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Design. This chapter looks at the innovations in the use of light in performance dur- .... spectacle, in my belief, when it has all its accessories, surpasses any other kind, ... His Libri d'architettura .... THE DIALOGUES OF LEONE DI SOMI (C. 1561) .... To avoid the smoke screen I have found that the best remedy is to open.
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Contents List of Illustrations Acknowledgements Series Preface Introduction: Light and Performance 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

viii ix xi xiii

The Evolution of Lighting Design Light as Spectacle Light, the Playhouse and the Scene Light and the Audience Light and Space The Dramaturgy of Light Light and the Body Light as Material Gas and Electricity – New Tools and Techniques Techniques and Tools The Lighting Operator The Lighting Designer

Appendix: Mima (1928): Excerpts from Operator Cue Sheets References Index

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1 20 44 66 77 118 142 162 173 200 225 248 271 274 286

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Chapter

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The Evolution of Lighting Design

This chapter looks at the innovations in the use of light in performance during the Renaissance period. What is significant about this period is that it is possible to identify it as the first time when light was used coherently as an integral aspect of the staging of performance events and that the creative potential of light to performance was acknowledged for the first time. Significant evidence is provided through contemporary accounts from audience members who witnessed performances and detailed written documentation that describe the first systematic approaches to lighting the stage. Many of these accounts are by architects who were responsible for designing and coordinating these events. The complexities inherent in staging lavish performance spectacles, and the way in which light was used as an integral aspect of Renaissance scenography in Italy, are fundamental to the development of all future performance lighting design principles and practice. For this reason it is important to understand both the way in which light was used in performance by a number of early lighting designers and the way in which this use of light contributed directly to the evolution of the art form itself. This chapter describes the work of these key figures and give examples of some of the staged events in which lighting played an essential part. These first-hand accounts explain the techniques and principles of early lighting practice and record the discoveries made in using light in performance. These treatises, by artists who were seeking to solve the staging issues arising from a new style of performance, form the first known documents that focus on lighting design for performance. They provide substantial evidence to suggest that Italy is the birthplace of creative lighting for the stage. LIGHT IN THE ITALIAN COURT THEATRE This section concentrates on the developments of the Italian playhouse, its perspective settings and the methods suggested for lighting these scenes. It focuses on the work of key architects who designed both the new theatre spaces and the performances staged within them. Their writings reveal how key lighting principles for performance were established and detail the first 1

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instruments developed specifically for lighting the stage. Methods of lighting are proposed for both the newly developed scenic stage and for illuminating performers. Lighting positions within the theatre are discussed, and the first accounts of the darkening of the auditorium and the dimming of stage lights during the performance are revealed.

THE PERSPECTIVE SCENE In order to understand the way in which light was used on the Renaissance stage, it is important to understand the scenic conventions that were established during this period. Theatrical presentation and performance design underwent radical change in the period following the discovery of linear perspective and the rediscovery of the classic text De architectura, written by the Roman architect Vitruvius. The link between fine art and architecture was to have a profound influence on the development of the scenic stage. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, artists were employed by Italian courts to produce paintings and sculpture. Following in the footsteps of Brunelleschi, (see Chapter 2) many of these master painters were also commissioned as architects as they had acquired a sophisticated range of skills encompassing engineering and geometry. Their achievements in the design and construction of buildings, often with overtly theatrical facades, led logically to these architects and artists also being employed as theatrical designers. They were commissioned not only to create a theatrical space and auditorium, often within an existing room at court, but also to design the stage environment and the conditions for viewing it. Architects understood that light was not only important to the way a building was perceived but also an essential component in the way that performance was experienced. During the early sixteenth century the link between perspective painting and the theatrical backdrop was firmly established and was exemplified in the work of designers such as Pellegrino, Genga and Peruzzi, who provided the catalyst for the evolution of a new theatrical form that employed semi-permanent, three-dimensional perspective scenes. These scenic stages, constructed in relief, required new approaches to lighting in order to complete the visual illusion. A number of these architects therefore sought to quantify the theories and practices of this new staging by publishing rules for the design, construction and lighting of these new perspective scenes. Pellegrino da San Daniele1 (1467–1547), a master painter and architect, was employed by the court at Ferrara in the role of theatre designer. He is credited with the first perspectival backdrop for a performance of Ariosto’s La Cassaria in 1508 and although there appears to be no evidence for how this may have been lit, this new approach to scenic design seems to have inspired

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Also known as Martino of Udine.

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Girolamo Genga’s (1476–1551) production of Bibbiena’s La Calandria in Urbino2 . The city setting is described in a letter by Baldassarre Castiglione as being lit by chandeliers and including a richly coloured eight-sided temple adorned with precious glass jewels. This effect would seem to indicate the backlighting of a built set piece rather than a painted representation and would probably have used coloured glass and bozze to create the jewelled lighting effect.3 There are no surviving drawings of Genga’s work, and he is therefore rarely referred to in the evolution of theatrical practice, but his contribution may have been significant because both the opulence of his settings and his great skill as a theatrical designer were praised prominently by both Serlio and Vasari in their writings. Giorgio Vasari’s Lives of the Artists is the most important source in describing sixteenth-century theatrical activity in Florence and provides a historical overview and account of earlier spectacles and celebrations. It is from these descriptions that the significance of both Genga and Peruzzi to the evolution of stage and lighting design practices can be ascertained, as lighting effects were clearly integral to the visual impact of their stagecraft. Baldassare Peruzzi’s (1481–1536) stage design for La Calandria introduced the built perspective scene to Rome when it was staged in the Vatican in 1514. Vasari records the importance of the inner light within the scene itself (rather than external illumination) to enhancing the illusion of perspective: Nor is it possible to imagine how he found room, in a space so limited, for so many streets, so many palaces, and so many bizarre temples [. . .] all so well executed that it seemed that they were not counterfeited, but absolutely real, and that the piazza was not a little thing, and merely painted, but real and very large. He designed also, the chandeliers and the lights within that illuminated scene, and all the other things that were necessary, with much judgment [. . .] This kind of spectacle, in my belief, when it has all its accessories, surpasses any other kind, however sumptuous and magnificent. (Vasari, Vol. 1. 1912: 814)

Bastiano da Sangallo (1481–1551) trained as a painter of frescoes but specialised as a theatre designer for the Medici dukes in Florence. For Landi’s play Commodo in 1539 he drew inspiration from Peruzzi’s stage design work in Rome by also creating a ‘solar light’ that travelled against a blue ‘sky’. This representation of the sun was created by filling a large crystal sphere with water, and lighting it from behind with candles. The moving light source travelled above the rear of the perspective scene, appearing to rise at the beginning of the play, move across the sky and then set at the ending of the drama.4 2 3 4

Performed on 6 February 1513. This technique is described later by both Serlio and Vasari. See Zorzi and Sperenzi (2001: 145).

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The most important contribution to Renaissance staging practice and the first discussion of lighting techniques for the theatre was published in 1545 by a pupil of Peruzzi, Sebastiano Serlio (1475–1554). His Libri d’architettura established a personal discourse on architectural practice and in the second book he discusses the requirements for the staging of performances in terms of the theatre building, the scenic stage and the necessary lighting techniques, to which he devotes an entire chapter. Serlio developed Peruzzi’s ideas in relation to his own practical experience of building theatres and staging drama in Vicenza during the 1530s. Book II of De Architettura marks the first extensive account of theatrical techniques since Vitruvius, whose theories Serlio marries with his own staging practice to create a clear manifesto of design for the stage. The publication in Paris in both Italian and French was followed by many translations into other European languages, which ensured a widespread dissemination of the lighting design techniques that had been forged in Italian city-states at this time.5 Although Serlio’s text borrows heavily on the theories and practices of earlier architects and designers, this publication cannot be underestimated in terms of the impact that it had on the evolution of staging practices and the development of lighting design. The perspective scene was to dominate theatre practice until the twentieth century, and this text marks the first attempt to produce a detailed methodology for the lighting of the stage. Following Vitruvius’ ideals, Serlio advocates three settings for performance, one each for comedy, tragedy and satirical plays. However, these were designed as separate generic perspective scenes – a single constructed pictorial backdrop for the whole action of the play. These scenic views were built on a raked picture stage and situated behind a wide, flat forestage. The performers used only the narrow, wide forestage and did not enter this rear scenic stage. To enhance the illusion of perspective, these settings were designed and painted with shadows to look as if they were lit from one direction only. Serlio was aware of the contradiction between this effect and the general frontal illumination that he describes in detail. Serlio suggests that general light in the form of a central chandelier is provided for the illumination of the entire stage picture, whilst to supplement this ‘a large number of candles are placed at the front of the scene’. This suggestion of an overhead fill light coupled with early footlights indicates that a technique has already been established that was to dominate theatre lighting for the next 400 years. In addition to the general light from the front and above, Serlio suggests that visual interest in the scenic stage itself should be achieved through decorative lighting from behind the scenic pieces: 5

There were nearly 60 editions in seven languages by 1619. First published in both Italian and French in Paris (1545), translated into Flemish (1553), Dutch (1606), German (1608) and English from an inaccurate Dutch translation in 1611.The English edition cited below was published in 1657 and was also translated from a Dutch version.

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Among all the things that may be made by mens hands, thereby to yield admiration, pleasure to sight, and to content the fantasies of man; I think is placing of a Scene, as it is shewed to your sight, where a man in a small place may see [. . .] a thousand faire things and Buildings, adorned with innumerable lights great, middle sort, and small, [. . .] which are so cunningly set out, that they shew forth and represent a number of the brightest stones, as Diamonds, Rubies, Saphirs, Smaragdes, Jacinths, and such like. There you may see the bright shining Moon ascending onely with her hornes, and already risen up, before the Spectators are aware of, or once saw it ascend. In some other Scenes you may see the rising of the Sun with his course about the world, and at the ending of the Comedy, you may see it goe down most artificially, whereat many beholders have been abasht.6 (Serlio [1545] 1657: 23)

This is the first reference we have to back and side-lighting, although these angles of light are suggested for the lighting of the setting rather than for the performers. Serlio identifies a third category of lighting which he terms ‘mobile light’ and represents the visible point source on stage – the physical simulation of celestial objects moving across the sky, in the way that Brunelleschi and Peruzzi had employed earlier. The passing of the sun or moon was important for delineating the passage of time within the drama, and the creation of an ‘artificial day’ was often essential to preserve the dramatic and temporal unity. We understand the way in which lighting techniques had evolved during the Renaissance period because Serlio describes where to place lighting instruments and how to create specific effects such as lightning. The bozze that Serlio identifies were glass vessels in both concave and convex forms that could be used to hold oil and a wick to provide a lighting source, or alternatively were filled with coloured liquid and used in front of light sources fixed on boards behind the perspective scene to create coloured light. In this passage, Serlio notes the practical concerns about fixing these properly so that they are not dislodged by the dancers. Serlio also describes the placing of a polished barber’s basin to act as a reflector behind the glass sphere which, in turn, becomes a crude lens. Together these materials created an early prototype of the spotlight and particularly interesting is that this instrument was used to create a type of keylight – ‘a great light to shew more than the rest’ – and this is the first indication of the artistic need for a differentiation of intensity between lighting sources. The bozze were the first dedicated theatre lighting instruments and Serlio provides recipes for tinting liquids to achieve specific colours, although it 6

A modern translation of the last section of this text might read: The horned moon rises slowly – so slowly that the spectators have not been aware of any movement. In other scenes the sun rises, moves on its course, and at the end of the play is made to set with such skill that many spectators remain lost in wonder.

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was discovered that this technique reduced the intensity of the light and therefore tended to be reserved for special scenic effects, such as creating the jewelled windows of street scenes. For pastoral scenes (where there were no windows on stage), coloured silks were backlit instead to create variations in coloured light. Bergman (1977: 59–60) argues that these decorative lighting techniques that created a gleaming, jewelled stage were a natural development of mediaeval traditions of using precious stones, and the effect was a theatrical equivalent of the stained glass window. Serlio – Of the Artificiall Lighting of the Scene (1545) I Promised in the Treatise of Scenes to set down the manner of how to make these lights shining through, of divers colours [. . .] The manner to set these shining colours in their places is thus, Behind the painted house wherein these painted colours shall stand, you must set a thin board cut out in the same manner that these lights shall be placed, whether it be round or square, cornered or ovale, like an Egge; and behinde the same board there shall be another stronger board lay flat behind them, for the bottles and other manner of glasses with these waters to stand in, must be placed against the holes, as it shall necessarily fall out, but they must be set fast, lest they fall with leaping and dancing of the Moriscoes. And behind the glasses you must set great Lamps, that the light may also be stedfast; and if the bottels or other vessels of glasse on the side where the light stands were flat or rather hollow, it would rather shew the clearer, and the colours most excellent and faire; the like must be done with the holes on the shortning side: But if you need a great light to shew more then the rest, then set a torch behind, and behind the torch a bright Bason, the brightnesse whereof will shew like the beams of the Sun. You may also make glasse of all colours and formes, some fouresquare, some with crosses, and any other forme with their light behind them. Now all the lights serving for the colours, shall not be the same which must light the Scene, for you must have a great number of torches before the Scene. You may also place certaine candlesticks above the Scene with great Candles therein, and above the Candlesticks you may place some vessells with water, wherein you may put a piece of Camphir, which burning will shew a very good light and smell well. Sometime it may chance that you must make something or other which should seem to burn, which you must wet thoroughly with excellent good Aquavite and setting it on fire with a Candle it will burn all over: and although I could speak more of these fires, yet this shall suffice for this time. (Serlio [1545] 1657: 28–29)

ARCHITECTS OF LIGHT As the perspective scene began to become a part of the acting space rather than simply an architectural backdrop to the performance, a number of architect-designers began to develop lighting techniques for different styles of performance.

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Leone di Somi (1527–1592) is important to the development of stage lighting because he was the first to identify the shifts of perception created through changing levels of illumination. He considered light as both an expressive and a symbolic element, and he articulated these thoughts in his 15567 treatise on the art of theatre. This writing, which ranges from acting techniques and costume design to stage setting, is presented as a series of dialogues between three noblemen who discuss key dramaturgical issues relating to the staging of drama. The fourth dialogue deals with stage lighting and, like Serlio’s publication of 20 years earlier, reflects both historic practice and his own innovations. It provides us with a valuable insight into stage lighting techniques of the Italian court theatre and reveals that di Somi is using light as both an expressive and a symbolic element of the drama. Lights are placed within the scene purely to induce gaiety, and changing levels of illumination are used both to create atmosphere and to induce a reaction in the audience. Modern lighting designers learn the age-old mantra of ‘bright lights for comedy, darker lighting for tragedy’, and this relationship seems first to have been defined by di Somi. The darkening and extinguishing of lights for tragic effect is the first record of the dimming of light during a performance. It is probable that this technique was borrowed from Tenebrae religious services where candles are extinguished one by one to create a solemn, sombre mood as the church gradually darkens. Di Somi also provides explanations of ways in which indirect illumination can be created, and his experiments with offstage mirrors and colour side-lighting demonstrate both a development of earlier traditions and a new codification of techniques that use light sources that need to remain invisible to an audience. Importantly, di Somi is the first to identify the shift in perception generated when a spectator is placed in shadow, and this concern with controlling levels of illumination throughout the performance establishes conventions that are still in use today. His innovation in darkening the auditorium in relation to the scene was critical in emphasising changes in the levels of light throughout the dramatic action, and eventually became accepted as the standard convention for indoor theatrical (and cinematic) presentations. THE DIALOGUES OF LEONE DI SOMI (C. 1561) I believe that these four Dialogues – which truly were composed more for my own personal convenience than from any desire of securing fame – may be of use to others and myself as a set of rules, or at least as a record of what must be done in writing or in producing any dramatic poem; otherwise, I have no doubt, they would prove but useless and ill-pleasing. [. . .]

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Nicholl (1948: 237–238) observes that this was probably written in 1561 and that the first publication was mistakenly dated by the copyist and should actually read 1565.

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Fourth Dialogue Interlocutors; Verdico, Santino, and Massimiano Santino. [. . .] I want you to tell me one thing, Veridico. Here on your stage are many lighted lamps, giving ample illumination and· making a most lovely show; what, then, is the use of and how originated those many lamps burning on the roofs of the stage-houses? They do not seem to me to aid the perspective, and for ordinary purposes of illumination there are torches enough. Veridico. I think I have said more than once that plays are produced for the purpose of providing pleasant instruction and of alleviating noyance of mind. Whence I declared, and again I repeat it, the actor should above all other things endeavour to enunciate his lines in a bright and joyous manner. Such, granted that the author provides us with a pleasant, charming plot and that the actor gives to this a vivid interpretation, surely it is equally essential that the architect should represent gladness and joy on the stage. Now it has been a custom, both in ancient and modern times, to light bonfires and torches in the streets, on the housetops, and on towers, as a sign of joy; and hence arises this theatrical convention-the imitating of such festive occasions. The lights are put there for no other purpose but to imitate, in the very first scene, this mood of gaiety. Santino. I suppose, then, that these lights would not appear in a tragedy. Veridico. Perhaps they would not be so wholly out of place even in such a play. Quite apart from the fact that there are tragedies with happy endings, we note that nearly all tragedies open in a happy strain; and consequently it will not be unfitting to arouse the mind, so far as we may, to this happiness, although disasters and deaths are to ensue later. I remember once I had to produce a tragedy of this kind. During all the time when the episodes were happy in mood I had the stage brightly illuminated, but so soon as the first unhappy incident, occurredthe unexpected death of a queen-while the chorus was engaged in lamenting that the sun could bear to look down on such evil, I contrived (by prearrangement, of course) that at that very instant most of the stage lights not used for the perspective were darkened or extinguished. This created a profound impression of horror among the spectators and won universal praise. Santino. It could not have called forth anything but praise. Massimiano. Will you now please tell us why most of your lights have in front of them transparent or coloured glasses? Veridico. This was invented by some men who realized a little-appreciated fact-that a brilliant light striking directly upon the eye for any length of time becomes exceedingly irritating. Since, then, the spectator must keep his eyes fixed on the stage, watching the actions proceeding now on this side, now on that, the shading of the lights was devised to minimize the annoyance. Massimiano. I should be willing to bet that not ten persons out of a hundred who make use of these shades appreciate their object. Veridico. They would at any rate say that the shades were used to produce a more beautiful effect, and in so doing they would be enunciating part of the whole. Not by my own theorizing, certainly, but from long practice and experience I have made observation of these things and have tried to get at their origins. I have found that it was the ancients who, as the saying goes, snatched them from obscurity. While we are dealing with this subject I should like to point out also that the small mirrors which some managers set at appropriate places in the

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perspective settings and the far sides of the wings are very effective. They reflect those concealed lights which the architects cleverly place behind columns and in the openings between the wings, thus serving to make the set more gay and bright. Not only can these reflections give no annoyance to the eyes; they have the further advantage that here we obtain light without smoke-a great consideration. I may take this occasion to remark that the producer who does not take care to have a number of holes made behind the scenes so that the smoke from the lamps may have a means of escape will land himself in serious difficulties, for otherwise this smoke, gradually increasing and becoming thicker, will produce so effective a screen that before the second act be done the actors will seem to be not men but shadows, while the spectators, as if blinded, will, without realizing the cause, get the impression that they are losing their sight. Great care ought to be taken of this, though it is a matter to which few pay sufficient attention. So far as my experience goes, there is no real difficulty provided adequate pains are taken beforehand. Massimiano. Now that you bring these things to my attention I do recall that at the close of plays we have often found our eyes smarting uncomfortably and that we have not been able to see nearly so much as we did at the beginning. I realize that this must have been due to the cause you have referred to. Veridico. To avoid the smoke screen I have found that the best remedy is to open as many windows as possible under the proscenium, so that the air, entering from below, drives all the smoke through the holes bored in the roof behind the scenery. Massimiano. That, I believe, would be an excellent device. Veridico. It is, I assure you. Santino. I see, Veridico, that on your stage there are many lamps both behind the scenes and in front of them; yet in the auditorium here you have made arrangements for but twelve standing candelabra. The reason I can’t imagine; for I have often counted as many as 250 torches in this large hall. Veridico. It is a natural fact-as no doubt you are aware-that a man who stands in the shade sees much more distinctly an object illuminated from afar; the reason being that the sight proceeds more directly and without any distraction toward this object, or, according to the peripatetic theory, the object impinges itself more directly upon the eye. Wherefore I place only a few lamps in the auditorium, while at the same time I render the stage as bright as I possibly can. Still further, these few auditorium lights I place at the rear of the spectators, because the interposition of such lights would but be dazzling to the eyes. Over them, as you see, I have made small openings so that their smoke can cause no damage. Santino. By thus introducing only a few lights in the auditorium, then, you obviate the trouble of smoke-fumes and to a certain extent you render the seeing clearer. Massimiano. There is yet another advantage: he saves the Duke fifty ducats in respect of the torches usually set in the hall. Veridico. That, I confess, had not come into my mind, nor does his Excellency need to think of such economies, but, as the proverb says, in the end every good proves good. Santino. Concerning the illumination of the scene you have said, in my opinion, all that can be said. (trans. Nicholl 1948: 257–262)

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Ingegneri – Dramatic Poetry and How to Produce Plays (1598) The lighting practices described by di Somi were further developed by Angelo Ingegneri (1550–1613) who considered lighting to be ‘of supreme theatrical importance’. Ingegneri was the first to advocate a fully darkened auditorium with all house lights extinguished once the audience were in their seats, recognising that darkness accentuated the effect of light on the stage. Ingegneri stipulated that lighting instruments should be concealed from the audience’s view like other scenic machinery, and this need to mask the sources of the light from the audience was to become a dominant and established convention until the mid-twentieth century. In addition to the darkened auditorium, Ingegneri also notes the importance of being able to see actors’ faces clearly and suggests ways of achieving this through a new lighting position that would be flown out above the front of the stage and masked from the audience’s view by a border. This provides the first evidence of directional light for the performers, lighting their faces from above and creating the equivalent of the proscenium arch spotlight bar. Furthermore, this writing provides a clear indication of the challenges of using candles and oil-based equipment at this time and the direct impact of these materials upon the experience of the audience. Ingegneri provides us with a clear methodology for lighting the proscenium stage and its performers, and the conventions that he proposes in 1598 continue to underpin lighting design techniques and performance practices over 400 years later. There remains [. . .] one matter of supreme importance – the lighting. Lighting in a theatre ought to be pleasing and clear, and the instruments should be so placed that the spectator’s view of the stage is not interrupted by hanging chandeliers or lamps; nor should the spectators go in any fear of wax or oil dropping upon them. Moreover, care should be taken to see that there is no bad smell coming from the lamps, and no danger of their causing a fire or of creating disturbance and confusion among the actors behind the scenes. The man that is able to arrange this illumination so that only its splendour is seen, and its effect created without any member of the audience being in a position to say whence or how it is obtained, unquestionably does much to add to the magnificence of a show. Especially is this true if the lights are placed so as to illuminate the faces of the actors. To those who may have charge of theatrical illumination, it may be pointed out that the method of securing this result is by no means difficult, nor does it call for any very great expense. The method, for which I now wish to demonstrate so that it may be of general service in all future productions, consists of hanging up a valance between the stage heavens and the roof of the auditorium, without, of course, bringing it so low as to cut off too much of the set. On the inner side facing the stage it is to be fitted with many lighted lamps, having tinsel reflectors to direct the beams upon the actors. These lamps ought to be firmly fixed at the top and lit before being drawn up to the positions they are to occupy. Naturally, the whole business must be carried out back-stage before the curtain is drawn [. . .] The set will thus glow with light, and yet no one will see the source of that light or at least discern how it has been made so resplendent. Lastly, take care – especially

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Index Abbey Theatre, Dublin 101 acting area lighting 202–6, 208, 211, 213, 221–2 see also actor: illumination of ‘active’ light 81–93, 95, 110, 147, 148–9, 269–270 actor adorned with light 27–9, 149–56, 157–61 connection with audience 50, 51fn, 55, 70, 136, 178–9, 207 danger to 10, 46, 158–60, 176, 179, 190, 197 illumination of 8–9, 10, 44–6, 49–56, 61, 64–5, 67, 72, 74, 91–2, 103, 105–6, 111, 116–17, 119, 124–5, 127, 129–31, 136, 138, 142–61, 176–9, 186, 197, 201–5, 209, 211, 214, 222, 243, 250–1, 259–60, 262–5 impact of light on 39, 45, 46, 53–6, 61, 64–5, 70, 72, 73, 111, 119–20, 121–4, 127, 138, 142–61, 165, 197, 209, 212, 214, 221, 222 see also light: physiological effect, psychological effect, phenomenological effect see also dancer, light: as actor Aeschylus 22 Agamemnon (Aeschylus, 458 BC) 22–3 Aldred, F.S. see Ridge Alexandre, Arsène 156 Algarotti, Count Francesco (1712–1764) 58–9 Saggio sopra l’opera in musica (1755) 58 Allbright, Ann Cooper 157 Alma-Tadema, Lawrence 189 Andreyev, Leonid 168 Annunciation, The (1439) 26 Antoine, André (1858–1943) 118

Appia, Adolphe (1862–1928) 72, 74, 77–93, 85, 94, 95, 96, 101–3, 106, 108–9, 115, 118, 139, 144–9, 162, 189, 197, 198, 199, 206, 207, 246, 269–70 Actor, Space, Light, Painting (1919) 148–9 Comments on the Staging of The Ring of the Nibelungs (1891–2) 89–92 Comments on the Theatre (1908) 80 Ideas on a Reform of our Mise en scène (1904) 145–8 Musik und die Inscenierung, Die (1899) 78 Musique et la mise en scène, La (1897) 78 on ‘active light’ 81–93 on ‘passive light’ 81–2, 86–8 Staging of Wagnerian Drama, The (1895) 79 architect 1, 2, 4, 6–16, 25, 44, 49, 53, 55–6, 59, 97, 102, 108, 202, 242fn architectura, De (Vitruvius, c.15 BC) 2 architecture 2, 4, 11–13, 24, 36–7, 43, 78, 97, 165–6, 170, 171, 201 animated through light 37, 41–3, 96–100, 165, 171, 201 architectural illumination 41–2, 42 see also city of the theatre space 6, 44, 68, 94–100, 116, 165–6 see also scenography Architettura, De (Serlio, 1545) 4–6 arc-lamps see electric carbon arc Argand, Francois Pierre Ami (Aimé) (1750–1803) 57, 63–4 Argand lamp 33, 63–5, 162, 176, 181 Ariosto, Ludovico 2 Aristotle (384–322 BC) 21, 30 Artaud, Antonin (1896–1948) 38, 39–40, 75, 109, 164 End to Masterpieces, An (1933), 39 Theatre of Cruelty: First Manifesto, The (1932) 38, 39–40, 164

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Art of Stage Lighting, The (Bentham, 1968) 211, 214 Art of Stage Lighting, The (Pilbrow, 1997) 222 Association of British Theatre Technicians (ABTT) 212 Association of Lighting Designers (ALD) 242, 247, 255 Astley’s Theatre, London 34 atmosphere see mood audience active participation of 110, 132–7, 166 assurance of 106 attention of 20, 37, 39, 67, 90, 103, 115, 132–6, 177, 184, 192, 195, 226, 218, 243, 268 see also audience: imagination awareness of lighting design 69–74, 132–7, 264–5, 268 cue invisible to 245 deception of 62–3, 193 hearing actors 55, 125, 142–3, 218 imagination of 30–1, 46–7, 77–86, 103–8, 118–20, 121–2, 192, 252–3 see also audience: attention impact of light on experience of, xiii–xv, 1, 7, 13, 30–1, 35, 37, 38, 39–40, 46, 52–3, 55, 56, 59, 61–3, 66–76, 78, 79, 90, 95, 103–8, 109, 113, 116–7, 118–20, 124fn, 131–5, 136–7, 141, 142–3, 150, 164–6, 172, 184, 189, 193, 195, 209, 213, 218, 225–6, 232–3, 251–3, 264–5, 268 see also spectacle, light: phenomenological effect, physiological effect, psychological effect lighting hidden from view of 7, 10, 13, 16, 18, 31, 33–4, 45, 51, 67, 206fn, 191, 192, 242 lighting obscuring view of 10, 50, 52–3, 56, 61, 122, 178–9 lighting of 1, 7–11, 44–65, 220, 256 see also auditorium relationship to performer 51fn, 55, 63, 70, 136, 143, 161, 168, 178–9, 207, 220, 241, 263–4, see also audience: hearing actors

287

safety of 13, 46, 176fn, 190–1, 197 see also auditorium: sightlines, lighting: made visible to audience auditorium 44–65, 198fn darkening of 2, 7, 10–11, 16, 19, 31, 33, 45, 47–9, 51–3, 56, 79, 119–20, 135, 143, 167, 168–9, 176, 177–9, 189, 193, 219, 228, 271 illumination of xiv, 9–11, 13–14, 28, 29, 44–5, 46, 48, 50, 51–4, 54, 56–7, 64, 167, 168–9, 174, 175–6, 177–9, 189–90, 193, 225–6, 227, 228 natural light within 46, 47–9, 48, positioning of lighting controls within 231, 236, 241, 242, 245–6 sightlines 50, 54, 56, 119 automated (moving) light 41, 88, 222, 245, 248, 262, 269 see also Vari∗ lite Bablet, Denis 77, 109 Bablet-Hahn, Marie 87fn back-light 3, 5, 6, 30, 31, 129, 170, 211, 217 see also contralight Bähr, Hugo (1841–1929) 87–8, 94 Balla, Giacomo (1871–1958) 166–7 Ballet d’action (Noverre, 1760) 60 Ballet comique de la Reine (1581) 29 Ballet Russe 166 Bargagli, (La Pellegrina, 1589) 28–9 Baroni, Guido 69–70 battens 49, 51, 61, 67, 87, 110, 174, 176, 179, 180, 187, 190–2, 194, 209, 212, 213 Baugh, Christopher 33, 65, 133fn Bauhaus 145, 162, 169–71 Bay, Howard (1912–1986) 204–5, 222 Bayreuth Festspielhaus 79 beacon 22–3 Beaumarchais 64 Beckett, Samuel (1906–1989) 67, 68, 140–1, 162 Not I 140 Play 8, 140 Waiting for Godot 67 Beerbohm Tree, Herbert (1852–1917) 35, 207, 228 Beggar, The (Sorge, 1917) 127, 128

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Belasco, David (1853–1931) 118, 198, 200, 205, 230–1, 271–3 Belasco Theatre, New York 271–3 Bellman, Willard 223 Bennett, Susan 68 Bentham, Frederick (1911–2001) 167, 210, 211–214, 220, 232–40, 244–5, 247 Bergman, Gösta (1905–1975) xiii, xiv, 6, 24, 30fn, 32, 45, 49, 52, 55fn, 57 Berliner Ensemble 132–7, 135fn Beverley, William 186 Bibbiena (1470–1520) 3 bijoux électriques see electric jewellery Billy Elliot 264 Birmingham Repertory Theatre 268 Bishop, Bainbridge 162–3 Blacklight Theatre, Prague 74 blackout xv, 68, 111, 132, 150, 157, 174, 179, 180–1, 219, 228, 265 Blackpool illuminations 41 Blade 153 Bolt, Barbara 74–5 bonfire 8, 20 booms 49, 51, 180, 191, 259 see also side-light Boston Theatre, The 194 Boulton & Watt’s factory illumination, Birmingham 175 bozze, 3, 5, 17, 30 see also oil lamp Brahm, Otto (1856–1912) 102, 125 Brecht, Bertolt (1898–1956) 69–70, 74, 126, 132–7, 138, 141, 243 ‘Alienation Effect’ 134, 135–6 Good Person of Setzuan, The 137 Mother Courage 137 Mr Puntila and his Servant Matti 133fn, 134 St Joan 137 Britton, John 33 Brockett, Oscar 59 Brunelleschi, Filippo (1377–1446) 2, 5, 25–6 Büchner, Georg (1813–1837) 130–1 Danton’s Death 130–1 bunch-light 87, 176, 226, 242 Buontalenti, Bernardo (c.1531–1608) 28–9

Burning Thornbush, The (Kokoschka, 1911) 129 Butterworth, Philip 23, 75 Calandria, La (Bibbiena, 1513) 3 Cambacérès 63 Cambridge Festival Theatre 207–9, 210 candles 3, 4, 6, 7–9, 10, 13, 18, 23, 25fn, 25–6, 27, 32, 44–63, 48, 54, 64, 67, 69, 71, 74, 107, 124, 139, 175, 176fn, 177, 191, 194, 225–6, 250 see also chandelier trimming of 29, 47, 56 see also candlesnuffer candlesnuffers 61, 63, 225–6 Cangiullo, Francesco (1884–1977) 168–9 carbon arc see electric carbon arc, limelight Carceri d’Invenzione (Piranesi) 59 Cassaria, La (Ariosto, 1508) 2 Castel, Louis Bertrand (1688–1757) 162 Castiglione, Baldassarre (1478–1529) 3 Catel, Ludwig Friedrich (Louis) (1776–1819) 55–6 Cathedral of Light, The (Speer, 1936) 38–9 Cezanne, Paul (1839–1906) 116 Chalayan, Hussein 161 chandelier 3, 4, 9, 10, 29, 31, 47, 48, 50–3, 54, 56, 61, 67, 107, 129, 176, 177, 226 Chekhov, Anton (1860–1904) 113, 120–4 Cherry Orchard, The (1904) 124fn Seagull, The (1898) 120–4 Three Sisters, The (1901) 124 Chéreau, Patrice 69, 70 chiaroscuro 11, 57–60, 69, 83, 117, 125–32, 174, 177 Chichester Festival Theatre 198fn, 222 chief electrician 111 Childs, Lucinda 117 choreographer 60, 250, 253–4 choreography (of light) 88–9, 124, 151, 153, 245 Christmas Tale, A (1773) 32 Cirque de Soleil (Varekai, 2002) 67 city, illumination of 25, 41–3, 53, 57, 63–4, 96–100 clavecin oculaire 162 clouds 18, 26, 29, 32, 129, 134, 155, 183

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Cochrane, Archibald (1749–1831) 175 Coliseum, London 214 Colori (Depero, 1916) 168 Colour-light-music 169–70 colour mixing 207–8, 209–13 colour music 37, 156, 162–4, 169, 212, 234–5 Colour Music: The Art of Mobile Colour (Rimington, 1911) 163–4 Comédie Française 51–3, 55, 57, 64 concert lighting 40–1, 153, 240, 246, 252 Constable, John 217 Constable, Paule 243fn, 266, 268 contralight 40, 109–10, 113, 223, 224 control board (switchboard) 147, 200, 205–6, 208, 213–14, 215, 222, 225–47, 229, 250, 271–3 control room 231, 232, 245–6 Cooper, Waltraut 171 Copeau, Jacques (1879–1949) 102, 207 Coriolanus (1901 production) 189 Corry, Percy 214 Corsican Brothers, The (Irving, 1880) 94 costume 7, 27, 28, 29, 30, 39, 45, 62, 65, 72, 84, 90, 125, 136, 149–57, 158–61, 160, 164, 179, 189, 204, 210, 237, 239, 249, 254 Covent Garden Theatre 50, 175, 182 Craig, Edward Anthony (Edward Carrick 1905–1998) 94–5, 230fn Craig, Edward Gordon (1872–1966) 77–8, 94–103, 98–9,106, 108, 109, 115, 125, 156, 164, 189, 197, 198, 200, 207, 230fn, 260 Dido and Aeneas (1900) 94–5 Mask, The 102 On the Art of the Theatre (1912) 102 Rosmersholm (1906) 156fn screens (1910) 100–2 Steps, The (c.1905) 96–100, 98–9 cresset 23–4, 47 Cristafulli, Fabrizzio 269–70 curtain (stage) 10–11, 28, 30, 35, 49, 54, 84, 121–3, 136, 153, 155, 168–9, 173, 177–8, 193, 227, 271 of light 38, 110, 113, 224 see also contralight, gauze, haze cyclorama 115, 126, 131, 207, 208, 210, 213 see also skydome

289

Daguerre, Louis (1787–1851) 32 Daily Telegraph 35, 173 Dalcroze, Emile, Jacques- (1865–1950) 93, 145 Daldry, Stephen 255–6, 264fn dance, dancers 5–6, 28, 45, 60, 68, 101, 142, 144, 149–61, 152, 160, 177, 215, 241, 242–5, 248–54, 255, 262 dance lighting 45, 60, 68, 142, 144, 149–61, 177, 215, 241, 242–4, 248–54, 262 Dancing in the Streets (KMA, 2005) 43fn Danton’s Death (Büchner) 126, 130–1 Dardanus (Rameau, 1760 revival) 59 darkness 10, 23, 24–5, 31, 35, 36, 37, 41, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 59, 67, 73, 77, 82, 83, 84, 85, 106–8, 121, 123, 127–31, 132, 134–5, 140, 143, 150–6, 168–9, 174, 179, 190, 193, 228, 252 see also chiaroscuro theatrical control of 35, 36, 37, 59–60, 77, 79, 119, 124, 125–31, 139, 140, 150–6, 173, 174, 189, 193, 227, 228 see also auditorium, darkening of Darwin, Erasmus 162 Davies, Siobhan 248 daylight 11–13, 20–2, 46–8, 69, 70–4, 78, 96, 109, 120 see also sun, window Dean, Basil 230 Death of a Salesman (Miller) 140, 213 Dekker, Thomas (1572–1632) 25, 47 Delaporte of Paris 183 Depero, Fortunato (1892–1960) 168 designer see lighting: designer, scenographer, costume Deutsches Theatre, Berlin 137 Devine, George (1910–66) 236 Diaghilev, Sergei (1872–1929) 166 Dialogues of Leone di Somi, The (di Somi, c.1561) 7–9 Di Benedetto, Stephen 75 Diderot, Denis (1713–84) 55 Dido and Aeneas (Hampstead, 1900) 94–5 Digital Light Curtain 110fn see also curtain of light dimmer 14, 15, 104, 198, 202, 205, 206, 207, 231, 233–8, 246, 271–3

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dimming of lighting 2, 7, 13, 14–17 19, 61, 134, 198, 225, 231, 233–8, 246 see also blackout, dimmer, lighting: conventions, lighting: cues dioramas 34 director xiv, 45, 61–2, 70, 78, 95, 103, 115–17, 118, 125, 127, 139, 145, 147, 173, 209, 216–20, 222, 230, 232, 233–4, 236–7, 247, 256, 259–60, 263–6, 267–8 D’Oyly Carte, Richard (1844–1901) 159 Dramatic Imagination, The (Jones, 1941) 103–8 Dramatic Poetry and How to Produce Plays (Ingegneri, 1598) 10 dramaturgy 30, 36, 49, 63, 68, 69, 70, 118–41, 229, 243 Drummond, Thomas (1797–1840) 181 Drury Lane Theatre, London 32, 52–3, 60–3, 65, 174, 181 Duboscq, Louis Jules (1817–1886) 87, 152, 153fn, 183–5 East London Theatre 175 Eco, Umberto 21–2 economic factors of lighting 10–11, 17, 31, 41, 48, 51–2, 57, 58, 61–2, 152fn, 182, 192, 194, 202, 214, 234–5, 262, 269 Edison, Thomas (1847–1931) 159–60, 191, 193 education 104, 204–6, 212, 214, 222–3 Eidophusikon, The 32–4, 65 Einstein on the Beach (Glass/Wilson, 1976) 115 Eisenhauer, Peggy 245 electric carbon arc 35, 87–8, 129, 152–3, 162–3, 173, 176, 180, 182–6, 209, 226 see also limelight electric fairy 158–61, 160 electric jewellery 158–61, 160 electric light see electricity Electric Light and Colour Company, The 183 electrician 91, 108, 111, 132–3, 151–3, 152, 155, 179, 196, 210, 216, 218–9, 232, 237 see also technician, lighting operator Electricien, L’ 159

electricity 21, 35, 36, 78, 88, 89, 91, 94, 95, 102, 104, 120, 137, 152fn, 153, 157–61, 164, 165–6, 167, 168, 170–1, 173, 174, 177, 182–3, 186, 189, 193–7, 197–9, 200, 201, 206, 208, 229–32, 234, 251, 269, 272 creative possibilities of 35, 92, 94, 157–61, 164–8, 193–9, 206, 229–30 Eliasson, Olafur 172 Elizabethan playhouses 46–7 Elliston, Robert William (1774–1831) 65 Elsinore (Lepage, 1995–98) 242 Emerson, Ralph Waldorf 105 End to Masterpieces, An (Artaud, 1933) 39 Engel, Alfred von 200fn Engel, André 69 Engrenage, L’ (Sartre) 138 Entertainment at Theobalds (Jonson, 1607) 30 Equity 239 Essig, Linda 223 Esslin, Martin 68–9 Esthetics of Dramatic Art (Zich, 1931) 66 Eumenides, The 208 event industries 40, 245, see also concert lighting Evreinov, Nikolai (1879–1953) 37–9 expressionism 125–32, 137, 139, 140, 198, 207–8, 256 fairy scenes 32, 62, 130, 157–61, 160, 183, 186, 187 Farblichtmusiken 169 Faust (Irving’s productions 1885–88, 1894) 35, 157, 193 festival 15, 16, 20–1, 23–4, 24–8, 41–3, 47, 91, 93 feux d’artifice see fireworks Feux d’Artifice (Fuochi d’artificio, 1917) 166–7 fire 20–3, 28, 31, 83, 85 fire (stage lighting causing) 10, 176fn fireworks 20, 23–4, 25–6, 27, 31, 38, 83, 166–7 Fischer-Lichte, Erika 70–4 Fisher, Jules 245 Fisher, Rick 143, 215, 255, 255–65, 266

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Fitzgerald, Percy, Hetherington (1834–1925) 176–9, 182, 186, 200, 226 Flavin, Dan 171 Flecknoe, Richard 50 float 51, 61, 178, 190, 227 see also candles, footlights, oil lamps floodlight 19, 38, 143, 87, 183, 21, 235, 237 focusable lantern (first) 56–7 focusing 215, 219 Folies Bergère, Paris 151–2 follow-spot 67, 127, 129, 143, 161, 185–6, 226, 231, 271–3 see also limelight, electric carbon arc footlights 4 , 18, 28, 33, 45, 49, 51–3, 54, 55–6, 57, 61, 65, 86–7, 94, 119, 122, 124, 147, 150, 159, 174, 176, 177–8, 187, 190–1, 193–4, 195, 197, 209–10, 211, 212 For a New Theatre – ‘Electric-Vibrating-Luminous’ (Montalti, 1920) 167–8 Fortuny, Mariano (1871–1949) 102, 126, 209–10 Foundation and Manifesto of Futurism (Marinetti, 1909) 164 Foundation and Manifesto for Futurist Scenography (Prampolini, 1915) 164–6 fountains 100, 153–4, 158 see also water fresnel spotlight 202, 218 Freyer, Archim 162 front-light 49, 54, 61, 95, 143, 185, 198fn, 202–4, 211, 263–4 see also footlights Fuchs, Theodore (1904–1995) 201 Fuller, Loïe (1862–1928) 142, 149–57, 152 Ballets of Light 156 Danse Blanche, La 155 Fire Dance (La Feu) 153, 154 Firmamen, 155 Lys de Nie, Le 155 Nuit, La 155 Serpentine Dance 150, 155, 156fn From Morning till Midnight (Kaiser, 1912) 129

291

Furttenbach, Joseph (1591–1667) 13, 15–19, 47–9, 54, 56 futurism 39, 149, 156, 162, 164–9 ‘G’ clamp 199 Gainsborough, Thomas 33 Galli-Bibiena, Allessandro 54 Ganzfeld: Tight End (Turrell, 2005) 171–2 Garrick, David (1717–1779) 32, 53, 60–3, 178 see also Drury Lane Theatre A Christmas Tale (1773) 32 gas lighting 34–5, 41–2, 42, 55, 65, 87–8, 94, 104, 118, 159, 162, 173–97, 180, 200, 225–8 see also operator, technician gas table 178, 194, 226–9 Gate Theatre, Dublin 263 Geest, Henk van der 242 gelatine colours 95, 104, 153, 210, 226 General Electric Company 206, 230 Genga, Girolamo 2–3 Geppert, I.I. 123 Ghosts (Ibsen) 120 Gibson, James 75 Gillette, Michael 223 Glass Menagerie, The (Williams, 1944) 139–40 Gluck, Christoph Willibald 106 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von 162fn Goethem, Chris van 242, 243 Good Person of Setzuan, The (Brecht) 137 Gooday, Graeme 158–60 Gouraud, George Edward ‘Colonel’ (1842–1912) 193 Graham, Martha 215 Grand Master 231, 233–5 Gray, Terence (1895–1986) 207 Greek Theatre 22–3 Groseth, Jen 157 Grosseteste, Robert (c.1175–1253) 22 groundrow 16–19, 87, 190, 192 Gründgens, Gustaf 72 Gualterotti, Raffaello (1543–1639) 27–8 Guarini, Giovanni 11 Gurney, Goldsworthy (1793–1875) 181 Gye, Frederick (1810–78) 181–2

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Hamlet 101–2, 107, 109, 110–13, 112, 242 Hampstead Conservatoire 94–5 Handke, Peter 66–7, 70 Harlequin and Peeping Tom of Coventry (1837) 182 Harmony of the Spheres (1589) 29 Hartmann, Louis 200, 230fn, 230–1, 271–3 Hasenclever, Walter (1890–1894) 126, 129 Sohn, Der 126, 129 Haymarket Theatre, London 108fn haze 40, 108–14, 123, 161, 172 Heidegger, Martin 75 Helios (Rosalie, 2007) 171 Hellerau Festpielhaus, Dresden 93, 145 Helson-Judd effect 210 Henderson, Mark 266–7 Henry VIII 35, 173, 184 Herkomer, Hubert von, (1849–1914) 94–5 Hippodrome, London 210 Hiroshige, Utagawa 105 Hirschfeld-Mack, Ludwig (1893–1965) 169–70 Hofman, Vslastislav 110 Hoftheater, Dresden 87 Hölle Weg Erde (Kaiser) 125 Holmberg, Arthur 115–17 holographic projection 115 Holophane 210 Hoppla, wir Leben! (1927) 137–8 Hour Glass, The (Yeats, 1911) 101 houselights 220 see also audience: lighting of, auditorium, chandelier Hunt, Nick 232fn, 232–40, 256, 256–65, 266fn Hyperion (Rosalie, 2006) 171

Jarre, Jean Michel 37 Jarry, Alfred (1873–1907) 39 Jessner, Leopold (1878–1945) 102, 207 jeu d’orgue see gas table ‘jewel lighting’ 222 jewelled lighting 3–6, 45 Joan of Arc (Balfe, 1837) 181 Johnson over Jordan (Priestley, 1939) 230 Jones, Inigo (1573–1652) 13, 15, 30–1 Jones, Robert Edmond (1887–1954) 103–8, 126, 139 Dramatic Imagination, The (1941) 103–8 Jonson, Ben (1572–1637) Entertainment at Theobalds (1607) 30 Joseph, Stephen (1921–67) 222 Jouvet, Louis (1887–1951) 102, 207 junge Deutschland, Das 126

Ibsen, Henrik (1828–1906) 120, 139 Ghosts 120 Rosmersholm 156fn Wild Duck, The 120 Idea dell’architettura universale (Scamozzi, 1615) 11–13 Iolanthe (Gilbert & Sullivan, 1882) 158–9 Illustrated London News 184, 186–7 Illustration, L’ 158–9, 160, 229

kabuki 74 Kaiser, Georg (1878–1945) 125, 129 Kammerspiele Theatre, Berlin 126 Kandinsky, Wassisily (1866–1944) 164 Kastner, Frederick (1852–1882) 162 Kazan, Elia (1909–2003) 139–40 Kean, Charles (1811–1868) 184–5, 186–8 Macbeth (1853) 186–7 Henry VIII (1855) 184 Keller, Max 223

image (in competition with language) 21, 30–1, 34 Independent Theatre Council (ITC) 239 Ingegneri, Angelo (1550–1613), 10–11, 31, 45, 56 Inspector Calls, An (National Theatre production 1992–2012) 255, 255–6, 257–9 ‘intelligent’ moving light see automated light intermezzi 14, 16, 28–31, 32, 45–6 inverse square law 53fn Irigaray, Luce 75 Irving, Henry (1838–1905) 35, 173–4, 185, 188–97, 200, 227, 228, 230 Coriolanus (1901) 189 Corsican Brothers, The (1880) 93 Faust (1885–1888, 1894) 35, 157, 193 Henry VIII, (1892) 35, 173

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King Lear 65 Kircher, Athanasius (1601–1680) 162 Klein, César (1876–1954) 125 Kliegl 228 KMA 43fn, 243fn Kneehigh Theatre 242 Knipper, Olga 124 Kokoschka, Oskar 129 Koster and Bial’s Music Hall, New York 155–6 Krejˇca, Otomar (1921–2009) 113 laser 37, 40, 161, 252 Laterna Magika, Prague 224 Lavoisier, Antoine-Laurent de (1743–1794) 52, 56–7 Leaning Light 18 LED (light emitting diodes) 161, 268 Leeds Grand Theatre and Opera House 183–4 Leeds, University of 161fn, 243–5 Léger 63 Lehmann, Hans-Thies 68 Lekolite 218 lengths see battens lenses 5, 34, 44, 63, 87, 92, 150, 181, 184–5, 192, 197, 219, 271–2 Lepage, Robert 20–1, 242 Levinas, Emmanuel 75 Libri d’architettura (Serlio, 1545) 4–6 Lichtbühne (Piscator, 1953) 138 Lichtdom (1936) 38–9 Life of Man, The (Andreyev) 168 light ‘active’ light 81–93, 95, 110, 147, 148–9, 269–70 aesthetics of 21–2, 56, 60, 65, 67, 77, 89 architectural quality of 11–13, 36–7, 96–100, 116 as actor 37, 73, 82, 87, 92–3, 94–5, 96–100, 117, 144, 157–160, 160, 166–9, 212, 216 as art 170–2 as symbol 7, 22–3, 25, 47, 107, 126–8, 139–41, 201 coloured 3–5, 7, 8, 20, 21–2, 23, 30, 32, 34, 36, 40, 65, 94–5, 137,

293

149–57, 164–6, 176, 177, 180–6, 189, 193–7, 201, 203, 207–8, 211, 229–30, 251–2, 271–3 see also colour mixing, colour music, gelatines, Samoiloff effect, silks denoting location 46, 72 diffused light 12, 81–3, 93, 110, 138 directional light 10, 12, 13, 14, 45, 58–60, 81, 126–32 see also ‘active light’, lighting angles ‘formative’ see ‘active’ light indirect see diffused intensity of 5–6, 40, 49, 53, 60, 65, 71, 87, 109, 143, 198, 213 see also dimmer key light 5, 13–14, 65, 67, 221, 243 see also lighting angles ‘living light’ see ‘active’ light ‘lucid light’ 103, 105–6, 222 ‘lyric light’ 106 motivating light (dramaturgically) 67, 70, 204, 208 motivated light (offstage) 67, 70, 204, 221 motivating light (visible on-stage) 31, 67, 204, 221 movement of (over time) 5, 20, 28, 71, 72, 77, 80–93, 94, 96–100, 109, 138, 149–56, 168, 170–1, 204, 206, 213, 216, 218–9 see also plasticity moving light 3, 5, 27–8, 40, 68, 87–8, 110, 127, 140, 143, 146, 157, 185, 199, 242–3, 245, 262, 269 see also automated light, follow-spot, projection moving (portable) light source 25–8, 47, 49, 65, 87–8, 95, 101, 198, 226, 242–3 natural light see daylight, sun, windows ‘passive’ light 81, 82, 86–8 phenomenological effect of xv, 39, 66–7, 75–6, 124, 141, 143–4, 149, 155–6, 171–2 physiological effect of 8–9, 53 75, 113, 142–4, 171–2, 200, 211 ‘plastic light’ see plasticity of stage space

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light – continued psychological effect of 20, 22, 39, 41, 75, 92–3, 106–8, 109, 117, 124, 143–4, 172, 197, 208, 223, 251 religious light 7, 21–2, 25–6, 27 semiotics of 66–76 shape of 218, 250, 252–4 statuary light 12 theatrical light (consciously) 67–8 ‘uncommon’ 103, 105 ‘unemotional’ 138 see also Brecht unnatural 54, 55, 131, 138 light console 210, 214, 232, 233–40, 245, 247 lightboard 247 light-drum 132 light organ 93, 138, 162–4 light stage 138 lighting angles 86–8, 151–3, 200–24, 263–4 see also backlight, frontlight, keylight, light: directional, sidelight, toplight, unnatural conventions 6–11, 47, 50, 52, 67, 70–4, 179, 181 see also blackout cues xiv, 49–50, 116, 140, 151–6, 167, 174, 179, 205, 219, 227–33, 236–8, 244, 245, 246, 247, 253, 258, 261, 263–4, 265–7, 271–3 see also lighting: conventions, lighting: plot, lighting: state dangers of 10, 29, 176, 179, 182–3, 190, 194, 197 design 4, 25, 77, 200–24, 240, 248–71 designer xiv, xv, 1, 7, 16, 20, 21, 23, 40, 42, 43, 46, 67, 69, 70, 102, 115, 116, 122, 143, 200–24, 225, 232–3, 234fn, 235–40, 242, 246–7, 248–71 economic factors of 10–11, 17, 31, 41, 48, 51–2, 57, 58, 61–2, 152fn, 182, 192, 194, 202, 214, 234–5, 262, 269 heat from 48, 64, 175–6, 179, 193–4 made visible to audience 119, 122, 132, 136–7, 243, 264, 268 masking of (concealing) 9–10, 13, 16–19, 26, 29–30, 32, 45, 47–9, 54, 56, 61, 136, 191–2 see also footlights, wings

plot, plotting session 41, 69, 136, 167, 179, 195, 205, 215, 218–20, 228, 230, 235–6 , 246, 257, 260, 262–5, 266–7, 271–3 positioning of equipment 7–14, 16, 17, 50, 81, 101, 104, 175–181, 180, 183–199, 198fn, 201, 256, 258–9 see also audience’s viewpoint, proscenium rehearsal 104, 108, 151–2, 179, 193, 196, 205, 243, 260–1, 263, 266 see also lighting: plot safety of 46, 159, 176, 179, 182–3, 190 score 80, 81, 83–6, 96–100, 121–4, 125–6, 166, 206 session see lighting: plot, lighting: rehearsal smell from 9–10, 17, 45, 48, 176 smoke from 9, 55, 63–4 software (visualisation) 222, 245, 262 state xiv, 50, 96, 203, 206, 228, 236, 238, 246–7, 253, 261, 264, 267, 269 see also lighting: cue storyboard 96, 262 see also lighting: score textbooks 200–224 Lighting, The (Brecht, 1948) 132–3 Lighting Art, The (Palmer, 1985) 223 Lighting Design Working Group 242 Lighting the Stage (Corry, 1954) 214 lighting table 191, 194, 195 see also lighting: plot, plotting session, rehearsal Light Play (Schlemmer, 1927) 170 Light Play: Black-White-Grey (Moholy-Nagy, 1930) 171 Light Prop for an Electric Stage (Moholy-Nagy, 1930) 170–1 Light Stage (Lichtbühne, Piscator, 1953) 138 lightning 5, 17, 31, 35, 83–5, 88, 121, 130, 140 Lights! (Canguillo, 1919) 168–9 limelight 35, 94, 95, 143, 151, 152fn, 173, 176–87, 190, 192, 194–6, 214, 226–7, 269 see also electric carbon arc Lives of the Artists (Vasari, 1550) 3

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Lloyds, Frederick (1818–1894) 184, 187–8 Locke, John 162fn Long Day’s Journey Into Night (O’Neill, 1956) 139 Lotz, Wilhelm 200fn Loutherbourg, Phillippe-Jacques de (1740–1812) 31–4, 61–3, 65, 94, 163 Christmas Tale, A (1773) 32 Eidophusikon, The (1781–2) 32–4, 65 Lucar, Cyprian 23 Luce! (Lights!) (Cangiullo, 1919) 168–9 Luce Attiva 269–70 LUCI Association 42 Lugné-Poë, Aurélien-François (1869–1940) 36, 207 Lyceum Theatre, London 93, 95, 174, 175, 179, 188–97, 228 Lyonnet, Henri 154 Macbeth 107, 186–7 MacGowan, Kenneth 36, 77–8, 126 Machy, Pierre Antoine de (1723–1807) 59 MacNeil, Ian 255–6, 264fn Macready, William (1793–1873) 182 magic lantern 34, 65, 92, 151, 154, 162, 181, 183 Magic of Light, The (Rosenthal, 1972) 215–20 Majzel, Professor 37 Mannheim Court Theatre 53–5 Mansell, Moss 234 Manual for Constructing Theatrical Scenes and Machines (Sabbattini, 1637–1638) 13–16, 44–6 Marinetti, Filippo Tommaso (1876–1944) 164 Marriage of Figaro, The (Beaumarchais) 64 Martin, Karlheinz (1886–1948) 131–2 Martino of Udine see Pellegrino Mask, The (Craig) 102 masking see audience: lighting hidden from view of masque 30 Mauclair, Camille 156–7

295

McCandless, Stanley (1897–1967) 201–6, 203, 207, 209, 211, 213, 220, 221, 258 McKinney, Joslin 75, 161fn Medici festivals (Florence, 1608) 3, 15, 27–8 Meiningen Players 121, 125 Merleau-Ponty, Maurice 75 Method of Lighting the Stage, A (McCandless, 1932) 201–6 Metropolitan Opera House, New York 206fn, 228 Meyerhold, Vsevelod, (1874–1940) 102 Midsummer Night’s Dream, A 47, 244 Mielziner, Jo (1901–1976) 139–40, 213 Miller, Arthur 139–40 Death of a Salesman (1948) 140, 213 Mima (1928) 231, 271–3 Miracle, The (Reinhardt, 1911–1927) 36, 206fn mirrors 7, 8, 56, 63, 109, 111, 171, 172, see also water, lighting equipment: reflector, see also Pepper’s Ghost mise en scène 68, 69, 80, 89, 121, 144, 145–8, 164 see also scenography Miss Julie (Strindberg, 1888) 118–20 Mitchell, Katie 143–4, 243, 267–8 model theatre (miniature modelbox for experiment) 16, 32–4, 62, 65, 94, 100, 101–2 102fn, 114, 210, 213, 234, 254, 261, 266 Moholy-Nagy, Laszlo (1895–1946) 170–1 Monnet, Jean 61 Monsters of Grace (Glass/Wilson, 1998) 115 Montalti, Mauro 167 mood (atmosphere) 7, 8, 30–4, 38, 46, 59, 65, 73, 94–100, 103–8, 120–4, 126, 129, 134, 142, 149,156, 198, 204, 207–8, 213, 217, 220, 221, 246, 251, 265 moonlight 5, 31, 32, 33, 34, 47, 59, 67, 69, 70–3, 82, 85–6, 90, 100, 107, 120, 122, 126, 131, 133–4, 164, 170, 178, 181, 184, 185, 187–8, 192, 203–4, 211, 227 Moran, Nick 223

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Morgan, Nigel 198, 200fn, 205fn, 206fn, 223, 248 Morning Advertiser (London) 159 Morning Chronicle (London) 62 Moscow Art Theatre 101, 120–4, 145 Hamlet (1911–12) 101–2 Seagull, The (1898) 120–4 Three Sisters (1901) 124 Mother Courage (Brecht) 137 Mr Puntila and his Servant Matti (Brecht) 133fn, 134 Mukaˇrovský, Jan 66 Murdoch, William (1754–1839) 175 music, in relation to light 26, 28–30, 36–7, 39, 40, 58, 77–86, 88–92, 94, 96, 100, 106, 109, 126, 129, 136, 137, 144–6, 148, 156–7, 162–4, 167, 169–70, 171, 206, 219, 232, 234–5, 245–6, 249–51, 253, 254, 256, 261, 271–2 see also colour music, concert lighting, sound National Theatre, London 198fn, 220, 255–6, 258, 261 National Theatre, Prague 110–14, 110, 112, 223, 224 Neher, Casper (1897–1962) 133, 136 Nemirovich-Danchenko, Vladimir (1858–1943) 120–4 neon 71, 73, 140, 166 Neppach, Robert (1890–1939) 132 Nesbitt, Robert 212–13 ‘new stagecraft’ 103, 139, 207 New Theatre, London 230fn New Theatre, New York 228 New York Theatre Review 154 New York Times 151 Newton, Isaac (1642–1727) 58, 162fn Nicoll, Allardyce 52–3 Nineteenth Century and After, The – A Monthly Review 190–6 Noble Mirror of Art, The (Furttenbach, 1663) 16–18 Northen, Michael (1921–2001) 102, 234fn, 237 Not I 140 Nottingham Playhouse 198fn Noverre, Jean Georges (1727–1810) 60 Nuremburg 38–9

Odéon, Paris 64 Oedipus Rex (Sophocles, c.496 BC) 12, 109, 223 Oenslager, Donald 139 oil lamps 5, 10, 17–18, 23, 25, 29–30, 44–5, 47, 48, 51–6, 54, 57, 61, 63–5, 162, 175, 176fn, 178, 190, 225, 226 OISTAT 242 Olivier, Laurence 220 Olympia, London 36 Olympic Games 38fn, 245 O’Neill, Eugene (1888–1953) 103, 139 On the Art of the Theatre (Craig, 1912) 102 opera 20, 28–30, 31, 32, 49, 54, 58, 60, 78–86, 89, 94–5, 110, 144, 158, 159, 164, 178, 181, 249, 252, 259, 261 Opéra, Paris 57, 59, 61, 183–4, 229 operator 29, 41, 95, 150–3, 152, 163, 177, 179, 181–3, 186, 192, 195–6, 206, 214, 225–47, 271–3 see also candlesnuffer, electrician, technician as performer 234–40, 240–5, 246–7 Orpheus and Eurydice (Gluck, 1762) 36, 93, 126, 128 Ost, Geoffrey 214 Otto, Teo 137 Owner of the Keys, The (Kundera, 1962) 110 pageant lantern 213 Palmer, Richard 215, 223–4 panorama 34 pantomime 32, 62, 74, 95,158, 159, 182, 183 see also fairy scenes Paper on how to illuminate the auditoria (Lavoisier, 1781) 56 par can 40 Paramount Theatre, New York 206fn Parigi, Giulio (1571–1635) 16, 30 Patte, Pierre (1723–1814) 53–5 Pattern 23 spotlight 235 Patterson, Michael 127–9, 132fn Pavis, Patrice 68, 69 Pellegrina, La (Bargagli, 1589) 28–9 Pellegrino da San Daniele (1467–1547) 2 Penzel, Frederik 18–19, 61fn, 63–4, 173fn Pepper’s Ghost 185

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performer see actor, dancer, operator perspective scene see scenic stage Peruzzi, Baldassare (1481–1536) 2–3, 4, 5 Petit Palais Bourbon, Paris 29–30 Philadelphia Exhibition (1884) 159 Pichel, Irving 200–1 Pilbrow, Richard 220–2, 247 Piot, Etienne Adolphe 100 Piranesi, Gianbattista (1720–1778) 58–9 Pircha, Emil 207 Piscator, Erwin (1893–1966) 126, 132, 133–4, 137–8 plasticity, of stage space and light 78, 80–1, 90, 108–14, 139–40, 144–9, 201, 203 also see choreography Play (Beckett) 8, 140 playhouse see auditorium playwright xiv, 22, 30–1, 101, 118–23, 132, 133, 139–41, 147, 164–6, 204, 216, 220 Pleskot, Jaromir (1922–2009) 110 Poetics VI (Aristotle) 21 Pozzo, Andrea (1642–1709) 57 Prague School, The 66 Prampolini, Enrico (1894–1956) 164–6 Prentice, Herbert (1896–1955) 268 Preset Electronic 235–6 Princess’s Theatre, London 183, 186–7 profile ‘ellipsoidal’ spotlight 213, 214 see also followspot Projecting Performance 243–5, 244 projection 65, 81–9, 92, 101, 108, 115–16, 134, 138, 146, 149, 156, 170, 171, 183, 209, 218, 221, 224, 242–5, 244, 248, 268–9 holographic projection 115 prompt corner 178, 191, 193, 194 prompter 61, 167, 178, 195, 196 proscenium 9, 10, 11, 17, 18, 45, 50–1, 51fn, 52, 54, 55, 57, 61, 63, 87, 95, 104, 108, 113, 116, 177, 184, 195, 198, 203, 207, 242, 256, 258fn, 260, 271 Pyrophone 162 Quaglio, Ferdinando 57, 58fn Quinquet, Antoine-Arnault (1745–1803) 64 quinquets see Argand lamp

297

Radio City Music Hall, New York 206 Raleigh, Walter 46–7 ‘rampe mobile’ 87–8 Ramsaur, Michael 242 Rebellato, Dan 232, 246–7, 248 Redon, Odilon 106 Reflecting-Colour-Light-Play (Schwerdfeger, 1922) 169 reflectors 5, 6, 10, 17–18, 26–8, 56–7, 61, 63, 111, 113, 178, 190–1, 271 Reid, Francis 223, 238, 239 Reinhardt, Max (1873–1943) xiv, 36, 102, 103–4, 125–32, 139, 198fn, 205, 207 Beggar, The (1917) 127–8, 128 Danton’s Death (1916–1921) 126, 130–1 Miracle, The (1911–1927) 36, 206fn Orpheus (1921) 36, 126 Salome (1902) 126 Rembrandt, Harmenszoon van Rijn 177, 217 Revue d’histoire du théâtre (1954) 89 Reynolds, Joshua 33 ‘rhythmic space’ 92–3, 93, 96 Ricciardi, Achille (1884–1923) 166 Riccoboni, Marie-Jeanne 55 Ridge, Harold, C (1890–1957) 200fn, 206–10, 213, 220 Rimington, Alexander Wallace (1854–1918) 163–4 Rosalie 171 Rosenthal, Jean (1912–1969) 214, 215–20, 222, 248 Round in Fifty (1922) 210 Runaway, The (1776) 62 Ryder, Albert Pinkham 106 Sabbattini, Nicoló (1574–1654) 13–16, 17, 44–6, 55, 56, 225 Saggio sopra l’opera in musica (Algarotti, 1755), 58 St. Augustine 22 St. Bonaventure 22 St Joan (Brecht) 137 Salle des Machines, Paris (Spectacle d’optique, 1738) 31 Salome (Reinhardt, 1902) 126

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Saltzmann, Alexander von (1874–1934) 93 Samoiloff effect 210, 211 Sangallo, Bastiano da (1481–1551) 3 Savoy Theatre, London 158–9 Scaderberg (1735) 31 Scamozzi, Vincenzo (1548–1616) 11–13 scene changes 29–30, 35, 49, 50, 72, 102, 126, 174, 179–80, 193, 246, 253, 261 scenery 2–16, 26–30, 45, 49–50, 51fn, 94, 100, 126, 130, 168, 184–5, 186–9, 210, 212, 217, 219, 220, 229, 252–4, 259, 260, 263, 265, 268 see also scenic stage gauze (scrim) 35, 87, 94–5, 184–5, 186–8 lighting of 2–16, 16–19, 25–6, 27–34, 49, 56, 57, 77–9, 87, 88, 144–9, 190, 192, 194, 204, 210fn, 212, 221, 258, 265 painted scenery 45, 57–63, 78, 88, 144–9, 181, 186–9, 207, 208 see also scenic artist projected scenery 156, 217, 243–4, 248, 250–1 see also projection scenic artist 91, 131, 186, 187, 197, 226, 227 scenic designer see scenographer scenic stage 2, 3, 4, 8–9, 16, 44–6, 51, 54, 62, 90 scenographer 2–4, 6, 32, 57, 59, 60–2, 63, 78, 94, 103, 104, 108, 113, 115, 126, 130, 132, 133, 135, 139, 164–5, 201, 204, 207, 213, 216, 217, 219, 222, 225, 232, 237, 239, 253, 258, 259, 260, 263, 265, 268 scenography 1, 31, 41, 68, 79, 88, 102, 108–14, 139, 164–6, 224, 240 see also mise en scène Schechner, Richard 240–1 Schlemmer, Oskar (1888–1943) 75, 145, 170 Schouwburg Theatre, Amsterdam 48, 54 Schwerdfeger, Kurt (1897–1966) 169 Schwabe lighting system 207–8, 210 sconces 47, 52–3, 178 Scriabin, Prometheus, the Poem of Fire (1911) 163 Seagull, The (Chekhov, 1898) 113, 120–4

Secret of Theatrical Space, The 109, 110–14 selective visibility 20, 143, 221 Semiramis (Voltaire) 57 Ser Jacopi, Girolamo 29 Serlio, Sebastiano (1475–1554) 3, 4–6, 7, 11–14, 18, 29, 30, 31, 45, 49 Servandori, Giovanni Nicholas (1695–1766) 31–2, 34, 58, 60 Ezio (1755–1756) 32 spectacle d’optique (1738) 31–2, 34 set designer, see scenographer shadows 9, 31, 59–60, 64, 69, 72, 81–3, 87–9, 93–100, 103–8, 111, 119, 122, 129, 131, 140, 147, 148, 150, 154, 155, 156, 165, 167, 169–70, 171, 177, 178, 183, 189, 192, 195, 201, 209, 211, 213, 218, 222, 227, 260, 265 absence of/obliteration of 90, 174, 189, 192, 207 importance of 11, 12–14, 77, 87–9, 101 painted 4, 13–14, 49, 57–60, 82fn, 83, 90–1, 101, 145–8, 188, 189 see also chiaroscuro, light: active Shakespeare, William (1564–1616) Coriolanus 189 Hamlet 101–2, 107, 109, 110–113, 112, 242 Henry VIII 34, 173, 184 King Lear 65 Macbeth 107, 186–7 Midsummer Night’s Dream A 47, 244 Shakespeare Memorial Theatre 198fn Showco 41 Showlight 245fn, 257 shutters see windows side-light 5, 7–9, 12, 45, 49, 51, 55, 58, 87–8, 95, 101, 119, 143, 151–3, 155, 177, 183, 187, 222, 255–6, 258, 259–60, 265 Siegfried (Wagner) 72, 79,fn, 81, 82fn, 144, 145, 147–8 Sightline (ABTT Journal) 211 silks 6, 32, 36, 126, 176, 187–8, 194, 209, 226 Simonson, Lee 139 Simov, Viktor 123

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Six Axioms for Environmental Theatre (1967) 240–1 Sketch, The 152 sky dome 126, 131 smoke (from lights) 9, 55, 64 smoke effect 23, 27–8, 33, 85 Society of London Theatres 239 Sohn, Der (Hasenclever, 1918) 126, 129 Somi, Leone Ebreo, di (1527–1592) 7, 10–11,14, 45 son et lumière 36–7 Sorge, Reinhard, Johannes (1892–1916) 127–8 sound (in relation to light) 16, 33, 36–41 47, 49, 55, 73, 80, 120–4, 162–9, 241 see also music, son et lumière spectacle d’optique (Servandori, 1738) 31, 34 spectators see audience spotlight 5, 38–9, 68, 87, 93, 95, 104, 111, 126–7, 129, 130, 134, 143, 198, 202, 214, 217, 231, 235, 236, 271–3 see also profile, followspot Staatstheater, Berlin 207 Stael, Germaine de 162fn stage designer see scenographer stage director see director Stage Lighting (Bentham, 1950) 211–14 Stage Lighting (Fuchs,1929) 201 Stage Lighting (Ost, 1954) 214 Stage Lighting (Ridge, 1928) 207–9 Stage Lighting Design in Britain (Morgan, 2005) 248 Stage Lighting Principles and Practice (1936, Ridge/Aldred) 207 Stage Lighting for Theatre in the Round (Joseph, 1964) 222 stage management 263fn see also prompter, prompt corner, scene changes stage manager 65, 123fn, 196, 225, 227, 232–3, 237, 238, 263fn, 264 standard see boom, bunchlight standing light box 18 Stanislavski, Konstantin (1863–1938) 101–2 , 120–4, 125, 139, 145, 149, 202 States, Bert, Olen 66–7 Steps, The (Craig, c.1905) 95–100

299

Stern, Ernst (Ernest) (1876–1954) 126, 128, 130 Stoker, Bram (1847–1912) 176, 185, 188–197, 200 ‘Irving and Stage Lighting’ 190–6 Storming of the Winter Palace, The (Evreinov, 1920) 37–8 Strand Electric (Rank Strand) 199, 212, 214, 220, 222, 230fn, 233–6, 240 see also Tabs street lighting 8, 25, 57, 63–4, 96, 178 Streetcar Named Desire, A (Williams) 140 Strehler, Giorgio 69–70 Strindberg, August 118–20 sun, sunlight 3, 5, 12, 20, 22, 25, 34, 67–8, 69, 70–3, 75, 129, 172, 181, 203–4, 219 see also daylight, sunset sunset 22, 32, 34, 82, 187, 188 Sunday Times 181 Suzdal, Bishop Abraham 26 Svoboda, Josef (1920–2002) 40, 102, 108–14, 223, 224, 240 contralight, 109–10, 113–14, 223, 224 Hamlet (1959) 109–13, 112 Oedipus (1963) 109, 223 Owner of the Keys, The (1962) 110 ‘polyphonic spectacle’ 109 ‘psycho-plastic space’ 108–10 Seagull, The (1960) 113 Secret of Theatrical Space, The 109, 110–14, 224 Traviata, La 109 Tristan and Isolde (1967) 109 Swan, Joseph Wilson (1828–1914) 159, 191 Swan Lake 257 Sweeney Todd 263 symbolism 36, 70–4, 129, 141, 149, 156 see also light: as symbol synaesthesia 156–7, 162–3, 164, 167 Tabs 174, 212, 220, 222 Tairov, Alexander 74 Teatro Argentina, Rome 166 Teatro Olimpico, Vicenza 12–13 technical rehearsal 113, 136, 151, 260, 263–4 see also lighting: plot

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technician xiv, 41, 89, 90, 91, 92, 135fn, 151–2, 179, 186, 188, 218, 225–47, 250, 254, 268 see also electrician, operator Technique of Stage Lighting, The (Williams, 1947) 210–11 Telling Orchestra, The (Verdensteatret, 2008) 171 Tenebrae 7 Terry, Ellen 189, 196–7 Tessenow, Heinrich 93 Tessin, Nicodemus (1654–1728) 49 theatre critics (on lighting) 95, 123, 183, 230, 268 theatre (stage) designer, see scenographer Theatre in the Round (Joseph, 1967) 222 Theatre of Colour (1919–1920) 166 Theatre of Cruelty, The (Artaud, 1932) 38, 39–40, 164 Theatrical Lighting Practice (Rubin & Watson) 220 Theatrical Management Association 239 Three Sisters (Chekhov) 124 thyratron 206, 236, 238 Times, The 158, 183, 187 Tipton, Jennifer 115, 248 toplight 12, 17–18, 45, 49, 52, 56, 81–3, 94, 101, 152, 183, 217 torches, torchlight 6, 8–9, 23, 26, 27–8, 44, 47, 54, 71, 104, 161 total theatre (Artaud) 39 tragedy, lighting for 4, 7–8, 14, 21, 101 Traviata, La 109 Tribüne Theatre, Berlin 131–2,198fn Trimingham, Melissa 75 tungsten 135fn, 197, 251, 269 Turrell, James 171–2 Uimonen, Markku 242 ultraviolet light 104, 110, 166 Universal Museum 61 urban scenography 41–3 Utrillo, Maurice 106 vacuum lamps 193, 209 Varekai (Cirque de Soleil, 2002) Vari∗ lite 41, 248

67

Vasari, Giorgio (1511–1574) 3, 26 Veltruský, Jiˇri 66 Verdensteatret 171 verfremdung 132–6 verisimilitude 14, 127fn, 230, 231 Verklärte Nacht (Rosalie, 2006) 171 Vieux Colombier, Paris 207 Vilar, Jean 69 Vinci, Leonardo, da (1452–1519) 12 Vitruvius 2 Voltaire 57 Von Morgens bis Mitternachts (Kaiser, 1912) 129 vraisemblance 60–1 Waiting for Godot 67 Wagner, Richard (1813–1883) 78–81, 89, 125, 136, 156, 162 Art-Work of the Future, The (1849) 79 ‘Gesamtkunstwerk’ 79 Parsifal 79 Ring Cycle (Ring Des Nieberlungen, Das) 78–86, 89–92 Siegfried 144, 145, 147–8 Tristan and Isolde 109, 113–14 114 Walkyrie, Die 81–6 ‘worttondrama’ 79 water 3, 6, 20, 24, 25, 30, 31, 34, 41, 46, 70, 90, 92, 96, 114, 119, 122, 153–4, 153fn, 187, see also fountain Waves (National Theatre, 2006) 243 Weather Project, The (Eliasson, 2003) 172 Webster, John 46 Weichart, Richard 126–7, 129 White, Christine 245–6 White, Martin 50 White Devil, The (Webster, 1612) 46 Wild Duck, The, (Ibsen) 120 Williams, Rollo Gillespie (1903–1982) 210–11, 220 Williams, Tennessee 139–40 Glass Menagerie, The (1944) 139–40 Streetcar Named Desire, A (1947) 140 Wilson, Robert 75, 103, 115–17, 162 Einstein on the Beach (1976) 115 Monsters of Grace (1998) 115 Quartet (1987) 117

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windows 9, 12, 43, 47–9, 74, 189, 192 wings 9, 29, 49, 116, 180, 191, 206, 207, 263, 264 lighting from 9, 18, 49, 51, 52, 58, 59, 61, 87, 101, 153, 155, 176, 180, 183, 185, 187, 188, 206, 231, 263–4 see also booms, side-light operating position 227, 231, 233, 242 Winsor, Frederick (1763–1830) 175

301

World Behind the Scenes, The (Fitzgerald) 176–9, 182, 200 WYSIWYG 245 Yale University 201, 216 Yeats, W.B. 101 Yellow Sound, The (Kandinsky, 1909) 164 Zola, Emile 118 Zich, Otakar 66

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