Biodiversity, Biodiversity, Development and Poverty Alleviation Seminar Proceedings of Nigeria Tropical Biology Association (NTBA) Held at First Bank Auditorium, Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Ibadan, Nigeria
August 26, 2010
Edited by Folaranmi D. BABALOLA
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Copyright © 2010 Nigeria Tropical Biology Association and Tropical Biology Association All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stores in a retrieval system or transmitted in any forms or by any means (electronic, magnetic tape, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise) without permission from the Coordinator of NTBA and/or Director of TBA.
ISBN 978-978-901-311-1
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Acknowledgements We, NTBA alumni members, specially thank TBA for awarding us a small grant to organize 2010 annual seminar and to conduct a conservation project titled “Spatial distribution of turacos and their preferred food plants in Ngel Nyaki Forest Reserve, Mambilla Plateau, Nigeria.” The survey aims to investigate the relative distribution of turacos in the escarpment forest and the riverine forest fragments in Ngel Nyaki Forest Reserve (NNFR) in Mambilla Plateau, Nigeria. Our special gratitude also goes to TBA for securing fund to organize series of workshops for TBA alumni members in West Africa for the next three years. The workshop for NTBA alumni members is starting this year immediately after the seminar on proposal writing and communication skills to be jointly delivered by the Director of TBA from UK (in person of Dr. Rosie Trevelyan) and Project Manager from Kenya (Mr. Anthony Kuria). We thank Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, and Department of Forest Resources Management, University of Ibadan, Nigeria for provision of venues used for both the seminar and workshop. We also thank Dr Hazel Chapman (Director, Nigerian Montane Forest Project) for giving the approval to conduct the survey on turacos at NNFR.
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The Tropical Biology Association (TBA) The Tropical Biology Association is developing capacity and building links for biodiversity research and conservation in the Africa region. Through its training courses and follow-up support, the TBA is creating an informed, motivated community of tropical biologists with the potential to have a significant impact. Annually three or four courses are rotated and carried out in Uganda, Tanzania, Kenya, Madagascar and Malaysia. Established through funding from the Darwin Initiative, the TBA is supported by grants and collaborative programmes from government and non government agencies and the private sector. It has a subscribing membership of over 40 universities, research departments and conservation institutions which form the basis of its governing council. The TBA offices are located in Cambridge and Nairobi. The TBA field courses aim to introduce participants to the excitement, challenges and opportunities of biological research and conservation in tropical habitats. The one month long TBA courses are taught at Master's level and highlight up to date concepts and techniques in tropical ecology and conservation. Courses are taught by an international group of esteemed biologists. The TBA selects equal numbers of European and host region participants (approximately 24 participants on each course) representing around 12 or 13 different countries. Due to the high demand for course places, students may only attend one month-long course. The courses comprise of lectures, seminars, and are enhanced by field works which demonstrate how current concepts are being approached and the kinds of techniques which are used in the field. The latter half of the course focuses on project research design. Participants get the opportunity to design and undertake their own research project during the course. The projects are written up and presented as a paper at the end of the course. For details on TBA courses and how to apply, visit the link: http://www.tropical-biology.org/training/courses/ TBA European Offi ce
[email protected] Th e Tropical Biology Association Department of Zoology Downing Street Cambridge CB2 3EJ United Kingdom Tel./Fax + 44 (0)1223 336619
TBA African Offi ce
[email protected] Th e Tropical Biology Association PO BOX 44486 00100 - Nairobi Kenya Tel. +254 (0) 20 3749957 / 3746090 Fax. +254 (0) 20 3741049
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The Nigeria The Tropical Biology Association (NTBA) NTBA brings together past participants of the TBA courses from Nigeria with the vision of “building capacity for young and vibrant Nigerian conservation scientists thereby making them at par with the global conservation paradigm”. In addition to strengthening the links between its members, the group was established to create forum for sharing of ideas and experiences, and initiate research among young Nigerian in tertiary institutions. As at 2009, 34 participants have attended the TBA field courses from Nigeria under full scholarships. NTBA Office Dept. of Forest Resources Mgt University of Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria Tel. +234-8025487802
[email protected]
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Nigeria TBA Alumni (2000 - 2009) S/N
First Names
Last Name
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34
Tosin Omowunmi Emmanuel Olusegun Abdullahi Ayonniyi Isah Suleiman Evelyn Vivian Uchenna Oyekunle Abidemi Stephen Mufutau Folaranmi Dapo Patience T. Abiodun Victoria Nneoma Tajudeen Okekunle Bolaji Adekola Anuoluwapo Oluyomi Victor Abiodun Oyomoare Lolade Olufunso Adegbenga Jacinta Ileigo Oluwanyika Omolara Oluwashola Shola Samuel Olalekan Yahkat Olugbenga Harriet Michael Oluwakayode Michael Barnabas Haruna Samuel Tertese Zainab Oiza Augustine Moses Gaavwase Jennifer Arubemi Zingfa Jantur
Adeoye Akindele Asimalowo Dehinbo Dutse Eyong Onianwah Oyewole Abiodun Awoyemi Babalola Mayaki Ujoh Amusa Adeniji Onafuwa Ojo Eruogun Somorin Abalaka Iseyemi Olaniyan Olajuyigbe Barshep Akinyooye Jimoh Okunlola Coker Daru Ivande Adeiza Gbagir Agaldo Wala
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Year attended TBA Course 2000 2001 1998 1999 1997 2001 2001 1998 2002 2002 2003 2003 2003 2004 2004 2004 2004 2005 2005 2005 2006 2006 2006 2006 2007 2007 2007 2008 2008 2008 2008 2009 2009 2009
Preface It gladdens my heart to witness another annual seminar of Nigeria Tropical Biology Association (NTBA) after successful organization of its maiden edition last year 2009. This year seminar coincides with the International Year of Biodiversity (IYB) hence adoption of the theme of International Day for Biological Diversity “Biodiversity, Development and Poverty Alleviation”. Celebration on this theme provides unique opportunity to raise public awareness on the importance of biodiversity to sustainable development and the attainment of the Millennium Development Goals (MDG). The theme is particularly pertinent in 2010. In 2002, Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) committed to achieve by 2010 a significant reduction of the current rate of biodiversity loss as a contribution to poverty alleviation and to the benefit of all life on Earth. Actions to achieve the 2010 Biodiversity Target were incorporated in the Plan of Implementation of the World Summit on Sustainable Development adopted in Johannesburg in September 2002 and later endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly. Subsequently, the 2010 Biodiversity Target was incorporated as a new target under Goal 7 (to “Ensure environmental sustainability”) of the MDG. At the tenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the CBD, in Nagoya, Japan in October 2010, Parties to the CBD will review progress towards attainment of the 2010 Biodiversity Target and seek strengthened commitment to new strategy and targets, and their means of implementation, post-2010. This year’s NTBA seminar aims to recognise the roles of biodiversity for human well-being. Papers contain in this proceedings are written by students in Nigeria tertiary institutions and young conservation researchers, this is to give this group of audience opportunities to present their research findings on conservation of biodiversity and contribution of biological diversities to poverty alleviation with the purpose of building them for the future. All accepted articles are peer reviewed and published free of charge as the contribution of TBA and NTBA towards attainment of the 2010 Biodiversity Target. To further stimulate discussion among the participants present at the seminar, some of the authors were invited for presentations. Best presentation awards were given at the students and young professional categories to create a lasting memory and motivate career development in conservation among up-coming professionals. All the participants fully participated during the seminar and in the selection of the awardees. We, the NTBA alumni group in collaboration with our mother organisation (TBA), believe that we have raise public awareness on the importance of biodiversity to sustainable development and the attainment of the MDG among students and young professional through the seminar.
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Table of contents Pages Acknowledgements
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The Tropical Biology Association (TBA) ……………………………..
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The Nigeria The Tropical Biology Association (NTBA) .......................
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Nigeria TBA Alumni (2000 - 2009) …………………………………...
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Preface …………………………………………………………………
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Table of contents ………………………………………………………
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Biodiversity, Development and Poverty Alleviation Babalola, Folaranmi D. ……………………………………………….
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Ability of Sub-Lethal Dose of Mitracarpus villosus and Euphorbia hirta Extracts to Induce Resistance in Clinical Bacterial Isolates Imarhiagbe E.E.and Obayagbona O.N ………………………………
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People, Development and Biodiversity Conservation: Finding a Balance IVANDE Samuel Tertese*, WALA Zingfa Jantur, ATUO Fidelis Akunke ………………………………………………
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Forest Resources Utilization: A Sure Means of Meeting the Needs of Mankind Amoo-Onidundu, O. N., and Alao, O. ……………………………….
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Effect of Organic Manure Application on the Leaf Production, Height Growth and Stem Girth Enlargement in a Tropical Vine (Cissus Striata), Abia State Nigeria Onyema, M. C., Nzegbule, E. C., Akachuku, C. O. ………………..
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Application of Bioresources for Poverty Alleviation in Nigeria Borokini, Temitope Israel ……………………………………………
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Biodiversity Conservation and Poverty Alleviation - Two Sides of the Same Coin and the Global Warming Gamble:The Nigerian Lowland Rainforest Experience. Rachel Ashegbofe Ikemeh …………………………………………..
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Financing Biodiversity Conservation in Nigeria: Current Trend and Options Amusa, T.O. and P. Ogialehe ………………………………………..
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Research, Conservation and Sustainable Management of Mangrove Biodiversity in the Niger Delta, Nigeria Okonkwo, H.O, and Otorokpo, A………………………………………
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Biodiversity: An Integrated Solution for Ecosystem Management and Poverty reduction Ajayi, C.A. ………………………………………………………….
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Causes and impacts of conflict on biodiversity management at the buffer zone of Old Oyo National Park, Oyo State, Nigeria Oyeleye D.O and Adetoro A.O. ………………………………………
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Impact of climate change on biodiversity: Perception of the staff of University of Ibadan Conservation Centres Onefeli Alfred …………………………………………………………
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Influence of Albit® biosubstance on the growth characteristics and minerals content of Amaranthus caudatus L. and Moringa oleifera L. Abdullahi, I. N. and Anjorin, T.S. ………………………………….
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Residual Effects of Cocoa Pod Husk and Rice Husk Ash as Organic Potassium Fortifiers of Organic Fertilizer on Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L Moench) Production Adeogun O.O. ......................................................................................
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Moringa oleifera: Potentials for sustainable Livelihood Isese, M.O.O. and Ohenzuwa U.B. …………………………………
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Biodiversity and Sustainable Economic Development in Nigeria Amusa, T.O. …………………………………………………………
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Impact of Nontimber Forest Products on Human Health and Nutrition Opute, O.H. and Ikyaagba, E. T. ……………………………………..
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Sustainable Agriculture in a Depressed Economy: A Way Out Oshibanjo, D.O. ……………………………………………………..
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Conserving Biodiversity Even In Poverty: The African Experience Ogwu, Matthew Chidozie …………………………………………..
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Impact of Climate Change on Biodiversity and Sustainable Development Essien Gideon Dennis ………………………………………………..
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Climate Change and Biodiversity Conservation Onilude, Q. A*, Awosusi, B. M. and Ige, P.O. ……………………….
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Biographies of NTBA alumni members …………………………..`
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Biodiversity, Development and Poverty Alleviation Babalola, Folaranmi D. Forest Resources Management, University of Ibadan, Nigeria Coordinator, Nigeria Tropical Biology Association (NTBA)
[email protected]; +234-(0)8025487802 and reduction of disaster risk. Not least, biodiversity provides the material from which all traditional medicines and many synthetic drugs are derived. Biodiversity is also important to human health through its provision of materials to treat and cure diseases. Three quarters of the world population depend on natural traditional medicine from plants. In addition, it has been estimated that approximately half the synthetic drugs used in the world today have natural origin. Hundreds of these plants are threatened with extinction. The cultural services provided by ecosystems have important mental health benefits for people. For indigenous and local communities whose cultures and ways of life are intricately linked to nature and natural places, the disruption of ecosystems and the loss of components of biodiversity can be devastating, not only materially, but also psychologically and spiritually. In urban centers increasing numbers of people worldwide are recurring to green spaces and parks for recreation and sport, which contribute indisputably to their mental as well as their physical health.
1.0. Introduction Biodiversity is the term used to describe life on earth — the variety of living things, the places they inhabit and the interactions between them. These interactions provide us with a number of essential natural services (“ecosystem services”) — such as food production, soil fertility, climate regulation, carbon storage — that are the foundation of human well-being. Though human well-being is dependent on the continued provision of ecosystem services, biodiversity is very rarely included in our economic outlook because it is mainly a public good, sending no signals through markets. Yet basic indicators such as employment rates, GDP, inflation, and financial and economic outlooks are sending clear messages on the absence of sustainability in development processes. Reality across the planet is likely much worse than what we measure and track as many people and communities function in informal systems outside of mainstream economic ones. Conventional economic and monetary values provide crude and limited indicators of human well-being. Nevertheless, what we know is enough to call for urgent action.
4.0. Threats to biodiversity Unfortunately, the future of biodiversity is under threat: biodiversity loss is occurring around the world at an alarming rate. When we lose biodiversity, we lose unique genes, species, ecosystem goods and services and benefits to humans. Scientists warn that biodiversity loss is approaching a tipping point; once this point of no-return is passed, ecosystems can no longer provide ecosystem services. There are direct and indirect causes driving us towards this tipping point. The direct drivers are: habitat loss, climate change, invasive alien species, overexploitation or unsustainable use, and pollution and nutrient loading [1]. Habitat loss takes away the homes of species and destroys ecosystems. Climate change can modify habitats, migration patterns, or the timing of species reproduction, resulting in increased risks of extinction for certain species. Invasive alien species can out-compete native species and drive them to extinction. Overexploitation or unsustainable use is when species and ecosystems are overused so that they cannot maintain healthy populations large enough to survive over many years. Pollution and nutrient loading (an increase in chemical nutrients containing nitrogen and phosphorus that can lead to excessive plant growth
2.0. Ecosystem goods and services Ecosystem goods and services include all the natural resources and processes that maintain the conditions for life on Earth. They provide us with the food we eat, clean the air we breathe, filter the water we drink, supply the raw materials we use to construct our homes and businesses, are part of countless medicines and natural remedies, help regulate water levels, prevent flooding, and many other things. Another important ecosystem service is the cultural value of natural landscapes to people’s livelihoods, religious beliefs and leisure activities. If people had to do all the work done by biodiversity, we would need an enormous team of engineers, farmers, geneticists, spiritual leaders, musicians, artists, doctors, relaxation specialists and more! 3.0. Biodiversity and Health and Nutrition Scientific research is revealing an increasing number of links between biodiversity and human health and well-being. The existence of a variety of ecosystems, of different species and of genetic diversity is essential to maintaining human health, in terms of food security and adequate nutrition, resistance to infectious and vector borne diseases, mental health,
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and decay in the ground, and, in water ecosystems, algal blooms followed by a lack of oxygen) both destroy habitats or make them unsuitable for species, forcing species to migrate or go extinct. 5.0. Connecting Biodiversity and Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation Climate change is a manifestation and symptom of lack of adequate consideration for environmental sustainability in development pathways. Climate change impacts people, ecosystems and economies. According to the Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), an average temperature rise of more than 1.5 to 2.5 degrees C would put 20% to 30% species at risk of extinction [2]. Climate change also adds to the vulnerability of the rural poor as they are often dependent on rainfall patterns and are severely affected by droughts, storms, and floods. The climate change is a wake up call to the need to factor sustainability into development choices. Dealing with the interrelated challenges of climate change and biodiversity can be considered the new development paradigm which highlights the following eight dimensions [3]: 1. Climate change and biodiversity are interconnected: climate change affects biodiversity, and changes in biodiversity affect climate change. 2. Observed changes in climate have already adversely affected biodiversity at the species and ecosystem level; further changes in biodiversity are inevitable with further changes in climate. 3. The resilience of biodiversity to climate change can be enhanced by reducing non-climatic stresses in combination with conservation, restoration and sustainable management strategies. 4. Ecosystem-Based Adaptation integrating biodiversity and ecosystem services into an overall climate change adaptation strategy can be cost-effective and generate social, economic and cultural benefits. 5. A set of land use management activities including Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) can provide a cost-effective way to mitigate climate change and conserve biodiversity. 6. Activities to adapt to the impacts of climate change can have positive or negative effects on biodiversity, but tools are available to increase the positive and decrease the negative effects. 7. Renewable energy sources, which displace the use of fossil fuels, and geo-engineering techniques, can have adverse effects on biodiversity depending on design and implementation.
The consideration of economic and noneconomic values of biodiversity and ecosystem services, and related incentives and instruments can be beneficial when implementing climate change related activities. Climate change is a key driver of biodiversity loss, and moderating climate change will, in the long term, safeguard ecosystem services. Protecting biodiversity will in turn help to moderate climate change and to adapt to its unavoidable consequences. The conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity offers resilience to climate variability and natural disasters. Biodiversity improves the capacity of a social-ecological system both to withstand perturbations (from climate or economic shocks) and to rebuild and renew itself afterwards. Very few policy and decision makers are aware of this important contribution of biodiversity. Recognising the opportunities that healthy ecosystems provide to adapt to global change is crucial. The Commission on Climate Change and Development [4] states that: “Highlighting the role of ecosystems in adaptation suggests a number of possible win-win options. These are related to increasing the flow of ecosystem services and helping disadvantaged groups deal with future impacts of climate change. These strategies can lead to risk reduction and can also contribute to attempts to promote a transition to sustainable poverty alleviation in rural communities.” Conservation of mangrove forests, wetlands and coral reefs protects coastal zones against weather-related catastrophes.
6.0. The Contribution of Biodiversity and its Ecosystem Services to Poverty Reduction and Economic Sector Development “The well-being of every population in the world is fundamentally and directly dependent on ecosystem services” [5]. The world’s poor, particularly in rural areas, depend on biological resources for as much as 90% of their needs, including food, fuel, medicine, shelter and transportation. For the 1.1 billion people living in extreme poverty, maintaining ecosystem goods and services is critical for daily survival. The world economy and national and sub-national economies are also largely dependent on biodiversity and its ecosystem services. Agriculture and food production, fisheries, forestry, tourism — all contribute significantly to economic development and all depend on the currently undervalued biodiversity. Many developing countries rely on the export of natural resources such as agricultural commodities,
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meadows, mangroves, estuaries and coastal wetlands directly support fisheries providing areas for breeding, nurseries, refuge and feeding. An example of good practice with regard to fisheries is the Marine Stewardship Council’s blue eco-label which promotes “the best environmental choice in seafood”. The eco-label indicates to fish consumers that the source fishery operates in an environmentally responsible way. As of April 2009, there are over 2,400 seafood products available with the MSC ecolabel sold in 49 countries around the world. 51 fisheries have been independently certified as meeting the MSC’s environmental standard for sustainable fishing and over 110 are currently undergoing assessment. Nearly 1,000 companies have met the MSC Chain of Custody standard for seafood traceability.
raw materials and ecotourism services. When properly managed and governed, these biodiversity based assets can yield significant economic benefits, ensure “the rich do not turn poor”, and help pave the way out of poverty. 6.1. Agriculture and Food Production Agriculture is vitally important for developed and developing countries alike. It is both a source of basic sustenance (nutrients and calories) for people, and of raw materials for industries. Agriculture is central to the livelihoods of the rural poor and, with over a billion workers worldwide, it is the largest economic sector in terms of employment. It is also the sector where the majority of the world’s poor and extremely poor are concentrated [6]. Agriculture is fundamentally dependant on biodiversity and on ecosystem services. Species of crops and livestock and their genetic diversity are the basis of agriculture. Crop genetic diversity provides the materials for human societies to adapt to climate change. Species of earthworms, fungi, soil microorganisms, flora and fauna surrounding agricultural areas underpin ecosystem services that sustain agriculture, such as pollination and nutrient cycling. In order to ensure that farms are a sustainable source of food, fibre, and livelihoods, and breeding grounds for biodiversity as well as sinks for carbon, increased investments in sustainable agriculture are needed. Sustainable agriculture is an effective strategy for improving food security and reducing poverty. It promotes food production without depleting the earth’s resources or polluting the environment. Sustainable agriculture provides food security to the poor and smallholder farmers, offers trade opportunities for developing countries, and restores and improves ecosystems.
6.3. Forest Management Timber production has been regarded as the dominant function of forests. However, in recent years this perception has shifted to a more multi-functional and balanced view. Today it is understood that forest biodiversity underpins a wide range of goods and services critical for human well-being. Forests provide food and a vast array of materials for medicinal, cultural and spiritual purposes, as well as building materials and firewood. They also store and purify drinking water, protect watersheds, mitigate natural disasters, control erosion, cycle nutrients, help to store carbon and to regulate climate, and provide habitat to the vast majority of terrestrial species, many of which are crucial for human consumption. Forests are also vital to national and regional economies, both directly through revenues, valueadded and employment provided by the forestry sector [9], and indirectly through their provision of services such as water supply to agriculture and to industry. Sustainable forestry management ensures that forest practices avoid shrinking and degrading forests compromising their provision of ecosystem services. Experience is showing that options for sustainable forest management exist for timber and non-timber products. Reduced Impact Logging (RIL) for example reduces timber wastage, biodiversity loss, and damage to residual trees and soil while also reducing carbon emissions from logging by up to 40 tons/ha of forest [10]. RIL is widely practiced today in some production forests, such as those in Malaysia. However it has yet to become a widespread practice. Another promising avenue for sustaining forests and the services they provide is through the active participation of local people in natural resource management. Also, an important development in the effort to conserve forests is through the valuation of forests and the payments for services that they
6.2. Fisheries More than 3 billion people depend on marine and coastal biodiversity for their livelihoods particularly in developing countries where fishing is a main subsistence and commercial activity40. An estimated one billion people, mostly in low-income countries, depend on fish as their primary source of food. On a global scale, marine fisheries provide 16% of all protein consumed [7]. Fisheries also play an essential role in the livelihoods of millions of people around the world. An estimated 38 million people are employed directly by fishing and many more in the processing stages [8]. Species diversity is fundamental to the productivity and resilience of marine fisheries [8]. Genetic diversity in fisheries is also important in terms of wild fish stocks’ resilience to change and in terms of possible future farming of marine species [8]. Ecosystems such as coral reefs, seamounts, seagrass
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provide. Oftentimes, these payments are given to communities that manage forests, forgoing shorter term, and in many cases, lesser incomes that they could derive from unsustainable forestry practices.
5. TEEB, 2008. The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity, Interim Report, available at http://www.teebweb.org/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket =5y_qRGJPOao%3d&tabid=1018&language=enUS 6. UNEP, 2009. UNEP Global Green New Deal. Annex F Sustainable Agriculture, available at http://www.unep.org/pdf/GGND_Final_Report.pdf 7. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization), 2006. The State of the World’s Fisheries and Aquaculture 2008, available at ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/009/a0699e/a0699e.pdf 8. Balmford, A. et al., 2008. The Economics of Biodiversity and Ecosystems: Scoping the Science available at: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/biodiversit y/economics/pdf/scoping_science_report.pdf 9. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization), 2008. Forestry Finance, Contribution of the Forestry Sector to National Economies, 1990–2006, available at ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/011/k4588e/k4588e00. pdf 10. SCBD, 2009 A Good Practice Guide: Sustainable Forest Management, Biodiversity and Livelihoods, available at http://www.cbd.int/development/doc/cbd-goodpractice-guide-forestrybooklet-web-en.pdf 11. IUCN. Tourism: Gender makes the difference. http://generoyambiente.org/admin/admin_bibliotec a/documentos/Tourism.pdf
6.4. Tourism Tourism is a significant contributor to national and local economies. On a global scale, the sector accounts for 10% of the job market, and in 2007 it generated US$ 856 billion [10]. Tourism is one of the most dynamic economic sectors and many developing countries are steadily increasing their share of the international tourism market. Tourism is particularly important for women as they compose 46% of the global tourism labour force [11]. Sustainable tourism factoring in biodiversity and community livelihoods can contribute to biodiversity conservation and the growth of local economies. For example, tourism is a major source of revenue and support for protected areas and surrounding communities. Public policies and governance involving local and business actors are instrumental in making existing tourism more biodiversity friendly and more beneficial to local people, and in stimulating and facilitating local biodiversity based tourism. 7.0. Conclusion Global responses to biodiversity loss and the strategies for its conservation need to be reinforced and re-tooled to reverse the current trend of continued loss. The conservation, sustainable use, and equitable sharing of the benefi ts of biodiversity require integration across policy reforms and institutional strengthening. Country leadership and increased support from development cooperation are critical for the implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity.
9.0. Acknowledgement The information contain in this paper was extracted from the two publications of the Convention on Biological Diversity for the 2010 International Day for Biological Diversity held on 22 May, 2010: • Biodiversity, Development and Poverty Alleviation: Recognizing the Role of Biodiversity for Human Well-being. • Good-bye poverty, hello biodiversity. (Booklet for the youth) The PDF of the publications are downloadable from Montreal, 50pp. www.cbd.int/doc/bioday/2010/idb2010-booklet-en.pdf or request from
[email protected].
8.0. References 1. CBD review of national reports 2. IPCC, The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, reports at http://www.ipcc.ch/ 3. The report of the Second Ad Hoc Technical Expert Group (AHTEG) on Biodiversity and Climate Change, 2009, available at http://www.cbd.int/doc/meetings/cc/ahteg-bdcc02-02/of_ cial/ahtegbdcc-02-02-06-en.pdf 4. Commission on Climate Change and Development 2009, Closing the Gaps, available at http://www.ccdcommission.org/publications.html
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The table below lists the eight MDGs and why biodiversity is critical to each one. The MDGs are the action items that emerged from a document called the “Millennium Declaration.” This document was produced in September 2000 when world leaders came to New York City, USA for the United Nations Millennium Summit. There, 189 countries discussed how they could collectively eradicate poverty and solve major development problems. MDP 1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
Why is biodiversity critical? Poor people depend on biodiversity for up to 90% of their livelihood needs. When biodiversity is lost, their incomes and livelihoods are compromised. In parts of the world where there is a focus on sustainable use of biodiversity, poverty is being reduced. Biodiversity is the source of all the food production, and so is vital to the 800 million people currently suffering from extreme hunger. Getting rid of hunger depends on sustainable and productive agriculture, which in turn depends on conserving and maintaining soils, water, genetic diversity and ecosystem services.
2. Achieve universal primary education
When ecosystems are intact and healthy, children spend less time collecting water and firewood so they have more time to go to school. Because biodiversity can be a source of income – such as through farming and fishing – it can provide income for a family to pay for school fees. Being properly nourished also helps proper growth and learning.
3. Promote gender equality and empower women
In many developing countries, women are responsible for collecting water and fuel. When ecosystems are intact and healthy, their work is easier, and they have more time to go to school and do other activities. Women tend to have unequal and insecure access to land and other natural resources, limiting their opportunities to use them.
4. Reduce child mortality
33% of childhood diseases are linked to environmental factors. Healthy ecosystems can reduce childhood deaths. Genetic diversity also inspires scientists to create vaccines for deadly childhood diseases such as measles.
5. Improve maternal health
25% of global diseases are linked to environmental factors. Healthy ecosystems can reduce the deaths of mothers by ensuring an adequate supply of clean drinking water and nutritious food.
6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases
Human health depends on healthy ecosystems. Genetic and species diversity are important for both traditional and modern medicines used to prevent and treat diseases. Biodiversity also filters toxic substances from the air, water and soil, and breaks down wastes that can cause sickness.
7. Ensure environmental sustainability
Biodiversity loss directly affects the quality and quantity of ecosystem services. Biodiversity offers low-cost nature-based technological solutions to development challenges such as access to water and sanitation.
8. Develop a global partnership for development
International agreements can help promote biodiversity and its benefits for the poor. These agreements cover development aid and international trade rules. They can enable countries to pay for environmental safeguards and create pro-biodiversity markets.
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Ability of Sub-Lethal Dose of Mitracarpus villosus and Euphorbia hirta Extracts to Induce Resistance in Clinical Bacterial Isolates Imarhiagbe E.E.*and Obayagbona O.N University of Benin/Edo Environmental consults and Laboratory Ltd *sosanuel @yahoo.com, +234-(0)7034482706, +234-(0)8056044926 ABSTRACT: The antimicrobial potency of the medicinal plants Mitracarpus villosus and Euphorbia hirta were evaluated to establish the scientific basis for application in folk medicine by assessing their sub-lethal doses to induce resistance in micro organisms. It was however found that extracts of M. villosus and E. hirta possess antimicrobial activity. Results showed that Aeromonas hydrophila was the susceptible of all the bacteria used, with a zone size of 30mm for M. villosus ethanolic extract and with a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 12.5 mg/ml. E. hirta hot water extract exhibited the lowest minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) of 25 mg/ml against Aeromonas hydrophila, whilst Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa were relatively more resistant especially to the hot water extracts of M. villosus and E. hirta. It was observed that previous exposure of these bacterial isolates to the herbs induced resistance, the MIC of M. villosus hot water extract increased from 25 mg/ml to 50 mg/ml against Aeromonas hydrophila. It is advisable that sub lethal doses of these herbs should not be administered as this will induce resistance in bacteria. Keywords: Mitracarpus villosus, Euphorbia hirta, inhibitory, bacterial isolates, herbs induced resistance are generally designated as medicinal plants (Ghani, 1986). Worldwide, more and more severely ill patients are cared for using more and more sophisticated antibacterial agents. With the continued practice and use, the therapeutic values of the different plants have become known and a sense of dosage also gained has enabled the traditional practitioner treat various illnesses. (Dada et al., 1987). Amongst herbs in common use are Mitracarpus villosus and Euphorbia hirta (Benjamin and Hugbo, 1986). Mitracarpus villosus is used for the treatment of skin infections. The Nupe people in Nigeria usually collect the leaves of the plant during the morning hours, squeeze out the juice and then apply it to lesions of eczema or rashes on the skin. Euphorbia hirta is a common weed that is wide spread in tropical and sub-tropical countries of the world (Hutchinson and Dalziel, 1958). E. hirta is of diverse application in folk medicine in these localities where the plant grows. In East Africa, Ghana, and parts of Nigeria, the leaves are used for dressing fresh wounds, so that it does not turn septic (Kokwaro, 1976; Dalziel, 1987). In Portuguese East Africa, the infusion of the herb is used for stomach ache and dysentery (Watt and Maria, 1962) and in acute enteritis and dysentery like diarrhea (Dalziel, 1987). The diverse application of these medicinal plants in folk medicine suggests their antimicrobial potential and they appear to be consistent. After a half century of antibiotic use, it is known that certain species can adapt to varying environmental conditions through mutation that result in resistance. Consequent upon this survival instinct, it appears that micro organisms can always find a way to resist new
INTRODUCTION Various medicinal benefits of plants have been recognized, although without adequate documentation and their information orally passed down the generation from parents to offspring. Consequently, some information must have been lost due to inadequate means of information storage; nevertheless, more plants of medicinal importance are still being discovered with the current interest in plants as an alternative source of medicine (Emele et al., 1997). However, man’s knowledge of medicinal plants and their various therapeutic utilisation gradually increased in volume as civilization progress. Several herbs possess antimicrobial activity (Irobi and Daramola, 1994; Emele et al., 1997; Agbonlahor et al., 1998). Such herbs are commonly applied in traditional (folk) medicine in the cure of ailments. It is a unique system of healing that originated from the cultural medical sciences of our forefathers and it is geared towards the prophylaxis and cure of illnesses (Awosika, 1991; Bannerman et al., 1983). Plants and plant materials (herbs) are now becoming increasingly important in the search for newer drugs to combat several diseases of man, animals and even plants. Many of the secondary metabolites synthesized by plants have been shown to have profound effects on man and other animals. The effects may be preventive, curative, stimulatory or even toxic (Jinju, 1990). The secondary metabolites produced differ from plant to plant. Thus, plants provide a reservoir of useful metabolites, some of which are of therapeutic importance. Plants which synthesize and accumulate these therapeutic products
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drugs. However, there has not been any information in the literature as to whether or not bacteria can resist herbs even as these herbs are used as antimicrobial agents. The aim of this study is therefore to determine if the extracts of Mitracarpus villosus and Euphorbia hirta can induce resistance in clinical bacterial isolates.
(double dilution) was used. Gentamycin was used as control antibiotic. vi) Determination of Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC): The minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) was determined using the method of Emele et. al.(1997) . The tubes in “MIC” studies, which showed no visible growth after 18 hrs of incubation, were sub cultured onto nutrient agar. The inoculum was numbered against the test tubes for easy identification. The plates were incubated at 370 C for 18hrs. The MBC was regarded as the lowest concentration that prevented the growth of any bacterial colony on the solid medium. vii) Determination of the ability of the herbs to induce resistance on the bacterial isolates: The ability of the herbs, M. villosus and E. hirta to induce resistance on the tested bacteria was investigated was after the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) of the extracts and antibiotics were found. This investigation was carried out from two test tubes below an earlier “MIC” value for each extracts where an inoculum was collected and raised. The organisms were inoculated into sterile nutrient broth and were incubated for 2-4 hrs at 370C in order for them to be in their log phases.”MIC” and “MBC” were set up for the extracts and antibiotics as initially done and the bacterial isolates were appropriately introduced into each dilution tube and consequently labeled.
MATERIALS AND METHODS i) Collection and Processing of the Plant Materials: The plant materials (Mitracarpus villosus and Euphorbia hirta) used in this research work was collected between August and September, 2008 at Ekpoma, and they were identified according to Akobundu and Agyakwa, 1998. ii) Extraction of plant materials: The leaves of the plants were dried in the sun to a constant weight for about 4-7 days and they were crushed into fine particles using mechanical grinder. The ethanolic extracts of the plant materials were obtained by initially defating with petroleum benzene ( 600C – 800C) followed by dissolution into 1 litre of ethanol using a soxhet extractor for 72 hrs at a temperature not exceeding the boiling point of the solvent, while the remaining portions of the dried samples were boiled in enough distilled water for 1 hour, to obtain the water extracts. The extracts were filtered using whatman filter (No 1) and concentrated in a vaccum and dried at 450 C for ethanol and water elimination. A concentration of 0.200 g/ml was attained by intermittently evaporating 1 ml of extracts to obtain a solid residue and then weighing the residue. iii) Source of isolates: The bacterial isolates used for the research were Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus and Aeromonas hydrophila. They were obtained from the Medical Laboratory, University of Benin Teaching Hospital (UBTH), Benin City. iv) Antimicrobial Susceptibility Test: This test was carried out using agar punch-hole method (Stokes, 1975: Cheesebrough, 2000). The plates were then incubated at 370 C for 18 hrs. The turbidity of the bacterial suspensions were earlier adjusted to give a suspension of approximately 108 cfu/ml. Antimicrobial susceptibility test was also carried out for gentamycin as control antibiotic. v) Determination of Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC): The Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) of both the hot water and ethanol extracts of M. villosus and E. hirta were determined by broth dilution method. (Cruickshank, et. al., 1982; Cheesebrough, 2000.). In it, a two-fold serial dilution method
RESULTS Results obtained show that extracts of these herbs possess antimicrobial activity. It was observed that zones of inhibition were seen around the tested organisms. From Table 1, Aeromonas hydrophila showed the widest zones of inhibition and thus, Aeromonas hydrophila is the most susceptible isolate of the three isolates. Also Aeromonas hydrophila was observed to be very susceptible to Mitracarpus villosus ethanolic extract with a zone size of 30 mm and also to gentamycin with zone size of 36 mm. Table 2 shows that ethanolic extract of M. villosus and ethanolic extract of E. hirta exhibited the lowest minimum inhibitory concentration “MIC” of 12.5 mg/ml against Aeromonas hydrophila. Whilst Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa were relatively more resistant against M. villosus hot water and E. hirta hot water extracts (MIC= 100 mg/ml). It was also established after a comparative study that Aeromonas hydrophila was more sensitive to these extracts, whilst Staphylococcus aureus was more resistant to these extracts (Table 2).
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increased from 100 mg/ml to greater than 100 mg/ml, as shown in tables 3 and 4 respectively.
The result shown in Table 3 revealed that E. hirta hot water extract exhibited the lowest minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) of 25 mg/ml against A. hydrophila, whereas, it was highest with MBC of greater than 100 mg/ml (>100mg/ml ) against P. aeruginosa. However, M. villosus water and E. hirta water extracts exhibited MBC of 100 mg/ml each against S.aureus. Table 4 shows that exposure of these isolates to herbs induces resistance. The result revealed that A.hydrophila that was previously exposed to M.villosus hot water extract developed resistance to this same extract when collected and re-introduced. A.hydrophila had “MIC” of 50 mg/ml (Table 4) which was greater than that observed in table 2 (MIC= 25 mg/ml of MH20 against A.hydrophila).Also there was an increase in the minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) greater than 100 mg/ml in table 4which was contrary to that of table 3 with MBC value of 50 mg/ml. Such increase in resistance with reference to their MIC and MBC was observed in A. hydrophila from E.hirta hot water extract, and P. aeruginosa from E. hirta hot water extract, except in A. hydrophila from M. villosus ethanolic extract. However such induced resistance was also observed for gentamycin with A. hydrophila and P.aeruginosa as can be seen in table 4.
CONCLUSION Extracts of M. villosus and E. hirta have been investigated and were found to possess antimicrobial properties and can be recommended for use, but previous exposure of the organisms to sub lethal doses of the extracts can induce resistance as in the case of antibiotics, thus making treatment a difficult task to both practitioners and patients. REFERENCES Agbonlahor, D.E., Parvez, M. and Eugavoen, O.I. (1998). Antimicrobial and Antifungal activities of leaf flower extracts of Aspilia (Afrana) latifolia, olivet herin.Nigerian Journal of Biotechnology. 6: 121-123. Akobundu, I.O. and Agyakwa, C.W. (1998). A Handbook of West African Weeds, Ibadan, Nigeria. International Institute of Tropical Agriculture. 162 pp. Awosika, F. (1991). Local Medicinal plants and the Health of the Consumers. Journal of Clinical Pharmacy and Herbal Medicine.9: (304) 28- 30. Bannerman, R.H., Burton, J. and Ch”en, W. (1983). The African Region: Traditional Medicine and Healthcare Coverage. World Health Organization. 7- 13 pp. Benjamin, T.V. and Hugbo, P.C. (1986). An approach to the study of medicinal plants and antimicrobial activities with reference to Mitracarpus scabra IN: The State of Medicinal Plant Research in Nigeria. Sofowora, A. (Ed). University of Ife Press, Ife, Nigeria. Pp 243251. Cheesebrough, M. (2000). District Laboratory Practice in Tropical Countries. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK. 428 pp. Cruickshank, R., Duguid, J.P., Marmion, B.P. and Swain, R.H.A. (1982). Tests for Sensitivity to Antimicrobial agents IN: Medical Microbiology Vol 2. The Practice of Medical Microbiology.2nd Edn. Churchill, Livingston. Pp 190- 208. Dada, J.O., Alade, P.I., Ahmad, A.A. and Yadock, L.H. (1987). Antimicrobial activities of some medicinal plants from Sobazaria. Nigerian Journal of Biotechnology. 4: 131-133. Dalziel, J.M. (1987). Useful Plants of West Tropical Africa. The Crown Agents for Overseas Governments and Administration, London. 143 pp. Emele, F.E., Agbonlahor, D.E. and Emokpare, C.I. (1997). Antimicrobial activity of Euphorbia hirta leaves collected from two geographically
DISCUSSION The results from the study have shown that the extracts exhibited antimicrobial activities against micro organisms of diverse morphological and staining characteristics; and thus, showing that these medicinal plants extracts can act as good agents for local treatment. The results also showed that ethanolic extracts are more active than water extracts, which hitherto suggests that the active component is more soluble in ethanol than in hot water.Aeromonas hydrophila appeared to be the most susceptible isolate, the high activity of extracts against A. hydrophila suggests the fact that the plants could be used in the treatment of diarrhea caused by this micro organism. The “MIC” report for E. hirta hot water extract against Staphylococcus aureus is higher than that reported by Emele et al., (1997), perhaps this is due to variation in the susceptibility of local strains. In comparing the results presented in table 2 and 3 with table 4, it was observed that previous exposure of the bacterial isolates to sub bactericidal concentration of the herbs induced resistance to the herbs. For example, the MIC of E. hirta hot water extract against A. hydrophila in table 2 was 25 mg/ml, but re- exposing A. hydrophila again to E.hirta hot water extract in table 4 caused an increase in resistance with MIC (100 mg/ml) and its MBC
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dissimilar regions of Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Microbiology. 11: 5-10. Ghani, A. (1986). Medicinal plants and Traditional Medicinal portions: Problems and prospects of their standardization. The State of Medicinal Plant Research in Nigeria. Pp 65- 77. Hutchinson, J. and Dalziel, J.M. (1958). Euphorbiaceae IN: Flora of West Tropical Africa.Vol 1 part 2, 2nd Edn. Crown Agent for Overseas Governments and Administration. Pp 417- 420. Irobi, O.N. and Daramola, S.O. (1994). Bactericidal properties of crude extract of Mitracarpus
villosus. Journal of Ethnorhaemacology. 42: 137140. Jinju, M.H. (1990). African traditional medicine. A Case Study of Hausa Medicinal Plants and Therapy. Gashiya Corporation Ltd. Zaria, Nigeria. Pp 1-9 Kokwaro, J.O. (1976). Euphorbia hirta. IN: Medicinal Plants of East Africa. East Africa Literature Bureau, Kampala, Uganda. Pp 92-93. Stokes, E.J. (1975). Clinical Bacteriology. 4th Edn. Edward Arnold Publishers. 261 pp. Watt, J.M. and Maria, G.B. (1962). Medicinal and Poisonous plants of South and Eastern Africa. E &E Livingstone Pub. Co. 411 pp.
TABLE 1: Zone Diameter of Hot Water and Ethanolic Extracts of the Plants Against Bacterial Isolates Bacterial Isolates Zone Diameter (mm) Mit H20 Mitethol EuH20 Euethol CN Aeromonas hydrophila 2 3 2 2 3 6 0 6 8 6 Pseudomonas aeruginosa 2 2 2 2 3 2 4 1 6 0 Staphylococcus aureus 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 4 4 8
TABLE 2: The Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (Mic) of Extract for the Isolates Bacterial Isolates MIC (mg /ml) MitH20 Mitethol EuH20 Euethol Aeromonas hydrophila 25 12.5 12.5 25 Pseudomonas aeruginosa 100 50 25 100 Staphylococcus aureus 100 50 50 100 KEY MitH20: Mitracarpus villosus hot water extract Mitethol: Mitracarpus villosus ethanolic extract EuH20: Euphorbia hirta hot water extract Euethol : Euphorbia hirta ethanolic extract CN: Gentamycin
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CN+ 8 4 NT
TABLE 3: Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC) of Extracts for the Isolates Bacterial Isolates MBC (mg/ml) MitH20 Mitethol EuH20 Euethol Aeromonas hydrophila 50 50 50 25 Pseudomonas aeruginosa >100 50 100 >100 Staphylococcus aureus 100 50 50 100 KEY MitH20 : Mitracarpus villosus hot water extract Mitethol : Mitracarpus villosus ethanolic extract EuH20 : Euphorbia hirta hot water extract Euethol: Euphorbia hirta ethanolic extract CN: Gentamycin +: Values of gentamycin (CN) are in µg/ml NT: Not tested
CN+ 16 8 NT
TABLE 4: The Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) and Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC) in Mg/Ml of Extracts against Test Isolates Bacterial Isolates MIC (MBC) values MitH20 Mitethol Eu H20 Euethol CN+ H 0 Aeromonas hydrophila Mit 2 50 (>100) Aeromonas hydrophila Mitethol 12.5 (50) Aeromonas hydrophila Eu H20 100(100) Aeromonas hydrophila Euethol 100 (100) Pseudomonas aeruginosa Eu H20 >100(>100) Aeromonas hydrophila CN 16 (16) Pseudomonas aeruginosa CN 16 (16) KEY MitH20 : Mitracarpus villosus hot water extract Mitethol : Mitracarpus villosus ethanolic extract EuH20 : Euphorbia hirta hot water extract Euethol: Euphorbia hirta ethanolic extract CN: Gentamycin +: Values of gentamycin (CN) are in µg/ml
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People, Development and Biodiversity Conservation: Finding a Balance IVANDE Samuel Tertese*, WALA Zingfa Jantur, ATUO Fidelis Akunke A.P. Leventis Ornithological Research Institute (APLORI), University of Jos Biologocial Conservatory, P.O.Box 13404, Laminga, Jos-East LGA, Plateau State, Nigeria *
[email protected]; +234-(0)8034505284 ABSTRACT: People, development and biodiversity are interconnected in a complex relationship. People depend directly on biodiversity for food and livelihood while the processes involved in development magnify the scale of this dependence. There can be no doubt of the importance of development; the need for biodiversity conservation and the role of people in them both. The ever increasing call for development and the moral imperative to tackle poverty and improve people’s livelihood is pressing and so is the attending negative impacts (sometimes unintended) on biodiversity and the accelerating pace of species extinction demanding of our attention. There is thus every need for a balance to be reached. Here, I have reviewed some of the efforts that have been made in this regard. shows that if these things are ignored, ‘development’ projects fail) and because it began to be clear that it was morally right that development should have regard for these things [2]. In the 1980s, the concept of ‘Sustainable Development (SD)’ emerged as the means by which biodiversity and the natural ecosystem would be saved while enabling humanity to continue to prosper. SD which was first promoted by the WCS (IUCN/UNEP/WWF 1980); grew from Stockholm 1972, it recieved support from Brundtland 1987 and Caring for the earth 1991 the successor of the WCS 1980; as a reasoned means of balancing the demands of nature and people. It is thus clear that a balance needs to exist between people, development and biodiversity conservation.
Introduction The link between poverty reduction, environment, natural resources, conservation and the involvement of people in all of these, have been internationally recognised in policy instruments such as the UN Conference on Human Environment and Conservation (Stockholm 1972); World Conservation Strategy WCS (IUCN/UNEP/WWF 1980); World Commission on Environment and Development: Our common future (Brundtland 1987); Caring for the earth: Strategy for sustainable living (IUCN/UNEP/WWF 1991); UN Conference on Environment and Development UNCED (Rio 1992); the Millennium Development Goals MDG among many others [1-3]. Most of these manifestoes are of the opinion that people and development should ‘keep within the earth’s carrying capacity’; they should ‘respect and care for the community of life’ and ‘improve the quality of life’ [2] while conservation actions and protected areas should be more socially responsible, involving and considering the needs of people [1]. In order to serve all these interests simultaneously, concepts like Sustainable Development SD [see Box 1], Community-Based Conservation CBC [3], Community-Based Ecotourism CBET [4], Integrated Conservation-Development Projects ICDPs [1] among many other such approaches have been developed. The notion that development and environmental conservation should be tackled in an integrated way began to grow in the 1960s and one root of such thinking was the argument that the science of ecology was relevant to development [2]. Then in the 1970s, there were calls for ‘bottom-up’ or ‘participatory’ approaches to development which grew stronger with an emphasis on promoting changes that people themselves locally understand to be necessary and desirable. There was an increasing recognition too of the importance of indigenous knowledge, culture, social norms and institutions, both because of their utility (because experience
Biodiversity Conservation and People Usually, conservationists argue that they seek to conserve biodiversity and the environment for wider human benefit - especially for those most affected by poverty e.g. fishermen, peasant farmers whose livelihood depends directly on environmental quality [2]. One will expect then that conservation will be very widely accepted and enjoy the full support of people. Sadly however, this is not always the case, because sometimes, in the process of promoting conservation, its cost to poor people’s livelihood is ignored. This is not unrelated to the fact that the conventional approach that conservation actions sometimes tend to adopt is the “fences and fines approach”. This usually involves the creation of protected areas which are usually supported by rules and regulations which often mean that local communities loose access to the natural resources that were vital to their livelihoods. It is thus not difficult to see the irony of this approach and how it may attract antagonism from the people. This has led to the lack of success of some conservation programmes. Does this then mean that the influence and attitude of people to conservation is always
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negative and that conservation always means that people cannot use biodiversity? Not necessarily! In recent decades, conservation programmes have sought to overcome this antagonism by seeking to involve people, especially local communities around the protected areas in the management of these areas and surrounding landscapes. Often, the idea is to involve, mobilise and gain the support as well as reduce the antagonism of people and communities by increasing the benefits and reducing the costs of conservation actions on the people following an “integrated conservation and development” approach, which seeks to fight poverty and bring about development while conserving natural resources and biodiversity at the same time. This is especially important because ironically, the most biologically rich and diverse regions or “hotspots” in need of conservation are found in the world’s poorest regions. These areas have high population densities and the attending threats including encroachments, deforestation and unsustainable harvest which put pressure on biodiversity [1]. Despite these challenges, all hope is not lost as these people could become assets to conservation if they are involved and are made to understand that they have a role to play. Conservation could be able to gain support for itself by generating economic benefits, particularly for the local people [4]. These benefits have been
shown to improve local attitudes towards conservation and reduce the antagonism that is often directed at conservation programmes by the local people. ICDPs are one of such approaches; the support of people is solicited in ‘exchange’ for developmental projects that usually is of benefit to the people. CBET encourages the local communities to maintain and conserve natural landscapes and thus help them earn money from ecotourism [4]. Others include the establishment of Buffer zones which allows a partially restricted land use but serves as added layer of protection while benefiting neighbouring communities [1]. Inclusive management approaches and Participatory planning on the other hand seek to involve local communities in management, thus ensuring that they have major stakes in decision making and that all involved share in the benefits that accrue. Community-conservation areas encourage ownership, control and management by indigenous and local communities and are a good way to get people to be involved in conservation. Often customary tenure and traditional institutions play important roles here [1]. Care must however be taken because too much focus on people and poverty reduction may lead attention away from other important causes of biodiversity loss and the goals of conservation actions.
BOX 1 What is sustainable development? The notion that development and environmental conservation could and should be tackled in an integrated way began in the 1960s. In the 1980s, the concept of Sustainable Development emerged as a possible solution. The whole idea of sustainable development was formulated as a means of discovering and promoting an integrated approach to development and conservation. With the emergence of the concept, it was believed that the traditional opposition between the two i.e development and conservation was, at a rhetorical level at least, overcome. The central idea of Sustainable development was that development had to utilize resources within environmentally acceptable levels. World Conservation Strategy 1980: First put forward the concept; it proposed that development should “satisfy human needs and improve the quality of human life” and that conservation of biodiversity would ensure that we “yield the greatest sustainable development to present generations while maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of future generations”. Brundtland 1987: modified this only slightly and defined SD as “development which seeks to meet the needs and aspirations of the present without compromising the ability to meet those of the future” Caring for the earth 1991 considered SD as development aimed at “improving the quality of human life while living within the carrying capacity of supporting ecosystems”. UNCED 1992 promised to achieve SD through combined efforts in economics, social development (people) and the environment (commonly referred to as the 3 pillars of SD) [see Fig 1]. Supporters of SD believe that the limited successes recorded so far are not due to a problem with the concept, but one of implementation. Critics however are of the opinion that the concept is largely anthropocentric and mainly focused on human aspirations and well being and promotes continues economic prosperity with the natural environment only seen as the means by which this is to be accomplished [5]. Others have even asked if SD holds the answer to all the many conservation problems faced today and in the future. While SD may not hold all the answers, it is probably our best shot and should be reinvigorated by improving the linkages and balancing the impacts of actions in each pillar of sustainable development rather than looking for an entirely new approach.
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BIOLOGICAL SYSTEM • Genetic diversity • Resilience • Biological productivity
ECONOMIC SYSTEM • Reducing poverty • Equity enhancement • Increasing useful goods & services
SOCIAL SYSTEM • Cultural diversity • Institutional sustainability • Social justice • Participation
Conservation is part of the goals of Sustainable Development (Elliot 2006) Fig. 1 Sustainable development must recognize the interactions of these three components [6] be distant in space and delayed in time [2]. Also, the impacts of development projects (and conservation projects as well) can bear unequally on different people, usually with the immediate rural communities often bearing the brunt of costs, while distant urban economies enjoy the benefits [2]. Forest destruction has been fuelled by extensive road building, logging and timber production, oil and mineral exploration and infrastructure projects which are seen as evidences of development [8]. These kinds of scenarios are further encouraged by the somewhat skewed emphasis of development on infrastructure and economic benefits. Does this then mean that conservation is incompatible with development? No! Surely there are challenges associated even with development. These inherent challenges especially to the environment and its conservation have also been recognised by international policy tools. The international community has thus tried to arrive at a suitable solution - enter the concept of Sustainable development (SD) see [Box 1]. In 1992, UNCED promised to achieve SD through combined efforts in economics, social development and the environment (commonly referred to as the 3 pillars of SD). Sadly, in spite of more than 10 years of concern with SD, achievements have been relatively limited and tangible outcomes of SD
Biodiversity Conservation and Development: Incompatible? Man has always made demands on other elements of the biosphere directly for food and livelihood. However, the development process increases the scale and rate of those demands [2]. Development as defined by Encarta dictionaries is any event that causes change or the change process itself. A more general (and in this paper too) idea of development includes events and processes that bring about social, economic and environmental changes. The traditional ideas about development though have usually been centred on economic and infrastructural prosperity [2]. While many people believe development to always be positive, one important dimension of development as put forward by Goulet (1992) is its ‘ambiguous’ character – ‘a two edged sword which brings benefits, but also produces losses and generates value conflicts’ [9]. Large scale infrastructural developments have often had significant adverse impacts on the environment (and livelihoods of people especially those who depend directly on biodiversity), even though it may not be intended and may provide benefits on the wider scale or for a nation as a whole. This is where the conflict between development and environmental conservation emanates. These adverse impacts may
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acknowledgement of the importance of all these components. For the developers and sociologists (who have sometimes been accused of being too anthropocentric), despite many years of large investments, poverty remains a major problem and in some cases benefits are not equitably distributed. Instead, development itself sometimes even occurs at a cost to the poorest people and the environment. For conservationists on the other hand, despite many years of effort and some important successes, a biodiversity crisis still exists. The general opinion has been that conservationists have largely failed to convince economists and developers of biodiversity’s long-term importance [11] such as providing secure environmental services including clean water and air to all humans whether poor or rich, carbon sequestration, nutrient recycling and protection from some natural disasters including flooding etc [11]. In trying to convince developers and economists of the importance of biodiversity and the need to conserve them, efforts should be directed towards an attitudinal change in people to get them to stop or minimize those actions which cause damage and to undertake actions which have neutral or beneficial effects. Sociologists and developers also have to understand how these complement rather than hinder development. As simple as this may seem, it is a tough agenda and Wynne [14] agrees that the routes via which this can be achieved are very few. He identifies some of them as: education and motivation through understanding so that people get to make their own informed decisions; persuasion through advocacy and money where economic incentives are allowed for people and organizations that employ sustainable practices; legal instruments which are used to control people’s behaviour regarding conservation via the law. Above all, policy instruments should spell out more clearly the linkages and during implementation aim to balance the impacts of actions in each pillar of SD. All these approaches can be employed in combination through a cocktail of complementary measures to achieve development that is sustainable [15]. This is the challenge for both the development (social and economic) and conservation communities; a challenge that needs to be surmounted at all costs.
programs and projects have been scarce [11]. Fisher et al. (2005) further state (and I agree too) though that this is probably not the result of any fundamental problem with the concept but with the implementation processes. Although the 3 pillars of SD (economy, environment and society) were not seen at UNCED as separable, in practice the emphasis has been on the economic pillar [11]. This skewed perception was clearly expressed by the Ivory Coast representative at Stockholm 1972 who stated that his country will like more pollution problems provided this was evidence of industrialization [2]. While it is true that development cannot be achieved without economic growth, the overemphasis on economic development has in many instances undermined the environment in ways that affect the long-term benefits of development. This is further made worse by the erroneous conception and idea that the economy could be developed first and then positive social and environmental development will follow [11]. This is probably the reason why in cases where ecological reality conflicts with perceived political feasibility, the latter almost always prevails [12]. Sadly, with all the large investments in economic and infrastructural development, social and environmental issues still exists and until all pillars of SD are given balanced attention will true positive SD be achieved. Conclusion There is no doubt that people, development and biodiversity are linked. There is no doubt also that a balance is urgently needed so that collective benefits are achieved and maintained. This is especially important not only because it is obvious that people are involved in all three components, but also because they form the centre and main focus in two (people and development) of the three components. Only conservation is concerned with the biological component and even then, goals and decisions are set by people who are continually calling for conservation approaches to be socially responsible. While the idea of social responsibility is really important, it gives an impression of an imbalance and tends to support the view of critics who have always considered the attempts at striking a balance especially through the concept of SD as being largely anthropocentric and providing legitimate support to the continued and outright destruction of nature by people [13]. Sociologists, developers and conservationists are continually making strong cases in their favour, often pointing out how their objectives are affected by those of the others. However, it is no longer a question about promoting social responsibility; conservation or development each over the other. What is needed now is an
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of Biological Assessment 46. Conservation International, Arlington, VA, USA. Goulet, D. 1992. Development: creator and destroyer of values. World Development 20, 467-475 Loth (2004). In. Fisher et al. (2005). Poverty and Conservation: Landscapes People and Power. IUCN Forest Conservation Programme Fisher et al. (2005). Poverty and Conservation: Landscapes People and Power. IUCN Forest Conservation Programme. Pp148. Korten, D. C. (1991-1992). Sustainable development. World Policy J. 9:157-190. Meffe, G. K. And Carroll, C. R. (1994). Principles of Conservation Biology. Sinauer Associates, Inc. USA. Wynne, G. (2002). Conservation Policy and Politics,256. In. Conservation Science and Action. Sutherland W. J (ed.) 2nd ed. Blackwell Sciences Ltd, UK. McNeely, J. A. (1993). Foreword. In: de Klemm, C. and Shine, C. (eds). Biological diversity conservation and the law. In: Sutherland, W. J (2002). Conservation Science and Action. 2nd ed. Blackwell Sciences Ltd, UK.
Forest Resources Utilization: A Sure Means of Meeting the Needs of Mankind 1
*1Amoo-Onidundu, O. N., and 2Alao, O. Department of Forest Resource Management, Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry University of Ibadan 2 Forestry Research Institute of Nigeria, Jericho Hill Estate, Ibadan *
[email protected], +234-(0)8028227909, +234-(0)8067763811 Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) are used for food, medicines, magical therapies and craftwork (ITTO, 2009). The traditional knowledge in the area of medicinal plant has gained wide acceptance and preference by the populace which is attributed to the fact that the diseases regarded as incurable is better managed with traditional medicine. The use of herbs in traditional medicine has led to the spread of herbal market in major cities creating more employment opportunities. Different parts of forests plant species are used for curative and preventive purposes against various types of ailments (Ugbogu, 2005 and Odugbemi, 2006). Forests provide global food security and resources, food, Many trees yield edible fruits and nuts such as oranges, grapes fruits, apples, avocados, peaches, peas, hickory nuts, and almonds. Forest trees as part of forest resources is very important in the ecological balance. Forests also help to maintain the fertility of the soil, protect water shed, and reduce the risk of natural disasters such as flood and land slide. Perhaps the most important ecological function of trees is protecting the land against erosion, the wearing away of topsoil due to wind and water. The trunks and branches of trees provide protection from wind and tree roots help solidify soil in times of heavy rain. In addition, trees and forest enhance the development of water sheds that act as buffers for the ecosystem during period of drought (Fasola, 2006).
INTRODUCTION From time immemorial, forest and other natural resources are tangible assets to most people (Chambers et al., 1991, Chambers, 1995). Forests are home to 300 million people around the world and they contribute to the livelihoods of many of the 1.2 billion people living in extreme poverty. Forests provide global food security and resources. Man depends on forests and plants for their daily needs including goods and services. These needs are principally food, medicine, wood, fuel, fodder for animals, shade, soil fertilization or reclamation, ornamentation and practices of rituals and customs. (FAO, 1989). Therefore, to limit the possibilities of exploitation of these products, either through a restriction of access or through a reduction of their availability will have a negative impact on the wellbeing of the communities (Dahlberg, 2005). The forest is a natural endowment which provides mankind with basic needs to support his livelihood and sustain his existence. In fact, without the forest man cannot survive. Some of the fundamental needs of man are food, clothing, shelter and other services. These needs can be adequately met by the products derivable from the forest for sustenance of man’s existence. Timber and other wood products have, for ages, remained one of the major structural materials for building construction worldwide due to their renewable nature, availability in various sizes, shapes and colours, affordability, relatively high fatigue resistance and specific strength, ease of joining, durability, and aesthetic appeal. Also, un-serviceable wooden building components are re-cyclable either for their structural properties, e.g., reused permanently as framing or temporarily as form-work, or for their heat content as fuel (Goldstein 1999). Forests provide the venue for religious, social, and healing ceremonies. Forest products such as rattan cane and forest foods such as palm wine are used in many ceremonies. Forest trees, often symbolize links between the spiritual world of ancestors and people’s rituals and ceremonies which draw on forest symbols often serve to link people with their cultural heritage, as well as their ancestral past. Most commonly, Non-
FOREST RESOURCES PROVIDING TIMBERS FOR MANKIND Throughout the course of history, wood has remained one of the most important renewable natural resources available to mankind. It is-a natural, cellular, renewable resource, has excellent strength-to-weight properties, a relatively low price and is easily produced composite material of botanical origin-possesses unique structural and chemical characteristics that render it desirable for broad variety of end uses (Hingston et al., 2001). In many parts of the world, wood products of various types are used in framing, flooring, roofing, siding and even foundation work in single family residences, apartment, commercial and industrial buildings,
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of the population in Central Africa, takes part in the harvest of NTFPs for food, medicines and the generation of income (Ndoye et al.1997, Ngwasiri et al. 2002). Although highly diverse, NTFPs can be classified according to use. There are two broad groupings: NTFPs of animal origin (game and other faunal products), and those of plant origin. Within each of these two broad grouping, product types can be categorized according to their presence in the market and their final use (Table 2). Most commonly, NTFPs are used for food, medicines, magical therapies and craftwork (ITTO, 2009). Some NTFPs are used directly to shore up local food security, while, other-such as rattans, the leaves of raffia palms, which are used for roof building, and tree bark for medicinal uses-are processed to give them added value in the marketplace. Traditional phytotherapy uses many NTFPs of both animal and plant origin. They can be either fresh or dried; the difference in choice depends on the parts used and the ability to conserve them. Many different parts of the plant can be used, including the leaves, flowers, buds, roots, bark, sap, gums and resin, shoot, fruits, and nuts. Similarly, animal parts that are used for medicines include hair, bone, teeth, horn, droppings, claws, gastric and some other internal organs-especially viscera. NTFPs can be grouped according to their market value and use: • NTFPs for marketing and with high added value: e.g gum Arabic, Xylopia aethiopica (used as a spice), honey, bee, polish, piper guineense (used as a spice). • NTFPs for day-day consumption: the leaves of Gnetum buchholzianum, the seeds of Parkia biglobosa (See table 2 for more details) • caterpillars, mushrooms, Maranthaceae spp. leaves, palm oil, bush meat; • NTFPs used for local craftsmanship: eg rattan (canes) such as those derived from Laccosperma secundiflorum and Eremospatha macrocaropa. • NTFPs for medicinal e.g; Rauvolfia vomitora (used as a purgative, among other things) Anisophyllea laurina R.Br. (Birth control), Sphenocentrum jollyanum (Stimulates sexual urge), Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides Lam( Toothache), Alstonia boonei De wild (Fever), Khaya senegalensis A Juss (Fever) • NTFPs with protective virtues.
farm dwellings and service buildings (Willenbrock et al. 1998, Breyer et al. 1999). In Nigeria, however, the major area of structural utilization of wood is in roof construction; with the building industry alone consuming about 80% of the country’s estimated 20 million cubic meters of annual lumber production (Alade and Lucas, 1982, Lucas and Olorunnisola 2002). The various timber species sawn into lumber for use in building construction in Nigeria are shown in Table 1. Other types of wood and wood products currently employed in building construction in Nigeria include: • Poles used as studs, columns, beams, wall plates, rafters, and purlins largely in farm structures and rural residential buildings, and for scaffolding in multi-storey building construction sites. • Posts in forms of round, hewn, squared or split wood, used principally for scaffolding, rafting and as columns and wall plates for farm houses, sheds, livestock buildings, storage structures, beams for drying platforms, and generally for fencing. • Panel products such as plywood, particleboard and fibreboard used for ceiling, flooring, walling, partitioning, decorative paneling, fabrication of doors and windows, furnishing, and as form work material in concrete construction (Mijinyawa and Dahunsi 1996, Lucas and Olorunnisola 2002). More than 70 % of Nigerians reside in towns and villages with population of less than 20,000 (Hassan et al. 2002). Modern wood processing industries (sawmills and plywood mills) are generally located in urban centres throughout the country. Therefore, very large quantities of pole wood is used for framing and rafting in traditional building structures in rural communities due to restricted access to lumber and panel products. However, poles and posts are also used in the construction of temporary sheds, market stalls and food shops in many parts of the country. Hence the use of roundwood timber as well as poles and lumber from fruit trees for roofing has always been very common across the country (Lucas and Comben 1972, Enabor and Olawoye, 1974, Mijinyawa and Dahunsi 1996, Olorunnisola 1998). FOREST RESOURCES FOR OTHER USES Apart from the timber forest products, there is no doubt that Non-Timber Forest Products play an important role in local economies in regions through the world. For example, more than half
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Table 1: Selected Nigerian timber species and their uses in building construction Carcassing Afara (Terminalia superba),), Albizia (Albizia spp.), Alstonia (Alstonia boonei), Celtis (Celtis spp.), Dahoma (Piptadeniastrum africanum), Danta (Nesogordonia papaverifera), Ilomba (Pycnanthus angolensis), Iroko (Milecia excelsa), Obeche (Triplochiton scleroxylon) Door and window frames (external)
Agba (Gossweilerodendron balsamiferum), Albizia (Albizia spp.), Apa (Afzelia africana), Danta (Nesogordonia papaverifera), Gedu Nohor (Entandrophragma angolense), Iroko (milecia excelsa), Lagos Mahogany (Khaya ivorensis), Opepe (Nauclea diderricchii)
Doors and windows– Solid
Afara- white (Terninalia superba), Apa (Afzelia africana), Black Afara (Terninalia ivorensis), Gedu Nohor (Entandrophragma angolense), Iroko (milecia excelsa), Lagos Mahogany (Khaya ivorensis), Mansonia (Mansonia altissima), Sapelewood (Entandrophragma cylindricum), Utile (Entandrophragma utile)
Flooring and decking
Agba (Gossweilerodendron balsamiferum), Albizia (Albizia spp.), Danta (Nesogordonia), Iroko (milecia excelsa), Omu (Entandrophragma candolei) (Opepe (Nauclea diderricchii), Sapelewood (Entandrophragma cylindricum)
Shingles and battens
Abura (Mitragyna stipulosa), Black Afara (Terninalia ivorensis), Gedu Nohor (Entandrophragma angolense), Mangrove (Rhizophora racemosa)
Sills and thresholds
Dahoma (Piptadeniastrum africanum), Iroko (milecia excelsa), Opepe (Nauclea diderricchii)
Stair Treads
Guarea (Guarea spp.), Mahogany (Khaya spp.), Sapelewood (Entandrophragma cylindricum)
Roof rafters and purlins
Abura (Mitragyna stipulosa), Afara (Terminalia superba), Agba (Gossweilerodendron balsamiferum), Albizia (Albizia spp.), Danta (Nesogordonia papaverifera), Iroko (milecia excelsa), Obeche (Triplochiton scleroxylon), Opepe (Nauclea diderricchii), Sapelewood (Entandrophragma cylindricum)
Source: Okigbo (1964), The table 2 shows a list of selected plant species which produces edible fruits, seeds, leaves or flowers. This list is just a representative fraction of the known edible plant species and not the overall list. The wildlife component of the forest is also major a resource which meet several human needs. It ranges from the micro fauna to macro fauna. Table 3 shows a list of selected wildlife and the various uses to which they are put. These ranges from domestic to industrial uses. Basically, forest resources are categorized into various groups each providing specific products for the satisfaction of man’s need. They could serve as food, timber, medicine, fodder etc (table 4).
CONCLUSION It is no gain saying that forest resources provide a wide range of products for man’s consumption. Indeed, it could be said that the livelihood of man, his existence and survival are intricately linked with the forest resources-‘No forest, no life’. Products from plant and animal sources are derived in forms which are consumed by manthey are utilized to supply the needs of man: food, clothing, shelter, and other services. In a nut shell, the forest provides raw materials for both domestic and industrial uses, generate income, serves as foreign exchange, provides employment opportunities- just to mention a few. ITTO, 2009 reported that activities to add value to forest products are increasing to meet growing needs for housing, health-care and financial resources among local and surrounding populations to generate income and employment.
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TABLE 2: Selected edible fruit or seeds species Vegetable including edible flowers Edible tuber plant species Edible tuber plant Edible fruit or seeds species Vegetable including edible species flowers Acacia macrostachya Adansonia digitata Dioscorea sp Adansonia digitata Afzelia Africana Annona senegalensis Annona senegalensis Balanites aegyptiaca Balanites aegyptiaca Boscia senegalensis Bombax costatum Capparis sepiaria Boscia senegalensis Ceiba pentandra Leptedania hastate Detarium microcarpum Maerua angolensis Diospyros mespiliformis Moringa oleifera Ficus sur Paveta crassipes Ficus sycomorus subsp. Piliostigma reticulatum Gnaphalocarpa Gardenia erubescens Piliostigma thonningii Grewia flavescens Strychnos spinosa Grewia venusta Tamarindus indica Source: Belem et al (2007) TABLE 3: Selected animals and their uses Animals A. Elephants, Tigers, Lions, Wild cats, Hyena, Antelope, Rhinoceros, Duiker, Birds, Snakes- Cobra, rattle snakes, monkeys, Grass cutter, butterflies etc
Uses Tourist attractions in game reserves, Skins of some of them are used for ornamental values. Can be preserved scientifically for teaching purposes (regulated) and other purposes.
B. Horses, ox, Donkey, Mole, Camel, Sheep, Goat, Cattle etc.
Beast of burden- use for transportation, farming, Food (Meat provision for human beings).
C.
Animals associated with rocky rivers are crocodiles, tortoise, big lizards, alligator, monitor lizards etc.
Industrial uses -leather for making shoes. Drugs and chemicals are produced from their parts. Ornamental values. Research purposes.
D. Gorilla, Chimpazee, Cats, Snakes of different species e.g Pythons, Monkeys, Grass cutter, many birds e.g parrots, snails, etc.
Kept in the zoo for tourist attraction. Research purposes. Ornamental values. Aesthetic values, fats from boa constrictor are used for the treatment of keloids.
E. Animals associated with fresh waters Hippopotamus, manatees, water snakes (non-poisonous)
Provide food for human. Industrial purposes.
F. Snails, tortoise, salt water, Fishes, earthworm, insects and many others
Provide food for human, soil enrinchment, Research purposes, industrial usages etc.
Source: Badejo, 2010
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Table 4: Categories of forest products and their uses Plant products Category Description Food Plant food and drinks derived from fruit, nuts, grains, root and mushroom, etc Timber Door and window frames (external), Carcassing, Shingles and battens, Roof rafters and purlins Fodder Food for animals or bees, from leaves, fruit etc. Medicine Medicinal plants (leaves, barks, roots) used in traditional medicines and/ or by pharmaceutical companies Perfumes and Aromatic plants that provide essential Cosmetic oils and other products used in products cosmetics
Animal products Category Live animals
Honey and polish Meat and game
Other cosmetics products
Colorant and Tannins Utensils, craftsmanship products and building materials Ornamental
Plant material (especially bark and leaves) Heterogeneous group of products including bamboos, fibres, etc
Hides and skin
Whole plants used as ornament
Ornamental
Exudates
Products in the from of exhudates from plants such as gum, resin, etc
Other nonedible animal products
Medicine
Description Mainly vertebrates, such as mammals, birds reptiles, raised/ bought as domestic animals.
Products from bees Meat of vertebrates, especially mammals Especially from edible invertebrates such has insect (caterpillars) and other secondary animal products (e.g egg, nest) Animal hides and skin used for various purposes Whole animals or parts of animal, including various organs used for ornamental purposes Whole animals or parts of animal, including various organs used for ornamental purposes Bones used as tools
Others
Plant extracts used as insecticides and fungicides Source: Walter, 2001 and Okigbo (1964). Burkina Faso. The Journal of Transdisciplinary Environmental Studies vol. 6, no. 1, pp1-20 Breyer, D.E., K.J. Fridley and K.E. Cobeen (1999): Design of wood structures. 4th edition. McGrawHill, New York, U.S.A.BS 812-109:1990. Testing aggregates-part 109: methods for determination of moisture content. British Standard. Chambers, R.; Saxena, N. C. & Shah, T. (1991): To the Hands of the Poor. Water and Trees, Intermediate Technology, London. Chambers, R. (1995): Poverty and livelihoods: whose reality counts? Environment and Urbanization 7 (1):173-204. Dahlberg, A. (2005): Local resources use, nature conservation and tourism in Mkuze wetlands, South Africa: A complex wave of dependence and
REFERENCES Alade, G.A. and E.B. Lucas (1982): Timber connector: a major contributor to structural failure in wooden components in Nigeria. Paper presented at the 36th annual meeting of the Forest Products Research Society, mechanical fastening session, New Orleans, U.S.A., June 24,1982. 22 pp. Badejo (2010): Many Species, One Planet, One Future. 2010 world environmental day. Bassirou Belem; Blandine Marie Ivette Nacoulma; Roland Gbangou; Sié Kambou; Hanne Helene Hansen; Quentin Gausset; Søren Lund; Anders Raebild; Djingdia Lompo; Moussa Ouedraogo, Ida Theilade & Issaka Joseph Boussim (2007): Use of Non Wood Forest Products by local people bordering the “Parc National Kaboré Tambi”,
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conflict. Danish Journal of Geography (105)1: 43 -55. Enabor, E.E. and O.O. Olawoye (1974): Forestry in the future growth and performance of the construction industry in Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Forestry 4(2):63-72. Goldstein, E.W. 1999. Timber construction for Architects and Builders.McGraw-Hill, New York, USA. FAO. (1989). A field guide for project design and implementation – Women in community forestry Department. Rome. Italy. Fashola, T.R (2006): The impact of traditional medicine on the people and environment of Nigeria. In sustainable environmental management in Nigeria (Ed) Ivbijaro, F.A; Festus Akintola, and Okechukwu, R.U. pp251-267. Goldstein, E.W. 1999. Timber construction for Architects and Builders.McGraw-Hill, New York,USA. Hassan, C., J. Olawoye and K. Nnadozie (2002): Impact of international trade and multinational corporations on the environment and sustainable livelihoods of rural women in Akwa-Ibom State, Niger Delta Region, Nigeria report submitted to Gender and Economic Reform for Africa (GERA). Hingston A. J, Collins C.D, Murphy R.J, Lester JN (2001): Leaching of chromate copper arsenate wood preservatives: Rev. Environ. Pollut. 111(1): 53-56. ITTO-International Tropical Timber Organization (2009): Quantifying Non-Timber Forest Products Tropical Forest Update. Volume 18: No4. pp3-4 Lucas, E.B. and A.J. Comben (1972): Prefabricated timber building components. A monograph published by the forest products research division, Federal Department of Forest Research, Ibadan, Nigeria. 15 pp. Lucas, E. and Olorunnisola, A. (2002): Wood processing and utilization in Nigeria: the present situation and future prospects in: Ajav, E.A., Raji, A.O., and Ewemoje, T.A. (Eds) Agricultural Engineering in Nigeria:30 Years of University of
Ibadan Experience, Published by the Department of Agricultural Engineering, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. pp. 98-109. Midwest Plan Service 1980. Structures and environment handbook. 10th edition. Midwest Plan Service, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, USA. Mijinyawa, Y. and B.O. Dahunsi (1996): The use of local building materials for the construction of farm structures in Western Nigeria. A Paper presented at the annual conference of the Nigerian Society of Agricultural Engineers, conference centre, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria, Nov. 19 -22 ,11 pp.NCP 1973. Nigerian standard code of practice , NCP 2: Grade stresses for Nigerian Timbers. Odugbemi, T (2006): Outlines and pictures of medicinal plants from Nigeria. University of Lagos. Press. 283pp. Okigbo L., (1964): Sawmill industry in Nigeria. A report published by the Federal Department of Forest Research, Ibadan, Nigeria. 45pp. Olorunnisola, A.O. (1998): An appraisal of bandmill capacity utilization in a small-scale sawmill. Proc. Nigerian Institute of Industrial Engineers (N.I.I.E) Productivity Conference,Vol.1: 262-274. Ugbogu, O.A (2005)Medicinal plants used by the Okpameri People in Edo State. The Nigerian Field 70: 125-136(2005). Walter, K.S. and Gillet, H.J. (eds) (1998): 1997 IUCN Red List of threatened plants. Compiled by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre. IUCN – The World Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Lxix+862pp WCMC- World Conservation Monitoring Centre (1992): Groombrigde, B. (Ed). Global biodiversity: Status of the Earth living resources. Chapman and Hall, London 549pp. Willenbrock, J.H, H.B. Manbeck and M.G. Suchar (1998): Residential building design and construction. Prentice Hall, New Jersey, USA. Wolf, R. 1998. Structural use of small diameter round timbers. USDA Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory (FPL) publication No. 72, Vol. 3, Madison, Wisconsin, USA.
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Effect of Organic Manure Application on the Leaf Production, Height Growth and Stem Girth Enlargement in a Tropical Vine (Cissus Striata), Abia State Nigeria Onyema, M. C*1., Nzegbule, E. C.2, Akachuku, C. O. 2 School of Natural Resources and Environmental Management Technology, Imo State Polytechnic Umuagwo Ohaji, P. M. B. 1472 Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria. 2 College of Natural Resources and Environmental Management, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture Umudike, P. M. B. 7267, Umuahia Abia State, Nigeria. Corresponding email:
[email protected] 1
ABSTRACT: A study was conducted to determine the effect of poultry manure and cow dung on height growth and leaf production of tropical vine in Abia State in southeastern Nigeria. The organic manures (treatment) were each applied at 4 levels namely 7200kg/ha., 10800kg/ha., 14400kg/ha. and at 0kg/ha. as the control. Each application level was replicated 4 times and measurements taken over 14 weeks on the field. Data obtained were analysed using ANOVA at 5% probability level. Results show that each kind of organic manure applied improved the growth characteristics, but these varied significantly from each other. Height growth, leaf formation and stem girth enlargement were highest when cow dung was applied at 7200kg/ha. amounting to 481.1cm, 173.2 and 8.5 respectively. For poultry manure, the highest values obtained were correspondingly 265.6cm, 110.7 and 6.4 when applied at 10800kg/ha. Vine plants, though exotic, can successfully thrive in Nigeria when planted well, tended and managed for a variety of purposes which include economic, industrial, agricultural and medicinal. Key words: vine, organic manure, levels, growth characteristics, exotic. improved the knowledge of new and beneficial plant species through research studies. The identification, propagation and cultivation of species not in conventional use in new environments with successful trials in different forms to satisfy scores of human needs become considerable in the developmental strides of most societies. Of the vast floral richness which nature furnishes the world particularly in the tropical region, a vast proportion of this is yet to be identified and effectively harnessed. Similarly, the factors that could enhance their growth and performance are yet to be effectively determined. With recent advances in science, height growth in plants can be scientifically depressed, moderated or accelerated to suit a particular purpose. In the same vein, research has shown that there are certain treatments that can be applied to enhance leaf formation of fodder species to sustain fodder production particularly during off-season periods. Vine plants have been employed in different areas of human endeavour; medicine, industry and agriculture. Very unfortunately, losses of some important tropical plant species including vine plants are being recorded at a time when their huge potentials are being gradually unveiled. Medically, vine leaves when dried and powdered are used in treating dysentery in cattle (Blake, 2007). These leaves have huge ability to inhibit haemorrhage and bleeding in farm animals. Being rich in vitamins and minerals, ripe vine fruits have been industrially employed in producing several products in the United States, Britain and France (Muck et al., 1999). These are rather secondary to their role as energy suppliers in developing countries.
INTRODUCTION Growth is the increase in size and height of a living organism. In plants, leaf formation, height increase as well as stem enlargement are aspects of plant growth which are manifestations of physiological processes. The formation of an appropriate vegetation in an area, region or over a given landscape is viewed as an advanced or terminal result of the growth and development processes in the different plant parts. The above morphological expressions in a plant are responses to internal and external factors. Vine is a dicotyledous, flowering and climbing plant which belongs to the family Vitaceae. Its origin is traced to the Mediterranean region from where it is reported to have spread to various regions of the world both tropical and temperate (The New Cookery Encyclopedia, 1995). Global vine distribution is more in the tropical rainforests of the world than in other regions because of wide species’ richness in the rainforests (MAPA, 1997). The family Vitaceae contains a wide assemblage of plants of about 11 genera having over 600 species out of which more than 300 belong to the tropical and subtropical genus – Cissus (Lincoln and Boxshall, 1987). Few examples include Cissus artarctica, C. striata, C. rhombifolia, C. discolor and C. sicyoides. Many developing countries have earned huge benefits from their vegetation cover. Through these natural endowments, huge improvements have been recorded in the economic and financial base of some of these countries through the marketing of the resources (Sebukeera et al., 2005; Zaikowski, 2007) Today, advances in science and technology have significantly
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Plate 1: Cissus striata seedlings information on vine plants in this regard particularly in the third world countries and the need for agriculturally based researches to improve sustainability, this study has become pertinent. Results of the study are hoped to aid farmers particularly pastoralists in terms of availability of vine leaves for fodder; environmentalists in terms of reduction in the rate of deforestation of important browse and fodder tree species many of which are currently threatened as well as overgrazing by livestock; industrially and economically to enhance the current local content initiative in the production of raw materials for brewery and other manufacturing industries and enhance foreign exchange earnings respectively.
Agriculturally, vine leaves serve as fodder for livestock (Muck, 1998; Partitt et al., 1982). This is because it is high in nutritive value with high crude protein content, low fibre content (286-307kg-1DM) and high sugar content which most times accumulate in quantities larger than that needed for immediate use (Partitt et al., 1982). Mature seeds of vine are rich in auxin and gibberellins which are involved in plant growth particularly in the promotion of fruit enlargement (Carwthon and Morris, 1969). Environmentally, vines are specifically useful in town gardens where they blend with diverse environmental settings (Greenoak, 1989). On account on these and other successful trials which vine plants have been put to, their growth has today cut across different regions of the world: Asia, Central and Southern Europe, California and Australia (Peters, 2000). Very little has been recorded of their growth in Africa particularly in Nigeria. With the new Nigerian policy initiatives aimed at development and diversification of the economy with less dependence on oil, the study becomes timely. In the local areas, the growth of different species of vine plant has significantly enhanced the livelihood strategy of the rural populace through improved income generation (Chatterjee, 2006). The results of this study would encourage Nigerian rural dwellers who constitute a significant proportion of the population to take up the cultivation and marketing of vine plants and their products which are known to have huge potentials to improve rural economic base and whose products are recognized locally and internationally. The objective of the study is to determine the effect of organic manure application on leaf formation, height growth and stem girth enlargement in vine plant at the early stages of its growth. In view of the paucity of
STUDY AREA The study was carried out in Bende in Bende L.G.A. of Abia State in southeastern part of Nigeria. It lies within 05 291N and 07 331E with an altitude of 122m (Melifonwu, 1999). Analyses show that the minimum and maximum soil temperatures are 19.00C and 45.00C respectively with total annual rainfall between 1500mm and 5000mm (Dike, 2003). The soil type comprises imperfectly drained sandy clay loam (Federal Department of Agricultural Land Resources, 1990; Food and Agriculture Organisation/United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organisation, 1988). Fertilizer application on crops is a conventional farming practice within the locality which has over time resulted in the creation variances in the sorption rate of nutrients in the soils (Osodeke and Ubah, 2006). Bende on the whole, for instance, has been reported to have huge deposits of shale giving rise to ferrallitic soils which in most cases adversely affect plant growth and establishment.
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Ki lo m et e r s
Fig. 1: Map of Abia State showing the location of the study area Readings were taken every fortnight for a period of 14 weeks. The following growth parameters: stem height (cm), stem girth (cm) and number of leaves were recorded on each occasion. Being tender, height growth was estimated by running a thread from the collor to the tip. Girth size was determined by running the thread round the young stem at 15cm above the ground level. These were then read on a meter rule graduated in centimeters. Leaf number of each seedling was determined by manual counting. Data collected were analysed using Analysis of variance (ANOVA) at 5% probability level.
METHODOLOGY Two locations (Location I and Location II) separated by a distance of 50m within the study area were cleared and prepared for planting out the vine seedlings which were raised in germination boxes. The seedlings used were all of same age and obtained from same stock. The experiment was designed using Completely Randomized Design (CRD). Each location received a particular treatment (organic manure) over which different levels of the treatment were randomized. The treatments applied were poultry manure and cow dung each of which was applied at four different levels in each location: 7200kg/ha., 10800kg/ha., 14400kg/ha. and 0kg/ha. serving as control. The manures used were obtained from an intensively managed livestock farm within the study area. Treatment application was done in a ring form 5cm away from the base of the vine seedlings. Vine seedlings in a location contained four levels of application of a particular treatment. Mature vine seedlings were broadcasted in germination boxes and raised for 7 weeks. On the 8th week, the germinated seedlings were planted out in the nursery prepared in Bende, Abia State as described above with an espacement of 1m x 0.5m. The seedlings subjected to a particular treatment level were tagged for identification. To minimize error that could occur as a result of possible mortality, three seedlings were planted on each stand which were later thinned down to 1 seedling per stand prior to data collection. A total of twenty four (24) seedlings received a particular level of one treatment and it is on these seedlings that measurements were taken.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The results obtained on the vine seedlings with the application of the 4 levels of poultry manure and cow dung are contained below. The table shows that over the 14 week period, the growth parameters determined (leaf number, stem height and leaf number) improved with manure application over time. The vine seedlings showed improvements in all the measured parameters with the application of treatment. Up to Week 4, all the vine seedlings generally showed decreasing trend with treatment application of both poultry manure and cow dung in all the growth parameters from 0kg/ha
