the paddy passes between the rolls it is subjected to a shearing action which removes the hull. Its action is far more gentle than that of the steel shaft huller, resulting in a greater yield of unbroken rice. The rubber roll huller is frequently supplied with a husk-aspirating attachment. This separates the hulls and immature paddy grains from the brown rice fraction. Disc hullers are not generally used for small-scale rice milling operations. (d) Post-hulling operations: The main post-hulling processing operations are whitening, polishing and grading. In large-scale processing plants, these operations are multi-stage and utilize a succession of specialized machinery. In small-scale processing some operations may be omitted (e.g. grading); they may be unnecessary (e.g. the steel roll mill also removes the bran layers), or may be carried out by a second hulling machine that is appropriately adjusted.

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Whitening refers to the removal of the bran layers as a separate operation after hulling. These layers closely adhere to the endosperm and have to be removed by rubbing against an abrasive surface and against other grains. The Engleberg-type huller can remove husk and bran in one operation. Polishing is the final, gentler stage consisting of cleaning bran particles and dust from the white rice and smoothing its surface so that it looks better. Whitening and polishing operations are combined in the steel roll mill with polisher attached. Grading of the polished rice into whole grains and broken grains if necessary if the white rice is to be sold, or stored for more than a few days. Broken grains deteriorate more rapidly than whole grains and whole kernels usually command a higher price. Grading is carried out by sorting machines on the basis of grain size (using sieves or an indented cylinder cleaner), grain density (using aspiration) or a combination thereof. Rice Utilization in different parts of the world Rice is mainly used as a food, being boiled or steamed and eaten with meat, fish and vegetables. It has also many other uses in food and commerce. Rice is the best cereal crop in term of food energy per production area and is consumed in various forms including plain rice, noodles, puffed rice, breakfast cereal, cakes, fermented sweet rice, snacks foods, beer, wine and vinegar. Rice starch is used as a thickener in baby foods, sauces and desserts or can be made simultaneously with vegetable, poultry, beef, seafood and other dishes. Rice as a comfort food is economical, delicious, nutritious, versatile, easy to prepare and bland enough to pair with other foods. Rice is convenient to store on shelves in cupboards and pantries. Rice bran called Nuka in Japan is a valuable commodity in Asia and is used for many daily needs. It is moist, oily inner layer which is heated to produce oil. It is also used as pickling bed in making rice bran pickles and Takuan. Raw rice may be ground into flour for many uses, including making many kinds of beverages such as amazake, horchata, rice milk, and sake. Rice flour does not contain gluten and is suitable for people on a gluten-free diet. Rice may also be made into various types of noodles. Raw brown rice may also consumed by raw fruitarians if soaked and sprouted (usually 1 to 30 weeks) Recent studies have indicated that rice hull or bran contains antioxidants and it has been demonstrated that rice bran oil can lower both the total and the low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in non-human primates (Nicholosi et al., 1990). Some health problems, such as beriberi (thiamin deficiency), growth retardation, marasmus, and vitamin A deficiency can result from consumption of only white rice from which a portion of the 68

protein and most of the fat, vitamins, and minerals are removed. Rice bran is used to cure beriberi in the Philippines. Since rice is low in sodium and fat and free of cholesterol, it can help relieve mental depression. Rice starch can substitute for glucose in an oral rehydration solution for infants suffering from diarrhea caused by spleen-pancreas deficiency (Juliano, 1985). Rice oil is believed to reduce the likelihood of ischemic heart diseases. A thick paste made from rice grains and water is used in India for massage for curing arthritic pain. The Chinese believe that rice can increase appetite and cure indigestion. Rice water (a decoction of rice) is prescribed as an ointment for skin inflammation. Glutinous rice is believed to strengthen the kidneys, spleen-pancreas and stomach because of its easier digestion compared to regular rice. The Chinese also believe that rice mixed with honey butter and water can build energy and blood and counter emaciation and other disorders (Juliano, 1985). Rice like other cereal grains can be puffed (popped) which is a process that takes advantage of the grains water content and typically involves heating grains in a special chamber. Further puffing is sometimes accomplished by processing pre-puffed pellets in a low-pressure chamber. Rice-based recipes of south-west Nigeria In south west Nigeria, rice is mainly used as a food, being boiled or steamed and eaten with meat, fish and vegetables. Sometimes it is ground into powder and the cooked into doughy consistency and eaten with different types of soups. Below are the rice recipes in south west Nigeria and their preparation

Boiled rice (serves 4) Ingredient 

600 g rice, 11tr of water, salt to taste

Method of preparation 

Pick and wash the rice. Place in a good size pot and cover with cold water. Place on heat and allow boiling for 5 minutes, removing from heat and washing away excess starch with cold water. Barely cover rice with water and add some salt. Cover pot and cook 20 minutes until cooked and all the moisture is absorbed. Fluff with a fork to separate grains and serve hot with gravy, stew, special “Ofada” stew, assorted vegetables or soup. To give additional flavor the rice can be wrapped in leaves after cooking before eating. 69

Jollof rice (serves 4) Ingredient 

600 g rice, 1 kg meat or chicken, 2 chilies (liquidized), I onion (liquidized), 30 g tomato puree, 1 onion (sliced), 3 fresh tomatoes (sliced), 200 ml groundnut oil, Seasoning: 1 teaspoon thyme; I teaspoon curry; I teaspoon nutmeg, salt to taste

Method of preparation 

Wash the meat or chicken, season with salt. Place to cook until tender. Wash the rice and leave to drain. Heat the oil and fry the cooked meat until brown, remove from pan and fry the ground tomatoes, onions and chilies for 10minutes. Add the tomato puree and seasonings, fry for another 5 minutes, add the washed rice and gradually add the stock, stirring continuously. Bring to the boil and reduced heat, cook for 15minutes until nearly soft. Add the sliced tomatoes, onions and fried meats. Stir cover and allow to steam until all the liquid is well absorbed. Serve.

Jollof rice special (serves 4) Ingredients 

600 g rice, 1kg meat or chicken, 2 chilies (liquidized), 1 onion (liquidized), 3 fresh tomatoes (liquidized), 1 onion (sliced), 200 ml palm oil, 150 g fermented locust bean seeds ( iru woro)

Method of preparation 

Wash the meat or chicken, season with salt. Place to cook until tender. Wash the rice and leave to drain. Heat the oil and fry the cooked meat until brown, remove from pan and fry the ground tomatoes, onions and chilies for 10minutes. Add the locust beans fry for another 5 minutes, add the washed rice and gradually add the stock, stirring continuously. Bring to the boil and reduced heat, cook for 15minutes until nearly soft. Add the sliced onions and fried meats. Stir cover and allow to steam until all the liquid is well absorbed. Serve.

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Fried Rice (serves 4) Ingredients 

Rice 750g, vegetable oil, chicken (whole chicken or chicken drumsticks), cow Liver (100g), plain Yellow Curry Powder – no chilli (1 tablespoon), green Beans (a handful), 5 medium sized carrots, Salt (to taste), onions - 3 medium sized bulbs, seasoning – 3 bouillon cubes.

Method of preparation 

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Wash all the vegetables to be used in cooking the fried rice. Scrape and cut the carrots into tiny cubes. Cut the green beans into small pieces. Soak these 2 vegetables separately in hot water for about 5 minutes and drain. Cut 1 bulb of onion. Set all these aside. Cut the whole chicken into pieces and cook with 1 teaspoon of thyme and 2 bulbs of chopped onions. When the chicken is almost done, add 3 cubes of seasoning and a small amount of salt. Add water sparingly. Cook till tender. Put the pieces of chicken in a sieve to drain, and then fry with vegetable oil. Parboil the rice for about 5 minutes after boiling commences. Wash the parboiled rice and put in a sieve so all the water drains out. Pour the chicken stock into a sieve to remove all traces of onions, thyme etc used in cooking the chicken. Pour the stock into a pot and set to boil. Once the water boils, add the parboiled rice. Also, add 1 tablespoon of plain yellow curry powder, then add salt to taste. Once the water has dried up, check that the rice is cooked. Perfect fried rice is one that the grains are separated from one another, resistant to the bite but not hard. Now, transfer the rice to a casserole dish or another pot to help cool it down quickly. This is essential to keep the grains from sticking to each other. If left in the original hot pot, the rice will continue to cook and eventually stick together. At this point, it is advisable to divide the vegetables into say 4, 5 or even 6 equal parts. The rice will be fried in batches so this number depends on the quantity of rice you can comfortably fry in the pan or pot. Also, divide the cooked rice and the diced cow liver into the same number of equal parts. Now pour a small amount of vegetable oil into a frying pan. This quantity of oil should be such that it would be absorbed by 1 part of the cooked rice and 1 part each of the vegetables. When the oil is hot, add 1 part of diced onions and stir for 10 seconds, followed by 1 part of diced cow liver, one part each of the diced vegetables, then 1 part of cooked rice. Add more salt if necessary. More curry powder may also be added at this stage if you need to touch up on the colour. Stir till all the ingredients have mixed well 71

and transfer to a dry pot. Repeat this for the remaining batches of the ingredients. The fried rice is ready. Tomato rice (serves 4) Ingredients 

500 g boiled rice, 100 ml groundnut oil, 1 onion (finely sliced), 2 cloves garlic (crushed) 2 tsp tomato puree, 225 g cooked green peas

Method of preparation 

Heat oil in a frying pan, add onion and garlic and fry until soft, and tomato puree, peas and rice. Mix well and fry for 5 minutes stirring frequently. Serve.

Rice and beans (serves 4) Very popular and nutritious dish for vegetarians Ingredients 

225 g long-grain rice, 2 tbs, ground oil, 1 onion, finely sliced, 2 cloves garlic crushed, 1 chilli finely chopped, 350g tomatoes, skinned and chopped, 1 red pepper, seeded and diced, 225 g cooked red beans, 600 ml water or stock, I green pepper, seeded and diced

Method of preparation 

Heat oil in a frying pan, add onion and garlic and fry until soft and translucent. Add the chili, tomatoes, and peppers and cook until thick and well blended Season with salt, stir in the beans mixing well and add the rice and water. Cover and cook for 20 minutes until rice is tender and all water is well absorbed. Stir and serve hot.

Coconut rice (serves 3) Ingredients 

450 g rice, 11tr Coconut milk, 1 medium size fresh fish, 225 g fresh prawns (shelled), 100 g ground crayfish, 2 chilies (sliced), 1 onion (sliced), 2 tomatoes (sliced), salt to taste 72

Method of preparation 

Wash the rise and place in a large pot. Add the coconut milk together with the sliced chilies, onions tomatoes and salt. Bring to the boil, reduce heat and allow it to cook for 15minutes. Sprinkle in the ground crayfish and stir arrange the washed fish and prawns on the top, cover and cook gently for another 15 minutes until all the liquid is well absorbed. Serve.

Ground rice (serves 4) Ingredients 

750 g ground rice, 700 – 800 ml water

Method of preparation 

Bring about 600ml of water (could be slightly more or less depending on the desired consistency) to boil. Gradually stir in the ground rice, taking care that no lump is formed, until all the ground rice has been stirred into the water. Continue stirring until a smooth paste is obtained. Then pour in the desired remaining water, cover the pot and cook for 10minutes. Uncover the pot and further stir the paste until it is smooth. Cut into portions and serve with desired soup

PROSPECTS FOR RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT A lot of opportunities abound in the rice industry. Nigeria must not miss the huge economic opportunity in rice production because the potentials are there. We have the capacity to provide the required farm inputs that can robustly transform rice production. We must not allow food importation policies to kill research initiatives and farmers' enthusiasm to give national research breakthroughs a trial. Most importantly, we need the political will of Asian countries like India, Thailand, Cambodia, Pakistan, Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines to address issues of food insecurity especially through improved funding of agricultural research systems. Nigeria can be a net exporter of rice too with New Rice for Africa (NERICA), a product of the cross breeding of Oriza glaberima African rice, with the Asian Oriza sativa. African rice has been given recognition in research centers because it is resistant to major rice diseases and pests in Africa. Our “Ofada” which is currently a popular menu in fast food centres can take us there too if rightly handled. Also, Adebowale et al (2010) recently demonstrated the possibility of high quality malts from ofada rice. This is a good stead in sustaining locally available raw material for the industrial sectors. Mr. President wants to stop importation of rice in the next three years. At the moment we import a lot of rice, which is a big drain on the economy as lots of foreign exchange is expended on it. 73

This brief review thereby raises a number of issues. Indeed, numerous research gaps have been identified which require further research. Some of the research questions are stated below: Processing  What kind of processing technologies are in use?  What is the profitability of utilization of these technologies?  What are the possibilities to mechanize or upgrade the existing processing technologies?  What factors hinder the adoption of modern technologies?  Is there sufficient reward for quality? Consumption  What is the share of rice expenditure in total household expenditure?  What is the level of rice consumption?  What is the rice preference of Nigerians – imported or local and, what factors account for this?

References Abulude F.O. (2004). Effect of processing on nutritional composition, Phytate and functional properties of rice. Nigerian Food Journal, 22: 97-108. Adebowale, A. A., Sanni, L. O., Owo, H. O. and Karim, O. R. (2011). Effect of Variety and Moisture Content on Some Engineering Properties of Paddy Rice. Journal of Food Science and Technology, India, 48 (5): 551-559.

Adebowale, A. A, Sanni, S.A., Karim, O. R and Ojoawo, J. A. (2010). Malting characteristics of Ofada rice: chemical and sensory qualities of malt from ofada rice grains. International Food Research Journal, Malaysia, 17, 83-88. Akpokodje, G, F. Lançon and O. Erenstein, (2001). Nigeria's rice economy: State of the art. Paper presented at the NISER/WARDA Nigerian Rice Economy Stakeholders Workshop, Ibadan, 8-9 November 2001. Bouake: WARDA. Cantral, R.P and Reeves, T.G. 2002 .The cereal of the World’s Poor takes center stage. Science. 296: 53 Ebuehi, O. A. T. and Oyewole, A. C. (2007). Effect of cooking and soaking on physical characteristics, nutrient composition and sensory evaluation of indigenous and foreign rice varieties in Nigeria. Afr. Jour. of Biotech. 6 (8): 1016-1020. Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) (2002) FAOSTAT. www.fao.org Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO). (2004). Statistical database. FAOSTAT 2003 FAO. Rome

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Juliano, B.O. (1985). Rice: Chemistry and Technology. 2nd ed., American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, M.N. Lieng, J., Li, Z., Tsuji, K., Nakano, K., Nout, M.J.R. & Hamer, R.J. (2008). Milling characteristics and distribution of phytic acid and zinc in long-, medium- and short-grain rice. Jour. of Cereal Sci. 48 (1): 83–91. Nicholosi, L.O., Dampsin, E.O. and Bature, P.P. (1990). Foods and Nutrition Enclopedia. Pegus Press, Clovis California, U.S.A.

Sanni, S. A., Okeleye, K. A. Soyode, A. F. and Taiwo, O. C. (2005). Physicochemical properties of early and medium maturing upland rice varieties. Nigerian Food Journal, 23: 148 – 155. Simonyan, K.J., El-Okene, A.M. and Yiljep, Y.D. (2007). Some physical properties of Samaru sorghum 17. Agricuultral Engineering International; the CIGR Ejournal manuscript FPO7008.volume ix

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CHAPTER SEVEN

Traditional Food Fortification Techniques for the Improvement of Rice-based Products I. Nkama, M. H. Badau and N. Danbaba                      

OUTLINE Definition of local foods Reasons for studying local foods and local food fortification techniques Food fortification Definition of terms Restoration Fortification Enrichment Standardization Nutrification Nutrient mineral Vitamins Reasons for fortification Principles of food fortification Policy and rationale Dangers of fortification Recommended daily amount (RDA) Formulated foods and foods for special dietary needs Fortification with amino acids Local fortification techniques Locally fortified foods Conclusion References INTRODUCTION Deficiency in micronutrients has since been reported as responsible for widespread health problems in many developing countries of the World. Vitamin and mineral deficiencies cause disability and reduce work capacity of rural and urban work force. Addition of micronutrient therefore to staples and condiments can prevent large scale 76

deficiency diseases. As defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO), fortification refers to "the practice of deliberately increasing the content of an essential micronutrient, ie. vitamins and minerals (including trace elements) in a food so as to improve the nutritional quality of the food supply and to provide a public health benefit with minimal risk to health," whereas enrichment is defined as "synonymous with fortification and refers to the addition of micronutrients to a food irrespective of whether the nutrients were originally in the food before processing or not (WHO & FAO, 2006). Therefore, food fortification strategy must abide by all food and labeling regulations and support nutritional rationale. From a food developer's point of view, they also need to consider the costs associated with this new product and whether or not there will be a market to support the change. But, the bottom line is that a simple, proven and adoptable food fortification technology based on people’s traditional staples and food habit can bring vitality, deliver market growth and support long term food security development. In this chapter, emphases will be on the traditional food fortification techniques. Fortified foods produced for special dietary requirements are also outlined and scientific terms used in food fortification defined. DEFINITION OF LOCAL FOODS For the purposes of this discussion local or traditional foods may be defined as those foods which are natural or originating in a locality or distinct to a nation and its people. They are foods which have been developed primarily on the basis of the raw foods initially available in the area, based on the food habits of the local community. Generally speaking traditional foods are very closely related to the culture and the food habits of the people. In Nigeria most of the local/traditional foods are closely linked to various cultural and ethnic groups within the country. Local food fortification follows a similar pattern. REASONS FOR STUDYING LOCAL FOODS AND LOCAL FOOD FORTIFICATION TECHNIQUES It is pertinent to start asking why we need to study the local and local foods fortification techniques in Nigeria. There is of course, the intellectual curiosity to understand the scientific basis of local food processing and preparation practices. But also as many people in Nigeria are in danger of becoming poorer and malnourished due to shortage of available food; and as developed world becomes more protectionists; there is a need for cheap effective and alternative food preservation and preparation methods and which are applicable on small scale as well as large scale. The local food processing and fortification techniques provide an obvious starting point in search for improved methods.

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The successful development and advancement of Nigeria depends to a large extent on its ability to produce for itself the bulk of its food needs. No country can be great and strong if it cannot produce enough food to feed its teeming population. If Nigeria to join the league of strong nations it must be able to produce enough food to feed the 140 million people that live in Nigeria. Before a detailed discussion on the local food fortification techniques a brief classification of local foods is necessary. The local foods of plant and animal origin are classified as given below. Cereals Sorghum (Sorghum glaucum), Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum), Acha (Digitaria exilis), Maize (Zea mays), Rice (Oryza sativa. L), and Wheat (Triticum vulgare). Roots and tubers Cassava (Manihot esculenta), Yam (Dioscorea sp), Cocoa yam (Xanthosoma sagittifolium), Sweet potato (Solenostmon rotundifolius). Grain legumes Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan), Bambara groundnut (Vigna subeterrenea,), African yam beans (Sphenostylis stenocarpa, Groundnut bean (Kerstingiella geocaarpa), Soybean (Glycine max), Groundnut (Arachis hypogea). Vegetables Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus), Green amaranth (Amaranthus blitum), Bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalina), Water leaf (Talinum triangulare), Fluted pumpkin (Telferia occidentalis), Melon seed (Cucumeropis edulis), Sesame (Sesamum radiatum), Roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa) among others. Nuts Shea nut (Vitellaria paradoxa), palm kernel nut, and wild nuts. Fruits Black plum (Vitex doniana), Indian tamarind (Tamarindus indica), Desert date (Balanites aegyptiaca), oranges, mangoes, and apple. Sugar and sweeteners: Schleerocarya birrea (Semi wild) Miscellaneous: Gum Arabic (Acacia Senegal), Baobab pod and leaf. Meat: Poultry, goats, sheep, cattle, pigs, donkeys, camel and bush meat. 78

Spices and condiments: (onions, pepper, ginger, garlic, cardamom, daddawa, iru and ‘ogiri’) Miscellaneous foods (Coffee, Tea, Kolanuts, Coconuts, Baobab pod, tamarind fruit pulp) Cereals like rice, sorghum, millet, maize, acha and wheat are commonly used in Nigeria. They usually form the major part of our diet and provide largely the energy for doing work and materials for building tissues, especially in growing children. Most cereals do not contain many vitamins and minerals in adequate amounts that is why some other foods must be eaten along with the cereals. Pulses contain more proteins than do cereals. Different kinds of pulses are available. Pulses are good sources of the B vitamins and it is necessary to include them in the diet of growing children. Vegetables both green leafy and others (carrot, tomatoes, spinach, and okra) provide vitamin A. Fruits are good souses of vitamin C. Milk is the best food for infants and children. It is a complete food and can be taken by all ages to provide iron and vitamin C. Eggs are another food that is very nutritious and particularly good for growing children and helps in their growth. The protein of egg is of excellent quality and is easily digestible. Eggs contain valuable minerals and vitamins that protect against illness. Meat and fish (animal’s foods) are rich in protein. Meat also contains vitamin A which is good for the health of the eyes. It is an important food for mother’s babies and adults. Condiments and spices are mainly needed to improve the flavor and taste of the food. They hardly contribute much to the nutritive value of the diet in the amounts usually consumed. Pepper contains some amounts of carotene. The foods we eat contain proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins and minerals. We need to include a variety of foods in our diet so as to obtain all these nutrients in the required amounts. FOOD FORTIFICATION The addition of nutrients to foods is certainly not new. It has been practiced for many years and for very sound reasons. However, the increasing tendency to add nutrients to food for reasons often unconnected with any sound nutritional policy is a real cause for concern. The first suggested fortification of food was iodization of salt by Boussingault in 1831. Goiter due to iodine deficiency has been known from the earliest times and for hundreds of years. Various traditional preparations such as seaweeds, sponges and ash has been used to treat iodine deficiency. It was discovered in 1824 that the Indians of Columbia, South America treated goiter with salt which Boussingault found to contain iodine. He then recommended that iodine should be added to domestic salt to prevent goiter. Modern approaches to food fortification followed the occurrence of Vitamin A deficiency among children in Denmark in 1917. This was due to the export of butter (a major source of Vitamin A) and its replacement by margarine, so margarine was 79

fortified with fish liver oils. ‘Casan Calabar’ is a mineral rock salt consumed by pregnant and nursing mothers in Nigeria which is believed to be a source of calcium and other minerals. The pioneering rice enrichment studies in Bataan province in the Philippines in 1948-50 in response to observed vitamin A deficiency resulting in high incidences of beriberi was also successful. DEFINITIONS OF TERMS Terms used in food fortification or enrichment Food Restoration It involves the replacement, in full or in part, of losses incurred in processing (e.g. loss of vitamin B groups and iron during milling of cereals to low extraction rates and loss of vitamin C in the preparation of instant potato. It should be noted that up till now restoration has been limited, e.g. white bread has thiamine, niacin and iron added back, although other vitamins such as pantothenate, folate, pyridoxine and tocopherol are also partly lost in the milling process. Similarly, fruit juices might have vitamin C added back but juices also supply folate and thiamine. In some countries calcium and riboflavin are also added to bread - this is fortification since wheat contains only small amounts of these two nutrients. Fortification This refers to the addition of nutrients to foods from which they were absent, or present in unimportant amounts. This term would include nutrients added to foods because deficiencies or potential deficiencies have been shown in a population. It would also include additions to fulfill the role of food in the diet. Thus, margarine is fortified with vitamin A in many countries to replace that ‘lost’ when margarine is substituted for butter. Vitamin D is added at higher levels than found in butter as a public health measure since extra is considered necessary for the population as a whole. Enrichment This is increasing the level of nutrients present to make the food a ‘richer; source. Enrichment has frequently been interchanged with restoration and fortification as a general term. However, for labeling purposes the use of the term ‘enriched’ is controlled. Standardization Sometimes used to mean additions to compensate for natural or seasonal variations in nutrient content.

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Nutrification This has been suggested to mean the addition of a range of nutrients to formulated or fabricated foods marketed as meal replacers (it was little used but now being used more frequently in developed countries). Nutrient Minerals These are elements which have a defined physiological function and are therefore essential in the diet for the maintenance of health. Some such as calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium are required in amounts of over 100mg daily while others, often called ‘trace minerals’ are required in very much smaller quantities e.g. sodium, iodine and molybdenum are required in quantities of less than 1 mg per day. Vitamins These are organic substances required in very small amounts which are essential to the living cell. They must be supplied by the diet as they cannot be synthesised in adequate amounts by the human body. There are at present 13 known vitamins required by human (this does not take into account the various substances with vitamin A, D or K activity). Reasons for Fortification Having defined the terms the following are the reasons for food fortification. 1. More meals are now eaten away from home 2. There has been an increase in snacking at the expense of whole meal – eating pattern. 3. Many people are now reducing their diets. 4. People are now selecting foods with lower nutrient density. 5. Replacement of local foods of known nutritional value with processed meals of unknown value. 6. To obtain the full complement of nutrients. 7. Harmonization of trade between countries (e.g. EEC). 8. To eradicate or eliminate nutritional deficiencies; e.g. iodisation of salt to eradicate goitre (USA); enrichment of cereals with B vitamins and iron to decrease the incidence of beri-beri, aribo flavinosis, and pellagra. Fortification of milk with vitamin B to reduce rickets; fortification of infant foods, and baby foods. 9. Food fortification is now used as a marketing point or strategy. 10. Provide diets for proper health. Mineral Losses during Processing As stated earlier fortification is necessary to restore minerals and other nutrients lost during processing. The causes of loss of nutrients include the following.

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Leaching Canning, boiling, steaming and cooking are the processes most likely to cause leaching of minerals. The extent of loss varies with the food product, type of processing, and properties of the mineral involved. Canning of spinach has been shown to cause losses of some minerals: Mn (81.7%), Co (70.6%) and Zn (40.1%). Beans and tomatoes (60% and 83.8% of zinc lost respectively). Canning carrot, beets and green beans caused losses of Cobalt 70%, 66.7% and 88.9% respectively. Canning resulted in the increase of Mg (226.8%) and Zinc (60%) in canned beets. Other mineral affected included: Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+ in heat treated spinach. Note: Mineral content of water used for processing or cooling can also affect the mineral content of the processed foods. Losses of Ca2+, Mn 2+ and iron in cooked spaghetti have been reported during cooking. Other minerals lost in spaghetti include Mg, Fe, P, Zinc, Cu, Ca, ranging from 86.5 to 119.1%. Most losses occur during the first 10 minutes of cooking. Frying reduced the content of these minerals throughout the tuber, while microwave processing resulted in minimal losses. Freezing as would be expected resulted in greater retention of minerals than canning. Separation The losses of minerals due to separation often occur in such processes as: milling, sugar refining and processing of legumes or seeds with oils and/or proteins. Refining of wheat to flour results in a significant loss of Cu (67.9%), Mn (88.5%), Zinc (77.7%), and Cobalt (67.9%). Iron content of cereals is reduced greatly by removing the germ and bran, since this is where iron is concentrated. Processing of corn, rice, sugar and soybeans also involves some loss of minerals due to separation. Polishing rice causes a 75% loss of Cr and Zn, while losses of Mn, Co and Cu are much less, ranging from 26 to 45%. Processing of corn appears to result in little loss of trace minerals but in a substantial redistribution. Corn meal contains about one-half the Cr and Zn that dry corn contains, but it has higher levels of Co and Cu. Corn starch contains less Cr, Mn and Zn but slightly more Co than dry corn. Corn oil contains much more of the original Cu and Cr from dry corn, but Mn, Co and Zn levels were 21%, 42% and 9% of those in dry corn respectively. Processing of sugar shows an increase in the concentration of trace elements in molasses as compared to sugarcane. While sugar has less Cr, Mn, Cu, Zn and Mb than molasses, sugarcane or raw sugar has less Co than molasses. Soybean processing does not appear to cause large losses of trace element, except silicon. Increase in Fe, Zn, Al, Strontium and Selenium has been found in processed soybean. To explain this it is postulated that these minerals are either bound or intimately associated with the protein in the grain. 82

Effects of Environmental Changes Minerals are extremely reactive in the presence of moisture and/or water activity. Such reactions might occur with free radicals, or other reactive groups, O2 and compounds entering the food via diffusion from packaging materials. (These factors affect – solubility, valence, change density, ionization, dehydration and rehydration). Aging Aging or length or storage is another factor that affect mineral availability either negatively or positively. Enhancer and Inhibitors Proteins and amino acids generally increase the bioavailability of Zn and other minerals. Dietary fibers such as hemicelluloses, cellulose, and lignin have been shown to combine with Zn, and iron and so diminish their availability. Cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin have been shown to bind Ca, Fe and Zn at pH of 6.5 and releasing bound metal at pH less than 6. Phytic acid binds Cu, Zn, Ni, Co, Mn, Fe, Ca, (decreasing order of binding). Generally organic acids act as enhancers of minerals. For example ascorbic acid enhances the availability of iron in foods. Addition of 50 to 100 mg of ascorbic acid to maize porridge increased the bioavailability of iron tenfold. Other factors that can lead to nutrient loss Factors that affect mineral variability include the following. 1. Genetic 2. Agricultural practice 3. Variation in soil content of various elements 4. Soil fertility 5. pH 6. Environmental factors 7. Plant maturity Principles of food fortification Enrichment is justified if the produce is generally accepted as being a good source of the nutrient(s) in question but suffers processing damage, The introduction of a ‘new’ food that is expected to replace an existing product may call for the addition of nutrients that would otherwise be ‘lost’ to the consumers. As a general principle any (Novel Food) or manufactured food which simulates a natural food should in all important respects, have the same nutritional value as that food. For example textured vegetable protein intended for meat substitute and expected to be made from the field beans, Vicia faba, which is relatively poor in methionine. The 83

principal nutrients supplied by meat are protein, thiamine, riboflavin and vitamin B12 and iron, and levels of addition of these vitamins and methionine are suggested. The effect of dietary fibre (and phytate) in interfering with absorption of certain minerals of namely iron, zinc, calcium and magnesium, provides another consideration for possible fortification Bioavailability of nutrients can sometimes be enhanced by the addition of other nutrients. Thus the bioavailability of iron can be markedly increased by the consumption at the same meal of foods with vitamin C; the uptake of calcium can be enhanced with vitamin D. Policy and Rationale It is clear that additions of nutrients should be based on a stated rationale and sound policy. Indiscriminate addition as well as trivial addition should be avoided. A statement by the American Medical Association points out that the implementation of sound fortification policies requires a knowledge of national dietary patterns and of the nutritional status of the population, The amounts of nutrients added should raise the daily total from all foods approximately to the RDA, and care taken so that people with unusual food patterns would not have an excessive intake. If there is a widespread shortage or likelihood of a shortage of a nutrient then the remedy is compulsory fortification. Dangers of fortification 1. Not enough is known about requirements for some vitamins. In a natural food the major well known vitamins are present; it is usually assumed that the minor ones are also present. Therefore, fortification of the well-known vitamin may still leave a deficit of the others. 2. Most food nutrients have interrelated properties in the body, The addition to some diets of some vitamins, mineral, proteins or amino acids often in large quantities may lead to serious imbalance. 3. The indiscriminate addition of vitamins to many foods may lead to some individuals having avitaminosis i.e. vitamin D in powdered milk, supplements of fish liver oil. Vitamin A is usually added to fruit juices as well as vitamin C. Some people may consume large quantities. Recommended Daily Amounts RDA sometimes referred to as Recommended daily Intake, RDI, or Recommended Dietary Allowances. These are defined as amounts of the nutrients sufficient or more than sufficient for the nutritional needs of practically all healthy persons in a population. These are based on average requirements increased by 20% (2 standard deviations) so as to include those with above average needs. 84

Tables of RDA apply to population groups, not to individuals (some of whom may, in theory at least require only 60% of RDA). In the present context RDA are used for labeling purposes when nutrient content is described as a percentage of RDA. Tables of RDA vary from one country to another. It is suggested that local foods should normally be analyzed as consumed to ensure that they meet national RDA. Formulated Foods and Foods for Special Dietary Uses Foods for special dietary uses are clearly based on specified sound physiological principles and the rationale for their nutrient composition must be left to suitably qualified persons formulating such preparations. Food products formulated as low calorie meals replacements should provide approximately one third of the daily requirements of nutrients per meal. Other formulated foods may consist of special dishes (frozen meals, TV dinners) and in such instance should contain the nutrients in proportion to the energy contribution to the diet. Whether or not they should be restricted to the ‘well known’ vitamin which occasionally present public health problems (A, B1, B2, niacin, C, D, E and possibly B6 and folate) or whether the other vitamins should be included in a matter for specialized discussion. Similarly, whether the mineral fortification should be limited to the well known minerals that are those where problems might occur among the public, namely iron, calcium and iodine, or be extended to include Mg, Se, Zinc, etc in a matter for further specialized discussion. Fortification with Amino Acids It has been suggestion that amino acids in particular lysine should be added to cereal based foods since cereals are generally low in lysine. It must be pointed out that cereals are not eaten alone except occasionally rice, millet or sorghum or maize in poor areas are consumed alone. When most diets are considered as a whole like some of our local diets to be considered later, lysine may not be the limiting amino acid. Local Fortification techniques 1. The purpose of rice enrichment and fortification is to restore to milled rice the levels of B vitamins and minerals removed from the grain during milling. It is technically more difficult than enriching wheat flour since rice is consumed as a whole grain. Therefore, traditional methods of rice enrichment or fortification that will be covered in this chapter shall only involve traditional methods that use the whole grains. Traditionally, rice fortification methods includes, ordinary parboiling or acid parboiling (with 1% acetic acid), thiamine enrichment, coating, production of artificial rice and multinutrient enrichment by adding a nutrient-enriched premix. The multi-nutrient-enriched rice is blended with milled rice at a 1:200 ratio. The greatest challenges to the implementation and adoption of premix rice enrichment in local food fortification, even 85

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

though rice enrichment has been demonstrated to be practical (Salcedo, et al., 1950; Williams, 1956) are outlined by FAO (1954). High cost of premix, especially where this are imported. The difficulty of ensuring that the premix is added to milled rice in the correct proportion in the mill. The slightly increased cost of enriched rice compared to the ordinary rice, which affect its sale to lower income group. Losses in added vitamins during cooking of enriched rice. Issues related to standards and quality assurance. The food fortification strategies that are outlined in this chapter therefore focus mainly on other foods that the cereal based could be substitute with rice. The foods described are major foods consumed in the Northeastern States of Borno, Yobe and Jigawa. The areas covered include Maiduguri metropolis, Gubio, Ngetra, Jekori, Kajidin, Tamsuwa, Maina Bukati, Gamboru, Awanari and Abatcha sugari in Borno State; Potiskum, Tikau, Garin Malam Isa, Kwakuri, Jakadai, Zagamed, Ka’el and Nengere in Yobe State and Sabon Gari, Hunare, Kunkuawa, Dun Kofa Gaaru, karabe and Suwari in Jigawa State. However it must be noted that some of these foods cut across the whole Northern Nigeria, the names and ingredients may vary but the aim is similar. Locally fortified foods ‘Ogi’, ‘koko’ or ‘akamu’ (Fermented thin porridge) Ogi is made from millet, maize or sorghum. The grain is steeped in water for 2 - 7 days at room temperature. The fermented grain is milled, the bran removed by sieving on a fine cheese cloth. The sediment in the pot is ogi or akamu, which is cooked in water to produce a porridge which is consumed warm or cooled to form a gel or pudding called agidi. Ogi is preferred as a weaning food. It is eaten with bean cake balls (akara), milk and served as a breakfast meal. Recently dried ogi has been mixed with soy flour to prepare soy-ogi by Federal Institute for Industrial Research (FIRR) Lagos Nigeria. Soyogi has not received wide acceptance as a source of high-protein energy food. (Nkama et al., 2000). ‘Fura’ (Steam cooked product) Fura is unfermented dough which is steam cooked. It is prepared from millet primarily, although sorghum and maize are also used. It is used as a breakfast meal. Dehulled grain is pounded in a mortar, shaped into balls and placed in boiling water, cooked for 30 to 60 minutes. The cooked balls are repounded with hot water and spices until a smooth slightly cohesive dough is formed. The dough is reshaped into small balls. Fura is normally taken with milk, yogurt, nono or kindrimo (Jideani et al., 2001).

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‘Danwake’ (Steam cooked dumpling) Danwake (meaning product from beans) is steam cooked dough. Its consumption cuts across the various ethnic groups in the area. Danwake is prepared from beans (cowpea) flour, cereal flour (sorghum, millet, maize or rice) and baobab leave flour. Sometimes cassava flour is used in place of cereal flour. The process involves, mixing equal amounts of bean flour and cereal flour and some baobab leave flour. Water and kanwa water are added and the mixture worked with hand or wooden pestle and mortar into a smooth dough. The dough is moulded into small balls and gently placed into boiling water and then cooked to doneness. The cooked danwake balls are removed and cooled by placing them in cold water. The balls are then removed from the water to drain. Salt, pepper, maggi and other condiments are added to the danwake which is then sprayed with hot groundnut oil before serving. Danwake can also be served with soup. The people believe that the addition of trona or kanwa facilities the cooking of the beans and it also reduces the flatulence factor in the beans. Trona is a rich source of vital minerals depending on the amount used in the food preparation (Nkama, 1993). ‘Kunu’ (Non-alcoholic beverage) Kunu is a very thin porridge prepared from millet, sorghum, maize or rice flour. Kunu from gero millet is called Kunun gero. Whole grain is steeped for 12 - 24 hours, washed and drained using a basket. The steeped grain is allowed to germinate and mixed with equal amount of grits or dehulled grain and ground to make a paste. The paste is allowed to stand for 3 hours and divided into 3 parts. Boiled water is added to 2 parts paste, stirred and allowed to stand for 5 - 10 minutes. It is mixed with the remaining one part paste and allowed to stand for 12 - 24 hours. Spices are added and the mixture sieved before serving. The resulting beverage is called kunun zaki. If groundnut milk is added it is called kunun gyada, if tsamiya (tamarind fruit pulp water) or kanwa water is added, the kunu is called kunun tsamiya or kunun kanwa respectively. Kunu is mostly taken as an appetizer or a breakfast beverage. It is very important most especially during the fasting period of Ramadan. Its consumption cuts across ethnic barriers. It is now marketed in most cities in Nigeria in plastic bottles and polyethylene bags (Nkama et al., 1995). ‘Masa’ (Fermented baked batter) or ‘Waina’ Masa is a fermented batter from millet or rice mainly. Other cereals such as sorghum or maize can be used. During masa preparation from millet, the grain is dehulled, washed, dried and milled. It is sieved to obtain flour and grits. The grits is added to boiling water and cooked before mixing with the flour in a ratio of 1:2. The resulting paste is inoculated with yeast or yoghurt, fermented for 12 -16 hours, then neutralized with trona (kanwa) and toasted in pans with individual cuplike depressions. It is like a small cake. Masa is normally served as a breakfast cereal with spices and groundnut cake. 87

The effect of supplementation of the cereal with legume on the nutritional quality of masa has been investigated. Masa is a very important food item in the diets of many in Nigeria (Nkama and Malleshi, 1998). ‘Dafaduka’ or ‘dafuwar tsaba’ (Jigawa) The millet grain is washed and cooked until tender. kulikuli powder, vegetable, palm oil, salt, pepper, and magi (bouillon cube) is added to the cooked millet and stirred and allowed to continue cooking until very soft. Spinach and Roselle leave, which has been washed, and choppe, are added to the millet during cooking. ‘Dambu’ (Yobe, Jigawa and Borno) Dambu is made from millet flour. The millet flour is spinkled with water and made into small agglomerates which is then partly steam cooked in gittere and allowed to cool by air drying on mat or trays. Warm water is sprinkled on the air dried agglomerates to wet it. Groundnut is roasted and blanched by rubbing between the palms to remove the skin. The roasted groundnut is pounded in a pestle and mortar until smooth. This is then mixed with the wetted millet agglomerate and then steam cooked again on the gittere until done. The whole cooked mash is placed in a calabash and mixed to break up the lumps. Kanwa powder is added to improve colour and taste and then mixed. It is served with fresh milk. It can also be taken alone or with with miyan gyada. ‘Miyan gyada’ (Jigawa) In the preparation of miyan gyada, onions, tomato, pepper is fried in oil and water added and the mixture allowed to cook. Salt and magi (bouillon cube) is added and stirred. Then the roasted and pounded groundnut is added, stirred and cooked until it is thick before serving. ‘Dambu zogale’ (Jigawa) Ground pepper, maggi (bouillon cube) groundnut (raw) which has been coarsely crushed is added to the uncooked zogale leaves and undehulled millet flour. The mixture is mixed in a bowl or calabash and steam cooked in gittere until done. Vegetable oil is sprinkld on it before serving. ‘Rambo’ (Jigawa). Here undehulled millet flour is mixed with salt, kulikuli flour, cooked zogale, ground pepper. Kanwa solution is sprinkled and vegetable oil. The mixture is served.

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‘Tsaki’ (Jigawa) Millet is crushed into coarse grits and sieved to remove the fine flour. The coarse grits is taken with nono or it is eaten with soaked tamarind juice. ‘Lamba’ (Yobe) Dehulled millet is washed, dried and ground into flour. The flour is sieved to remove coarse particles. Karkashi is mixed with the sieved flour and kanwa solution is added to it until pasty. Beans (optional) are ground or crushed undehulled or soaked and ground into paste and then added to the millet or sorghum flour. The mixture is then wrapped in leaves and placed in boiling water and cooked to doneness. It is served with miyan gyada. ‘Gwote’ (Yobe) Millet is dehulled, washed and cooked until soft. Maggi, salt, onions, pepper, kulikuli powder, vegetable or palm oil are added to the cooked millet and cooking continued with constant stirring until properly cooked. It is then served. ‘Jinjiri’ (Yobe) Millet is dehulled, washed, drained and ground into flour. Ground pepper, yaji and sugar is added and mixed. Water is added to make a paste and the paste is cooked just like in the case of danwake. ‘Tamba’ (‘balannu’) (Yobe) Millet and sorghum are used in the ratio of 10 mudu millet and 3 mudus sorghum. The sorghum and millet are separately dehulled, washed and ground into flour. Tamba seeds (black caraway seeds, a black smallish seed like spinach seeds) is soaked in water for 3 days. The water is drained and the seeds ground into paste and diluted with water and cooked. Thick slurry of the sorghum flour is added into the pot containing the boiling tamba juice and stirred. The mixture is allowed to boil and cook. Thick slurry is then made from the millet flour and added to the content of the tamba in the pot, again stirred and allowed to cook. A hole is made in the ground which is filled with water. The pot is removed from the fire, when its content is properly cooked and then placed in the hole with its content and allowed to stay overnight. Flour from the millet or sorghum is sprinkled on a mat and the cooked product dropped on it and made into small balls or shapes like danwake and allowed to dry. It is eaten that way or sugar solution is sprayed on the product to wet it and then again allowed to dry. ‘Gogale’ (Yobe) Dehulled millet or sorghum is soaked for 30 min, washed and ground into paste. Kuka powder and kanwa solution or powder is added and mixed to a paste. The grain on the 89

other hand could be ground into flour then kuka added to it and mixed. Kanwa solution is added to it and mixed to make a paste. It is wrapped in kargo (kalgo tsabara) and placed in boiling water abd cooked as mion moin. It can also be made from a mixture of bambara groundnut, beans and sorghum; bambara groundnut, beans and millet or bambara groundnut and beans only. Gogale is served with miyan gyada or miyan daba ‘Nyauri’ (Yobe) Dehulled millet is washed, ground into flour and then sieved. The flour is steam cooked (in gittere sealed with wetted bran) after sprinkling water slightly. When it is cooked, the steam cooked product is spread on mats and allowed to dry. Nyauri is eaten with fresh milk or nono or sugar. It can also be eaten with salt alone or sugar alone or miyan daba. This product is similar to couscous ‘Ngezi’ (Yobe) Dehulled millet is washed, drained and ground into flour. The flour is sieved to remove coarse particles. The flour is mixed with water. It is allowed to stay overnight. The batter is misxed with kuka and kanwa solution to neutralize its acidity. The light slurry is placed on frying pans and fried like sinasin. It is served with hot yaji. It can also be made from beans. Ngezi is two types: ngezi ta manu and ngezi ta butau. ‘Ngezi ta man’i (mai/oil) (Yobe) Beans is sorted and ground into flour and sieved. A little kuka powder is added to bind the paste. Kanwa solution is also added after soaking. The batter is fried like sinasin with oil which is spread . it should be turned over on either side to allow for proper frying. It is served with borkono/yaji and salt. ‘Ngezi ta butau’ (Yobe) This is made as ngezi ta manu but bambara groundnut can be used in place of beans (cowpea). This is toasted with sieved wood ash instead of oil. It is eaten with daba spread on or by the side with yaji, salt and vegetable oil. ‘Dagwalta dapchau’ (Yobe) Millet is dehulled, washed drained and ground into flour. It is sieved to separate the grits. The flour is set aside while the grits is pounded again. The sieved flour is then added to the pounded grits and pounded together. It is removed from the mortar and placed in a calabash. It is made into slurry with soaked tamarind juice. The hot or boiled tamarind juice is added to the slurry while stirring before serving. No sugar is added.

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‘Dagwalta dafa’ (Yobe) Dehulled millet is washed and ground into paste. It is made into slurry and set asde. A pot containing kanwa water is placed on the fire and allowed to boil. The slurry is stirred and then poured into the pot containing the boiling water while stirring to prevent formation of lumps. The pot is removed from the fire immediately and served. Alternatively the boiling water is poured into the slurry while stirring. ‘Pachana’ (Yobe) Millet is dehulled, washed and ground into flour. Sugar, spices (ground pepper and ginger) is added to the flour, mixed and poured into a mortar. The mixture is pounded until it becomes sticky. It is then moulded into 2 or 3 times the size of fura. The moulded dough is placed in boiling water and allowed to cook. The boiled water is taken as the beverage after cooling with or without sugar. The moulded product can be eaten raw or it can be crushed and dispersed in water and consumed with the addition of sugar. Usually no sugar is added. ‘Dagwalta ajan’ (Yobe) Dehulled millet is washed and ground into flour. Adua seeds is soaked in water to extract the juice which is sieved and poured into a pot on the fire. Groundnut is roasted, blanched to remove the skins and then ground into a paste. The paste in poured into the adua juice in the pot and allowed to cook until the groundnut paste is dispersed. Pour in the sifted millet flour and cook like tuwo. It should not be pasty like gwote. Spices which are optional can be added but it is preferred without the addition of spices. It is eaten with the third finger when served. ‘Pacha’ (‘Gumba’) (Yobe) Dehulled millet is washed, drained and ground into fine grits. Sugar is added to the millet and mixed or pounded. Water is added to make avery thick paste. It is further into a smooth dough and placed in a calabash with clean hands and served like that or it is made into smaller moulds and served. It can also be diluted to become chalam. ‘Njangwale’ (Yobe) Dehulled millet is cooked until it is soft. Groundnut paste, pepper, palm oil, maggi, slat, kanwa and attrgu, onions, tomatos are added to the cooked millet and stirred. This is covered and allowed to cook further until done. Sorghum can also be used in place of millet. Yakuwa or roselle leaves is also added after being cooked. It is then allowed to cook until soft. The ingredients mentioned above are added and stirred and allowed to cook until done.

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‘Zaya’ (danmbu) (Yobe) This is made from either sorghum or millet or cassava. The millet or sorghum could either be dehulled or used as is. The cassava must be peeled. The grain is ground into coarse particles and tapsa leaves added to it with kanwa solution or powder, salt, magi are also added and mixed together. This is steam cooked on gittere until done. Oil is sprinkled on it during serving. ‘Tuura’ (‘Tigra’) njolnjol’ (Borno) Whole undehulled wheat is soaked in water for two days and then washed and drained. The wheat is then dried and milled into flour. The flour is sieved and mixed with sugar and set aside. Millet is dehulled, washed and ground into flour and sieved and then made into a pasty tuwo which is placed in a mortar and pounded. The wheat flour is gradually added to the millet while pounding until soft dough is formed. The dough is placed in a calabash and allowed to stay for one day. The dough is made into small balls and dried. It is consumed with nono. ‘Fulfulum’ (Borno) Millet is dehulled, washed and made into flour. Tamarind fruit pulp is soaked in water. The flour is sieved and mixed with ground spices (pepper and ginger) which have also been sieved. The flour is made into slurry by mixing with the sieved tamarind juice or nono. Boiling water is added to the slurry while stirring. It is then served ‘Dundur’i (Borno) This is served as a weaning food. The undehulled millet is cleaned and washed to remove dirt and foreign materials. The millet is cooked in boiling water until soft and tender. The cooked millet is mashed and maishanu is added to it and then mixed before being served to the infant. ‘Mardam’ (Borno) Millet is washed after dehulling. The millet is then ground to make flour which is sieved to remove coarse particles. The flour is mixed with nono to make a slurry. It is added into a pot containing cooked and tender portion of the dehulled and marshed millet. It is allowed to cool before serving. Table 1 gives a general composition of foods for children and adults. As can be seen fortification is sometimes carried out unwittingly in many regions in Nigeria depending on the raw local food material available.

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Table 1: Local methods of fortification for foods of children from birth to I year. S/No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33

Ingredients used in food preparation and also fortification 0 – 4 months Sorghum, millet, maize, milk and sugar Cereal and egg Cereal, crayfish, or fish Egg, milk, fruit juice (tomato, pine apple, orange) Banana 8 – 9 months Cereals, beans, groundnut Cereals (acha, rice) ,melon seed, milk Gari, milk and sugar Semolina pudding, milk and sugar Tapioca, milk and sugar Bread, margarine, groundnut oil, milk powder Cereal, milk, margarine, salt Soymilk alone Beans, melon seed, onions, tomatoes, palm oil, crayfish and salt Moi moi Jogi (like moi moi): Beans, melon seed, onions, tomatoes, salt Alele/olele (beans, tomatoes, meat, crayfish, red palm oil, fish and salt Soyabeans, beans, tomatoes, red palm oil, and salt 9 – 12 months Yams, beans, tomatoes, onions, red palm oil, crayfish, fish and salt Beans, ripe plantain, tomatoes, onions, red palm oil, crayfish, fish and salt Rice, beans, tomatoes, onions, palm oil, meat, crayfish, salt Akara balls: beans, onions, salt Abari isu: Water yam, tomatoes, onions, smoked fish, red palm oil, garden egg, salt Ikokore: Wateryam, smiked fish, tomatoes, onions, red palm oil salt Yam pottage: Yam, tomatoes, onions, smoked fish, red palm oil, green vegetables Soybean akara: soyabeans, onions, red palm oil,salt Ukwa akara: Ukwa, onions, eggs, red palm oil, salt Ekpan nkwukwo: cocoyam, green vegetable, onions, crayfish, smoked fish, red palm oil, salt Okro/vegetable soup:Okro, tomatoes, fish, red palm oil, locustvbeans Ogbono soup: Locust beans, crayfish, red palm oil, meat, onions, fish Amala, Ewedu soup: Ewedu vegetable, tomatoes, onions, crayfish, red palm oil, fish, locust bean(iru) Maize and ukwa: maize, ukwa, fish, tomatoes, onions, red palm oil Shell fish soup: Shrimps, periwinkle, fluted pumpkin, leaves (ugu), tomatoes, onions, red palm oil

Anon (1986). Most of these foods are also consumed by adults is most communities in Nigeria. Methods of preparation can be found in most cook books and vary from community to community.

CONCLUSION In conclusion it can be observed from the local foods consumed and the fortifying techniques discussed above, the local people do follow some of the general Nutrition and Dietary Guidelines as proposed in US for US citizens. That is ‘eat a variety of food’, ‘avoid too much of fat’ and ‘eat food with adequate starch and fibre’. Reasonable 93

inclusion of cereals, legumes, pulses, vegetables, fruits, meat, fish, milk and other locally available foods generally provide us with the required nutrients carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals and the potential health risks are in most cases averted except where ignorance and culture predominate. REFERENCES Anon (1986). Nigerian Weaning Diets for use by community health workers and mothers. Federal Nutrition Division. Federal Ministry of Health. 32pp. Boonyasirikool, P and Chulalak, C (2001). Development of nutritious soy fortified snack by extrusion cooking. Kasetsart J (Nat. Sci), 34, 355 – 355. Cort, W, M; Borenstein, B; Harley, J. H; Osadca and Scheiner, J (1976). Nutrient stability of fortified cereal products. Food Technology, 30 (4): 52 – 60. Emechebe, A. M., Ikwelle, M. C., Ajayi, O., Aminu-Kano, M. and Anaso, A. B. (1998). Pearl Millet in Nigerian Agriculture: Production, Utilization and Research Priorities. Lake Chad Research Institute, Maiduguri, Nigeria. WHO & FAO (2006). World Health Organization and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Guidelines on food fortification with micronutrients. [cited on 2011 Oct 30, 2006]. Available from: http://www.who.int/nutrition/publications/guide_food_fortification_micronutrients.pdf Gaffa, T. I. A. Jideani and Nkama, I. (2002). Traditional production, consumption and storage of kunu - a non alcoholic cereal beverage. Plant Foods Human Nutr. 57, 73-81. Gaffa, T. I. A. Jideani and Nkama, I. (2002). The nutritional composition of different types of kunu produced in Bauchi and Gombe States of Nigeria. Inter. J. Food Properties 5, 351357. Gaffa, T. I. A. Jideani. and Nkama, I. (2002). Nutrient and sensory qualities of kunu from different saccharification agents. Inter. J. Food Sci. Nutr.53, 109-115. Jideani, V. A., Nkama, I., Agbo, E. B. and Jideani, I. A. (1999). Prediction of changes in colour during storage of millet dough. Nig. Food J. 17, 41-51. Jideani, V. A., Nkama, I., Agbo, E. B. and Jideani, I. A. (2001). Fura production in some Northern States - A survey. Plant Foods Human Nutr. 56, 23-36. Mermelsten, N. H (1983). Soy-oats infant formular helps fight malnutrition in Mexico. Food Technology, 37(8): Nkama, I. (1997). Traditional food preparations of pearl millet in Nigeria. In: Pearl Millet in Nigeian Agriculture: Production, Utilization and Research Priorities (Emechebe, A. M., Ikwelle, M. C., Ajayi, O., Aminu-Kano, M. & Anaso, A. B., eds.), Lake Chad Research Institute, Maiduguri, Nigeria. pp.179-186. Nkama, I., Abbo, E. S. and Igene, J. O. (1994). Traditional production and chemical composition of ndaleyi - a Nigerian fermented pearl-millet food. Plant Foods Human Nutr. 46, 109-116. Nkama, I., Angarawai, I. and Badau, M. H. (1998). Bank data, production, commercialization, transportation and consumption survey report. West and Central African Millet Research Network (ROCAFREMI-WCAMRN) and Lake Chad Research Institute Collaborative Study, Maiduguri, Nigeria. 176pp. Nkama, I. and Ikwelle, M. C. (1997). Assessment of food quality of millet grain. In: Pearl Millet in Nigeria Agriculture: Production, Utilization and Research Priorities (Emechebe, A. M., Ikwelle, M. C., Ajayi, O., Aminu-Kano, M. & Anaso, A. B., eds.), Lake Chad Research Institute, Maiduguri, Nigeria. pp.171-178. Nkama, I., Illiyas, A. and Jato, A. (1995). Studies on the preparation and nutrient composition of kunun gyada, a traditional Nigerian groundnut cereal based weaning food. Food Nutr. Bull. 16, 238-240. 94

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