Science and Cycling as a System - Land Transport Authority

Science and Cycling as a System

Science and Cycling as a System Bernhard ENSINK and Karsten MARHOLD

Abstract This article will present the hypothesis that a systematic approach to cycling is needed in research as well as in practice. The authors show that cycling, despite the evident benefits it presents for cities, is still under-appreciated as a mobility solution in its own right. The hypothesis is then substantiated by evidence from practice, i.e., cities in which a systematic approach to cycling has led to an increase in cycle use and a better harnessing of its benefits. The paper ends with an explanation of possible reasons deterring cities from achieving a high modal share of cycling.

Cycling: An Active Mobility Mode with Major Benefits

harnessing of its benefits. The paper ends with

There is abundant scientific evidence that cycling

from achieving a high modal share of cycling.

an explanation of possible reasons deterring cities

as a mode of transport has major benefits for cities and societies (Dora and Hosking 2012; de

Cycling as a System

Geus 2013; ECF 2011a and 2013a). The European

The hypothesis of this article is that cycling, in

Cyclists’ Federation Charter of Seville (ECF 2011)

order to be assessed and implemented efficiently,

presents no less than 15 different benefits of

has to be considered as a system of mobility in

cycling, including health, environmental, and

its own right with particular needs and benefits

economic benefits. Indexes and studies on

(Figure 1). We will show this using examples

sustainable urban mobility include cycling in their

of cities that have successfully implemented

indicators, such as bike sharing and CO2 emissions

pro-cycling strategies - Copenhagen, Munich

per vehicle (Arthur D. Little 2011). Furthermore,

and Adelaide.

cycling as an accessible, inclusive form of mobility also helps guarantee basic human rights (Neun 2013a and 2013b). This article will present the hypothesis that a systematic approach to cycling is needed in research as well as in practice. The authors show that cycling, despite the evident benefits it presents for cities, is still under-appreciated as a mobility solution in its own right. The hypothesis is then substantiated by evidence from practice, i.e., cities where a systematic approach to cycling has led to an increase in cycle use and a better

The hypothesis of this article is that cycling, in order to be assessed and implemented efficiently, has to be considered as a system of mobility in its own right with particular needs and benefits. We will show this using examples of cities that have successfully implemented pro-cycling strategies - Copenhagen, Munich and Adelaide.

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Our definition of cycling as a system is based

2. Peripheral hardware - A range of services

on the German National Cycling Plan (NCP)

related to cycling, such as, cycle stations,

2002-2012. This plan, which provides the

repair services, cycle cleaning facilities and

guidelines for the cycling policy of the German

the opportunity to store luggage in the town

Federal government, is based on an integrated

centre.

concept of cycling as a system (Federal Ministry of Transport, Building and Housing [BMVBW] 2002). The three components of the system, according to the NCP 2002-2012, are: 1. Hardware

-

A

network

of

3. Software

Public

information

and

education related to cycle use that “engages with behavioural change with respect to the choice of transport mode.” Software

cycling

infrastructure that enables “direct and comfortable cycling journeys” and is “safe

also includes a favourable climate towards cycling and public acceptance of transport mode choice.

or perceived to be safe”; including cycle

All three components of the system - hardware,

parking facilities, protection against theft,

peripheral hardware, and software - only present

as well as connections to public transport

limited overlap with other transport modes

and signposting.

and are largely particular to cycling. We will

Figure 1: Cycling as a system (BMVBW 2002, 28).

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-

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present cities from three categories: champions,

their policies on keeping levels of cycling

climbers, and starters. This terminology has

high, i.e., keeping existing cyclists satisfied

been used by the ECF in the PRESTO project

while upgrading and maintaining existing

(Figure 2) (PRESTO 2010). The German NCP 2012-

infrastructure.

2020 also uses this categorisation in order to classify cities based on their cycling-friendliness (Federal Ministry of Transport, Building and Urban Development [BMVBS] 2012).

• In Climber cities, cycling is generally safe and comfortable in most parts of the city. Cyclists are visible and present, while there is still potential for increasing modal share.

• Champion cycling cities are cities with the

Climber cities’ focus lies on expanding and

highest modal shares, where most trips

diversifying existing cycling infrastructure.

are accomplished by walking or cycling,

• Starter cities are cities with low modal

while supported by city-wide, high-quality

shares of cycling, little dedicated cycling

cycling infrastructure. Champion cities direct

infrastructure, and low cycling culture.

Figure 2: Starter, Climber and Champion cities (PRESTO 2010).

Make cycling possible, safe and respectable Promotion efforts Infrastructure efforts

reward convince

Get more people on a bicycle

Keep people on their bicycle

reward reward

encourage convince comfortable attractive coherent

convince encourage encourage comfortable attractive

safe direct

comfortable attractive

coherent coherent

safe direct

starter

climber

safe direct

champion City-wide network

Neighbourhood

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While there generally is latent demand for

cycling and walking from passive mobility

cycling, few citizens actually cycle because

(Figure 3) (Neun 2013a).

of the lack of infrastructure, incentives and perceived safety issues. Starter cities need

A second observation is that data sources

to focus on these basic issues first – create

often do not offer separate statistics on cycling

basic infrastructure, address safety issues

and walking. Some statistics even miss out on

and concerns, and start communication –

active travel as a whole. An example is the

before being able to fully integrate cycling

European Environment Agency’s TERM report

into the modal mix.

on urban transport (EEA 2013). This often does not leave a choice to researchers, who, even

Our presentation is structured by these

if they wished to present a differentiated view

categories, and further according to the

between cycling and walking, are not able

definition of “cycling as a system”– hardware,

to do so due to the lack of appropriate data

peripheral hardware, and software. While our

sources. Data sources that do differentiate

presentation concentrates on cities, the findings

between cycling and walking are mainly

can hopefully be applied to the analysis of

available for Europe, such as the Eurobarometer

regional or national cycling strategies as well.

surveys (Directorate-General for Mobility and Transport [DG MOVE], 2013) and the ECF

State of the Art in Research: A Survey of Past Issues of JOURNEYS

Cycling barometer (ECF 2013b).

An

research

Differentiation between modes is not only

published in past issues of JOURNEYS reveals

neglected when assessing current usage

several issues with how cycling is appreciated

statistics of transport modes, but also over time.

in urban mobility research. While many articles

Mobility research about developing countries,

refer to cycling, they rarely refer to cycling as

for instance, often acknowledges the growing

a dedicated system of transport and mobility.

tendency

overview

of

cycling-related

towards

motorisation

without

considering from which non-motorised forms Our first observation is that cycling is very often

of mobility motorisation does occur (Xiao and

referred to in combination with walking, and

Gu 2012). We argue that these are for the most

often exclusively so (Lu 2009; Pourbaix 2012;

part walking and cycling.

Dora and Hosking 2012). This appreciation of cycling may be related to the fact that

Finally, a survey of articles from JOURNEYS leads

urban mobility research frequently focuses on

to the conclusion that cycling is increasingly

assessing the relationship between motorised

referred to in research as a solution to cities’

and non-motorised transport. We prefer the

mobility issues. In particular, bicycle sharing is

term “active mobility” in order to differentiate

considered a novel and innovative approach

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Figure 3: The Active Mobility Pyramid (Held et al. 2012).

to reducing congestion, air pollution, and

has been increasing constantly since the city

enhancing green mobility (Ely and Brick 2012).

decided to systematically promote bicycle use

This is consistent with newer approaches in

and bicycle infrastructure.

mobility research focusing on accessibility to locations and services rather than vehicle throughput (Litman 2013).

Lessons from Practice: Cycling Needs a Systematic Approach Copenhagen: A Champion City The city of Copenhagen, the Danish capital, has one of the highest cycling modal shares worldwide. From 2008 to 2010, Copenhagen had a cycling modal share of 36%. Modal share was much lower in the 1970s and 1980s, but

The city of Copenhagen, the Danish capital, has one of the highest cycling modal shares worldwide. From 2008 to 2010, Copenhagen had a cycling modal share of 36%. Modal share was much lower in the 1970s and 1980s, but has been increasing constantly since the city decided to systematically promote bicycle use and bicycle infrastructure.

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The city of Copenhagen’s bicycle strategy is

• Peripheral hardware

based on a 15-year strategic plan, the City of

The city’s strategy states that only 3 out of 10

Copenhagen’s Bicycle Strategy (Copenhagen

Copenhageners are satisfied with the provision

2012a). It is divided into four chapters related to

of cycling parking facilities in the city and this

different aspects of cycling- city life, comfort,

is being acknowledged as an impediment to

travel time, and sense of security. These can

more people cycling. Cycling is put in relation

be fitted to the three previously mentioned

to accessibility of shops and services, and the

categories - hardware, peripheral hardware,

strategy states that a majority of cyclists in

and software.

Copenhagen do choose the bicycle as transport mode because it provides access to these.

The city of Copenhagen hosted the first edition of the Velo-city Global conference in 2010.

• Software

Copenhagen is a member of the ECF’s Cities

The city of Copenhagen is marketing the city

for Cyclists network.

as a “The City of Cyclists”, including success stories as well as marketing and education

• Hardware

campaigns directed at specific user groups

While there is extensive and high-quality

and age groups. The city’s marketing activities

bicycle infrastructure already in existence, the

include an online bicycle portal on the city’s

City of Copenhagen’s Bicycle Strategy further

website including a cycle route planner

emphasises the need for such dedicated

(http://www.ibikecph.dk/) and cycling-related

infrastructure. For the years 2011-2015, the

publications.

city envisages the creation of a network of cycle superhighways called PLUSnet, which

Munich: A Climber City

includes the most frequently used cycle paths

In recent years, Munich has become one of the

and cycle routes throughout the city while

German cities with the highest modal shares of

completing missing links as well as increasing

cycling with 14%, and up to 19% in some parts

capacity for cyclists where needed. Safety and

of the city (Reiß-Schmidt 2013). Munich traffic

perceived safety are addressed as well in the

development is based on a “compact city” model

strategy, with the city aiming to raise the

where most trips can be accomplished by either

proportion of cyclists who perceive cycling

cycling or walking.

to be safe to 90% in 2025 (2010: 67%). The Bicycle Strategy is being accompanied by a

The vision for this model is laid down in

Green Mobility Strategy (Copenhagen 2012b)

the city’s long-term traffic development plan

focusing on inter-modality and connections

(Verkehrsentwicklungsplan) (Landeshaupstadt

between cycling facilities and Public Transport.

München 2006). Part of the plan is a bicycle masterplan

called

“Bicycling

in

Munich”

(Radfahren in München). Since 2009, the budget

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dedicated to cycling by the city of Munich has

There is no dedicated bike sharing system in

tripled from €1.5 to €4.5 million a year. Munich is

Munich, although the “Call a Bike” system

a member of the ECF’s Cities for Cyclists network

run by train company Deutsche Bahn, which

and hosted the Velo-city 2007 conference. After

exists in different German cities, is available in

the conference, the city increased its efforts to

Munich and originated there.

make Munich more cycle-friendly (Mentz and Lonhard 2009; Weninger and Monatzeder 2013).

• Peripheral hardware Munich focuses on creating parking facilities at train stations, which are not always existent, and sometimes could not be built in the past

In recent years, Munich has become one of the German cities with the highest modal shares of cycling with 14%, and up to 19% in some parts of the city. Munich traffic development is based on a “compact city” model where most trips can be accomplished by either cycling or walking.

due to space restrictions. However, the city has started building two-story cycle parking facilities in order to accommodate a growing number of cyclists and wants to continue using this model in the future. Approximately 25,000 “bike+ride” parking spaces are available. In the city of Munich, more than 28,500 bicycle parking facilities are available, and according to the bicycle masterplan, 2,000 more are to be

• Hardware Munich

has

created from 2009-2015 (Zorn 2013). an

extensive

network

of

signposted and dedicated cycle routes. Many

• Software

of these routes still lack connections and are

Cycling policy in Munich is accompanied by

incomplete. There is a main network with 14

a number of public relations campaigns and

signposted bicycle routes leading from the

public

city centre towards the outskirts. These routes

campaign about mobility choices “München –

are complemented by three so-called “ring-

Gscheid Mobil” reaches up to 85,000 citizens

routes”, the longest of which is the “RadlRing

and includes kindergartens and schools as

Munich”

neighbouring

target groups. In 2010, an extensive campaign

communities. The network of cycle routes

to promote cycling called “Radeln ist Cool”

covers about 1,200km, of which 500km are

(Cycling is cool) has been run, including a

segregated bicycle paths, and 85% of Munich

Public bike night ride. Furthermore, Munich is

streets are limited to 30km/h or lower and

marketing itself as “Radlhauptstadt” (cycling

contra-flow cycling is allowed on such streets.

capital). A dedicated mobility portal is in existence

running

through

information.

The

awareness-raising

online at http://www.muenchen.de/mobil. Cycling maps are also being edited and disseminated by the city.

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Adelaide: A Starter City

• Hardware

Adelaide is an example for a starting city.

Adelaide features 70km of dedicated bicycle

The city will host the upcoming Velo-city

infrastructure in the city. The city council

Global 2014 conference from 27-30 May 2014

has decided to step up funding for cycling

(Weninger and Monatzeder 2013).

by 50% in order to close gaps in the cities’ cycling network. The city councils’ strategic

Adelaide had a comparatively low mode share

transport plan sets the target to create further

of 1.3% (cycling to work) in 2011 (Loader

20km of cycle lanes by 2015/16. A stakeholder

2012). Cycling is mostly a recreational activity

consultation has taken place about the

in Adelaide, as opposed to transport cycling.

extension of the network. Adelaide city council

Nevertheless, Adelaide has developed cycling-

offers the free Adelaide city bikes bike rental

friendly policies in recent years in order to

program at currently 9 locations in the city.

increase the share of cycling.

The bicycle action plan includes funding to increase the number of stations, as well as

Adelaide had a comparatively low mode share of 1.3% (cycling to work) in 2011. Cycling is mostly a recreational activity in Adelaide, as opposed to transport cycling. Nevertheless, Adelaide has developed cyclingfriendly policies in recent years in order to increase the share of cycling.

introducing city cargo bikes. Two-way cycling is to be allowed in one-way streets with a vehicle throughput of less than 1,000 vehicles a day. • Peripheral hardware Adelaide’s

bicycle

action

plan

includes

measures to provide bike boxes or “advanced storage units” at four intersections in the city. The plan also foresees the creation of 50 bike rails at street crossings every year (thus 150 in total), as well as quick response to minor

Since 2008, the Adelaide city council has

cycling hazards.

published a bicycle action plan laying down its priorities on cycling. The plan includes

• Software

measures worth A$1.46 million to improve

Adelaide city council is marketing the city as

cycling in the city (Adelaide City Council 2011).

one of the most liveable cities in the world and

The Adelaide city council wants to achieve a

the most liveable city in Australia, a claim that

10% mode share for cycling to work by 2015.

is in part based on which cycling friendliness.

Cycling has increased by about 10% every

The bicycle action plan includes the equivalent

year since 2002 and therefore has more than

of €103,000 of funding for cycling promotion

doubled over ten years.

including cycling events such as bike to work days and the implementation of cyclist education programs.

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Conclusion

It is well established what kind of ‘hardware’ and

The examples ranging from champion cycling

‘peripheral hardware’ are needed to develop

cities to starter cities suggest that researchers

better cycling in cities. But advocates, experts

should be aware that cycling is a system within

and politicians who want to implement cycling

mobility systems. Therefore, it is recommendable

as a system better and faster need scientifically

to researchers to link their specific research

sound advice on how to extend and accelerate

issues ‘cycling as a system’. While the three

the cultural, societal and political change that

categories as presented in this paper could still

is needed to do so. Interdisciplinary networks,

be refined, they present a good starting point

such as the ECF‘s Scientists for Cycling network,

for integrated research.

are essential to deliver on such questions. Cooperation between researchers from political

Potential further research could therefore focus

science,

economics,

sociology,

philosophy,

on why the change of car-oriented cities towards

psychology, anthropology, and religion, for

people-oriented cities with a high modal share

instance, is essential to understand how to

of cycling is not a mainstream strategy for many

generate better cultural, societal and political

cities yet or why the change is slow.

support for the implementation of cycling as a system - worldwide. The upcoming editions of

Key questions remain: Why is societal and political

the Velo-city conference series in Adelaide (27-

support for cycling so low? Is the reason a lack

30 May 2014), Nantes (2015), and Taipei (2016)

of political will and leadership, is it the powerful

should benefit from this research.

position of the car industry and their framing of culture by advertisements (World Resources Institute [WRI], 2011), or is it the low social status of cycling in general? What is the impact of debates on the ethical dimension of mobility, within and among international institutions such as the United Nations (Mayne 2013), local, national and international NGOs, or companies working on their corporate social responsibility? What role do the mainstream media and social media play, and what is the impact of local and national election campaigns on cycling policies?

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——. 2010. Radverkehr in München. http://www. radlhauptstadt.muenchen.de/fileadmin/Redaktion/ PDF/Radl_Brosch_2010.pdf Litman, T. 2013. Towards more comprehensive multimodal transport evaluation. JOURNEYS 10: 50-58. Loader, Chris. 2012. Trends in journey to work mode shares in Australian cities to 2011. http:// chartingtransport.com/2012/10/30/trends-in-journeyto-work-mode-shares-in-australian-cities-to-2011/

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Lu, Huapu. 2009. Urban Transportation in China: Current State of Reform and Future Trends. JOURNEYS, 3:7-13. Mayne, Kevin. 2013. “The place of cycling policy and programs in the developing world.” Presentation at SLoCaT Transport Day at COP19, Warsaw, 2013. http:// www.slocat.net/sites/default/files/u10/kevin_mayne_ ecf_transport_day_2013.pdf Mentz, H. and M. Lonhard. 2009. City of Munich – New developments in cycling promotion since Velo-city 2007. Paper presented at Velo-city 2009, May 12-15, in Brussels, Belgium. http://www.velo-city2009.com/ assets/files/paper-Lonhard-Horst-Mentz-sub1.1.pdf Neun, M. 2013a. Active Mobility – Achieving human rights through cycling. Presentation at the EcoMobility 2013 congress, September 2, in Suwon, South Korea. http://www.ecf.com/wp-content/uploads/ManfredNeun-The-Cycling-Economy-2013.pdf ——. 2013b. Cycling Economy 2.0. The Human Rights approach. Velo-city Vienna 2013 Conference Magazine, December 2013, 86-87. http://velocity2013.com/wp-content/uploads/Velo-city2013_ Conference-Magazine_THE-SOUND-OF-CYCLING_ ENG-web.pdf

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Bernhard Ensink studied theology in Germany and the Netherlands. He has been Secretary General of the European Cyclists’ Federation since 2006. He was previously Director of the Dutch Fietsersbond and interim director of the Milieufederatie Groningen. He has been Vice mayor of the Dutch city of Coevorden (1994-1998), where his responsibilities included public affairs, spatial planning, environment, housing and finance.

Karsten Marhold is a researcher in Urban Mobility, Science & Technology Studies and European Integration in Brussels. He has studied in Berlin, Aix-en-Provence, Bremen and Brussels and holds an MA from the Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Belgium. Karsten Marhold works as a Communications and Policy Assistant in ECF’s Brussels office.

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