seychelles biodiversity metadatabase

GOS- UNDP-GEF Mainstreaming Biodiversity Management into Production Sector Activities

SEYCHELLES BIODIVERSITY METADATABASE

Output 5: Priority Gap Analysis on Seychelles’ Biodiversity knowledge and information by

Bruno Senterre Gérard Rocamora Jude Bijoux Jeanne A. Mortimer & Justin Gerlach (Final report of consultancy)

5th November 2010

CONTENT I

INTRODUCTION............................................................................................ 2

II

GAP ANALYSIS: GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS................................... 3 II.1 II.2 II.3

III

GENERAL STATISTICS .......................................................................................... 3 PRINCIPLES FOR DETAILED SEARCHES OF GAPS OF KNOWLEDGE .......................... 9 DATABASES AND SPECIMEN COLLECTIONS ........................................................ 11 GAP ANALYSIS BY TAXONOMIC GROUPS ......................................... 13

III.1

PLANTS AND FUNGI (B. SENTERRE) .................................................................. 13

III.2

LAND MAMMALS (G. ROCAMORA) ................................................................... 34

III.3

MARINE MAMMALS (J.A. MORTIMER) .............................................................. 47

III.4

BIRDS (G. ROCAMORA) ..................................................................................... 52

III.5

REPTILES (J.A. MORTIMER & G. ROCAMORA) .................................................. 67

III.6

AMPHIBIANS & FRESHWATER FISHES (J. GERLACH) .......................................... 77

III.7

MARINE FISHES (J. BIJOUX) .............................................................................. 85

III.8

MARINE SCLERACTINIA (J. BIJOUX) .................................................................. 94

III.9

MARINE INVERTEBRATES OTHER THAN SCLERACTINIA (J. BIJOUX) ................ 101

III.10

TERRESTRIAL & FRESHWATER INVERTEBRATES (J. GERLACH) ....................... 108

III.11

PROTISTA, NON EUCARYOTS AND OTHERS (B. SENTERRE)............................... 119

IV

PRIORITIZING GAPS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.......................... 121

V

CONCLUSIONS........................................................................................... 135

VI

REFERENCES ............................................................................................. 135

VII

APPENDICES .............................................................................................. 135

Senterre, Rocamora, Bijoux, Mortimer & Gerlach (2010) Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5

I

INTRODUCTION

I

The Government of Seychelles (GOS), with the assistance of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and funding from the Global Environmental Facility (GEF), is undertaking a project for “Mainstreaming Biodiversity Management into Production Sector Activities". The Programme Coordination Unit (PCU) for GOS/UNDP/GEF projects in Seychelles has contracted the present group of consultants (Island Biodiversity Working Group, IBWG) to undertake the following medium-term (9 months), part-time assignment: "Synthesize existing data, undertake priority gap analysis and set up a metadatabase for biodiversity information in Seychelles". The terms of reference mention 209 days of consultancy distributed among the distinct consultants as follows: J.Bijoux (40), J.Gerlach (23), J.A.Mortimer (20), G.Rocamora (31), and B.Senterre (95).

The 5 main objectives of this consultancy are :

1. 2.

Summarize what biodiversity data currently exists Define objectives of biodiversity assessments, i.e. "Why do we need to assess biodiversity; i.e. in order to answer which question?"

3.

Define some methodological standards (criteria for biodiversity inventories, assessments and monitoring) Develop a biodiversity metadatabase , as a tool for management of Seychelles biodiversity data Conduct gap analysis study of existing biodiversity data

4. 5.

The 6 outputs of this consultancy are :

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

A detailed Workplan, describing how the IBWG plans to implement the Assignment. List of existing Seychelles’ biodiversity data sources. Report on agreed Objectives and Criteria for national biodiversity inventories, assessments, indicators and monitoring. Final Biodiversity Data Synthesis for Seychelles, including a draft metadatabase. Final Priority Gap Analysis on Seychelles’ Biodiversity knowledge and information. Final consolidated Report on Biodiversity Data Synthesis and Gap Analysis in Seychelles.

The present report corresponds to the fifth output. The gap analysis is presented in several chapters corresponding to different taxonomic groups and to different authors of the present team. For a general introduction and conclusion on the whole consultancy, and for finding the links with other outputs, the reader should first read output 6.


2

II

GAP ANALYSIS: GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

II.1 General statistics The Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase includes 37541 datasets (Table 1). Most of them are journal articles (67 %) or "reports" (13 %). About 38 % of the datasets mentioned have been seen in full by the IBWG, but this value should be ca. 60 % since one of us did not code this metadata but has seen most of his documents. Most of the documents are specialized on the Seychelles (62 %), but 38 % have wider geographical scope. Table 1. Basic statistics on the datasets included in the Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase: (a) Types of datasets; (b) Document seen or not; (c) geographic context.

DatasetType Num. of Datasets Database 129 Specimen Collection 8 Journal Article 2500 Magazine Article 46 Newspaper Article 2 Book 232 Book Section 216 Edited Book 20 Conference Proceedings 28 Thesis (PhD, Master, other) 58 Report 489 Electronic Source 18 Generic 8 Total 3754

% 3 0.2 67 1 0.1 6 6 1 1 2 13 0.5 0.2

CategoryGroup Abstract only Citation only Full paper seen Total

Num. of Datasets 1218 414 710 1412 3754

% 32 11 19 38

Geographic context

Num. of Datasets % 0.0 International-Seychelles 806 21 Regional-Seychelles 636 17 National (Seychelles) 1405 37 Island based (Seychelles) 799 21 Within one island (Seychelles) 108 3 Total 3754

In the previous intermediate report (output 4), we presented the Access metadatabase and some examples of designed queries. Those queries have been used to explore the datasets and their metadata in order to identify gaps of knowledge. The most studied primary level objectives are taxonomy (#1), species biology and general ecology (#8), and conservation values and threats (#10) (Table 2). Secondly, moderately studied objectives are species distribution (#3), sustainability / productivity (#11), conservation actions or measures (#12) and the patterns of diversity (#9). Finally, the least studied objectives are clearly at ecosystem level, i.e. description of habitats (#4), their distribution (#5), how to classify and recognize them (#6), and, as a consequence, how do the species use them (#7). This gap of knowledge on habitats types and habitat uses will appear also clearly in the following detailed chapters for eco-taxonomic groups. It is also important to remind here that habitat types are a proxy to ecosystems (which is a holistic concept), and that communities are a proxy to habitat types. This means that the study of ecosystems, or habitat types, is done through the study of some communities considered as good indicators of the system. For example, plants are good integrators of terrestrial ecosystems; reef ecosystems are mostly integrated by corals and several other groups; etc. As a consequence, studies on habitat types or communities will often be weak in most other groups not considered as important ecosystem indicators. More comments will be provided in the introduction chapter of the final report, but the reader should constantly keep in mind the present comment. Understanding the ecosystem level of organisation (Figure 1), and the implications in the taxonomic dissection of the gap analysis, is probably the most difficult part of our report. 1

Since the writing of this output 5, more datasets have been entered, mostly databases. The total is now 3816.


3

Figure 1. Levels of organisation of living materials (Duvigneaud 1980).


4

Table 2. Number of datasets for the main 12 agreed objectives for biodiversity studies. A 13th category has been added in the database for aspects less directly related to biodiversity s.s. The groups Mixed, Envi. and Others only include here the datasets which are not already covered elsewhere. Pl. & Fu., Plants & Fungi; L.Mam., Land mammals, M.Mam., Marine mammals; Rept., Reptiles; Amph., Amphibians; M.f. & Inv., Marine fishes & invertebrates; T. & F.Inv., Terrestrial & freshwater invertebrates; Verteb. all, all vertebrates. Pl. & Fu. # % 01. Species list (taxonomy) 237 20 02. Species identification 47 4 03. Species distribution 58 5 04. Habitat types 101 9 05. Habitat types identification 3 0.3 06. Habitat types distribution 26 2 07. Habitat use & env. determinism 26 2 08. Biology, general ecology, funct. 134 11 09. Diversity, biogeography 78 7 10. Conservation value & threats 225 19 11. Sustainable use 114 10 12. Conservation actions 89 7 13. Others 50 4 All or many 0 Total number of combinations (TOTc) 1188 Total number of datasets (TOTd) 617

L. Mam. # % 12 6 4 2 17 8 1 0.5 0 0 6 3 45 22 8 4 73 35 4 2 35 17 3 1 1 0.5 209 103

M. Mam. Birds # % # % 0 82 8 1 1 25 2 24 33 103 9 1 1 6 1 0 0 0 3 0.3 3 4 17 2 16 22 315 29 0 42 4 14 19 289 27 2 3 52 5 9 13 131 12 2 3 23 2 0 1 0.1 72 1089 40 658

Verteb. all # % 01. Species list (taxonomy) 2 13 02. Species identification 2 13 03. Species distribution 0 04. Habitat types 2 13 05. Habitat types identification 0 06. Habitat types distribution 1 7 07. Habitat use & env. determinism 0 08. Biology, general ecology, funct. 1 7 09. Diversity, biogeography 0 10. Conservation value & threats 1 7 11. Sustainable use 1 7 12. Conservation actions 3 20 13. Others 1 7 All or many 1 7 Total number of combinations (TOTc) 15 Total number of datasets (TOTd) 5

F. Fishes # % 7 47 1 7 4 27 0 0 0 0 2 13 1 7 0 0 0 0 0 15 9

Algae # % 15 32 2 4 8 17 1 2 0 1 2 1 2 8 17 4 9 4 9 1 2 0 2 4 0 47 23

Study type I (primary objectives)

Study type I (primary objectives)

Rept. # % 93 14 11 2 35 5 3 0.5 0 0 7 1 160 24 45 7 134 20 32 5 101 15 8 1 33 5 662 391

Amph. # % 13 17 9 12 3 4 0 0 0 5 6 10 13 22 29 9 12 0 1 1 3 4 2 3 77 53

Protozoa NE&virus Mixed # % # % # % 5 24 6 9 31 8 0 0 4 1 1 5 11 16 19 5 0 0 25 7 0 0 0 0 0 14 4 1 5 0 1 0.3 1 5 10 14 37 10 1 5 6 9 26 7 1 5 15 21 54 14 0 13 19 52 14 0 1 1 47 13 11 52 8 11 48 13 0 0 17 5 21 70 375 17 31 237

M.f. & Inv. # % 224 26 24 3 80 9 54 6 0 12 1 6 1 113 13 37 4 83 10 127 15 26 3 49 6 12 1 847 567

T. & F. Inv. # % 810 56 41 3 105 7 9 1 0 1 0.1 4 0.3 191 13 66 5 138 10 29 2 28 2 12 1 0 1434 1234

TOTd # % 1483 27 160 3 436 8 168 3 3 0.1 50 1 70 1 887 16 313 6 834 15 406 7 339 6 279 5 49 1 5477 3754

Envi. # % 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 9 7 0 0 5 4 4 3 9 7 3 2 95 75 0 127 123

Others # % 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 13 65 0 7 35 0 20 20

TOTd # % 1483 27 160 3 436 8 168 3 3 0.1 50 1 70 1 887 16 313 6 834 15 406 7 339 6 279 5 49 1 5477 3754

Figure 2. Number of datasets for the main taxonomic groups. For more details, see Table 3.

1527 1500

1358

1000 610 500 142

230 31

39

82

NE

Prot.

Fu.

0

Mix.

Pl.

Inv.


V.

5

11 10%

10 19%

13 4%

1 20%

●

●

● ● 9 7%

T. & F. Invert. 10

11 2%

6 7 8 2% 2% 11%

12 13 2% 1%

617 Land Mam. 2 4%

4 1% 3 7%

8 22% 9 4%

13 2%

12 12%

1 8%

2 2%

●

2 3%

-Terr. Invert. still mostly subject of taxonomy understudied -Animals vs. Plants: Species conservation (8,10,12) vs. Ecosystem understanding (3,4,5,9) -Amphibians as a model for biogeography and plants still not enough valorised for that perspect

658 Amph. 3 9%

4 1%

13 14 12 4% 3% 1%

10 27%

●

10 12% 2 12%

●

● 8 28% 9 4%

53

1 17%

7 2% 1 56%

7 0.3%

7 3%

●

●

8 13%

3 8% 4 0.5%

10 35%

11 5%

9 5%

103

2 2%

●

1234 Birds

10%

1 6%

●

11 2%

3 5% 4 9% 5 0.2%

13 1%

12 17%

3 4%

9 28% 8 13%

7 6%

Figure 2 bis. Selection of some statistics from table 2 emphasizing some differences in patterns of disciplinary studies between taxonomic groups. The total number of datasets is indicated in the upper right corner.


Plants & 12 Fungi 7%

6

Table 3. Number of datasets contributing to the secondary level objectives for the main taxonomic groups. This cross table is based on the 6347 combinations of the 3664 records. Mix = Mixed; NE = Non Eukaryots; Prot. = Protista; Fu. = Fungi; Pl. = Plants; Inv. = Invertebrates; V. = Vertebrates. I Study Type (secondary level) Mix. All or many 16 1 Taxonomy 14 1 Collection effort 1 17 2 Identification 3 2 Systematic 3 Species distribution 19 4 Habitats and / or communities 1 24 5 Habitat identification 6 Habitat distribution 9 14 7 Habitats used (sp.) 1 7 Environmental determinism 8 Species biology and general ecology 27 8 Ecology of the interactions (Dynamics & Functioning) 13 9 Biodiversity 20 9 Biogeography 5 8 10 Population size and trends 2 10 Habitat size and trends 1 10 Threats 4 29 10 Economic value 3 10 Conservation priorities 19 11 Production sector 7 21 11 Environmental Impact Assessment 4 11 Historical accounts 15 28 12 Rehabilitation / restoration 7 12 Conservation measures 1 14 12 Sustainable Land Management 1 9 12 Protected areas 16 12 Institutional management 1 5 12 Legislation, policies, international conventions 1 12 Education, Capacity building, Awareness 13 Theory, modelling, methodology, general ecology 1 13 Environmental factors 94 18 13 Metadatabases 1 19 13 Others 7 9 Total number of combinations (TOTc) 147 382 % 2 6 Total number of datasets (TOTd) 142 230 % 4 6

NE

Prot.

Fu.

Pl.

Inv.

5 1

20 1 1 1 9 1

44 2 1 27 3

959 31 15 44 144 49

1 2

1

9 1 3 2 1

17 3 4 5 1

182 34 28 18 34 100 3 26 23 4 73 65 27 53 40 7 135 1 36 65

10

10 1 3 3

14

12

30 3 1 1

1

1 7 68 1 31 1

2 23

1

1 1 11 70 1 39 1

31 38 52 7 12 1

5 6 2 205 44 16 73 39 10 161 1 6 62 2 10 19 16 1 5

5 5 5 2 16 12 1 16 14 12 165 1151 1956 3 18 30 82 610 1527 2 16 41

V. TOTc % TOTd % 33 49 1 49 1 250 1474 23 1437 38 30 117 2 109 3 39 87 1 82 2 15 78 1 78 2 217 460 7 436 12 20 198 3 168 4 3 0.0 3 0.1 5 60 1 50 1 36 69 1 65 2 1 7 0.1 7 0.2 518 859 13 786 21 114 241 4 196 5 63 136 2 124 3 72 221 3 213 6 330 413 6 355 9 36 54 1 47 1 197 570 9 497 13 16 24 0.4 24 1 38 102 2 87 2 122 313 5 274 7 1 7 0.1 6 0.2 56 140 2 136 4 53 119 2 99 3 185 268 4 220 6 5 23 0.4 20 1 26 59 1 48 1 7 0.1 7 0.2 7 8 0.1 8 0.2 20 30 0.5 22 1 11 19 0.3 15 0.4 13 155 2 146 4 38 0.6 38 1 28 88 1 82 2 2557 6496 39 1358 3754 36

Among the 12 primary objectives, the most studied secondary objectives are taxonomy s.s. (23 %), species biology and general ecology (13 %), threats (9 %), species distribution (7 %), population size and trends (6 %), production sector (5 %) and conservation measures (4 %). Some study types are clearly more represented in some taxonomic groups compared to others. This is partly related with the comment made above on the ecosystem vs. species approach: for example, the description of habitats / communities represents 9 %2 of the datasets including plants, but only 0-2 % for the other taxonomic groups. The differences between taxonomic groups may also indicate distinct priorities, and distinct gaps of knowledge: for example, 49 % of the datasets including invertebrates deal with taxonomy, while this percentage is around 14 % for plants and 10 % for vertebrates. This indicates that the taxonomy of invertebrates is still poorly known in comparison with plants and vertebrates (for the Seychelles). For vertebrates, there are two study types disproportionately represented compared with the other taxonomic groups, i.e. species biology / general ecology and population size / trends. 2

n.b.: calculated on the values of Table 3 (using TOTc).


7

Another interesting comment comes from the duplicated lines of totals, i.e. TOTc and TOTd. TOTc is the total number of combinations, i.e. the sum of all values in the table. TOTd is the total number of datasets representing these combinations within on taxonomic group (total of columns) or within one study type (total of lines). If you take the category "Taxonomy" for example, you see TOTc = 1474 and TOTd = 1437. This means that there are several datasets, dealing with taxonomy, that include more than one taxonomic group (e.g. plants and invertebrates). Therefore, the bigger the difference between TOTc and TOTd, the wider will be the taxonomic scope of the discipline (or study type). From Table 3, we see that most study types are limited to only one of the major taxonomic groups distinguished here. If you make the same observations for the total of columns, you can see that, on the contrary, studies dealing with a given taxonomic group include more multidisciplinary studies, i.e. not limited to one or few study types. The invertebrates are the most represented group in the metadatabase, followed by the vertebrates and plants (Figure 2). Invertebrates studies are mostly for terrestrial ecosystems (Table 4) and insects are the main group. Outside arthropods, the molluscs and crustaceans are the most documented groups. The terrestrial and marine invertebrates will be mostly treated separately in the specialized chapters of the gap analysis. This will be also the case for mammals, i.e. terrestrial vs. marine mammals (with respectively 102 and 40 datasets, Table 2). For the other groups, the 3 main ecoregions (terrestrial, freshwater and marine) will be treated together or slightly differently (e.g. birds: land-, shore- and sea-birds). Table 4. Number of datasets for the taxonomic groups at secondary level, combined with the three main categories of ecological context: Terr. = Terrestrial, Fresh. = Freshwater, Mar. = Marine. Taxon (tertiary level) Bacteria (Non Eucaryots) Viruses, Prions, Viroids Protista (general) Algae (Protista) Protozoa (Protista) Total combinations

Terr. 10 19 2 1 11 43

Fresh.

Mar. 2 1 1 21 1 26

TOT 12 20 4 23 12 71

Taxon (secondary level) Phanerogams Ferns Mosses Fungi Lichens Total combinations

Terr. 455 64 33 52 14 618

Fresh. 19 3 2 4

Mar. 73

28

85

TOT 547 67 36 67 14 731

Taxon (tertiary level) Vertebrates Mammals Birds Reptiles Amphibians Fishes Total combinations

Terr. 6 102 433 304 53 5 903

Fresh. 1 2 36 44 5 9 97

Mar.

1 1 2

1 11

40 223 157 2 212 634

Taxon (secondary level) Invertebrates Tardigrada Arthropods Arachnids Myriapoda Crustacea Insects Cnidaria Porifera Echinodermata Molusca Mezozoa Worms Total combinations

Terr. 36 3 2 60 25 15 647 2

Fresh. 11

87 5 31 913

16 3 1 119

4 20 64

Mar. 51 1 1 1 94 6 108 18 18 34 1 23 356

TOT 98 4 3 65 25 129 717 110 18 18 137 9 55 1388

TOT 7 144 692 505 60 226 1634


8

II.2 Principles for detailed searches of gaps of knowledge The principle for detailed searches of gaps of knowledge has already been introduced while describing the metadatabase shape (see output 4b). The user should first get familiarised with the main filters (taxonomic, study types, ecological, geographical, etc.) and to their hierarchical levels (primary, secondary and tertiary levels). The best, in first time, may be to print these lists of primary, secondary tertiary taxa (i.e. print the "ChoiceList" table from the metadatabase). The principle is simple: you just chose the level of detail you want (primary, secondary or tertiary) and 1 or 2 filters. Most often, you will start by looking the general picture, e.g. secondary level study types combined with primary level taxonomic groups (Table 3). Then you may want to have a closer look to a given taxonomic group, e.g. plants (Table 5), or you may want to see the maximum of detail for a specific objective (e.g. Table 6). Finally, at any of these stages, you may want to see the references corresponding to the statistics of the tables. Then you just need to open the query used to build the cross-table and sort the datasets depending on what you want to see exactly, e.g. importance, study types / authors, study types/ taxonomic group, etc. For example, I may want to see which are the 56 datasets listed for ferns in objective 1 (Table 6, Figure 3). Therefore you can quite easily review the list of references extracted by the queries. At this stage, the field "Importance", although subjective, is quite useful. Figure 3. View of the ferns datasets contributing to the distinct tertiary level study types, sorted by study type and authors: e.g. the 8 fern floras only partly deal with the Seychelles (a comprehensive synthesis or revision does not yet exists).


9

Note that it is very important to be careful with the statistics produced by the queries: they will only reflect what has been put in the metadatabase. For example, some aspects have been less comprehensively compiled like environmental impact assessments (EIA, many reports), and may therefore appear as false gaps. Gaps may also be misidentified if your taxonomic group has mostly been treated in general documents, which may therefore be classified in "Mixed or all". For this reason, it is important to always look both in your group of interest and in the "Mixed or all" category. This can be avoided if, while coding the metadata, you specify all the taxonomic groups included in place of just mentioning "Mixed or all". The category "Mixed or all" is nevertheless still useful e.g. for general documents where you do not know exactly which taxonomic groups are included in. Another important point to keep in mind is that, in cases where you have several recent and comprehensives synthesis existing, you do not need anymore to enter the datasets covered by these syntheses. This is typically the case when a detailed flora is published, i.e. you do not need anymore to enter the many taxonomic references (e.g. species descriptions) synthesized in the flora. For this reason, in groups poorly studied (without or with few revisions and monographies), you may have a large number of taxonomic datasets entered. If you look simply at the statistics of the number of datasets, you will then get the wrong picture. Therefore, it is important to review the lists of datasets corresponding to your statistics / queries (see e.g.Figure 3) and you should easily see that among the numerous datasets, none is a comprehensive review for your study area.


10

II.3

Databases and specimen collections

Among all the datasets compiled on the Seychelles biodiversity, there are 152 databases (in its wide sense), 5 bibliographic collections, 3 maps/images collections and 3 specimen collections. Among the 152 databases, 25 are international databases, e.g. PIER, GISD, Herbarium databases (P, K, B, Aluka), Taxonomic databases (MOBOT, IPNI), etc. The others are spread among government (22), parastatal (41), NGOs (57) and private (7) (see Output 4a: Appendix 1). The great majority of the databases are on population size and trends (Table 4 bis), mostly for vertebrates groups (i.e. a reduced number of species). The other study types well represented include the production sector, environmental data, bibliographic metadatabases, species biology and general ecology, species distribution, habitat distribution, size and trends (monitoring). The most databased groups are plants, birds and reptiles.

Gaps and recommendations It is important to note that we have not seen most of these databases, although we have seen most of the stakeholders (except SFA, IOTC, DRDM, SAA pro parte). Based on those that we have seen, and based on the metadata received, we can make two general comments. -Most of the databases are Excel spreadsheets and only ca. 10 % are in Access (and again more often Access spreadsheets than relational databases). In several cases, we found that there is a gap of knowledge on what is really a database, and especially relational databases. We found Excel spreadsheets used for entering data that were basically "forms", i.e. which are designed for printing of the data entered, e.g. in monthly or annual reports. In such cases, many spreadsheets and / or many Excel files are generated which strongly impedes long term management of the data (see output 4b: p.3-6). -Several databases cover very similar data, i.e. similar taxonomic, geographic and study type contexts. This is the case for example for environmental factors data (rainfall, surface water, etc.), species distribution data, population monitoring data (e.g. many "turtles" databases). Sometimes, even within the same organisation, several databases (often Excel spreadsheets) exist on one single topic, e.g. one for each island. Therefore, we may propose the following recommendations: we suggest to regroup databases covering similar topics (study types), or holding data which can be grouped together, into fewer but bigger relational databases (probably preferably in Access). This could be done at least within each organization.

Table 4 bis: Details of the legend GoS-Coast = Coastal Management Unit; GoS-Cons = Wildlife, Trade & Conservation Section; GoS-EMPS = Programmes Management Section (ex EMPS Coordinating Unit); GoS-ForVic = Policy Forestry Unit; GoSGISEnv = GIS and Data Management Unit; GoS-InfoSys = Management & Information Systems Division; GoSMLUH = Ministry of Land Use and Housing; GoS-NMS = National Meteorological Services; GoS-Poll = Standards & Enforcement Unit (ex Pollution Control Section); GoS-SNA = Seychelles National Archives; GoSWetl = Wetland and River Unit; NGO-GIF = Green Islands Foundation; NGO-ICS = Island Conservation Society; NGO-MCSS = Marine Conservation Society of Seychelles; NGO-NPTS = Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles; NGO-NS = Nature Seychelles; Para-Bota = National Botanical Gardens Foundation; Para-CISTID = Centre for Industrial Scientific and Technical Information and Documentation; Para-PUC = Public Utilities Corporation; Para-SAA = Seychelles Agricultural Agency; Para-SFA = Seychelles Fishing Authority; ParaSNPA = Seychelles National Parks Authority; Private; Z-Int = international. Senterre, Rocamora, Bijoux, Mortimer & Gerlach (2010) Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5

11

1

1

3

1

1 2

2

8

1 1

1

2 1

1

3

1

1

1 1

1

23 1 1

2

1

1

1 1

1 1

16 3 6

22 4 6

1 1

15 7 1 15 5

2 1

1

1

3

1 1

2

TOT

3

2 1

Z-Int

1

Private

3

Para-SNPA

6 4

Para-SFA

1

Para-SAA

NGO-NS

1

Para-PUC

NGO-NPTS

1

Para-CISTID

NGO-MCSS

2

Para-Bota

NGO-ICS

NGO-GIF

GoS-Wetl

GoS-SNA

GoS-Poll

GoS-NMS

GoS-MLUH

GoS-InfoSys

GoS-GISEnv

GoS-ForVic

GoS-EMPS

GoS-Cons

1 2

4 1 1

1

5 1

1

1

1

1 1 1 1 1 1 3

3

1 2

7

7

1

1

1 1

4 22 1 1

1

3

1

2

1 2

1

1

9

1

1

3

4

1

1

1 2 1

1

6 2

8 8

4 4

12 12 9 10

9 8

Para-SNPA

2

7 6

Para-SFA

1

5 3

Para-SAA

2

1 60 17 39 7

Para-PUC

GoS-MLUH

3

3 2

Para-CISTID

GoS-InfoSys

1

1 1

Para-Bota

GoS-GISEnv

1

1 1

NGO-NS

GoS-ForVic

1

4 4

NGO-NPTS

2 2

NGO-MCSS

1 5 1

1 1

NGO-ICS

2 2

NGO-GIF

9 5

GoS-Wetl

1 1

GoS-SNA

2 1

GoS-Poll

7 3

1

8

GoS-NMS

1 1

GoS-EMPS

1

9

3

2 1

8

4

2

2

5

2 12 8 3 5

1 2 1 1

1 3 1 1 1

1

4 2

1 1

1 1

3 1

1 1

1

1 1 1

1 1

6 3

1 1

1

2

2 1

7 5

1

2 2

1 1

2 2

4 4

1 1

1 1

4

2 2

48 39

7 7

1

1

2

5 3

10 6

2 2

6

8 8

4 4

9 9

2

10 10

8 8


22 18 2 14 40 232 7 25 152 8

Z-Int

1

1

Private

1

14 3 6 2 37 7 12

1 1

1

GoS-Cons

Taxa (secondary level) Mixed or All Vertebrates Mammals Birds Reptiles Fishes Invertebrates Crustacea Insects Cnidaria Echinodermata Protista Fungi Lichens Non Eucaryots Phanerogams Ferns Mosses (non vascular) Total number of combinations (TOTc) Total number of datasets (TOTd)

1

GoS-Coast

Study types (secondary level) Mixed or all Taxonomy Collection effort Identification Systematic Species distribution Habitats and / or communities Habitat identification Habitat classification system Habitat distribution Habitats used (sp.) Environmental determinism Species biology and general ecology Interactions, Dynamics & Functioning Biodiversity Biogeography Population size and trends Habitat size and trends Threats Economic value Conservation priorities Production sector Environmental Impact Assessment Historical accounts Rehabilitation / restoration Conservation measures Sustainable Land Management Protected areas Institutional management Legislation, policies, conventions Education, Capacity building, etc. Theory, modelling, methodology Environmental factors Metadatabases Others Total number of combinations (TOTc) Total number of datasets (TOTd)

GoS-Coast

Table 4 bis. Number of databases per study types (secondary level) and taxonomic groups (secondary level), for the main stakeholders. (Legend details on bottom of previous page).

TOT 4 57 1 1 7 1 18 2 15 9 7 2 2 1 8 2 1 1 2 3 1 1 1 3 17 41 1 1 2 1 1 2 12 26 179 7 25 152 1

12

III

GAP ANALYSIS BY TAXONOMIC GROUPS

For each chapter, additionnal graphs can be found in the slide presentations in Appendices. III.1 Plants and Fungi (B. Senterre) Plants and fungi have often been treated together. For example, some groups like "Cryptogams" (meaning with hidden reproductive structures, e.g. not like flowers) include ferns, mosses and fungi. Nowadays, plants and fungi are clearly distinguished as separate Kingdoms, and fungi sensu lato have even been split into several kingdoms (Eumycota, Mycetozoa, Oomycota, etc.). Algae have also long been included in the plant kingdom and are now considered in several distinct kingdoms (Euglenophyta, Chlorarachniophyta, red algae, brown algae kingdoms, etc.), somewhat related or not to true plants. In the 5 kingdom system, algae were grouped together with protozoa in what was called the Protista. In the present chapter, we will make comments on the existing knowledge and gaps for the main groups of plants (Figure 4) and in general terms for Fungi. Figure 4. Systematic of the plant kingdom (Embryophytes, or Plantae). The main taxonomic groups are emphasized in bold, and their systematic position corresponds, from left to right, to kingdom, phylum, and class. Some additional terms have been used extensively, e.g. Cryptogams (=ferns s.l. + mosses s.l., generally also including the Fungi) and Phanerogams (=seed plants). The ferns s.l. are sometimes referred as “vascular cryptogams”. Marchantiomorpha (liverworts) (non vascular plants) (=mosses sensu lato)

Anthocerotophyta (hornworts) Bryophyta (mosses sensu stricto) Lycopodiopsida (fern allies) Pteridophyta (ferns sensu lato)

(seed plants) (=Spermatophytes) (=Phanerogams)

(vascular plants) (=Tracheophytes)

Plantae

Polypodiopsida (ferns sensu stricto) Gymnosperms (Cycads, Conifers, etc.) Magnoliophyta (flowering plants) (=Angiosperms)

Palaeodicots (Magnolia, Piper) Monocots (Palms, Vacoa, grasses) Eudicots (most plants)

Among the 3754 datasets recorded in the metadatabase and involving Seychelles, 610 deal with plants, 82 with fungi and 23 with algae (Table 2, Figure 2). There are about 10 datasets dealing with both plants and fungi, e.g. mycorrhizas, fungal diseases, etc. The objectives with the highest number of datasets included in the metadatabase are "taxonomy" and "threats" (Table 5). The description of habitats / communities, the species biology and general ecology, and the production sector (e.g. agriculture and forestry) are also well represented in the metadatabase. The Phanerogams are by far the most documented group. It appears clearly from the Table 5 that the relative representation of the distinct taxonomic groups varies depending on the study type. Actually, most of the study types including the ecosystem level of organisation (e.g. habitats / communities), or relative to biodiversity in general terms (e.g. objectives 12 and

Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Plants & Fungi - B. Senterre (2010)

13

13), are mostly focussing on the main group of plants, i.e. Phanerogams. This means for example that ferns have been poorly used as indicators for the study of ecosystems. For ferns, mosses and lichens, there is a disproportionate number of studies in taxonomy, showing that these groups are poorly studied for other aspects. This is due to the fact that they are actually still poorly known taxonomically, and thus research is still mostly focussing on taxonomy. The main priority in these groups is therefore to go on developing taxonomic studies, revisions, collections and explorations. Other objectives (e.g. patterns of diversity, biogeography, conservation status, etc.) are also important to be developed in future, but this will be difficult as long as the taxonomic knowledge will be too scarce. For these other objectives, also constituting gaps, it is difficult to discuss on the priorities. What will be studied first will depends on the international collaborations that will be developed first. The datasets on plants and / or fungi are mostly general on the Seychelles (250), or island based (173). Nevertheless, 222 datasets only include Seychelles among others (118 datasets are international and 104 regional). This needs to be considered when reviewing the gaps of knowledge, e.g. many of the taxonomic datasets on ferns are from the flora of Madagascar and Mascarenes, and only include a partial review for the Seychelles. Table 5. Number of datasets for the main groups of plants and fungi and for the secondary level objectives. I 1 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 7 8 8 9 9 10 10 10 10 10 11 11 11 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 13 13 13 13

Study types (secondary level) Taxonomy Collection effort Identification Systematic Species distribution Habitats and / or communities Habitat identification Habitat classification system Habitat distribution Habitats used (sp.) Environmental determinism Species biology and general ecology Interactions, Dynamics & Functioning Biodiversity Biogeography Population size and trends Habitat size and trends Threats Economic value Conservation priorities Production sector Environmental Impact Assessment Historical accounts Rehabilitation / restoration Conservation measures Sustainable Land Management Protected areas Institutional management Legislation, policies, international conventions Education, Capacity building, Awareness Theory, modelling, methodology Environmental factors Metadatabases Others Total number of combinations (TOTc) Total number of datasets (TOTd)

Phanerogams 112 32 22 12 32 93 3

Ferns 51 5 5 4 3 9

26 22 4 71 63 23 42 40 7 133 1 36 65

1 3 2

31 37 52 7 12 1 5 4 16 15 11 1030 523

Mosses 28 2 2 2 1 4

Fungi 32 2

Lichens 12 1

26 2

1 1

1

4 3 6

2 2 3 7

16 3 3 2

3

1

30

5

1

2 23

1

1 1 3 1

1

1

2 107 64

1 1 58 35

1 144 68


21 14

TOTc 235 41 30 18 63 109 3 0 27 26 6 90 72 33 60 41 7 167 1 44 88 0 31 39 52 7 12 1 0 5 5 16 17 14 1360 617

14

III.1.1 WHICH SPECIES DO WE HAVE? Baseline The Table 6 provides a detailed view of the distinct types of studies within the objective 1. In the following text, we make comments on the specific datasets corresponding to these values (see queries detailed in output 4b, or here at page 11). Table 6. Number of datasets for detailed groups of plants and fungi and for the tertiary level objectives (study types). The values represent distinct combinations, i.e. a single datasets may contribute to both Phanerogams and ferns, and / or to both taxonomy and biogeography, etc.3 Study types (tertiary level) Taxonomy Taxonomy (new taxon paper) Taxonomy (new record paper) Taxonomy (monography, revision) Taxonomy (checklist) Taxonomy (flora-fauna) Genetic differentiation Collection effort Collections, expeditions, explorations Exploration effort analysis Exploration gap analysis Total number of combinations

Pl 20 1 5 1 35 6

Mo 2 2

Gy

9 10 1

Di 2 8 2 7 4 1

28 1

3

2

1

97

27

26

4

3

F 3 3 20 17 8

Mos Bry Mar Ant 1 2 1 2

6

3 7

5

1

1

56

8

14

2 4

3

Fu 8 13 7 1 4

Li 1 3 2 4 2

2

8

3

35

12

TOT 36 33 17 45 97 18 0 0 43 1 0 290

1-Exploration The history of botanical explorations has been summarized in several documents, of which the most relevant are: Baker 1877; Summerhayes 1931; Wise 1998. Note that one reference has not been found which seemed to provide a detailed synthesis of botanical explorations in the Seychelles: Friedmann (1983). The main historical collections were made by : M. Bojer (1840), A. Pervillé (1841), Sir John Kirk (1862-1866), Edward Percival Wright (1867), John Horne (1871, 1874; 700 specimens; K), Andrea Franz Wilhelm Schimper (1899; 140 specimens; B?), H. P Thomasset & P R. Dupont (1900-; K), J.S. Gardiner (1905, 1908), D. Vesey-Fitzgerald (1936-1939; BM, K), Charles Jeffrey (1960-1962; SEY, K), D.R. Stoddart (1968-1980; K), John Proctor (1970, 1972, 1973; SEY, K, Edinburgh?), F R. Fosberg (1970; SEY, K, Smithsonian Institute STRI?), Mrs. S. A. Robertson (1975-1981; SEY, K), Francis Friedmann (1981-1986; P). Other collectors include: F.L. Squibbs (1936; K), P.C. Archer (1960; K), C.J. Piggott (1960; K), M.D. Gwynne & D. Wood (1967; K), M. Lambert (1970; K), H. Schlieben (1970; K), I. Bernardi (1973; K), J. Frazier (1973; SEY), N. Brunet & S. Warman (1975; SEY, K), S. Warman (1978; SEY), D.M. Todd (1981; SEY). More recent collectors include C.S. Awmack (1997; 180 specimens; SEY), J. Gerlach (1990-; NPTS), Oxford University (OXF, SEY), G. Rouhan (2003; P, SEY), B. Senterre (2008-; 1000 specimens; SEY). 2-Exploration gap analysis To date none of the documents consulted provide a synthesis of the collected material. We do not know nor have an idea of the total number of specimens collected in the Seychelles, and nobody has analyzed the gaps of collection. Nevertheless, based on personal observations, ferns are still insufficiently studied and collected (Senterre 2010), and for phanerogamic 3

Pl, Plants; Mo, Monocots; Di, Dicots; Gy, Gymnosperms; F, Ferns; Mos, Mosses s.l.; Bry, Bryophyta; Mar, Marchantiomorpha; Ant, Anthocerotophyta; Fu, Fungi (general and non lichenised); Li, Lichens. Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Plants & Fungi - B. Senterre (2010)

15

plants, the exotic flora is still understudied and under collected (Senterre 2009c). Finally, mosses are also poorly collected (Frahm & Ho 2009). 3-Specimen preparation and Herbarium curation The National Herbarium of Seychelles holds ca. 10-15,000 specimens, shared between La Bastille and the Natural History Museum of Victoria (Ministry of Culture). The specimens are well stored at the Museum but not very well at La Bastille. They still need a proper curation, and there is no herbarium database. Many species are under outdated names, or under several synonyms, which, coupled with the fact that the collections are split in two parts, make very difficult the access to specimens. For this reason the herbarium is currently disconnected from local research. Virtually nothing has been done on the fern flora since 1960, and on the phanerogams since 1990 (in the Seychelles). Local botanists rarely collect specimens and rarely use the national collections to verify the identification of species observed in the field. The knowledge on species names is therefore mostly based on the main field guides (see next objective) and on oral transmission. Species not included in these sources are most often ignored, which explains why no collections are made by the local botanists. This constitutes in my sense a gap of awareness on "taxonomy", which needs to be addressed. 4-Taxonomic revisions Phanerogamic plant species have been listed for dicots (Baker 1875; Friedmann 1994), monocots and gymnosperms (Robertson 1989). The total number of species is not clearly known. Summerhayes (1931) mentioned 233 native species, including 90 endemics. Robertson (1989) listed 1139 species, of which she said 250 were native, and we found in her list ca. 110 endemic species or infra-specific taxa (76 dicots and 36 monocots, Table 7). Friedmann (1994) reviewed the dicots and mentioned statistics on the flora, in his introduction. He mentioned for the granitic islands a flora of ca. 750 species, of which ca. 200 are said native (130 dicots and 70 monocots), including 70 endemics. Ferns and fern allies have been very poorly revised for the Seychelles flora, and are poorly collected. The most relevant checklist contains ca. 80 species of which ca. 12 are endemic (Tardieu-Blot 1960, mostly based on Christensen 1912). Based on the same source and new collections, Rakotondrainibe et al. (1996) mentioned 86 fern species for the Seychelles, including 8 endemic. Gerlach (2003) published an updated checklist with about 100 species, based on new collections but the revision effort was reduced. Taxa need to be reviewed, specimens need to be searched to confirm the presence of some names, and the names need to be updated using recent monographies or revisions. Several synonymies are quite doubtful, problematic or unresolved. About 20 species could be added to the list nowadays, including more exotic species. Bryophytes (Frahm & Ho 2009; O'shea 2006; Onraedt 1976, 1994), hepatics and hornworts (Grolle 1995; Wigginton 2009) have been reviewed for the production of a recent checklist and hold respectively 110, 107 and 1 species. The authors themselves mention that many groups need more detailed revision (Frahm & Ho 2009). An illustrated field guide has also just been published (Frahm 2010), but is relevant only as a user friendly, illustrated introduction to bryophytes. Fungi are still very poorly studied in the Seychelles. Checklists have only been published for lichens (Seaward & Aptroot 2009), with 376 species (some of them illustrated in a recently published field guide: Schumm & Aptroot 2010). Myxomycetes species (now considered a separate kingdom) have also been listed (Ndiritu et al. 2009).


16

Table 7. Number of taxa (species or infra-specific level) for the main plant groups, in the whole Seychelles, based on Friedmann [1], Robertson [2], Frahm [3] and Wigginton [4]. Dicots Monocots Gymnosperms Ferns Bryophyta Marchantiomorpha Anthocerotophyta Total

Natives 163 79 0 90 110 107 1 550

Endemic 76 36 0 12 15 10 0 149

Exotic 660 256 8 7

931

Total 823 335 8 97 110 107 1 1481

Recommendations 1. Exploration gap analysis (compilation of specimens): It is a relatively important priority to proceed to a detailed exploration gap analysis. In order to address this important gap of knowledge, and analyse precisely the patterns of specimen collection, it is needed to compile into a database as many specimens as possible, along with data on localities and habitats (from the specimens' label). The present metadatabase can provide the list of data sources to be considered for such a synthesis by filtering datasets on "Collections, expeditions, explorations" and "Species distribution". The main sources are Awmack 1997; Baker 1875, 1877; Christensen 1912; Robertson 1989; Summerhayes 1931; Tardieu-Blot 1960, and the herbarium of Kew (K), Paris (P) and Seychelles (SEY). For mosses and lichens we rely mostly on the checklists recently published. 2. National Herbarium (curation, database, awareness): We need to rehabilitate the National Herbarium to be able to use it (see previous point) and not only to conserve it. The 2 subcollections of specimens need to be put altogether and properly organized, i.e. classification system following plant systematic and using current valid names. The herbarium should be managed using a herbarium database (e.g. Brahms, MS Access or other). This recommendation is necessary for the development of the recommendation 1, and other dependant recommendations (mostly 7, 8 and 20). It is also important to redevelop the national herbarium jointly with the development of awareness on taxonomy, and on the importance of collecting unknown species (i.e. many exotic species are probably still not even recorded in the flora). 3. Taxonomic revisions and floras: Detailed floras are needed for monocots, ferns, mosses, fungi and updates for dicots. Nevertheless this is a long term endless task and we propose to focus at this stage on vascular plants (dicots, monocots, ferns). I highly recommend compiling information for floras (i.e. observing characters on specimens, or compiling them from literature) using interactive, modern and easily updatable tools, e.g. DELTA electronic floras (see Appendix 1). For an example of a flora produced through DELTA see Senterre & Castillo-Campos 2009, which is a very detailed example but from the same dataset source it is possible to extract results to any level of detail (shorter, simplified descriptions). The main problem for this recommendation is that there are very few plant taxonomists in the Seychelles. In order to develop such capacities in the country it will be important to develop more regional and / or international collaborations (La Réunion, Madagascar, Paris, etc.), through projects involving local students exchanges. Such projects may focus on taxonomy or be indirectly linked to taxonomy, e.g. plant diversity, phylogeography, etc.


17

III.1.2 HOW DO WE RECOGNIZE THESE SPECIES? Baseline Some guide books exist for the plants of Seychelles: Beaver 1995, 2000; Friedmann 1987; Hill & Currie 2007; Matatiken & Dogley 2005; Wise 1998. A detailed flora with keys of identification and illustrations has been published for dicots only (Friedmann 1994). The Robertson's checklist (1989) is also abundantly illustrated and thus quite useful. For ferns and mosses, illustrations and keys are spread among distinct papers or regional floras (Appendix 1: p.8), and are therefore poorly available here. Nevertheless, for mosses, a brand new field guide has just been published including a some useful illustrations of Seychelles' species (Frahm 2010). For lichens, a recently published guide provides a quite useful tool for basic identifications (Schumm & Aptroot 2010). Other important sources for identification of species are the herbaria. The Seychelles National herbarium holds many historical collections made by specialists. In addition, many specimens are available online from the herbarium of Paris, Kew, Berlin, etc. Nevertheless, one should keep in mind that the identification of a specimen, even by a specialist, may always include mistakes, unless it is type material for a valid name. Table 8. Number of datasets for plants and fungi within objective 2 (tertiary level, detailed legend at p.15). Study types (tertiary level) Identification Identification (field guides) Identification (species illustrations) Interactive keys Systematic (descriptive) Total number of combinations

Pl 1 8 8

17

Mo

Di

Gy

F

1 2

4

1

5

2 5

10 14

1

4 9

Mos Bry Mar Ant

Fu

1

Li 1

1

1

1

2 2

0

0

1

TOT 1 11 21 0 18 51

Recommendations 4. Virtual Herbarium: In first instance, improvement of local capacities for species identification could be achieved by compiling all available illustrations, e.g. photographs, drawings, scanned specimens, paintings, etc. These illustrations should be stored electronically and managed in a common database with the National Herbarium database (so that they could be linked with details on synonymies and other species data, see recommendations 14, 15, 18, 22, 24, 25). 5. Herbarium library: A basic plant "systematic"-"taxonomy" library should be created and managed within the National Herbarium. This library should include copies of the basic documents existing for the identification of plant families, recent generic monographies or revisions, regional floras, etc. (see references cited in output 3 and Appendix 1: p.8). 6. Interactive keys of identification: Interactive keys and electronic floras should be developed jointly with the reviewing of floras for vascular plants (see recommendation 3), e.g. DELTAIntKey. Indeed, interactive keys of identification are by far the most user-friendly tool for identification by non specialists, and in addition they constitute a very powerful tool for proceeding to taxonomic revisions themselves. It is therefore preferable to try to kill two birds with one stone. The virtual herbarium can also be linked in a DELTA flora.


18

III.1.3 WHAT IS THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THESE SPECIES? Baseline Most of the basic taxonomic documents, mentioned in objective 1, provide information on the distribution of the species listed, but only to country level or often to island level, i.e. detailed localities are rarely mentioned (see Table 9). This constitutes a major gap of knowledge for the biodiversity of the Seychelles (see objective 9). The main datasets providing information on localities of occurrence include Carlström 1996a; Procter 1974, the "Endemic plant database" of the Botanical Garden, and the "Species" / "crop" distribution databases of the Government of Seychelles (Division of Crop Development & Promotion). For precise coordinates of occurrences, the main datasets include the Senterre's "Seychelles botanical database", which is a drafted database of the National Herbarium, and also includes data from literature and from vegetation plots. This database includes more than 2000 records, focussing on poorly known areas and native flora. Some useful data are found in ETH reports, especially for threatened species (Huber & Ismail 2006). For the most common species, abundant data is provided in the many ETH student reports, but it is difficult to assess the species identification confidence since it seems vouchers are never collected and those students have not visited the national herbarium. Identifications seem to have been done by DoE staff directly on the field. Finally, the base for any study on species distribution is a synthetic gazetteer of localities, i.e. a comprehensive document compiling all names of localities and their corresponding geographic coordinates. Such a gazetteer has never been achieved for the Seychelles, but several lists of locality names do exist (Counsell 1976; Jorre De Saint-Jorre & Lionnet not dated; Lionnet 1970; see also the constitution of Seychelles which lists the official names of all islands). The GIS section of the Ministry of Environment has also many shapefiles of localities for the islands, but these lists are far from complete, accuracy is moderate and they need to be compiled, including management of synonyms. Such compilation has already been initiated (Senterre 2009b, i.e. 706 locality names with GPS). This review did only focus on the few main islands and has not included the abundant data from the distinct existing maps of all inner and outer islands. For the Morne Seychellois National Park, the document of Fourmy (1999) includes many uncommon or new names of localities. Table 9. Number of datasets for plants and fungi within objective 3 (tertiary level, detailed legend at p.15). Study types (tertiary level) Species distribution Species distribution (general) Species distribution (locations) Species distribution (GPS) Species distribution (maps) Total number of combinations

Pl 8 2 8 1 1 20

Mo 1 3 1 5

Di 1 3 3 2 2 11

Gy

F

Mos Bry Mar Ant

1 1

1 1 1

1

2

3

1

Fu

Li

5 1

0

0

0

1 20 26

1

TOT 9 13 16 8 23 69

Recommendations 7. Gazetteer of localities: We need to develop a gazetteer of localities for the Seychelles. This will consist in compiling the datasets mentioned here over, but also compiling localities from the herbarium specimens collected (see recommendation 1).


19

8. Species distribution data: The knowledge on species distribution which would result from recommendations 1, 2, 3, should be completed with non taxonomic datasets mentioned here over. Nevertheless, it will be important to include information of the species identification confidence (depending on authors' experience, presence of voucher specimens, etc., see Appendix 1).

III.1.4 WHICH TYPES OF HABITATS / COMMUNITIES DO WE HAVE? Baseline Quite a lot of datasets involve the description of habitats using plant communities. Most of them are only qualitative (i.e. not based on plot data) and focus on phanerogams, often woody plants only. Most of the quantitative studies are based on the trail-transect method, and only one used nested plots. Table 10. Number of datasets for plants and fungi within objective 4 (tertiary level, detailed legend at p.15). Study types (tertiary level) Habitats and / or communities Habitat description (qualitative) Habitat description (quantitative) Habitat new locality Habitat description (review) Habitat exploration effort description Habitat exploration gap analysis Total number of combinations

Pl 1 56 26

Mo

Di

Gy

F

2

2

2

5 4

2 1

1

2

9

3

1

9

92

Mos Bry Mar Ant

Fu

Li

1 1

1

2

1

1

2

3

0

0

TOT 1 64 40 0 10 0 0 115

1-Qualitative vegetation studies Vegetation of Seychelles has been described mostly based on qualitative observations by experimented botanists (the main document is Vesey-Fitzgerald 1940; see also Averyanov & Kudriavtzeva 1987; Carlström 1996a; Diels et al. 1922; Dupont 1934; Friedmann 1994; Gardiner 1907; Horne 1877; Procter 1984b; Sauer 1967; Sörlin 1957; Summerhayes 1931; Swabey 1970; Vidal 1988; Wise 1998). For smaller inner islands, see Fosberg 1983; Robertson & Todd 1983 For inselbergs (glacis), see Fleischmann et al. 1996; Porembski 2000 For coral islands, see Barnes et al. 2008; Bayne et al. 1970a, 1970b; Beaver 1991; Fosberg 1970, 1971, 1978; Fosberg & Renvoize 1980; Gibson & Phillipson 1983; Hnatiuk & Merton 1979a, 1979b; Newbery & Hill 1981; Piggott 1969; Renvoize 1975; Sachet et al. 1983; Stoddart 1970; Stoddart et al. 1979; Stoddart & Fosberg 1984; Stoddart & Poore 1970a, 1970b, 1970c, 1970d; Stoddart & Wright 1967; Wilson 1983a, 1983b For Mangroves, see Beaver 1991; Macnae 1971 For marine vegetation, see Bandeira & Bjork 2001; Gullstrom et al. 2002; Hamylton & Tom Spencer 2007; Untawale & Jagtap 1989 Although often very old and only qualitative, many of these studies are still today reference documents due to the outstanding experience of the botanists of the last century.


20

2-Trail-transect vegetation studies (ETH, Zurich) Several vegetation studies have been done by the Swiss students from the ETH, under the direction of Karl Fleishmann. These studies are mostly based on "trail-transect" method: Baader & Hendry 2007; Bollier & Tanner 2004a; Farrèr & Hertach 2006, 2009; Fürsinger & Putallaz 2008; Héritier & Meuwly 2002; Mannes & Ramseier 2005; Meuwly 2002; Ramseier & Mannes 2006; Reinhardt & Voellmy 2000; Schumacher & Wuthrich 2000; Sulser & Hassold 2008. Trails and transects based methods are adapted for exploration of vast areas of unknown lands, e.g. in Central Africa or the Amazon, but they provide most often unsuitable data to understand vegetation types. The problem is that vegetation changes when environment changes. But to understand the relations between the environment and the vegetation, it is needed to observe or inventory "representative" samples for any given situation, i.e. for any given "stand". These are the two very basic and fundamental keys to study vegetation types (see Appendix 1): (1) have enough data (representative) of the item you want to describe and (2) nothing else (environmental homogeneity, i.e. within a given stand). The trail transect method do not respect any of these two fundamental rules, and combine also other weaknesses, e.g. no systematic inventory of all individuals but inventory of one individual every 2 m, trail effect, etc. Therefore, the use of trail-transect for vegetation description purposes, or for species diversity analyses, should be avoided. Nevertheless, transects, if they are made with an appropriate width, and are accompanied by appropriate information, can provide very detailed data for the understanding of the transitions or gradients between the vegetation types, which should be previously described following classical plot methods. 3-Relevés (homogeneous plots, i.e. plots within one single stand) Relatively few authors have studied vegetation in more classical vegetation plots: Fleischmann et al. 2005; Gerlach 1997b, 2004; Hill 2002. The many ETH student thesis also often include more or less detailed vegetation plots (10 x 10 m to 20 x 20 m), but their methodology is more oriented to the study of invasive species. Note also that "3 dimensional semi-quantitative" 20m x 20m plots have been used by DoE & ICS in six small islands as part of habitat assessment studies for bird reintroductions (Rocamora & François 2000). 4-Quantitative nested plots There is to date only one detailed quantitative study of vegetation in the Seychelles, based on most of the best practice criteria for vegetation description (see Appendix 1): Senterre et al. 2009. This study provides a new basis for the understanding of habitat types and species ecology. The major advantage is that indicator species are identified not only for woody plants but also for herbs and epiphytes. In addition, each of these distinct biological groups is sampled in a representative way, which can only be achieved using nested plots (or extensive inventories, unrealistic). It could be improved by adding one important group of indicator species, i.e. mosses s.l. 5-Comprehensive revision of vegetation types To date, a comprehensive revision of the Seychelles vegetation types is still missing. Many vegetation types have been named differently from one author to the other, or have been invalidly described. Only one of all the documents cited intents to follow international standards for nomenclature, and review some of the most important vegetation types of Seychelles with their synonyms (Senterre et al. 2009).


21

Recommendations 9. Vegetation gap analysis (literature review): Compile all available data from previous vegetation studies (semi-quantitative and quantitative) and analyse the gaps of collection (analogous to recommendation 1). 10. New vegetation inventories: New vegetation plots should be inventoried following the best practices recommended here (see Appendix 1), if possible completed with mosses nested plots. Our suggestion for the priority sites for new vegetation plots, based on the author's field knowledge of habitat types in Seychelles, include: -Lowland rain forest (on Silhouette, Félicité, La Digue, Praslin), -Submontane rain forest (on Silhouette and Praslin), -Montane rain forests (on Silhouette and especially Mahé, in Morne Seychellois and Montagne Planneau areas), -Saxicolous (drier type) forests (on Mahé and especially on Silhouette, also on Praslin), -Other inselberg vegetation types (on Mahé and Silhouette). In second order of priority, the secondary vegetation types should be studied in order to understand the dynamics of these ecosystems and the strategy of the constitutive species, but also to monitor to patterns of invasions (cf. recommendation 16). 11. National System of Habitat types: A comprehensive revision of vegetation types should be undertaken based on results of recommendation 9 and 10. This is a very difficult task that can only be achieved by a specialist of the description and classification of vegetation types. It needs a deep knowledge of community ecology, tropical vegetation, ecosystem dynamics, and needs to take into account the principle of the replaceability of ecological factors. It is also indispensable to have an extensive field experience in Seychelles, especially on the main granitic islands (where the most original vegetation types are found).

III.1.5 HOW DO WE RECOGNIZE THESE HABITATS / COMMUNITIES? Baseline Since the habitat types themselves are poorly known, their illustration and / or classification is still reduced. The best document is surely the illustrated guide of Friedmann (1987). We could also mention the recent publication on the forest types of Silhouette, where the three main altitudinal belts are illustrated and diagnostic characters are emphasized (Senterre et al. 2009). For the vegetation of Aldabra, there is a very well illustrated synthesis (Beaver 1991). Finally, the ETH team published a "Virtual gallery of the vegetation and flora of the Seychelles" (Fleischmann et al. 2003), but their interpretation of the vegetation types includes many confusions and I consider it poorly relevant. Recommendations 12. Field guides of habitat types: Using the results of recommendation 11, 3 types of products are necessary to ensure a good dissemination and an efficient use of the knowledge on habitat types: (1) a classification system for the described vegetation types, (2) an illustrated field guide of habitat types, and (3) interactive keys of identification (e.g. in DELTA).


22

For the classification system, we suggest to use the International Vegetation Classification System standards as a basis (Grossman et al. 1998, see Appendix 1), but including the conceptual remarks provided by Senterre (2005a) on "open classification systems". The conceptual reflection on classification systems needs also to be pursued based on the historical literature on this topic (see Appendix 1) and on more recent advances in vegetation knowledge.

III.1.6 WHAT IS THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THESE HABITATS / COMMUNITIES?

Baseline For the main granitic islands, few vegetation maps are available. The most relevant documents have been produced for forestry purposes (Indufor 1993), for Mahé, Silhouette, Praslin, Curieuse, La Digue, Sainte Anne, Conception, Thérèse. These maps are based on analysis of satellite images, complemented by visual interpretation of aerial photographs and field observations. They constitute a valuable basis, although many errors are to be found. For Silhouette, another vegetation map has been produced recently (Senterre et al. 2009), but this is a potential vegetation map (climax vegetation). For smaller inner islands, the most relevant maps are from Hill (2002). For Conception and Frégate, other maps have been produced recently: respectively: Rocamora et al. (2001: Vegetation Management Plan of Conception) and Rocamora & Henriette (unpublished). Finally, for most of the coral islands, maps can be found in the corresponding literature cited in the objective 4. Table 11. Number of datasets for plants and fungi within objective 6 (tertiary level, detailed legend at p.15). Study types (tertiary level) Habitat distribution Habitat distribution (general) Habitat distribution (locations) Habitat distribution (GPS) Habitat distribution (maps) Land cover / land use Total number of combinations

Pl 2 1

Mo

Di

Gy

F

20 4 27

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

Mos Bry Mar Ant

0

0

0

0

Fu

Li

0

0

TOT 2 1 0 0 24 4 31

Recommendations 13. Vegetation mapping: In a biodiversity context, the highest priority gap to address is the mapping of the vegetation (actual and potential) for the main inner islands. This will need to be done in correspondence with a more suitable definition of habitat types (see recommendation 11). Mahé, Silhouette, Praslin, La Digue and Félicité are surely the main priorities. Specific methods are not recommended here, but a general introduction is provided in Appendix 1.

III.1.7 WHICH HABITATS DO THESE SPECIES USE AND WHAT ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS SHAPE THEM?

Baseline Very little is known on the ecology (sensu stricto, i.e. habitats used) of species in the Seychelles. This is due to the reduced knowledge and awareness / conception of habitat types. Most of the information is spread in taxonomic documents (Friedmann 1994; Robertson 1989, Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Plants & Fungi - B. Senterre (2010)

23

other regional floras), forestry documents (Dupont 1934; Gibson 1938; Henry 1976) and conservation papers (Procter 1974). One document is an important contribution to the classification of species into ecological groups (Friedmann 1987). This book is abundantly illustrated and is the expression of the intensive field experience of the author. Only one recent vegetation study has analyzed in detail the ecology of species and habitats for the humid forests of Silhouette (Senterre et al. 2009). This study also includes many qualitative comments on the ecological determinism of other related vegetation types. The main advantage of this study is to be based on quantitative observations and to have integrated ecological equalizations (see comment here after). Unfortunately, the replaceability of ecological factors, and the principle of ecological equalisations have been mostly ignored, in the Seychelles but also elsewhere. This is, in my view, the second main reason for the weak knowledge on species ecology. The non consideration of this process results in the misunderstanding of species ecology, concluding that most species have a wide ecological range, i.e. no ecological preferences. For a detailed description of the principle of ecological equalizations, see mostly: Senterre 2005a and Rübel 1935. Additional comments can be found in: Senterre 2009c; Senterre et al. 2009; Tanghe 1995; Vesey-Fitzgerald 1940. Table 12. Number of datasets for plants and fungi within objective 7 (tertiary level, detailed legend at p.15). Study types (tertiary level) Habitats used (sp.) Environmental determinism (habitats) Total number of combinations

Pl 14 4 18

Mo 3

Di 7

Gy

3

7

0

F 3 2 5

Mos Bry Mar Ant

0

0

0

0

Fu 1

Li

1

0

TOT 28 6 34

Recommendations 14. Ecological groups database: The knowledge on species ecology (s.s.) is indissociable of the recommendations 9, 10 and 11, i.e. must be done through improved knowledge of habitat types. Therefore, my recommendation here is to compile the information on species ecology, from available literature and from future vegetation studies (see recommendation 9), in a "species database", i.e. a database centred on the species names. I do not recommend to create a specific database for that purpose but rather to integrate these aspects into the "specimens database", i.e. the National Herbarium database. The reason is that these two aspects are closely related. This structure is already in use in the Senterre's "Seychelles botanical database", which integrated even more aspects (e.g. species invasiveness, IUCN status, biogeography, etc.). The principles of the characterisation of species ecological preferences, in this database, is detailed in Senterre (2005a: chapter I.5.5), where the reader can find a good synthesis on what is exactly this objective 7.

III.1.8 WHAT IS THE BIOLOGY, GENERAL ECOLOGY AND FUNCTIONING OF THESE SPECIES AND HABITATS?

Baseline This wide objective, including the many aspects of "biology"-"ecology" not covered elsewhere and aspects of functional ecology, is one the most documented for all taxonomic groups (see Table 2), after taxonomy and conservation value. The metadatabase contains 134 datasets including plants or fungi for this objective, i.e. 11 % of the total. Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Plants & Fungi - B. Senterre (2010)

24

The biology and general ecology have been studied mostly for rare endemics (e.g. Huber & Ismail 2006; Lionnet 1976; Matatiken 2006; Robertson et al. 1989) and invasive alien species (e.g. many references on agricultural pests; Kueffer & Zemp 2004). On the contrary, cryptogrammic plants have been very poorly studied. Functional aspects are well represented but mostly through specific species interactions, e.g. pollination (Kaiser et al. 2010), dispersal (e.g. Hnatiuk 1978; Kronauer 2005) and other interactions (e.g. Hill et al. 2003; Kueffer 2010; Merton et al. 1976; Rkha et al. 1991). Studies on ecosystem dynamics are also well represented. They include many vegetation monitoring studies (e.g. Farrèr & Hertach 2006; Fürsinger & Putallaz 2008), often associated with rehabilitation / restoration trials, and also several studies on successions (e.g. Gerlach 2004; Gibson et al. 1983; Kueffer et al. 2010). Although interesting, it seems to me that most of these studies generally lack a consideration of habitat types, species strategy (e.g. pioneer, early to late secondary, climax, etc.) and species ecology, and, as a symptom, basic historical and contemporaneous literature on the principles of forest ecosystem rejuvenation process are rarely included (see Appendix 1). Studies on plant functional types are still totally missing in the Seychelles. Table 13. Number of datasets for plants and fungi within objective 8 (tertiary level, detailed legend at p.15). Study types (tertiary level) Species biology and general ecology Conservation biology Species interactions Functional types (sp.) Ecosystem Functionning Total number of combinations

Pl 25 7 8 7 50 97

Mo 10 2

1 13

Di 23 8 2

Gy

2 35

1 1

F

Mos Bry Mar Ant 1 1

Fu 15 3

Li 1

1 4 4

1 1

1

0

2

3 21

1

TOT 76 20 11 7 62 176

Recommendations Compared to the previous chapters, making "recommendations" here is becoming very subjective, i.e. is highly influenced by personal convictions, experiences or interests. Therefore, trying to find agreements here would lead to endless discussions. I propose here four general recommendations related to the main types of studies defined here. 15. Plant functional types: I personally think that the absence of studies on plant functional types is a major gap of knowledge. This consists in defining a system of plant functional types and in using it to identify (define) the functional type to which all native species belong to. The spectrum of functional types can than be compared between islands (within the Seychelles and within the Indian Ocean region), between sites, and / or between habitats. Such studies are important to better understand ecosystem long-term functioning, and therefore to improve the effectiveness of conservation actions. 16. Vegetation dynamics and ecosystem processes: Quite a lot of studies do exist on vegetation dynamics, including many recent studies. Such studies should be pursued, but the study of vegetation dynamics being closely linked to the study of vegetation itself, I recommend to develop also studies based on more detailed plots (see objective 3, recommendation 10), and focussing in priority on the main vegetation types (see Senterre et al. 2009). Vegetation plots should be set up in study sites characterised by distinct levels of rejuvenation, e.g. old growth, late secondary, early secondary, pioneer (time factor), all other factors kept as constant as possible (environmental factors, type, intensity and frequency of Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Plants & Fungi - B. Senterre (2010)

25

disturbance, etc.). The vegetation plots should be permanent and revisited e.g. every year (mortality, recruitment, diameter growth, etc.). Plot design may vary, depending on the specificities of the studies, from plots similar to those recommended in objective 4 to plots more adapted to forest canopy gaps (cf. Appendix 1). Note that this is just a proposition. I personally think that this is a very good way to study vegetation dynamics, but methodology will vary following authors. 17. Species interactions: The many studies currently developing on species interactions, and the many historical studies, need to be pursued (plant-soil interactions, dispersalism, pollination, symbioses, competition, facilitation, etc.). My only recommendation, probably influenced by my personal convictions and experience, is to integrate more in these studies the knowledge on vegetation types, which is also developing in parallel and which has been, I think, too poorly considered. For example, comparing species interactions in invaded vs. pristine habitats may describe patterns not only linked to the level of invasion in case the invaded site is not ecologically homologous (same climax) to the pristine site, e.g. a pristine montane forest vs. a submontane invaded forest, etc. 18. Species biology and general ecology: Finally, of course, we need to go on developing our knowledge on the biology and general ecology for the most threatened native species. Following K. Beaver & L. Chong-Seng (pers.comm.), several native species may have problems for reproducing in their environment: e.g. Craterispermum microdon, Campnosperma seychellarum, Brexia madagascariensis (see also current studies on pollination by C. Kaiser). Maybe those species could be considered in priority?

III.1.9 WHICH ARE THE FACTORS EXPLAINING THE PATTERNS OF DIVERSITY

(EVOLUTION PROCESSES)? Baseline The patterns of plant diversity have been very little studied, and therefore the determinant factors are not known. Patterns of plant diversity have been studied in a qualitative way, by listing the native plants in some pre-selected areas (Carlström 1996a, 1996b). Unfortunately, no specimens were collected for these studies, and the areas are not always very well defined, or too broadly defined, so that the precise localities of occurrence are not known. More recently, (Gerlach 2008b) compiled historical collection data with new field collections and produced a very detailed analysis of the patterns of diversity, based on 500 x 500 m grid units. Nevertheless, the amount of data included is not specified and the methodology (e.g. for localisation of historical collections) is not detailed. Diversity values have been interpolated for empty grid cells, but the paper does not mention which grid cells did contain data, and how many data (specimens numbers, etc.), i.e. it is difficult to have an idea of the possible biases. Based on Gerlach (pers.comm.), the plant data include 1500 grid units, recording approximately 260 angiosperms and 200 crytogams. Nevertheless, this study provides, to date, the only quantitative analysis of patterns of diversity and the results seems to reflect previous qualitative analysis. We may also mention here a global study comparing endemism and species richness across island and mainland regions, and which included the Seychelles (Kier et al. 2009). This study is of course of high interest in general but it does not provide a detailed analysis at the scale of Seychelles.


26

For smaller inner islands, other biodiversity studies, including plants, have been done by Hill (2002). Nevertheless, this study was clearly bird-centred. The results showed that there is no significant correlation between endemic plant and bird richness, i.e. islands with many endemic bird species are not the same as islands with many plant species (Hill 2002: 242). This study provides results on island base only, although data were collected at locality scale for plants (plots data). Some of the ETH student studies included analyses of plant diversity, e.g. Shannon-Wiener index (Bollier & Tanner 2004a; Meuwly 2002). Nevertheless it seems that those diversity indices have been calculated based on trail-transects, which would be totally inappropriate. The historical determinants (phytogeography) have been studied in more details but are now outdated (Procter 1984a; Renvoize 1971, 1975, 1979; Summerhayes 1931; Wallace 1892; Wickens 1979), or are focussing only on small taxonomic groups (Awasthi 1996; Callmander et al. 2003a; Callmander et al. 2003b; Ducousso et al. 2004; Edwards et al. 2002; Micheneau et al. 2008; Zjhra et al. 2004), or consider Seychelles only pro parte (Pascal et al. 2001). Some documents exist that analyse biogeographical aspects for ferns (Moran & Smith 2001; Rakotondrainibe et al. 1996; Tardieu-Blot 1952) and for bryophytes (Bizot & Pócs 1982; Dauphin 1999; O'shea 1997, 2003; Pócs 1975; Pócs 1997). Table 14. Number of datasets for plants and fungi within objective 9 (tertiary level, detailed legend at p.15). Study types (tertiary level) Morphological diversity Patterns of species diversity Functional diversity Genetic and phylogenetic diversity Biogeography Phylogenetics, Phylogeography Palaeobotany, palaeontology Total number of combinations

Pl

Mo

Di

Gy

F

22

1

1

1

3

2

20

6 4

5 8

1

6

11

14

2

9

1 43

Mos Bry Mar Ant

Fu

Li

1

3

1

4

3

1 1

3

6

4

5

4

0

0

TOT 0 35 0 0 49 13 1 98

Recommendations The recommendations are here again highly influenced by personal convictions and experiences. Nevertheless, this objective 9 has been one of my main focus areas for many years and I will try to give some general recommendations. I think personally that the best option is to develop several complementary studies based on several complementary types of data sources and analyses (see also Appendix 1). 19. Plot-based diversity analyses: using the data of the vegetation plots recommended in objective 4, it is possible to study the patterns of diversity with much details, i.e. between strata and biological types, between habitats and sites, controlling the biases of sampling effort, etc. (e.g. Parmentier & Et Al. 2010; Parmentier et al. 2007; Senterre 2005a; Senterre 2005b, 2006a, 2006b). 20. Occurrence-based diversity analyses: Based on species distribution data (see recommendations 8), it is possible to develop detailed studies on the patterns of diversity (e.g. Kier & Barthlott 2001; Linder 2001). This should not be limited to woody species, but rather include all vascular plants. 21. Phylogenetic diversity / structure: Studies on the phylogenetic structure of plant communities, and phylogenetic diversity, are a relatively recent advance in ecology. Such studies are absolutely possible in the Seychelles and could contribute to very interesting Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Plants & Fungi - B. Senterre (2010)

27

findings, through comparisons with continental regions or other islands, etc. (Hardy & Senterre 2007). 22. Phytogeography: We need to review the phytogeographical spectrum for the flora of Seychelles, integrating the results of the taxonomic revisions that have been published during the last few decades. The first step is to define a system of "chorological types", i.e. categories of areas of species distribution (e.g. Malagasy, Mascarene, Afrotropical, etc., see Summerhayes 1931: p.264; Rakotondrainibe et al. 1996: p.111; Renvoize 1971; FraserJenkins 2008). The data on the species chorological type should be compiled into a "species database", see recommendation 14 (included in the National Herbarium database). Finally, analysis can be done using comparisons of floras, and / or vegetation inventories, etc. 23. Phylogeography: The ongoing search for understanding speciation processes and evolution of floras needs to be pursued using molecular analysis coupled with taxonomic revisions (see link with recommendation 3). Such activity is a good opportunity to develop collaborations in the region and, on medium term, to develop taxonomic capacities in the Seychelles.

III.1.10WHICH ARE THE SPECIES, HABITATS AND SITES WITH THE HIGHEST CONSERVATION VALUE?

Baseline Population size and trends have been quite studied in the Seychelles for plants, as for most other taxonomic groups. These include many reports and data managed by ICS for Aride Island Nature Reserve, similar studies by other NGOs, and also specific studies for conservation purpose, e.g. Matatiken (2006, for Bwa Mediz), Savage & Ashton (1983, for Coco-de-mer). Nevertheless, the number of species concerned by these studies is limited. Habitat size and trends have been covered by the same studies from ICS (and other NGOs) and in studies on rehabilitation trials and / or monitoring, e.g. on North island (Beaver et al. 2007), etc. Depending on specific focus and methods, the datasets including habitat size and trends are the same as those on Ecosystem dynamics (the two aspects being generally developed together, but not always). The threats have been studied mostly through the study of invasive species. This includes many references but mostly on woody plants (see metadatabase, or output 4a), i.e. threats by exotic monocots and ferns have been poorly studied. A comprehensive synthesis of species invasiveness is still missing, although some partial synthesis do exist, e.g. Kueffer & Vos 2004; Kueffer et al. 2003; Nevill 2009. The main gap of knowledge in invasion ecology (not only in Seychelles) seems to be related to detailed understanding of invasion concepts and definitions, i.e. the word "invasive" has been used in many different ways (Senterre 2009c). Other threats studied include forest fire (Carolus 2009; Senterre 2009b; Vielle 2010, etc.), pollution (Dolgushina et al. 1995), or more general purposes (Duncombe 1996; Gardiner 1907; Gerlach 2008a; Gibson 1938; Henry 1976; Jeffrey 1962; Nevill 2007; Sauer 1967; Unep-Ocha 2003). A synthesis of the threats documented on island ecosystems has also just been published (Caujapé-Castells et al. 2010: p.111). Finally, studies on conservation priorities have been relatively numerous, but mostly at species level. The IUCN categories of threatened species (Iucn 2001, 2006) have been used Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Plants & Fungi - B. Senterre (2010)

28

mostly to assess woody endemic species (Bollier & Tanner 2004b; Burger & Stampfli 2005; Burger et al. 2005; Carlström 1996b; Fleischer-Dogley & Kendle 2002; Friedmann 1991; Gerlach 1997a; Huber & Ismail 2006; Procter 1974). Two databases have been developed including conservation priorities: Huber & Ismail 2006; Senterre 2008, see also online database by Iucn (2010). The document of Huber & Ismail (2006) is a very good synthesis, and contains many original data. Many considerations linked to conservation priorities are also to be found in the synthesis of Caujapé-Castells et al. (2010). At habitat level, conservation priorities have been poorly addressed. Only one document assessed the conservation value of habitat types, i.e Senterre et al. 2009. Most studies at higher level than species focussed on conservation priorities at site level, e.g. protected areas (Baader & Hendry 2007; Bollier & Tanner 2004a; Carlström 1996a; Gerlach 2008a, 2008b; Héritier & Meuwly 2002; Hill 2002; Jeffrey 1962; Procter 1970, 1973; Reinhardt & Voellmy 2000; Senterre 2009b; Swabey 1970). Among these, there are 2 recent synthesis (Gerlach 2008b; Senterre 2009b), but one is only a qualitative study and the other is based on limited plant data. Finally, several other documents assessed the global priorities for conservation, including the Seychelles (e.g. Olson & Dinerstein 2002; Myers et al. 2000, and other biodiversity hotspots literature). Table 15. Number of datasets for plants and fungi within objective 10 (tertiary level, detailed legend at p.15). Study types (tertiary level) Population size and trends Habitat size and trends Threats (general) Invasive species (threat) Habitat threats Climate change (threat) Economic value of biodiversity Ecosystem services Conservation priorities Total number of combinations

Pl 36 7 24 78 1 1 1

Mo 1

Di 3

Gy

F

5

29 177

5 11

Mos Bry Mar Ant

2 26

1

3

1

5 36

2 3

5 8

1 2

Fu

Li 1

30

0

0

0

2 32

1

TOT 41 7 26 144 1 1 1 0 49 270

Recommendations 24. Invasive plant species database: We need to create a database compiling information on species invasiveness and concern which would be compatible with the different conceptions / definitions of "invasive", i.e. dissected in specific criteria (e.g. see Senterre 2009c). I also suggest integrating this into the "species database", within the National Herbarium database. 25. Conservation priorities database: Exactly as for invasiveness, the categories of threatened species need to be compiled exactly in the same way, i.e. included in the taxonomic database (National Herbarium) and dissected into criteria. The system proposed by Huber & Ismail (2006) is probably a good base, but there is a need to address some other gaps (see mostly recommendations 1 and 8) supposed to provide the required input data. Studies on population size and trends may also be needed to check / update conservation status of some species. 26. Climate change impact: Studies on the impact of climate change on plants are still rare in the Seychelles. Good indicator species could be found in the herbaceous flora, especially ferns and mosses. Lichens are also well known as good indicators (e.g. pollution). The proposed network of permanent vegetation plots (recommendation 16) would be a very useful base for such studies on climate change impact, if those indicators groups are included and if some plots are situated near the "transition" levels between vegetation belts.


29

III.1.11ARE WE USING BIODIVERSITY RESOURCES IN A SUSTAINABLE WAY

(HUMAN THREAT)? Baseline This objective is mostly linked with the production sector, and only partly or indirectly to "biodiversity". In fact, "biodiversity" not only includes the "native" biodiversity but also the domesticated species, the crops diversity, etc. Nevertheless, I see 4 main reasons to not develop too much these aspects here: (1) At a global scale the "productive biodiversity" represents only a small part of the total biodiversity, and the potential for future development of new "productive biodiversity" is probably mostly to be discovered in the canopy of the tropical rain forests (Hallé 2002). (2) If point 1 is not convincing enough, we may add that the original contribution of the Seychelles to the global productive biodiversity (local cultivars, wild relatives to cultivated species, etc.) is disproportionately low compared to its original contribution in terms of native biodiversity (endemic families, genera, species). (3) Native biodiversity is not only a preserved heritage of native species. It is also about indices, tracks, traces, data for elaborating hypothesis on evolution processes, for understanding how nature adapted to previous climate changes, how it functions now, how it may evolve to our current pressure and to the current ecological changes, etc. This constitutes in my sense one of the main reasons for focussing on the study of this "biodiversity" and its conservation. Preserving species is not an end in itself, but understanding evolution is. (4) The detailed consideration of the production sector literature (agriculture, forestry, fisheries, etc.) is totally out of the scope of the present consultancy (see ToRs). I will therefore not develop much this chapter, but just provide some comments on the datasets recorded to now in the metadatabase. Table 16. Number of datasets for plants and fungi within objective 11 (tertiary level, detailed legend at p.15). Note that there is 1 document on "fisheries" for "plants". This emphasizes one weakness of our metadatabase. Indeed, if a document is about agriculture and fisheries, then it will concerns both plants and fishes. But according to the fact that the metadatabase does include the link between child tables (in this case "Dataset_StudyTypes" and "Dataset_Taxon"), all combinations of the child tables will be created: Fisheries-Fish, Fisheries-Plants, Agriculture-Plants, Agriculture-Fish. Study types (tertiary level) Production sector Fisheries Livestock Agriculture Horticulture, Landscaping Uses (pharmacology, cultural uses, etc.) Forestry Tourism Environmental Impact Assessment Historical accounts Social - development history Geographical, historical and general accounts Historical documents of Natural history Total number of combinations

Pl 1 1

Mo

Di

24

3

9

6 19

3 1

2 3

5 12

14

Gy

F

Mos Bry Mar Ant

Fu

Li

23

1 25 77

0

0

0

0

0

0

23

0

TOT 1 1 0 59 0 11 23 0 0 0 1 0 30 126

The uses of plants are treated in several documents: Adjanohoun et al. 1983; André & Beaver 2005; Baumer 1979; Bovet et al. 1991; Filliot 1988; Grainger 1996; Gurib-Fakim & Brendler 2004.


30

For forestry, the most recent document is Indufor 1993, which included information from previous major forestry documents (Gibson 1938; Henry 1976; Swabey 1961). The report of Henry (1976) should still be considered as major basic document since it contains a lot of information not synthesized in more recent reports (e.g. maps and appendices). Several other very important and relatively recent documents exist for improvement of forestry in the Seychelles, but have rarely been cited (Delotter 2001, 2002; Navez 2003). One of the main gaps today is probably the absence of a database to compile information on forestry resources and management. There is also to date no geodatabase, and maps of forest plantations are still to be found only in the report of Henry (1976). Agriculture has long been an important issue in the Seychelles, and a lot of information is provided in the "Annual Reports" (Government of Seychelles 1883-1971). Some basic synthesis include Akroyd 1977; Dauban 1976; Government of Seychelles 1883-1971; Skidmore 1974; Webb 1961. The bibliographical synthesis of Skidmore (1974) is a very important document for a more complete list of references in the field of agriculture. More recently, several databases have been developed by the Division of Crop Development & Promotion (Government of Seychelles), including databases on "Crop production", "Crop types/distribution (biodiversity)", "Land use (agricultural land use and optimisation)" and "Species distribution (Food crops and biodiversity in agriculture)". Recommendations 27. Reclaim degraded lands for agriculture / forestry: Develop agroforestry and slash-andchar agriculture (see Appendix 1) on degraded or degrading lands would release the pressure on less degraded areas on Mahé for example. Redeveloping forestry on degraded lands would also contribute to Carbon sequestration and local climate change (more rain fall, see Senterre 2009b: p.3). Many hectares are to be reclaimed on Praslin. 28. Reorganize forestry to have a sustainable wood production for local use, mostly on Mahé and Praslin. This will need the development of a database on forestry resources and management, to be linked with a geodatabase.

III.1.12WHICH CONSERVATION ACTIONS MAY BE SET UP FOR SPECIES AND HABITATS?

Baseline In terms of rehabilitation / restoration (including control of invasive species), two recent synthesis have been published: Beaver & Mougal 2009; Senterre 2009a. Conservation measures include many documents on "action plans" (e.g. Mougal & Mangroo 2007), "management plans" and "research agenda" (Beaver et al. 2007; Castle & Mileto 1991; Diamond 1975; Fourmy 1999; Kendle et al. 2002; Matatiken 2004; Plant Conservation Action Group 2005, 2007; Wilson 1980), many reports from ICS on Aride Island Nature Reserve, and other documents providing recommendations for conservation (e.g. Caujapé-Castells et al. 2010; Fleischer-Dogley 2005; Fleischer-Dogley 2006; Lionnet 1956; Procter 1970). Most of the documents dealing with sustainable land management are already covered by those dealing with conservation action. Examples of studies dealing more specifically with sustainable land management sensu stricto include: Brewer 1951; Zemp 2003.


31

The main documents providing information on protected areas include: Iucn 1992; Procter 1970, 1973; Sheppard & Kaka 1995; Swabey 1970. A recent document provides an excellent synthesis, i.e. Nevill 2010. The later document, and several others (Henriette 2004, 2005a, 2005b), also contribute to knowledge on institutional management and provide detailed recommendations. For education and public awareness, several documents are listed in the database. One of them constitutes a very good synthesis of many aspects treated here (our 12 objectives): Beaver & Morel 2003. The Kapisen series, produced by Plant Conservation Action group (PCA), is also an important source of popularized studies on plants in the Seychelles. Table 17. Number of datasets for plants and fungi within objective 12 (tertiary level, detailed legend at p.15). Study types (tertiary level) Rehabilitation / restoration Conservation measures Sustainable Land Management Protected areas Institutional management Legislation, policies, international conventions Education, Capacity building, Awareness Total number of combinations

Pl 31 45 6 11 1 5 99

Mo 1 4

Di 5 4 1

Gy

F 1

10

0

1

Mos Bry Mar Ant

Fu 1

Li

1

0

1

6

0

0

0

0

TOT 39 53 7 12 1 0 5 117

Recommendations For recommendations under this question, the reader should refer to the recent synthesis by Nevill (2010: p.38). Here, I extracted from Nevill's document the main recommendations and provide some additional comments, especially links with proposed "best" practices. Another interesting source with recommendations on the aspects included here is Caujapé-Castells et al. (2010: e.g. p.123). 29. Protected Areas (PAs) categories: Revise protected areas categories in line with international norms (e.g. Boitani et al. 2008; Goriup & Creed 2004). 30. PAs criteria: Develop sound technical and scientific criteria for the identification and designation of protected areas. I suggest to consider the following "best practice" references: Vreugdenhil 2002; Vreugdenhil et al. 2003; and / or Langhammer et al. 2007 (with a personal preference for Vreugdenhil, because more integrated, but needs more input data) 31. Protected Areas Network (PAN): Review the effectiveness of the current Network of Protected Areas: Do the current PAs still meet reasons for designation?; Are there unprotected areas that would need to be incorporated?; Are the current status and delimitations suitable or do they need update? Note also that several basic data, needed for undertaking a satisfying PAs gap analysis (see criteria in e.g. Vreugdenhil et al. 2003), are unfortunately current gaps of knowledge. Therefore to achieve a good PAs gap analysis, the most important recommendations to be addressed include 1, 8, 13, 19, 20 and 25 (corresponding partly to Nevill 2010: p.40). These linked recommendations depend themselves on other recommendations of which the most important are 2, 7, 10, 11, 12 and 14). These gaps of knowledge partly explain for example why Montagne Planneau is not currently included in the PAN. Addressing these gaps is a difficult and long task. I understand that we need to progress little by little, i.e. we can not achieve everything perfectly, comprehensively, directly. But I strongly recommend bearing in mind that the task is long and complex, and not to underestimate it, or oversimplify it. I also Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Plants & Fungi - B. Senterre (2010)

32

strongly recommend using abundantly the "best" practices detailed in Vreugdenhil et al. (2003), to set up a strong basis and a suitable long-term planning. Montagne Planneau should already be considered as a very high priority for integration into the network of protected areas. Indeed, it has an outstanding value in terms of biodiversity and water catchments (Gardiner 1907; and pers.obs.), but is still mostly ignored and absent from PAs documents (e.g. Nevill 2010). This is to me one of the most important gaps in the actual system of protected areas. 32. National PAs Policy: Develop, through an iterative process of stakeholder consultation, and publish a National Protected Areas Policy (see Nevill 2010). 33. PAs management plans: For all protected areas, develop management plans that are designed in the context of an overarching Protected Areas Network (Emerton et al. 2006; Hockings 2003). For management, see also more specific recommendations in Nevill 2010, in "Policy" and "Institutional". 34. Legislation review / update: Create a single law for protected areas, which consolidates, as much as pragmatically possible, transfer, all PA categories under one law (e.g. a revised / updated NPNCA, National Parks and Nature Conservancy Act) (Nevill 2010). See also more specific recommendations in Nevill 2010, in "Legislation". 35. Develop international / regional collaborations: Finally, in order to develop local capacities and knowledge, it is indispensable to put more emphasis on developing international and regional collaborations. There are many ways to do this. A Global Island Plant Conservation Network (GIPCN) now exists that facilitate contacts. Phylogenetic studies are a good opportunity and should be promoted (i.e. facilitate access to samples), especially for projects which aim not only at developing knowledge on a one-shot bases but also aim at developing concrete long term links between future partners of future projects. This is especially important because there is a gap of taxonomic knowledge in the Seychelles, which knowledge is the base of everything.


33

III.2

Land Mammals (G. Rocamora)

The following exercise intends to summarise to which extent existing national biodiversity inventories, assessments, indicators and monitoring fulfil (or have contributed to) the following Objectives and main criteria proposed as international best practices. Gap analysis regarding what needs to be conducted in terms of future inventories, assessments and monitoring is intended and priorities are proposed through recommendations. References corresponding to what we consider international best practice methods have already been defined in Output 3 (see Appendices), and we provide below key references illustrating what has been done in Seychelles for the different objectives. There are no non-flying native land mammals in Seychelles, probably because most families of modern mammals have evolved after the splitting from Gondwanaland (between -120 and 160 Million years ago), which isolated Madagascar, Seychelles and India, and only those that could fly could cross such long distance of ocean. The only native land mammals in Seychelles are therefore half a dozen species of bats. In addition, about a dozen of introduced species have been recorded in Seychelles and include wild (Tenrec), feral (dogs, cats, goats, pigs, cows), domesticated (horse, guinea-pig and previous) and commensal (rats and mice) species. Introduced mammals are relatively well known; but additional knowledge is clearly required on bats, for which new species have been recently described in the Aldabra group (Goodman & Ranivo, 2009a; 2009b), and which deserve further inventories and investigations. Introduced mammals (especially rats & cats) are an important threat and their control or eradication is one of the basic components of island restoration activities that have been conducted in Seychelles over the last few decades in order to protect the endemic and native wildlife. Hence, biologists working on mammals in Seychelles have focused their investigations on two opposite directions: on the (native) bats in order to better protect them, or on the invasive non-flying mammals in view of eliminating them. There are 103 datasets dealing with land mammals in the metadata base, and a total of 209 combinations for primary objectives, the ones with the highest numbers being "conservation values and threats" (#10; 71% of datasets and 35% of total combinations), "species biology & general ecology" (#8; 44% and 22% respectively), and "conservation actions or measures" (#12; 32% and 17%). "Species distribution (#3; 17% and 8%) and "Species lists" (#1; 12% and 6%) are also relatively well represented. A limited number of datasets exist for "Diversity & Biogeography" (# 9; 8% and 4%), "Habitat use & Environmental determinism" (#7; 6% and 3 %), and very few for "Sustainable use" (# 11; 4 % and 2%) and for "Species identification" (#2; 4% and 2%), and virtually none for all objectives relating to habitat identification, distribution, and classification (#4,#5,#6), that have limited relevance to mammals in the context of the present study.

Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Land mammals - G.Rocamora (2010)

34

I Study types (secondary level) All or many 1 Taxonomy 1 Collection effort 2 Identification 2 Systematic 3 Species distribution 4 Habitats and / or communities 5 Habitat identification 5 Habitat classification system 6 Habitat distribution 7 Habitats used (sp.) 7 Environmental determinism 8 Species biology and general ecology 8 Interactions, Dynamics & Functioning 9 Biodiversity 9 Biogeography 10 Population size and trends 10 Habitat size and trends 10 Threats 10 Economic value 10 Conservation priorities 11 Production sector 11 Environmental Impact Assessment 11 Historical accounts 12 Rehabilitation / restoration 12 Conservation measures 12 Sustainable Land Management 12 Protected areas 12 Institutional management 12 Legislation, policies, international conventions 12 Education, Capacity building, Awareness 13 Theory, modelling, methodology 13 Environmental factors 13 Metadatabases 13 Others Total number of combinations (TOTc) Total number of datasets (TOTd)

International Regional National 3

2

1 2

1 1

2

Island 1 4 1

Locality

2

2

2

1

2 1

3 1

11

3 1

3

2

1

15 5 2

13 6 2

3 3

15 1 24

12 2 26

1

2

1 1

1 1 1

2 6 14

2

10 10 2

5 1

1

1

18 11

10 7

110 39

95 41

10 5

TOT 1 11 1 2 2 17 1 0 0 0 6 0 35 14 7 1 31 3 53 0 3 1 0 3 17 25 0 2 0 0 5 2 1 0 0 243 103

The datasets on bats are mostly general on the Seychelles (51 %), or island based (18 %). Nevertheless, (23 %) datasets have an international scope and (8 %) a regional one (calculated on 39 datasets on bats).

III.2.1 WHICH SPECIES DO WE HAVE? Taxonomy An interesting number of datasets (11; 11% of datasets) relate to this secondary objective, which is the fifth most important one for land mammals. Basic taxonomical classification has been done for the bat species recorded in the Seychelles mainly based on morphological characters and partly reviewed (Goodman & Ratrimomanarivo, 2007; Goodman & Ranivo, 2008). Over half a dozen publications specific to the taxonomy of Seychelles bats have been recorded; however a number of taxonomical interrogations remain for rare and cryptic species. Comparative DNA analysis has been conducted for some species (mainly through mitochondrial DNA Analysis) (Goodman et al., 2009a, 2009b), and needs to be systematically extended to all species, and completed by comparative measurements of Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Land mammals - G.Rocamora (2010)

35

Voice (echo-location) and Ecology. Detailed measurements of genetic diversity (at infraspecific level) is currently under-way for the sheath-tailed bat and should also be conducted at least on other rare species on Aldabra to ascertain their level on inbreeding, as done for various rare endemic birds. Some phylogenetic studies involving Seychelles rats and mice are in preparation to determine the origin of introduced rodents and history of colonisation in the Indian Ocean. Collection effort Limited numbers of specimens appear to be have been collected for Seychelles bats established across several European & American Museums. Collection of a few specimens per species have been conducted recently for taxonomic purposes in the Aldabra group and should be strictly limited to the minimum required especially for rare endemic taxa potentially at risk of extinction. Only some blood or tissue samples of rats or other introduced mammals have been collected and stored, often before or during eradication operations (Rocamora, pers. com.). This should be done systematically to ascertain success of eradication and allow future genetic and historical studies. Recommendations 1. Extend comparative DNA analysis to all bat species, and complete by comparative measurements of Voice (echo-location) and Ecology; and undertake measurements of genetic diversity at infra-specific level for Sheath-tailed bat and other rare species on Aldabra to ascertain their level on inbreeding. 2. Encourage collection and storage of samples of invasive land mammals from all islands, especially when an eradication is planned for future studies.

III.2.2 HOW DO WE RECOGNIZE THESE SPECIES? Identification The bats of Seychelles are covered in a few reference publications (Cheke & Dahl, 1981; Racey & Nicoll, 1984) and in the existing general wildlife guides (Bowler, 2006; Hill & Currie, 2006; Goodman & Gerlach, 2007),) but the list of species described for the Aldabra group is outdated and requires updating. A specific poster would be useful, as it has been produced for the Comores. Identification of introduced mammals does not pose any particular difficulty, in the case of rodents, several reports and manuals propose clear identification keys. Systematic Only two studies (Koopman, 1994; Goodman et al., 2009) dealing with this sub-objective appear in the database. Recommendations 3. Produce a publication (poster, guide, etc.) allowing for the identification of all Seychelles bats, especially new species identified from Aldabra.


36

III.2.3 WHAT IS THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THESE SPECIES? Species distribution 17 of the datasets are linked to species distribution, this being the fourth best contributed secondary criteria for land mammals in the database. The distribution of bats in the granitic Seychelles is relatively well know, although more research and surveys are required to located new roosts for the critically endangered Seychelles Sheath-tailed bat Coleura seychellensis. The distribution of bats species on Aldabra should be investigated, especially for the rarest ones. Precise locations of roosting caves for the critically endangered Sheath-tailed bat Coleura seychellensis needs to be kept strictly confidential to prevent disturbance but at the same time available to government services to prevent damaging developments to occur in these areas. The distribution in Seychelles of introduced mammals including rodents is relatively well known in the granitic islands (Rocamora & François, 2000; Hill et al., 2003) but some more surveys are required in the outer islands. Recommendations 4. Improve knowledge on the distribution of Sheath-tailed bat in the large granitic islands and of rare bat species on Aldabra. 5. Determine the distribution of all introduced mammals in the outer islands (presence/absence in the different islands).

III.2.4 WHICH TYPES OF HABITATS / COMMUNITIES DO WE HAVE? Habitats and / or communities Virtually no studies have been dedicated to bat communities in Seychelles, particularly on Aldabra where a minimum of 4 species occur. Recommendations 6. Encourage further studies on bat communities, especially in the Aldabra group, and compare them with those from neighbouring islands and archipelagos.

III.2.5 HOW DO WE RECOGNIZE THESE HABITATS / COMMUNITIES? This objective is of little relevance to land mammals in the context of this study, and no datasets are recorded under it. Most information relating to land mammals’habitats is treated under Objective 7 & 8.


As for above, no datasets are recorded under this sub-objective, data relating to land mammals’ habitats being treated under Objective 7 & 8.


37


The following basic bat habitats types can be distinguished in Seychelles: -Mixed natural forests (dominated by broadleaf trees) and anthropogenic habitat (agricultural and residential areas with fruit trees); for Fruitbats both on granitic islands and Aldabra. -Coastal caves and surrounding woodland and marshy habitats rich in flying insects (including ponds, small streams and mangroves) in the granitic islands; for insectivorous critically endangered Sheath-tailed bats. -Remnants of native forests, coconut plantations and other coastal habitat; for insectivorous bats in the outer (coralline) islands. Introduced mammals, especially rodents, have colonised most natural habitats in the islands where they are present. Few datasets relating specifically to this objective (6; 6%) have been recorded into the database (Hill, 1971; Matyot, 1995; Joubert, 1996; Gerlach & Taylor, 2006; Fanchette, 2009). It appears that there is virtually no information on the environmental determinism of bat habitats in Seychelles. Bat habitats can be defined as an ecosystem (or part of it) from where a particular species or group of species (guild) depend and have established their ecological niche. Additional descriptions of bat habitats may be required so that these can be better identified and inventoried. Data on habitat distribution for bats can be derived from existing information on vegetation and ecosystem typology but it has not been produced or specifically investigated. Establishing a more precise geographical inventory of the main habitats potentially available for insectivorous bats in Seychelles would be desirable, in view of defining specific conservation measures. Other information on relationships between land mammals and their habitats is covered in the following section. Recommendations 7. Encourage identification, inventory and mapping of habitats being used or suitable for bats, especially for rare or endangered endemic forms.


About 43% of the references (44 datasets) available for Seychelles provide knowledge on this objective, the second most important for land mammals. Species biology and general ecology Over a third (35) of the references available contribute to this secondary objective, the second most important one in the land mammal database.


38

In the case of bats, there are still important gaps in our knowledge on the ecology which need to be filled through appropriate research, such as feeding ecology, relationships between plants and bats as pollinators or fruit dispersors. A relatively limited number of studies have contributed to improving the knowledge on the biology (diet, breeding) of the Fruit bats species present in Seychelles, Pteropus (s.) seychellensis & P. (s.) aldabrensis (Nicoll & Racey, 1981; Roberts & Seabrook, 1989) and the threatened Sheath-tailed bat Coleura sechellensis (Nicoll & Suttie, 1982; Joubert, 1996; Gerlach & Taylor, 2006a, 2006b; Gerlach, 2009a, 2009b, 2009c). The biology of some species is also known from neighbouring countries (Madagascar, Comores, Africa; Paulian, 1961; Battistini & Richard-Vindard, 1973; Stephenson, 1995; Garbutt, 1999; Goodman & Benstead, 2003; Weyeneth et al., 2008; Goodman et al., 2010; Racey et al., 2010)

where they are also present. Movements, including between islands, are poorly known. Specific research needs to be conducted in Seychelles to determine key parameters of the biology of certain species of bats, including their movements for fruit bats through miniature GPS or other type of tags as they become available. The ecology of introduced mammals is known mainly from other countries, but it should also be investigated here in Seychelles to better understand their impact. Very few studies have focused on the biology of introduced mammals present in Seychelles, although some data has been gathered during various eradication operations and relatively detailed research conducted on the Hare Lepus nigricollis on Cousin (Kirk, 1981; Kirk & Bathe, 1994) and on the Tenrec on Praslin (Nicoll & Racey, 1985; Nicoll, 1986). Information on the Tenrec’s biology also exists from research conducted in Madagascar and neighbouring islands. Interactions, dynamics & functioning 14 datasets contribute to this sub-objective. These relate mainly to the interactions and impacts on Aldabra native wildlife of introduced goats (Gould & Swingland, 1980; Newing et al. 1984; Burke, 1988a, 1988b), cats (Seabrook, 1989, 1990; Scoones et al., 1989), and rats (Van der Elst & Prys-Jones, 1987; Roberts et al., 1989), and on the consequences of rat eradications (Rocamora & Jean-Louis, 2009). In addition, the impact of the introduced hare has been investigated on Cousin (Kirk & Racey, 1992). The impact of the three rodent species (two rats and one mice) on native biodiversity (vegetation, endemic landbirds, seabirds) deserves additional research. As for Objective 7, little information is available on these aspects regarding bat habitats, and hence more should be done in future. Only few studies have concentrated on the ecological functioning of ecosystems and habitats hosting bats, and the role that the latter occupy. The same applies to the impact of introduced mammals on ecosystems, although some research is currently being conducted on the effects of rat eradication on bird, reptile and invertebrate communities. More research should be conducted on the ecological functioning of ecosystems affected by introduced mammals. Recommendations 8. Specific research needs to be conducted in Seychelles to determine key parameters of the biology of certain species of bats, including their movements for fruit bats through miniature GPS or other type of tags as they become available. 9. Conduct more research on the biology and ecology of introduced mammals in Seychelles. 10. Develop research on the ecological functioning of ecosystems affected by introduced mammals.


39


(EVOLUTION PROCESSES)? Biodiversity Only 7 datasets contribute to this secondary objective (Goodman & Ratrimomanarivo, 2007; Goodman & Ranivo; Goodman et al., 2009; Hill, 2002; Hill et al. 2003, Jacobs et al., 2004, Wilmer & Barratt, 1996). Main factors explaining the observed patterns of bat diversity do not appear to be well known; including with regards to human impact (alteration of habitats, presence of invasive predators or competitors, or effects of conservation action). There may be a need to undertake specific studies to answer this question; where Aldabra could bring a particular contribution for being an ecosystem with little human impact, although it should be borne in mind that this is a very different ecosystem compared to the granitic islands. Such studies could involve correlations or multivariate analysis between parameters of composition and structure of bat communities and ecological factors, as traditionally done in the case of birds. Biogeography Few studies have touched on the origins of Seychelles bats and biogeographical links with other bat faunas (Peak, 1971). Recently, phylogenetic studies have contributed to improve such knowledge for some species, something which should be pursued and promoted. Molecular studies on the origins of rats introduced to Madagascar and Comores have recently been conducted (Tollenaere et al., 2010) and should be soon extended to Seychelles. Recommendations 11. Undertake more research on patterns of bat biodiversity in Seychelles, with a species focus on Aldabra. 12. Encourage additional research on the impact of introduced mammals on native biodiversity.

III.2.10WHICH ARE THE SPECIES, HABITATS AND SITES WITH THE HIGHEST CONSERVATION VALUE ?

About 71% (73) of the datasets available provide knowledge on this primary objective, the most important one for Seychelles land mammals. Population size and trends With a total of 31 entries (30% of all datasets), this is the third most important secondary objective to which the land mammal database contributes. For bats, repeated surveys and monitoring schemes have focused on these aspects in the granitic islands, mainly for the critically endangered Sheath-tailed bat (Nicoll & Suttie, 1982; Rocamora, 1997; Bambini et al., 2006) and the Seychelles Fruit bat (Racey, 1979; Mellamby et al., 1996), but little to no data on numbers and trends is available on insectivorous bats present in the outer (coralline) islands, including on Aldabra. A monitoring scheme and database was set up by DoE as part of the G1 project (Rocamora et al., 1997; Rocamora & Joubert, 2004). National population size estimates need to be determined or updated for all bats present in Seychelles, for both for the inner and outer islands, with a priority for rare and threatened species. Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Land mammals - G.Rocamora (2010)

40

Population estimates for rodents, rabbits (Kirk & Bathe, 1994), cats, goats have been proposed, often as part of preliminary investigations for island eradication programmes. Habitat size and trends Only 3 studies (Gerlach, 2004, 2009; Gerlach & Taylor, 2006) provide information on this secondary objective. Extent of habitat size and availability of food sources has apparently never been monitored for any species of bats in Seychelles, something which should be envisaged, for the rare and threatened species such as the Sheath-tailed bat, and also for Fruit Bats (from both native and introduced trees). Threats This is the secondary objective to which the highest number of datasets (53, or 51%) have contributed, probably because of the importance of the threats created by most introduced mammals on native species and ecosystems, and of the threats that native bats are suffering. A significant number of studies, inventories and scientific publications (about a third of the datasets recorded) have discussed and in some cases directly investigated potential threats to Seychelles bats (Hill, 1971; Maisels, 1979; Verschuren, 1985), especially for the critically endangered Sheath-tailed bat (Rocamora & Joubert, 2004; Gerlach & Taylor, 2006a, Gerlach, 2009). Main threats for bats in Seychelles include invasive species, habitat destruction, and human disturbance. Further research on threats should remain a priority. A significant number of studies and reports have been dedicated to invasive species during the last decades, including to introduced mammals such as rodents (Thorsen et al., 2000), hares (Kirk & Racey, 1992), cats (Seabrook, 1990) and goats (Rainbolt & Coblentz, 1999), that are themselves invasives and can affect native mammals (bats), especially the rarest ones like the Sheath-tailed bat (rats and cats), and native vegetation. Impact of invasive species (mammals, birds, plants) on rare bats should be further investigated. Economic value No datasets appears to contribute to this secondary objective. There are however economic benefits associated to native mammals, such as value for ecotourism, that should be further investigated. Parallelly, the very high negative economic value of introduced mammals such as rats on ecosystems and human society should also be investigated. This is for example the case for the dammage created by introduced rodents on agricultural production and the service sector (electric and telephone wires), known to be important but requiring a more precise assessment. Conservation priorities Only few datasets (Hutson et al., 2001; Mickleburg et al., 2002; Gerlach, 1997) contribute to this sub-objective. Bats, and mainly the critically endangered Sheath-tailed bat, have been included in the inventory of Environmental Sensitive Areas (Atlas des Zones d’Environnement Sensibles; Duncombe, 1996) that was promoted amongst government services and decisions makers but this requires urgent updating. Globally Threatened Species (such as the Sheath-tailed bat) and near-threatened species in Seychelles are identified through the IUCN Red List which is continuously updated. Bats were included in the Global Mammal Assessment, but this predates the revised nomenclature of the Aldabra bats. A Red Data Book was produced by NPTS (Gerlach, 1997) but was never officially endorsed by Government services (Division of


41

Environment). Identification of species of conservation concern through the production of national IUCN Red Lists would be highly desirable. Recommendations 13. Determine or update national population size estimates for all Seychelles bats, both in the inner and outer islands, with a priority for rare and threatened species. 14. Consider monitoring extent of size of (potentially or actually used) habitat and/or food source availability for bats in Seychelles, at least for rare and threatened species. 15. Further research should be conducted on threats on bats, especially the impact of invasive species (mammals, birds, plants). 16. Investigate economic benefits associated with bats (e.g. ecotourism, human consumption); as well as the very high negative economic value of introduced mammals such as rats on ecosystems and human society. 17. Update the inventory of Environment Sensitive Areas in Seychelles, with a special importance for bats. 18. Produce a new Red Data Book for Seychelles using IUCN guidelines.


(HUMAN THREAT) ? Production sector Only one dataset (Seychelles Agricultural Agency database) provides information on this secondary objective. Direct harvest and commercialisation of wild fruitbats is still authorised in Seychelles as a traditional activity (Maisels, 1979) with regards to a species that is believed to be sufficiently abundant to sustain a relatively limited level of predation, however no research has been undertaken on levels of harvest or sustainability and this is a cause of concern. Insecticides and other chemicals used in agriculture or around habitations (hotels, private homes) may have contributed to the decline of the Sheath-tailed bat, as well as human disturbance (e.g. noise, intensive transport and construction) resulting from tourism development in the vicinity of roosts of this endangered species. Little research has been done locally on these aspects which should be more deeply investigated. Environmental Impact Assessment EIAs reports have not been entered into the database. A number of EIAs have been conducted in Seychelles over the last 15 to 20 years; however, these are often general, and do not bring any novel data on bat populations on particular sites, except perhaps the one that was done for the Labriz Silhouette hotel. Studies are currently conducted on the small Sheath-tailed bat population of Port Glaud, situated close to the future construction site of the Emirates hotel, and more could be conducted as part of the hotel‘s EIA. Historical accounts Only 3 datasets (Wright, 1868; Milne-Edwards, 1877; Thomas, 1915) contribute to this secondary objective.


42

Few accounts exist regarding the status of the two species of bats present in the granitic islands, including on the exploitation of Fruitbats, and even less exists regarding the status of insectivorous bats present in the outer islands. Recommendations 19. Encourage research on possible effects of pesticides and other chemicals (used in agriculture, pest control around hotels and habitations) on bats in Seychelles. 20. Determine levels of harvest sustainability on the Seychelles Fruit bat, which trapping and consumption is authorised under certain conditions.

III.2.12WHICH CONSERVATION ACTIONS MAY BE SET UP FOR SPECIES AND HABITATS ?

About a third (35) of the datasets available for Seychelles land mammals provide knowledge on this primary objective, which appears as the third most important for this taxonomical group. Some work has been done since 2006 by various stakeholders under the leadership of Division of Environment which produced a one page Species Action Plan for the critically endangered Sheath-tailed bat; but this document still needs to be improved and advertised. An international Action Plan was produced for Old World Fruit Bats in 1992 by IUCN Chiroptera Specialist Group. Producing a Species Action Plans for the Sheath-tailed bat remains a high priority, as this species is the most threatened vertebrate of Seychelles. Additional papers dealing with conservation aspects of bats and their habitats should also be produced. Rehabilitation / restoration With 17% (17) of the datasets, this is the fifth most important secondary objective (alike Species Distribution) of the land mammal database. On Silhouette, small scale elimination of invasive trees and replanting of native vegetation has been conducted immediately next to the main roosts of the Sheath-tailed bat, as well as in some areas of the La Passe plateau around the wetland (by NPTS and the recently built hotel), which are feeding grounds for the critically endangered bats. Areas suitable for similar restoration on Mahé have been identified but conservation agreements need to be made with relevant land owners before restoration can be initiated. Fruit Bats have probably benefited from restoration work conducted in many small islands by NGOs (since the 1970’s) and private owners (since the mid-1990’s), where coconut trees have been replaced by native trees like Badamier or Ficus sp. Protected areas and private islands managed for the conservation of the environment have also set management plans (e.g. Aride, Cousine) or more specifically Vegetation Management Plans (e.g. North Island; Conception Island) aiming at increasing the amount of native habitats. Introduced mammals (mainly rats, but also cats and goats; see Beaver & Mougal, 2009) have been successfully eradicated from 9 islands since 1997 (Shah, 2001; Millett & Shah, 2001; Climo & Rocamora, 2006; Rocamora, 2007), in particular through the ICS-FFEM project has increased the rat free area in the granitic islands by c.50% (Rocamora & Jean-Louis, 2009), with more eradication programmes being prepared for the future.


43

It is a high priority for Seychelles to continue developing species and habitat restoration programmes and associated research activities to improve the conservation status of the Sheath-tailed bat, and to eradicate introduce invasive mammals. Conservation measures This is the third most important secondary objective to which the database contributed for land mammals (24% of datasets). Publications and reports detailing conservation measures that need to be undertaken have mainly been produced for the critically endangered Sheathtailed bat (Rocamora & Joubert, 2004; Gerlach & Taylor, 2006; Gerlach, 2009). Recommended measures consist mainly on protection and prevention of any anthropogenic disturbance around roosting caves, control of introduced predators, further monitoring and research into species biology and ecology, and the above restoration activities. Conservation measures may also be required to improve the status of rare insectivorous bats present in the Aldabra group (Hutson, 2004). Nation-wide operations to reduce the abundance of rodents around town and residential areas are being regularly conducted by Ministry of Health and, DoE as well as private owners. This needs to be continued and further developed. Conservation medicine No datasets recorded for this sub-objective. Very little work if any has been done on this subject with bats in Seychelles (see Duplantier & Duchemin, 2003; Laakkonen et al., 2003 for Madagascar), although bats are known as potential vectors for diseases and parasites for other animals and humans. Regarding introduced mammals, rats are known to carry leptospirosis and other dangerous diseases for animals and humans. This deserves further investigation that is about to start as part of a regional programme implemented by CRVOI (Centre de Recherche et de Veille pour les maladies émergentes de l’Océan Indien) and its partners (NGOs, universities and research institutions, and government services) from the different countries including Seychelles. Sustainable Land Management No particular reports and studies have been produced on this aspect with regards to its implications for bats. Problems of fire and erosion are two examples of threats that can affect significantly forest habitat and deserve more attention. All known roosts of the sheath-tailed bats are near recent or approved hotel or residential developments, so the needs of this species have to be incorporated into future land use planning. Protected areas Seychelles has c.50% of its land protected by law, hence literature relating to protected areas is abundant, and these protect also bat habitats, although very few documents directly are directly directed to this subject. The Silhouette National Park will include all roosting and foraging areas for the Silhouette population of sheath-tailed bat. In particular, Aldabra hosts no less than 5 species of bats. Development of further research activities on bats in protected areas should be promoted, and more particularly on Aldabra, but making sure their impact is minimal and compatible with the protected areas’ mission. Institutional management No datasets recorded for this secondary objective. Little information is available on this aspect, although the maintenance development of national organisations capable of conducting efficient monitoring and conservation programmes, and collaborating with foreign research teams, is essential.


44

Education, Capacity building, Awareness Very few sources of information are available on this aspect (5 datasets recorded), despite this being a crucial component for the long-term continuation of conservation actions in Seychelles. Some training in bat monitoring techniques has been conducted for local staff since 1996 as part of DoE programmes and later by NGOs and foreign researchers. Relatively few educational and awareness activities focusing on bats have been developed in the last 30 years mainly by DoE, Ministry of Education, Nature Seychelles and Wildlife Clubs amongst others, with some TV and radio programmes, and some newspapers and popular magazine articles on the subject, although none of the latter are registered in our database. Training has been conducted for conservation staff in various islands for the control and eradication of introduced mammals such as rats, cats and goats mainly by local NGOs; these and government services have written numerous articles on the subject for the general public. Numerous TV spots and programmes of the need to eliminate rats have been produced at the request of Ministry of Health as part of actions to reduce the risk of leptospirosis. For the general public, wildlife guides also have an important educational and awareness role. All these activities need to be further developed. Legislation, policies & international conventions No datasets relate to this sub-objective, as publications and reports on this subject are very scarce in Seychelles. It would be good to promote these aspects to improve the protection and conservation of bat populations in Seychelles, and prevent the spread of invasive alien mammals, especially colonisation of rat-free islands. For example, the critically endangered Sheath-tailed bat, is not listed as a protected species in the Seychelles legislation, and a detailed Action Plan for this species still needs to be finalised. Recommendations 21. Produce a consistent Species Action Plan for the critically endangered Sheath-tailed bat and advertise it, this species being the most threatened vertebrate of Seychelles. 22. Develop species and habitat restoration programmes and associated research activities to improve the conservation status of the Sheath-tailed bat, and to control or eradicate introduce invasive mammals (see also Threats). 23. Protect roosting sites of bats, especially caves of the critically endangered Sheath tailed bat, prevent anthropogenic disturbance, control introduced predators, and conduct further monitoring and research into species biology and ecology. 24. Encourage conservation medicine research on diseases and parasites affecting bats and introduced mammals such as rats, especially those that can be transmitted to other native species and humans (e.g. leptospirosis). 25. Integrate the needs of the critically endangered Sheath tailed-bat into future land use planning. 26. Promote research activities within protected areas, while always kept compatible with the mission of conservation and protection of the bird populations concerned. 27. Consider integrating some popular publications, at least those with some relevant information not published elsewhere, into the database.


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28. Promote legislation, policies and international conventions willing to improve the protection and conservation of bat populations in Seychelles, and prevent the spread of invasive alien mammals, especially colonisation of rat-free islands 29. Conserving traditional races of animals farmed in Seychelles and important for agricultural purposes (NOT in the wild).


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III.3 I 1 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 7 8 8 9 9 10 10 10 10 10 11 11 11 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 13 13 13 13

Marine Mammals (J.A. Mortimer)


International

Regional

National

Island

1 2

15

5

1

1

1

5 1

6 1

3

2 1

5

2 1

1

1

2

2

1

1

2

1

2 1

3 1

1

1

1

15 8

1 35 18

14 9

11 5

TOT 0 0 1 0 24 1 0 0 0 3 0 14 3 0 0 5 0 9 0 1 0 0 2 0 7 0 2 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 75 40

III.3.1 WHICH SPECIES DO WE HAVE? Taxonomy & genetic diversity One species of sirenian (Dugong dugon) and some 33 species of cetaceans occur in the southwest Indian Ocean. Of these, the sirenian (Hermans & Pistorius 2008) and most (26) of the cetaceans have been recorded in Seychelles--including 14 species of delphinids (Delphinidae), four species of beaked whales (Ziphiidae), two species of big toothed whales (Kogidae & Physeteridae), and six baleen whales (Balaenopteridae) (Kiszka et al. 2009). Kiszka at al. (2009) provides the most complete recent review of cetacean occurrence by country in the SWIO. Some species records are based only on stranded animals. Hermans & Pistorius (2008) review marine mammal diversity at Aldabra. Genetic studies of cetacean populations in the region are few (Best 2001; Calambokidis et al. 2004 and Hammond et al. 1990 as cited by Barlow & Gisiner 2006), but can provide valuable Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Marine mammals - J.A.Mortimer (2010)

47

insight into population structure of widely distributed species (Hoelzel 1998, Gaines et al. 2005, Rosenbaum et al. 2009).

III.3.2 HOW DO WE RECOGNIZE THESE SPECIES? Identification Taxonomic guides to identifying the cetaceans of the world are available (Carwardine 1995; Watson 1981). Observers need guidelines to identifying cetaceans from a distance as well as stranded individuals. WIOMSA published a regional guide produced by Berggren.& Coles (2009).

III.3.3 WHAT IS THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THESE SPECIES? Kiszka et al. (2009) provides the best review of distribution of sightings of cetacean species in Seychelles and the region. Other accounts of species distribution include (Kahn et al. 1993, Claro & Hergueta 2002, Anderson et al. 2006, Kiszka et al. 2007, Kiszka et al. 2010). Recommendations 1. Our knowledge of the occurrence of cetaceans in the western Indian Ocean is still preliminary. Basic surveys to document what species occur in Seychelles are needed throughout the territorial waters of Seychelles. 2. Genetic studies of cetacean populations throughout the Indian Ocean region and beyond are needed to clarify phylogenetic relationships, patterns of migration, and population structure. 3. The use of guidebooks with a regional focus need to be promoted to enable effective data gathering .

III.3.4 WHICH TYPES OF HABITATS / COMMUNITIES DO WE HAVE? Not relevant to marine mammals (habitats). There has been no or little emphasis on the description and study of specific guilds and communities. III.3.5 HOW DO WE RECOGNIZE THESE HABITATS / COMMUNITIES? Same as above. III.3.6 WHAT IS THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THESE HABITATS / COMMUNITIES?

Same as above.

Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Marine mammals - J.A.Mortimer (2010)

48


Most studies in the Indian Ocean region have focused on continental coastal waters (see review by Kiszka et al. (2009). In oceanic waters, in-depth and long-term studies on the status, abundance and distribution of cetaceans are scarce (Leatherwood & Donovan 1991, Kiszka et al. 2009). Different habitats may be utilised during periods of reproduction and foraging, and may differ between the sexes (Kiszka et al. 2010). Recommendations 4. Habitat preference of cetaceans warrants much further study.


Species biology and general ecology Species biology for cetaceans is poorly understood, but has been addressed to a degree for some species in Seychelles or adjacent territories by Kahn et al. (1993), Claro & Hergueta (2002), Anderson et al. (2006), Hermans & Pistorius (2008), Cerchio et al. (2009), Gross et al. (2009). Stable isotopes are increasingly used to assess habitat utilization and resource partitioning (Gross et al. 2009). Recommendations 5. Almost any information about the biology and general ecology, including geographic movements, of most species of cetaceans would provide valuable insights about these poorly studied species. Almost any observations of live animals are of value. When stranded animals are encountered necropsies need to be conducted to record data on diet, reproductive state, and other characteristics relative to the natural history of the animals.


(EVOLUTION PROCESSES)? No such studies were encountered for cetaceans in Seychelles.


Population size and trends Quantitative data on population size and trends are difficult to obtain, but these topics are discussed for humpback whales by Rosenbaum et al. (2009), and more generally for other species by Kahn et al. (1993), Claro & Hergueta (2002), Kiszka et al. (2007), and Hermans & Pistorius (2008). A regional network of observers for the Indian Ocean is being developed. Habitat size and trends Habitat size for cetaceans is difficult to define and quantify. But, protected areas are important for long term survival of populations (Kiszka et al., 2007; Hermans & Pistorius, 2008). Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Marine mammals - J.A.Mortimer (2010)

49

Threats In the territorial waters of Seychelles, where illegal captures of dolphins still occur for human consumption, and also in the wider WIO region, the greatest threats facing both dugongs and cetaceans have been identified as by-catch and deliberate killing of individuals (Anderson et al. 2006, Kiszka et al. 2007, Kiszka et al. 2008a, Kiszka et al. 2008b, Kiszka et al. 2008c). But other threats include habitat degradation, chemical and acoustic pollution (especially that related to oil and gas exploration), increased risk of collision due to greater activity of high speed boats, and (at some sites in the WIO) disturbances caused by whale/dolphin watching activity (Kiszka et al. 2009). Moore et al. (2010) attempt to quantify levels of marine mammal by-catch in artisanal fisheries globally. Lobomycosis-like disease and other skin conditions in Tursiops from the Indian Ocean have been related to degradation of the coastal environment associated with rapid urbanization, expanding agriculture and increased release of untreated freshwater runoffs (Kiszka et al. 2009) Recommendations 6. Baseline surveys and long term monitoring is needed to identify habitats with the highest conservation value and to quantify population trends; to be done as parat of a regional network. 7. Threats to cetaceans (such as pollution, boat collision, etc.) need to be better identified and evaluated. Techniques that can be used to assess such threats are discussed by Kiszka et al. (2008b), Kiszka et al. (2008c), and Kiszka et al. (2009). Moore et al. (2010) present a revised protocol for future interview-based bycatch assessments.


(HUMAN THREAT)? Historical Accounts Cetacean populations were commercially over-exploited in the Indian Ocean in general and in Seychelles in particular prior to the mid-1900s (Ferrari 1983, Holt 1983).


In 1979 the Republic of Seychelles which had recently joined the International Whaling Commission (IWC) proposed that the entire Indian Ocean north of latitude 55o S be declared the Indian Ocean Whale Sanctuary where all commercial whaling would cease (Ferrari 1983, Holt 1983). This measure was adopted by IWC. At a more local level, Seychelles has established protected areas where all wildlife is protected including marine mammals (Hermans & Pistorius 2008) and implemented protected legislation for all cetaceans. Kiszka et al. (2009) recommend that the presence of permanent populations of cetaceans, such as inshore dolphins and migrating humpback whales, may provide opportunities to develop


50

local commercial activities dedicated to focusing on observations of cetaceans (i.e., ecotourism). Recommendations 8. Seychelles needs to better enforce current legislation that prohibits the capture of cetaceans (especially dolphins) in Seychelles waters; integrate into EIA guidelines evaluation of risks linked to oil and gas exploration techniques; and regulate recreational interactions betwen humans and marine mammals (i.e., guidelines for eco-tourism, divers, etc).. 9. Seychelles needs to establish a network of protected areas in the outer islands of Seychelles where cetaceans and dugongs can be better protected and systematically monitored. 10. Advocate for renewal of the Indian Ocean Whale Sanctuary, a concept originally proposed by Seychelles in the 1980s, which will enhance the ecotourist potential for Seychelles and the region. 11. Seychelles needs to encourage cetacean tourism in its territorial waters and also to design official protocols and sensitise tourism operators in regard to approaching the animals in order to prevent their harassment and to avoid dangerous situations. 12. Education and awareness programmes about conservation issues related to marine mammals need to be developed and conducted. 13. Conduct more research to reduce the problem of depredation by cetaceans on long-liners.


51

III.4

Birds (G. Rocamora)

The following exercise intends to summarise to which extent existing national biodiversity inventories, assessments, indicators and monitoring fulfil (or have contributed to) the following Objectives and main criteria proposed as international best practices. Gap analysis regarding what needs to be conducted in terms of future inventories, assessments and monitoring is intended and priorities are proposed through recommendations. References corresponding to what we consider international best practice methods have already been defined in Output 3 (see Appendices), and we provide below key references illustrating what has been done in Seychelles for the different objectives. Birds are a very well known group both in Seychelles and abroad. They can be traditionally divided into 3 categories according to their main habitats (Landbirds, Waterbirds, Seabirds; see for example Loustau-Lalanne, 1962, 1963) and also according to their breeding and migratory status in Seychelles (Breeding, Annual Migrant, Vagrant). These two classifications can be combined into 4 or more categories (see for example Skerrett et al., 2001; or Rocamora & Skerrett, 2001). Only about a hundred species are regularly observed in Seychelles, but even more have been recorded as occasional visitors. In 2000, 224 species of birds had been officially recorded; including 48 species of landbirds and waterbirds, 18 species of breeding seabirds, 24 species of annual migrants, 127 species of occasional visitors and 7 extinct species (Rocamora & Skerrett, 2001). The increase in occasional visitors brought this total to 252 species by 2006 and to 253 by the end of 2009 (Skerrett et al., 2006; SRBC, unpublished). There are 658 datasets dealing with birds in the metadata base, and a total of 1089 combinations for primary objectives, the ones with the highest numbers being "species biology & general ecology" (#8; 48% of datasets and 29% of total combinations), "conservation values and threats" (#10; 44% and 27% respectively), "conservation actions or measures" (#12; 20% and 12%). "Species distribution (#3; 16% and 9%) and "Species lists" (#1; 12% and 8%) are also relatively well represented. A limited number of datasets exist for "Sustainable use" (# ; 8 % and 5%) and "Diversity & Biogeography" (# ; 6% and 4%); very few for "Species identification" (#2; 4% and 2%) and "Habitat use & Environmental determinism" (#7; 3% and 2 %), and virtually none for all objectives relating to habitat identification, distribution, and classification (#4,#5,#6), that have limited relevance to birds in the context of the present study. Landbirds are the most documented group with 59% of the recorded combinations, followed by Seabirds and Waterbirds (also called Shorebirds) totalling 26% and 15% of the combinations respectively. The fewer number of references for the last two categories may be due to the fact that most seabirds and shorebirds species have a very wide distribution, are highly mobile or migratory, hence present in Seychelles during only part of year and living in other countries where they have already been studied in detail. The fact that some of them, especially seabirds, are very abundant may add to the fact that they are not perceived as priority species. By contrast, Seychelles landbirds comprise 30 extant endemic taxa (12 fully recognised species and 18 subspecies) which are found nowhere else and are often (globally) threatened, hence prompting conservationists and researchers to focus on them. However, this difference is probably also due to the fact that landbirds are generally easier to study than shorebirds or seabirds, and that ornithologists generally start to focus on these species first. The datasets on birds are mostly general on the Seychelles (32 %), or island based (51 %). Nevertheless, (8 %) datasets have an international scope and (10 %) a regional one. Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Birds - G.Rocamora (2010)

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I 1 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 7 8 8 9 9 10 10 10 10 10 11 11 11 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 13 13 13 13


15 1 6 2 17

landbirds 61 2 22 2 79 5

seabirds 30

shorebirds 15

17

13

39 2

21

2

3 12

3

3

33 8 1 3 24 2 8 2 2 3

202 37 21 14 149 17 83 1 16 12

82 16 2 4 95 6 29 9 8 17

11 2 1 1 12

8 1 10

19 39 101 4 20

8 4 33 2 9

3

2 9 9 3

2 3

2

9 953 442

3 423 212

2 101 48

1

2 151 85

4 3

3 5

TOT 121 3 58 4 156 7 0 0 3 20 0 328 63 25 22 280 25 124 12 29 32 0 38 44 147 6 35 0 2 9 13 6 0 16 1628 658

III.4.1 WHICH SPECIES DO WE HAVE? This objective is relatively well represented in terms of number of datasets (82; 12% of all) from the bird database contributing to it . Taxonomy (including genetic diversity) This is the sixth most important secondary criteria for birds in the database, concerning 18% (121) of the 658 datasets, the majority of them relating to landbirds, and 7% of all total recorded combinations. Basic taxonomical classification and studies have been done for all known resident species, generally only based on morphological characters. A number of taxonomical interrogations remain for endemic taxa currently considered as subspecies that could potentially be real species. Best practice methods to investigate taxonomy include DNA phylogeny through mitochondrial DNA analysis. Such studies have already been conducted at regional level in Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Birds - G.Rocamora (2010)

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some cases (see Austin et al., 2004 for shearwaters; Warren et al., 2003, 2006 for white-eyes and sunbirds; Pasquet et al., 2007 for drongos; Fuchs et al. 2008 for scops-owls). Comparative studies on the Biology and Ecology of related taxa (see for example Procter; 1972 for the Seychelles Cave Swiftlet) and most importantly too on Voice (see international examples in Payne 1986, Martens 1996, Baptista & Kroodsma, 2001) are also important tools which have rarely been used for taxonomical purposes for Seychelles birds. More detailed measurements of genetic diversity (at infra-specific level) have only been conducted on the most threatened and well researched endemics (e.g. Kappa, 1998 and Komdeur et al., 1998 for the Seychelles Warbler, Rocamora & Richardson, 2003 for the Seychelles White-eye) and should be continued for other endemic species. Collection effort Extremely few datasets (e.g. Benson, 1970) relate to collection of bird specimens. This activity occurred mainly during the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, resulting in good collections of Seychelles birds established across several European & American Museums, including for rare endemic species which may have put them at risk of extinction. Museums around the world are now fairly accessible and collaborative to provide collection material to researchers, hence additional collections are not considered necessary for birds. However, it would be good to have a catalogue giving the list and location of all the various bird specimens collected in Seychelles and scattered in many different museums around the world. Used in its wider sense, ‘collection’ may include methods used by modern ornithology to conduct surveys (e.g. Bibby et al. ,1998) and establish species lists through visual or acoustic observations, and standardised transects or point-counts (see references listed in section 10 for more details). Such methods have been used in Seychelles mainly for monitoring purposes since the mid-1990’s (e.g. Cresswell et al., 1997; Rocamora, 1997). When using point counts as a method of survey and inventory, it is possible to control the sampling effort and stop observations when efficiency becomes too low in terms of number of new species per additional point (Ferry 1976 in Blondel, 1979). Recommendations 1. Complete lacking taxonomical studies for all Seychelles endemic forms, starting by the most threatened ones, including measurements of genetic differentiation at both inter and intra specific level, but also the analysis of vocal and ecological differentiation where appropriate. 2. Compile a catalogue of all known bird specimens collected in Seychelles and now scattered across many museums around the world, mainly in Europe and the USA.

III.4.2 HOW DO WE RECOGNIZE THESE SPECIES? Identification An interesting number of datasets (58; 9% of datasets) relate to this secondary objective. About 10 identification guides covering Seychelles birds with different geographical scopes and details have been produced since the 1970’s. These include the first field guides from Penny (1974), Beamish (1981) and Bullock (1990). The most detailed and complete is the most recent one ‘Birds of Seychelles’ (Skerrett, Bullock & Disley, 2001), which includes all officially recorded resident, migrant and vagrant birds and for which an updated version is being prepared. Since then, several faunistic guides not specific to birds have also been Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Birds - G.Rocamora (2010)

54

published (Bowler, 2006; Hill & Currie, 2006; Gerlach, 2007). Sinclair & Langrand (1998) have also produced a guide for birds of the Indian Ocean islands.Best practice for bird identification includes detailed species accounts with precise description of adult and juvenile plumages, and colour plates with drawings or photographs showing differences with possible confusing species. Audio tools are also very important for bird identification; only two such publications exist: a colour illustrated boxed set of two CDs covering c.50 endemic and typical bird species (Rocamora et al., 2000) and a set of 4CDs covering all the birds of the Indian Ocean (Huguet & Chappuis, 2003). Zwazo Sesel (Skerrett et al., 2003, 2007) a publication giving local names for all birds in Creole, French, English and Latin also exists and is regularly updated. Records of species that are not commonly and regularly found in Seychelles are subject to approval from the ‘Seychelles Records Bird Committee’, which publishes and updates regularly the Checklist of the birds of Seychelles Skerrett et al., (2007). A specific checklist for the birds of Aldabra also exists (Betts, 2001). Current identification tools are sufficient. Systematic Apart from the above field guides, there are no specific datasets dealing with the systematic classification of Seychelles birds, this problematic being treated in specialised publications not relating specifically to Seychelles and not included into the database. Recommendations 3. Prepare an identification audio CD providing sounds and calls for all the birds of Seychelles, including Aldabra & the outer islands. 4. Continue to update regularly the checklist of the birds of Seychelles and publications giving official local names in Creole.

III.4.3 WHAT IS THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THESE SPECIES? This objective is relatively well represented in terms of number of datasets (103; 16% of all) from the bird database contributing to it. Species distribution 24% (156) of the bird datasets are linked to species distribution, this being the third most important secondary criteria for birds in the database. No Atlas with detailed distribution maps of bird species has ever been produced in Seychelles. However, a guide book (Bowler, 2001) provides the distribution list of islands where all resident and regular birds are present. Distributions will feature in the forthcoming version of ‘Birds of the Seychelles’ (Skerrett et al., in prep.). An Atlas with maps as it exists in some European or African countries would be a plus, especially if semi-quantitative information could be provided, like is the case for modern atlases (see for example the Atlas of Southern African Birds, Harrison et al., 1997; or the Catalan Breeding Bird Atlas, Estrada et al., 2004). Recommendations 5. Consider producing an Atlas of the birds of Seychelles, providing the distribution maps for all resident and regular migrants species, for the larger islands (Mahé, Praslin, Silhouette, La Digue).

Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Birds - G.Rocamora (2010)

55

III.4.4 WHICH TYPES OF HABITATS / COMMUNITIES DO WE HAVE? Communities / Habitats Basically, the following main bird community types, defined with regards to the main types of habitats they use, can be distinguished in Seychelles: - Seabirds: Coastal marine habitat (coast and shallow continental seas), Pelagic (deep) sea, Small islands (breeding colonies). - Landbirds: Mixed forests (dominated by broadleaf or palm trees); Rocky habitats (‘glacis’), Agricultural habitats, Residential areas. - Waterbirds: Mangroves, Mudflats, Ponds, Marshes, and Rivers. A number of studies have been dedicated to specific bird communities and their habitats in Seychelles. This includes for the landbirds Loustau-Lalanne (1962) for the granitics, Benson (1971) for Aldabra, Greig-Smith (1986) and Cresswll et al. (1997) for the whole of Seychelles; for the seabirds: Feare (1984) for the Indian Ocean, Loustau-Lalanne (1963), Stoddart (1984), Diamond (1994) and Burger & Lawrence (2003) for the Seychelles, Diamond (1971, 1979) for Aldabra, Betts (1940), Bowler et al. (2002), Catry (2008, 2009a) for Aride, Burger & Lawrence (1999) for Frégate, Rocamora et al. (2003) for Cosmolédo; for the waders and other migrants: Feare (1984) and Phillips (1997) for the whole of Seychelles, Penny (1971), Frith (1975), Prys-Jones (1984) and Betts (2000) for Aldabra. Most of these do not actually appear in our metadatabase which will need to be corrected, as the few datasets recorded correspond mainly to publications dealing with birds plus other taxonomical groups which communities are described. Several databases on landbirds and seabirds belonging to different organisations exist in Seychelles, and provide data on the islands managed by the respective organisations (mainly Nature Seychelles, ICS, SIF) or islands with whom they have passed data sharing agreements. University or private researchers that have been working in Seychelles (often on a long term basis) also have their own databases on seabirds. Blondel (1979, 1986) and Wiens (1989) provide good examples of studies on the ecology of bird communities. Establishing more regular inventories of the bird communities in Seychelles does not appear to be given a high priority, although it would be important to have more studies on Seychelles bird communities to compare them with faunas from other archipelagos and analyse their evolution Recommendations 6. Encourage more regular studies on Seychelles bird communities, especially seabird and waterbird communities from specific islands or atolls, to compare them with other archipelagos.

III.4.5 HOW DO WE RECOGNIZE THESE HABITATS / COMMUNITIES? This objective is of little relevance to birds. Apart from the above major types of communities, many other subdivisions can be defined at will from further habitat subdivisions. Bird habitats can be defined as ecosystems (or parts of it) from where a particular species or group of species (guild) depend and have established their ecological niche. Descriptions of bird habitats are done as and when required as part of studies on the ecology of particular bird species or groups of species.


56


Community / Habitat distribution Very few bird datasets contribute directly to this sub-objective. Such data can be derived from existing information on vegetation and ecosystem typology but it has not been produced or specifically investigated for most bird species, with the notable exception of the threatened endemic landbirds. More research on distribution of potentially suitable habitats would be desirable, especially for endangered species, as part as biological assessments of islands in view of reintroductions (e.g. Rocamora & François, 2000; Hill, 2002 for small islands). . Bailey (1968) provides data on the pelagic distribution of seabirds in the Indian Ocean, and the Important Bird Area inventory for Seychelles (Rocamora & Skerrett, 2001) also provides information on where to finds bird most interesting bird communities (endemic landbirds, seabirds) and their habitats in Seychelles. Recommendations 7. Encourage mapping of habitats suitable for birds as part as biological assessments of islands, in view of reintroductions of endangered species in an ecosystem approach perspective, and of the IBA inventory revision.


Few datasets relating specifically to this objective (20; 3%) have been recorded into the database, and concern habitat use by seabirds or waterbirds (e.g. Feare, 1974; Feare et al., 1997a, 1997b), or endemic landbirds (Neufeld, 1998; Fanchette et al., 2000; Rocamora & François, 2000; Currie et al., 2002, 2003). This objective having not been always been considered separately, matters relating to habitat use and ecosystem functioning are also dealt with in the following section.


About half (315) of the references (datasets) available for Seychelles birds provide knowledge on the ecology of species and habitats. Species biology & ecology 50% of the datasets contribute to this secondary objective, the most important one in the bird database. Some studies have focused on the basic ecology (habitat requirements and relationship with other species, etc.) of a particular species (see for example Prys-Jones, 1979 for the Aldabra Warbler; Komdeur, 1988 for the Seychelles Warbler; Rocamora & François, 2000 for the Seychelles White-eye; Currie, 2002 for the Scops Owl) or of species assemblages at the community level (e.g. Diamond, 1971 for the seabirds of Aldabra). Foraging ecology has been investigated for a number of seabird species (e.g. Monticelli et al.; 2008; Catry et al., 2009a) including with modern techniques of isotope analysis (Catry et al., 2008) and geolocators (Catry et al., 2009b for the Wedge-tailed shearwater). Telemetry and data loggers


57

were also used for the same purpose for Frigatebirds on Aldabra (Weimerskirch et al.; in press) and currently on Cousin (Le Corre et al., in prep.). As for species ecology, an important number of studies have contributed to improving the knowledge on the biology of bird species, and have particularly focused in the diet and reproduction of these. Phenology of movements for migratory species is quite well known for rare migratory species (see for example Skerrett et al., 2007) or regular counts conducted over the years in different islands including nature reserves and outer islands (e.g. Aride, Alphonse, Aldabra, Mahé). The biology of most Seychelles bird species appears to be relatively well known (see Skerrett et al., 2001), but sometimes only from research conducted in other countries where they are also present. The biology of seabirds breeding in Seychelles is relatively well known (see Burger & Lawrence, 2003). A long-term research programme on the biology and population dynamics of the rare Roseate tern has been taking place since 1997 on Aride Island (see Ramos & Monticelli, 2007). However, for many non-breeding species, including migrant landbirds, waders and seabirds, specific research still needs to be conducted in Seychelles to determine some important parameters of their biology. Threatened endemic landbirds such as the Seychelles Warbler, the Magpie-Robin or the White-have benefited from long term research or conservation programmes, and as a consequence their biology and ecology are much better known than common endemics such as the Bulbul, the Sunbird or the Blue Pigeon. However, a significant proportion of the available information on the biology and ecology of Seychelles birds is only from reports that still need to be published in peer-reviewed journals or other technical publications, or that should be put on line in order to be made more widely and easily available. A remarkable long-term research programme on the Seychelles warbler, conducted mainly on Cousin Island, has been extremely successful in investigating interacting mechanisms linking cooperative breeding and behavioural ecology with population genetics, dynamics and structure (age and sex-ratio) and habitat quality, amongst other parameters (e.g. Komdeur, 1988; Komdeur, 1992; Komdeur, 1996; Komdeur et al., 1997; Komdeur, 2003; Richardson et al., 2007). Examples of bird-habitat studies at international level are given for example in Bibby et al. (1992) and Bibby et al. (1998). Aspects on the ecology of bird habitats and ecosystems are also treated in the following section. Interactions, dynamics & functioning In total, about 10% (63) of all datasets contribute to this sub-objective. Some ecological studies have focused on other important aspects of ecology such as species interactions (e.g. Veen, 2000 for the Seychelles Warbler), or relationships between birds and plants as fruit disseminators (e.g. Kronauer, 2005). Other studies have concentrated on the ecological functioning of ecosystems and habitats hosting bird concentrations, such as seabird breeding colonies or roosts (small islands, mangroves; e.g. Diamond, 1979; Feare, 1974; Monticelli, 2008), but very litlle has been done on the ecological functioning of the main waders feeding areas (mudflats); or on habitats key to particular endemic forms (for example Badamier-Takamaka lowland forest that hosts much of the Flycatcher population on La Digue, or Pemphis dry forest on Aldabra). Developing this kind of research should be encouraged.


58

Recommendations 8. Undertake specific research to investigate the biology of non-breeding species in Seychelles, including migrant landbirds, waders and seabirds. 9. Continue ecological research on endemic species, both the threatened and also the unthreatened ones, and on breeding seabirds, and publish results in scientific journals. 10. Encourage more specific studies on species interactions, relationship between bird communities and their habitats, and the determinism of environmental factors on both.


(EVOLUTION PROCESSES)? Biodiversity Only c.42 (6.4%) of datasets contribute to this sub-objective. In mainland or large island habitats, differentiation of landbird communities is explained mainly by the complexity of vegetation structure (e.g. Blondel; 1986). Main factors explaining the observed patterns of bird diversity in Seychelles are known and very much linked to human impact (alteration of habitats, presence of invasive predators or competitors) or at the opposite to conservation action (restoration of habitats, introduction of rare endemics). Very few studies specifically oriented to answer this question have been undertaken, possibly because of the difficulty of working in ecosystems with little human impact, with the exception of Aldabra. Typically obtained from correlations or multivariate analysis between parameters of composition and structure of bird communities and measured ecological factors, such aspects could be developed. Some island surveys and assessments (e.g. Hill, 2002).have dealt to some extent with patterns of species diversity, and many more studies have touched on implications of genetic and phyllogenetic diversity (e.g., Eising, 2000; Grombridge, 2002; Rocamora & Richardson, 2003; Richardon et al., 2004; Hansson & Richardson, 2005; Brouwer et al., 2007; Groombridge, 2009). Biogeography Blondel (1986) presents examples of modern biogeographical studies in the Mediterranean and abroad. In Seychelles, only few studies (22 representing c. 3% of datasets; including Peak, 1971; Diamond & Feare, 1980; Keith , 1980; Stoddard, 1984; Diamond, 1987) have touched on the origins and biogeography aspects of Seychelles avifauna. More recently, phylogenetic studies (Warren et al., 2003, 2005, 2006; Fuchs et al., 2008) have also contributed to improve knowledge on biogeographical links existing between Seychelles species and other bird faunas; these should be pursued and promoted. Recommendations 11. Undertake more research on patterns of bird biodiversity in Seychelles 12. Encourage additional biogeographic and phylogenetic studies, especially for endemic species.


59


About 44% (289) of the datasets available for Seychelles birds provide knowledge on this primary objective, but only few relate to shorebirds. Population size and trends With a total of 280 entries, representing 43% of all bird datasets, this is the second most important secondary objective to which the Seychelles bird database contributes. Many monitoring schemes have focused on this aspect mainly for rare endemic species of conservation concern, seabird colonies, and only occasionally waterbirds (12 datasets). As part of the preparatory documents of the first National Biodiversity Strategy and Action plan (Shah et al. 1997), a first synthesis was attempted and later finalised in the IBA inventory & chapter (Rocamora & Skerrett, 1999, 2001). Monitoring schemes for rare species and common landbirds were set up by DoE as part of the G1 project (Rocamora, 1997). Best practice methods to estimate island population sizes for landbirds include standardised point counts or transects with fixed bands, the measurement of individual distances between birds and the observer (Distance sampling techniques), and capture, mark and recapture or relocate methods derived from Lincoln Index principles and using the frequency of resightings of birds (individually) marked with colour-rings. Such methods have been used in Seychelles repeatedly since the mid-1990’s. For small island populations direct systematic counts in territories can also give good results. Details including practical aspects, analysis and comparisons between methods can be found in Bibby et al. (1992), Bibby et al. (1998), Buckland et al. (1996), Voříšek et al. (2008); and practical applications in Seychelles in Cresswell et al. (1997), Rocamora (1997), Rocamora & François (2000), Wallford (2008), Henriette & Rocamora (in press). Methods to estimate population sizes of seabirds colonies mainly based on circular plots are described in the Handbook for Seabird Monitoring in Seychelles (Burger & Lawrence; 2003); and other examples using transects can also be found in Bowler et al., (2001) or Rocamora et al. (2003). Seabird counting can be performed at sea along transects by an observer on a boat counting within a fixed band (up to 250m on each side), or even better using Distance Sampling (see in Bibby et al., 1992). At Aldabra, seabirds nesting on islets can be counted from small boats (Diamond, 1986), or using kayaks in mangroves (Burger & Betts (2000). Waterbirds concentrations can be estimated by counting individuals or estimating the number of birds present in the vision field (packets of 10, 25, 50, 100 or more) and reporting it (see also in Bibby et al., 1992). Such exercise can be done from the ground using a telescope or from a boat using binoculars, or even from the air using an aeroplane; these methods are rarely used in Seychelles due to the scarcity of wader concentrations. National population sizes for seabirds and rare landbird species need to be updated and compiled, both for the inner and outer islands, and estimates for population size and trends for common landbirds need to be produced or updated. Habitat size and trends This has only been monitored as such for a few threatened species of restricted distribution such as the Black Paradise Flycatcher on La Digue (Watson, 1981; Neufelt, 1992; Currie, 2002). It would be appropriate to do it on a regular basis for other rare species (e.g. Black Parrot; Scops Owl, see Watson, 1984; Rocamora, 1997). Only 25 (c.4%) entries contribute to this sub-objective, but none are encoded for shorebirds, which would be desirable in view of threats to habitats especially in IBAs and islands threatened with human developments. Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Birds - G.Rocamora (2010)

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Threats With 124 entries, this is the fifth most important secondary objective to which the bird database contribute. Many studies, inventories and scientific publications have discussed and in some cases directly investigated this key aspect, especially for rare and threatened species (e.g. White-eye, Magpie-Robin) and particularly in the Species Action Plans, and also for seabird colonies. Main threats for birds in Seychelles include invasive species (see below), habitat destruction (see above for the Seychelles Black Paradise Flycatcher), poaching (Feare, 1978, 1984; Diamond, 1994) and disturbance (Haysom, 1995; Johnson 1999); (see also Rocamora, 1997; Rocamora & Skerrett, 2001). Other threats include the use of pesticides for endangered insectivorous birds (e.g. Edwards, 1992 for the Magpie-Robin), or the mortality of seabirds due to Pisonia sticky seeds (Andrews, 2009). Further research on threats should remain a priority for rare and threatened species, but also for seabird and waterbird concentrations (e.g. overfishing for seabirds). Climate change and sea-rise level are clearly a threat for all species depending on lowland areas for feeding or breeding, including threatened endemics and seabird concerntrations restricted to small rat-free islands. Little has been done so far to assess vulnerability of bird populations in Seychelles with regards to climate change, and how this could be mitigated to increase the resilience of these populations. A significant amount of studies and reports have been dedicated to invasive species during the last 20 years, with a notable increase in recent years. Of particular significance is the effects of introduced rats (see for example Van der Elst & Prys-Jone, 1987; Adam, 2000; Thorsen et al., 2000), cats (e.g. Seabrook, 1990) and exotic birds like Barn Owls (Yeandle, 2009) and Mynas (Millett et al., 2005)) or Red-Whiskered Bulbuls (Roberts, 1988) on the rarest landbirds and the seabird communities. This effort needs to be pursued, and should also include the indirect effects of invasive plants on landbirds. Few studies have documented the presence and effects of disease and parasites on Seychelles birds, and these have been mainly restricted to rare and threatened species (Magpie-Robin, White-eye, Flycatcher) that have been transferred between islands (see for example Bristol et al., 2005 for the Magpie-Robin; Rocamora, 2001 and Mc Gregor, 2007 for the White-eye). Studies on parasites and diseases affecting or likely to affect native birds (including landbirds, seabirds and shorebirds) are currently being undertaken in different western Indian ocean islands including Seychelles under the umbrella of the Centre Régional de Veille Epidémiologique de l’Océan Indien, and more studies of this kind should be encouraged in future. This will include the avicultural sector, regarding diseases that may contaminate wild birds, and vice-versa in the case of migrants. Economic value Only few (12) datasets relate to the economic value of birds, mainly relating to the sustainable exploitation commercialisation of Sooty tern eggs for human consumption (Feare, 1976; Feare, 1984a, 1984b, and many annual reports). This type of study should be developed, especially with regards to the economic value of birds in the context of ecotourism. However, in the case of conservation introductions of threatened endemic species, care should be taken that these are done in the best interest of the species (i.e. that its requirements are respected and not over stretched), and not mainly for pure economic or other considerations. Conservation priorities Only 29 references (4% of all datasets) contribute to this sub-objective. An inventory of Important Bird Areas exists for Seychelles (Rocamora & Skerrett, 1999; Rocamora & Skerrett in Fishpool & Evans, 2001) and identifies sites with a significant proportion of the


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populations of globally threatened landbird species, concentrations of international importance for seabirds and waterbirds, and other international criteria. However this inventory was never promoted amongst government services and decisions makers and requires updating. A national book was prepared by the authors and RSPB but was never published. A project for an inventory of IBAs at sea for the western Indian Ocean is also being discussed (BirdLife International & partners). Globally Threatened Species and nearthreatened species in Seychelles are identified through the IUCN-BirdLife International Red List which is continuously updated. A Red Data Book was produced by NPTS (Gerlach, 1997) but was never been officially endorsed by Government services (Division of Environment). International best practice includes identification of species of conservation concern at national level using specific national IUCN Red Lists criteria (IUCN, 2003). This exercise would be highly desirable. Recommendations 13. Compile or update national population size estimates for shorebirds, seabirds and rare landbird species for both the inner and outer islands, and produced or update population size and trends estimates for common landbirds. 14. Monitor size of suitable habitat for all rare and threatened bird species, as well as shorebirds especially in IBAs and islands threatened by human developments. 15. Continue monitoring and research on threats, including invasive species, for bird populations, especially rare and threatened species, but also seabird and waterbird populations. 16. Encourage research and monitoring on diseases and parasites affecting or likely to affect native birds (landbirds, seabirds and shorebirds), with a focus on threatened species. Closer links should be developped between NGOs, Vet health department and the avicultural sector regarding diseases that may contaminate wild birds and vice-versa in the case of migrants. 17. Studies on the economic value of birds should be developed, especially in the context of ecotourism. However, island introductions of threatened endemics should always be done for the best interest of the species, and not mainly for economic or other reasons. 18. Update the inventory of Important Bird Areas for Seychelles, and promote it throughout decision makers and the general public through a national publication. 19. Encourage research to identify Important Bird Areas at sea around Seychelles and beyond in the Indian Ocean. 20. Produce a new Red Data Book for Seychelles using IUCN guidelines.


(HUMAN THREAT)? Production sector Only 32 datasets ( c.5%) contribute to this sub-objective in the bird database. Direct harvest of wild birds (Ridley & Percy, 1958, 1966) is no longer authorised except for Sooty tern eggs, and limited to some colonies or parts of them representing no more than 25% Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Birds - G.Rocamora (2010)

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of the total number of breeding pairs for Seychelles. However, uncontrolled poaching of eggs but also adults and young also exists and can be a serious problem locally (e.g. on Aride, see annual reports; or in outer islands, Feare, 1978). The question of sustainability of the egg collection has been addressed through a specific research (Feare, 1976, 1984a, 1984b) and a substantial number of reports produced over the years. Bycatch of seabirds by industrial fishing remains a problem for certain species, although possibly not for most of those present in Seychelles. More research should be conducted on the possible impact of overfishing of predator fishes like tunas on seabird population dynamics. Agriculture and the tourism industry may also have indirect impacts through the use of pesticides and other chemicals, but little research has been done locally on these aspects which should be more deeply investigated. Dangerous pesticides have been banned from small islands with rare endangered species following evidence of mortality on the Seychelles Magpie-Robin in the 1980’s. Environmental Impact Assessment EIAs reports have not been entered into the database. A number of EIAs have been conducted in Seychelles over the last 15 to 20 years; however, these are often general, uneasy to find, and they rarely bring genuine or novel data on bird populations. However, some (such as the very detailed one for the construction of a harbour on Frégate Island) may in future bring some interesting data and it would be interesting to have these documents recorded into the database. Historical accounts General descriptions by early visitors (e.g. de Froberville, 1848; d’Unienville, 1868; Oustalet, 1878; Fryer, 1908; Nicoll, 1909; Dupont, 1916) have provided some historical information on the status and exploitation of bird populations in Seychelles. Detailed records for past exploitation of seabirds (Boobies, Terns, Sheawaters), also exist especially for the harvest of Tern’s eggs and Shearwaters’young in islands such as Aride, Cousin, Cousine, Aldabra or Cosmoledo, although these accounts are not easily to obtain and the corresponding publications could therefore not been included in the database. In total, 38 datasets (c.6%) contribute to this sub-objective. Recommendations 21. Encourage research on possible effects of pesticides and other chemicals (used in agriculture, around hotels and habitations) on endemic and native birds in Seychelles. 22. Identify EIAs providing a genuine contribution to the knowledge of bird populations in particular sites.


About 20% (131) of the datasets available for Seychelles birds provide knowledge on this primary objective, but only very few relate to shorebirds. Rehabilitation / restoration 7 % (44) of the datasets relate to this sub-objective, relating solely to landbirds and seabirds. Ecosystem rehabilitation is a key conservation activity which has been a focus for many NGOs (since the 1970’s) and private owners (since the mid-1990’s) on small islands, and for government related organisations in Aldabra and protected areas of Mahé and Praslin. This trend has considerably increased since the last decade and a significant number of studies, Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Birds - G.Rocamora (2010)

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reports and scientific publications have been published or are being prepared as a result. Between 2005-09, the ICS-FFEM programme ‘Rehabilitation of Island Ecosystems’ produced c.100 reports on the subject, including eradication of rats, cats and introduced exotic birds, habitat restoration through propagation and replanting of native species, and reintroduction of rare and endangered species (see final report Rocamora & Jean-Louis, 2009). Beaver & Mougal (2009) provide a synthesis of all operations to control or eradicate alien invasive species in Seychelles. Protected areas and private islands managed for the conservation of the environment have also set management plans (e.g. Aride, Aldabra or Cousine) or more specifically Vegetation Management Plans (e.g. Beaver et al. 2007 for North Island; Rocamora & Labiche 2009 for Conception Island) which aim at increasing the amount of suitable habitat for specific native birds and other species. Seychelles appears as one of the world’s leading nations for the restoration of tropical island ecosystems. It is a very high priority for Seychelles to continue developing restoration programme and associated research activities. Despite consequent habitat loss for waterbirds over the last decades (Eastern coast reclamation project, and various wetland destruction or degradation for housing or hotel developments), only minor restoration activities (Roche Caiman sanctuary) have concerned waterbirds. Over a dozen reintroductions or conservation introductions of rare and threatened birds have been conducted onto new islands for the Seychelles Warbler (e.g. Komdeur, 1997), the Seychelles Magpie-Robin (Bristol et al., 2005); the Seychelles White-eye (Rocamora & Henriette-Payet, 2008); the Aldabra Rail (Wanless et al.; 2002); the Seychelles Fody and the Seychelles Black Paradise Flycatcher (Bristol et al.; in prep.). Conservation measures With 147 entries (22% of datasets), this is the fourth most important sub-objective to which the bird database contributes. Publications and reports detailing conservation measures that need to be undertaken to secure the future of threatened landbirds, and seabirds colonies are quite numerous. This includes Species Action Plans which were produced systematically for every threatened bird species by BirdLife Seychelles & DoE for the period 2001-2005 (six available from www.natureseychelles.org). An Action Plan for Seabirds in Seychelles was also published (Diamond, 1994). No specific bird habitat management plan appears to have been produced but this is covered under restoration actions. The update of Species Action Plans are a high priority, as is continuing to produce papers dealing with conservation aspects of birds and their habitats. ICS & DoE have recently updated the Action Plans for the Seychelles Whiteeye (Rocamora & Henriette, 2009) and the Black Parrot (Rocamora & Laboudallon, 2009). Many individual scientific papers and reports have also proposed conservation actions for rare and threatened birds (e.g. Rocamora, 1997; or Currie et al., 2003 for the Black Paradise Flycatcher); seabird populations in general (Feare, 1984; Diamond, 1994) or in particular islands (e.g. Rocamora et al., 2003 for Cosmoledo), or islands potentially suitable for restoration (e.g. Hill, 2002). Apart from the above restoration activities, these studies focus on species and habitat protection, site management, increased wardening, the need for more efficient action against poachers, and further monitoring and scientific research. Sustainable Land Management Few reports and studies (6; 1% of datasets) have been produced on this aspect with regards to its implications for birds. These include site management plans for Nature Reserves (e.g. Diamond, 1975 for Cousin; Castle & Mileto, 1991 or Sampson, 2006 for Aride); islands and sites of high biodiversity value (e.g. NPTS, 1996 for Silhouette).


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Problems of fire (e.g. palm forests that host the Black Parrot) and erosion (e.g. beach crests where Roseate or Black-napped terns nest) are examples of threats that can affect significantly the habitat of certain bird species, and deserve more attention. Protected areas Seychelles has c.50% of its land protected by law, hence literature relating to birds of protected areas (Aldabra, Aride, Cousin, etc.) is abundant, as most protected areas have rich bird populations on which monitoring, research and conservation activities have been focused. However, only 35 datasets (5% of all) have been recorded as relating to protected areas. Research activities within protected areas are regular and relatively abundant, and their development should be further promoted. Institutional management Little information is available on this aspect, although the development of national organisations capable of conducting efficient conservation programmes and effective island management, and collaborating with foreign research teams, is essential. Education, Capacity building, Awareness Few sources of information are available on this aspect, despite this being a crucial component for the long-term continuation of conservation actions in Seychelles. Three training courses on bird ringing and monitoring techniques have been organised since 1996 by DoE and later ICS in collaboration with Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle (Paris). Many educational and awareness activities focusing on birds have been developed in the last 30 years by DoE, Ministry of Education, Nature Seychelles, Wildlife Clubs, and BirdLife International, amongst others, and a multitude of TV and radio programmes, and newspapers and popular magazine articles exist on the subject, although few of the latter are registered in our database. A few educational publications have been published (e.g. nature trail booklets, Beaver & Chong-Seng, 1990-92) and some are still available. For the general public, bird and wildlife guides also have an important educational and awareness role. All these aspects are of high relevance and priority for the protection of birds, but are not directly related to (bird) biodiversity inventories, assessments, indicators and monitoring. Integrating such popular publications, at least those with some relevant information not published elsewhere, into the database (ex: Birdwatch articles, Zwazo articles and other popular articles) could be considered in future, which goes beyond the present scope of this consultancy. Legislation, policies & international conventions Very few datasets (2) relate to this sub-objective, as articles and reports on this subject are very scarce in Seychelles (e.g. Skerrett, 1994) . It would be good to undertake more studies on these aspects in order to improve the protection and conservation of bird populations in Seychelles. In particular, there is a need to assess the status of IBAs and pass the necessary legislations to ensure that they are adequately protected, which is not always the case (e.g. Cosmoledo atoll). Recommendations 23. Species Action Plans for all Globally Threatened bird species should be updated regularly, and circulated to all decision makers and stakeholders in Seychelles. 24. Conduct more research on the possible impact of overfishing of predator fishes like tunas on seabird populations (also covered by 10.3).


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25. Encourage further island or habitat restoration programmes through specific projects and partnerships in a more ecosystem approach perspective. 26. Consider projects to rehabilitate or restore habitats for waterbirds, to restore the carrying capacity of Mahé and the granitic Seychelles for these communities. 27. Promote research activities within protected areas, while always kept compatible with the mission of conservation and protection of the bird populations concerned. 28. Encourage more studies on related to land management and prevention methods (fire, beach erosion, etc.) on bird populations. 29. Consider integrating popular publications, at least those with some relevant information not published elsewhere, into the database (ex: Birdwatch articles, Zwazo articles and other popular articles). 30. Undertake more studies on legislation, policies and international conventions in order to improve the protection and conservation of bird populations in Seychelles. 31. Assess the conservation status of all IBAs and pass the necessary legislations to ensure that they are adequately protected.


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III.5

Reptiles (J.A. Mortimer & G. Rocamora)

Reptiles are a very important component of Seychelles biodiversity in terms of biomass and also their functional roles in both terrestrial and marine ecosystems; but species numbers are relatively low. Extant native species include: Order Testudines (5 sea turtles, 1-3 tortoises, 2 terrapins); lizards (1-3 chameleons, >12 geckos, >5 skinks, 1 plated lizard); and snakes (3 terrestrial, 1 marine). Introduced lizard species include: >3 geckos; and 1 agamid. Extinct species certainly include 1 crocodile, and possibly also 1 or more terrapins and tortoises.

I 1 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 7 8 8 9 9 10 10 10 10 10 11 11 11 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 13 13 13 13


Reptiles 44 11 5 9 1

Testudines 40 5 5 1 26 1

1

6

17 1 4 8 11 1 4

123 36 16 16 87 17 56 4 9 10

2

2 2 8 1 6

25 14 86 2 8

Lizards 24

Snakes 4 1

Crocodiles 2 1

2 2 1

1

16 2 5 9 3

1 1 2

1

1

4 15 1 2 2 140 75

3 618 302

66 46

10 5

3 3

TOT 114 18 12 1 38 3 0 0 0 7 0 157 39 26 35 101 18 61 4 11 10 0 27 16 95 3 14 0 4 15 1 2 0 5 837 391

III.5.1 WHICH SPECIES DO WE HAVE? Taxonomy & genetic diversity For the terrestrial reptiles of Seychelles, taxonomic classification to the species level is still in flux--especially for lizards, and is highly controversial for tortoises (see list of citations) and to some degree for terrapins. New species of lizards are still being described. Most classification is based on morphological characters, but DNA analysis has been/is being done for sea turtles (to assess intra-specific variation) and tortoises and is underway for some of the lizards.

Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Reptiles - J.A.Mortimer & G.Rocamora (2010)

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Collection effort Collections were made during the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, but several new species were collected and described in the 1980s and during the past 15 years. Further collection may still be needed to provide material for taxonomic studies of some of the lizards. Recommendations 1. For turtles, further work is needed to clarify the taxonomic status of the giant tortoises (i.e. how many extant species there are and what Latin binomials are appropriate for the Aldabra tortoise) the relationship between terrapins in Seychelles and Madagascar or mainland Africa, and for green turatles and hawksbills, the degree of variation between nesting populations within Seychelles and the relationships to those at the regional and global level. 2. The taxonomy of lizards in Seychelles needs further revision.

III.5.2 HOW DO WE RECOGNIZE THESE SPECIES? Identification Taxonomic papers are widely scattered in libraries, in diverse languages and often in obscure journals. These include: for sea turtles (Mortimer & Pritchard 1999); for terrapins (Mortimer & Bour 2002; Gerlach 2008a, 2008b); for lizards (Cheke 1984; Gardner 1985); and for snakes (Nussbaum 1984). There are various general taxonomic guides to vertebrates, but given new species being discovered, none can be considered complete (Nussbaum, unpublished; Bowler 2006; Gerlach 2007; Hill & Currie 2007). Recommendations 3. Identification tools will need to be produced to incorporate the eventual revisions currently underway for tortoises and lizards.

III.5.3 WHAT IS THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THESE SPECIES? The distribution of nesting sea turtles has been well documented in Seychelles by three nationwide projects conducted in 1981-84, 1995-98, and 2000-2004 (Mortimer 1984, 1998, 2004) and refined by subsequent local monitoring programmes at sites throughout the country (data sets produced by Aride Nature Reserve; Banyan Tree Resorts; Bird Island Lodge; Cousine Island Company; D’Arros Research Centre; Island Conservation Society; Lemuria Hotel; Marine Parks Authority; MCSS; MENRT (DoE); Nature Seychelles; NPTS, North Island Company; Seychelles Islands Foundation). The only natural population of giant tortoises occurs at Aldabra atoll where it has been monitored since the late 1960s (Bourne et al. 1999; SIF unpublished data). Feral populations introduced from Aldabra stock occur on many islands and thousands of tortoises are kept in captivity (Mortimer 1998). Terrapin distribution has been documented by Gerlach (2008) and complemented on Mahé and Praslin by ICS reports (Mocq & Rocamora 2008; Labiche & Rocamora, 2009). There is no atlas with detailed distribution maps of the lizards and snakes; and in fact, knowledge about their distributions is still incomplete (Gardner 1986; Nussbaum 1984).


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Recommendations 4. Distribution maps for lizards and snakes need to be produced once taxonomic revisions are complete. Distribution of foraging sea turtles of various age classes throughout the WIO region needs further study.

III.5.4 WHICH TYPES OF HABITATS / COMMUNITIES DO WE HAVE? Not relevant to reptiles (habitats). Few studies have focused on reptile communities or guilds in Seychelles (e.g. the skinks or the geckos of particular islands) as existing studies tend to be species based. III.5.5 HOW DO WE RECOGNIZE THESE HABITATS / COMMUNITIES? Same as above. III.5.6 WHAT IS THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THESE HABITATS / COMMUNITIES?

Same as above.


Habitats and / or communities Nesting habitat preferences of sea turtles have been well researched; but the specifics of their foraging habitats are poorly understood. There is a basic understanding of the distribution of giant tortoises at Aldabra and at other islands where feral populations occur; but more studies are needed to refine our understanding. This is also the case for terrapins. Relatively few detailed studies have considered habitats in relation to lizards and snakes in Seychelles. Recommendations 5. What marine foraging habitats are utilized by the various age classes of sea turtles of all species needs further study, as does habitat utilization by various species of lizards & snakes.


Species ecology For sea turtles nesting ecology has been well studied at both the global (Lutz & Musick 1996; Lutz et al. 2003) and national level (see citation list); and significant data sets exist and are being processed for publication by stakeholders in Seychelles (Aride Nature Reserve; Banyan Tree Resorts; Bird Island Lodge; Cousine Island Company; D’Arros Research Centre; Island Conservation Society; Lemuria Hotel; Marine Parks Authority; MCSS; MENRT (DoE); Nature Seychelles; NPTS, North Island Company; Seychelles Islands Foundation). Less is known about feeding ecology of sea turtles (Mortimer 2004) but information on growth rates, migrations, stomach content analysis, and feeding behaviour is exists (see citation list); and


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important data sets on these topics are being processed for publication by D’Arros Research Centre, Seychelles Islands Foundation, Marine Parks Authority, MCSS, and MENRT (DoE). Reproductive and feeding ecology of giant tortoises has been a focus of study at Aldabra (Frazier 1971; Grubb 1971; Bourn 1977; Hamilton & Coe, 1982; Gibson & Hamilton 1983; and others (see citation list)). Studies of the ecology of terrapins have been done in the granitic Seychelles (Gerlach 2008a, 2008b; and others (see citation list)). Relatively few detailed studies of the ecology of snakes and lizards have been done (Evans & Evans 1980, de L. Brooke & Houston 1983, and others (see citation list)); but it is becoming a focus of research, especially for lizards in the Vallee de Mais (Seychelles Islands Foundation). Ecosystem Ecology The important role sea turtles play in ecosystem function is a focus of research globally (Bjorndal & Jackson, 2003). In Seychelles the role of foraging hawksbills in the ecosystem is the topic of doctoral thesis of R. von Brandis (in collaboration with J.A. Mortimer). The role tortoises play in the ecosystem at Aldabra has been studied extensively since 1968 (Grubb 1971; Hnatiuk et al. 1976; Merton et al. 1976; Bourn & Coe 1978, 1979; Coe 1979; Gould & Swingland 1980; Gibson & Phillipson 1983; Gibson & Hamilton 1983, 1984; Gibson 1984; Bourn et al. 1999; and others (see citation list)). Despite the high population density of the skinks on some protected islands (Aride, Cousin, Cousine) relatively little is known about their role in ecosystem function; and more such studies are needed. Ecosystem Function Studies have been and continue to be conducted on the functioning of the ecosystems that reptiles inhabit in Seychelles. Of particular interest are ecosystems of protected areas such as Aldabra atoll and the Vallée de Mai. At Aldabra, we don’t fully understand the impacts on the herpetofauna of the apparent reduction in rainfall in recent decades, of invasive plants and mammals including feral goats, cats, and rats. The dynamics of the ecosystems of the Vallée de Mai warrant continued study. The functioning of marsh habitats warrants attention (i.e. impacts of invasive species and drainage). The likely impact of sea level rise on turtle nesting beaches is a serious concern. Recommendations 6. More study of the in-water ecology of sea turtles is needed for all species and age classes. Studies of reproductive and feeding ecology of lizards and snakes are needed for all species. 7. Given the relatively high biomass of reptiles in both marine and terrestrial ecosystems of Seychelles more study of the role of reptiles in ecosystem functioning is warranted for virtually all species in Seychelles.


(EVOLUTION PROCESSES)? Biodiversity & Biogeography Main factors explaining observed patterns of sea turtle distribution relate to conditions on the nesting beaches and feeding grounds (Lutz & Musick 1996; Lutz et al. 2003), human depredation on turtle populations (Mortimer 1984), and destruction of nesting habitat Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Reptiles - J.A.Mortimer & G.Rocamora (2010)

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(Mortimer 2004). DNA studies addressing other questions that relate to evolutionary processes responsible for sea turtle distribution and diversity include studies by Mortimer (1998), Mortimer & Broderick (1999), Broderick (2001), and Bourjea et al. (2007). DNA studies are underway that involve Seychelles green turtles (IFREMER & associates, in prep) and hawksbills (University of Canberra & associates, in prep.). For Seychelles tortoises, biogeography and diversity have been addressed by Arnold (1979), Stoddart & Peake (1979), Bour (1984), Austin et al. (2001), Austin et al. (2003), Palkovacs et al. (2002), Gerlach (2004), Gerlach & Muir (2006), and others (see citation list). Biogeography of the terrapins have been addressed by Bour (1984), Gerlach (2001, 2008c), and others (see citation list). Biodiversity and biogeography of lizards have been addressed morphologically by Cheke (1984), Gardner (1984, 1986), Losos (1986); and others (see citation list). DNA studies are currently being conducted, or are planned, for the chameleon, skinks, geckos and snakes by S. Rocha and C. Raxworthy Recommendations 8. Questions relating to biodiversity and biogeography of the herpetofauna of Seychelles remain unanswered, and given the unique situation of Seychelles as a group of islands scattered across the western Indian Ocean with shared components of both Asian and African flora and fauna, this topic warrants further study.


Population size and trends Size and trends of sea turtle nesting populations have been monitored using a combination of exploitation statistics (Frazier 1984; Mortimer 1984), rapid surveys (Frazier 1984; Mortimer 1984, 1998, 2004), and intensive long term monitoring at sites having adequate field personnel (Mortimer 1984, 1985, 1988, 1998, 2004; and data sets produced by Aride Nature Reserve; Banyan Tree Resorts; Bird Island Lodge; Cousine Island Company; D’Arros Research Centre; Island Conservation Society; Lemuria Hotel; Marine Parks Authority; MCSS; MENRT (DoE); Nature Seychelles; NPTS, North Island Company; Seychelles Islands Foundation). Size and trends of giant tortoises at Aldabra have been monitored since 1968 (Bourn et al. 1999; unpublished data SIF). Feral and domestic tortoise populations have been assessed by Samour et al. (1987), Mortimer (1998), Hambler (1994), and others (see citation list). For terrapins, studies have been conducted by Gerlach (2008), as well as Mocq & Rocamora (2008), and Labiche & Rocamora (2009). Studies of population size in lizards were started for Mabuya skinks at some protected sites (de L. Brooke & Houston, 1983) and assessments were made using a transect methodology in 2008 (Gerlach 2008). On Aride, Conception, Ile du Nord (North Island) and Cosmolédo, point counts using Distance Sampling methodology (Buckland et al., 1993) were started between 2005 and 2007 and repeated in order to measure the effects of rat eradication on population size for lizards and day geckos population sizes as part of the ICS FFEM project ‘Rehabilitation of Island Ecosystems’ (Rocamora & Labiche in Rocamora & Jean-Louis; 2009). Densities of lizards were also calculated on Aride based on quadrats on a few occasions, as in 2005 (Aride Island Annual report; Evans & Hobro, 2006). However in the


71

majority of islands, population size and trend data are currently lacking for most species of reptiles; and there is virtually no information on population size and trends in snakes. Habitat size and trends Status and trends in turtle nesting habitat was assessed for the inner islands (Mortimer 2004) and for Aldabra (Mortimer & SIF, in prep), and a number of outer islands (data sets of D’Arros Research Centre, Island Conservation Society, and others). Tortoise habitat on Aldabra has been assessed and is protected as a UNESCO World Heritage Site (see citation list). Loss of marsh habitat has been assessed by Gerlach (2008). For lizards and snakes, total area of available habitat either past or present has not been adequately documented. Threats (general) Major threats facing sea turtles in Seychelles have been well documented as over-exploitation (Frazier 1984; Mortimer 1984; and others); and habitat destruction (Mortimer 2004; and others). Studies of egg clutch mortality have also been conducted (Wood 1986; Rulié 2002; Mortimer 2004; Hitchins 2004; and data collected by Aride Island Nature Reserve, Bird Island Lodge, Marine Parks Authority and GVI, MCSS, and SIF). Marsh destruction has been identified as the main threat for terrapins, responsible for a severe decline in population size and range over the last decades (Gerlach, 2008). Over-exploitation for meat caused the extermination of many tortoise populations (see citation list), recent threats are described below (see section on Invasive Species). Greatest documented threats to lizard populations include that from invasive species (see section on Invasive Species). How habitat destruction might impact lizards and snakes has not been well documented. Invasive species (threat) Invasive mammals including pigs, cats, and dogs are known to destroy turtle nests (Mortimer 1998, 2004; Seabrook 1989); while dogs also discourage turtle nesting and sometimes kill nesting females (Mortimer 1998). Hoofed animals can destroy nests (Mortimer & Vanherck, unpublished data). Invasive ants have the potential to seriously impact egg clutch survival, but this has not been quantitatively documented in Seychelles. Rats and cats are known to kill hatchling of both tortoises and turtles, and presumably terrapins too, but the impact of their depredations has not been sufficiently documented and quantified. Predation by introduced mammals (tenrecs, dogs and cats) has been considered a significant threat to terrapins but this has not been quantified. Invasive species - especially invasive species of other lizards – may pose a serious threat to native species of lizards (Matyot, 2004), as well as invasion by rats or introduction of cats. Conservation priorities Conservation priorities for sea turtles have been documented by (Mortimer 2004), with the most important being to set aside protected sites where nesting habitat can be completely protected in perpetuity from human disturbance (especially lights and human activity) and from exploitation. Hawksbills are listed by IUCN as Critically Endangered (Mortimer & Donnelly, 2008) and green turtles as Endangered (Seminoff, 2005); and both species are both listed on Appendix I of CITES. All Seychelles terrapins, skinks, geckos, snakes and the chameleon have been assessed for the IUCN Red List. Red List status of the tortoises is currently under review.


72

Conservation priorities for giant tortoises were outlined by Mortimer (1998). A Seychelles Terrapin Action was produced by Gerlach (2008). Conservation priorities have not been systematically documented for lizards and snakes. Recommendations 9. National populations sizes and trends for all native species of reptile fauna need continued monitoring--i.e. sea turtle nesting populations, wild and feral tortoise populations, terrapins, and lizard species. 10. Continued monitoring of the status of habitat for all native reptile species is critical. For sea turtles this includes monitoring of beach profiles and incubation temperatures as they relate to climate change and sea level rise.


(HUMAN THREAT)? Production sector Since enactment of Seychelles legislation (Sea Turtle Protection Regulations (1994)) that specifically bans the killing of all sea turtles and their eggs, levels of exploitation have subsided. Where serious poaching patrols have been conducted nesting populations have responded positively (Mortimer 2004; Mortimer & Bresson 1999; Allen et al. 2010). Monitoring data indicate that populations are declining on the islands of Mahé, Praslin and La Digue where poaching and other forms of human disturbance are problematic (Mortimer 2004; and data sets collected by MCSS, MENR (DoE), and others). Exploitation of giant tortoises (Mortimer 1998) and terrapins (Gerlach 2008) for meat has virtually ceased in Seychelles. Exploitation of some species of lizards for the pet trade is potentially problematic but undocumented. Historical accounts Detailed records exist for past exploitation of sea turtles, especially during the 20th century (Hornell 1929; Frazier 1984; Mortimer 1984). Scattered historic records document tortoise and terrapin exploitation. There are no known accounts of human exploitation of lizards and snakes in Seychelles. Recommendations 11. Illegal sea turtle exploitation needs to be monitored and prosecuted. 12. Exploitation of other reptile species for the pet trade needs to be monitored (i.e. tortoises, and various species of lizards & snakes). 13. Develop programmes that integrate ecotourism with turtle monitoring and create tourism facilities for giant tortoises (e.g. Réserve de la Vanille in Mauritius).


73


For sea turtles, management recommendations have been produced under an early project funded by WWF/IUCN and the Seychelles Government (Mortimer 1984), and two projects jointly funded by the GEF and Seychelles Government (Mortimer 1998, 2004). A BHC/MCSS Turtle Strategy and Action Plan was also produced in 2005). Management recommendations for management of giant tortoises were produced under the GEF J1: Turtle and Tortoise Conservation Project (Mortimer 1998). A Seychelles Terrapin Action Plan was produced in 2002 (Gerlach 2002). Rehabilitation / restoration For sea turtles, restoration of dune vegetation is a key conservation activity for sea turtle nesting beaches, especially on Mahé, Praslin, North, and Cousine Islands, and has the potential to be of importance at other sites. The establishment of feral tortoise populations at a number of inner and outer islands (Mortimer 1998) including Curieuse (Stoddart et al. 1982) provide security for the species. Restoration of marshes and reintroduction of terrapins has been done at North Island and is planned for other islands including Aride as part of the ICS FFEM project (Rocamora et al., 2009; Rocamora & Gerlach, 2009). . Conservation measures Apart from the above restoration activities, there is a need to focus on species and habitat protection, site management, increased wardening, the need for more efficient action against poachers, and further monitoring and scientific research. Conservation medicine Developing capacity of Seychellois veterinarians to deal with sea turtles injured by poachers, and with tortoises injured accidently (for example by vehicles on private islands) would be helpful. To ensure that no tortoise diseases are introduced to vulnerable populations in Seychelles, no tortoises should be transferred to Aldabra from anywhere, and no tortoises (even Aldabra tortoises) should be allowed into Seychelles from anywhere, as per the recommendations of Mortimer (1998). Sustainable Land Management Reptiles have not been considered in this regard. Further expansion of human activity inland, particularly in the highlands of Mahé and Praslin could threaten restricted range species. Fire and erosion are concerns for all species, and more particularly those linked to palm forests (e.g. Bronze and Giant geckos). Protected areas For the long term survival of sea turtle nesting populations it is critical to establish and to maintain in perpetuity new protected nesting habitat, and also to ensure the integrity of protected areas that have already been designated as such -- i.e., the Marine National Parks at St. Anne, Curieuse, and Silhouette islands; Aride, Cousine, Cousin islands; and Aldabra atoll; also sites in the outer islands that have been highlighted as being worthy of protection (such as the eastern and southern coasts of Desroches island, Bijoutier and St. Francois Islands, and St. Joseph atoll in the Amirantes. Marshland needs to be restored and protected. All terrestrial skinks, geckos, snakes and the chameleon are present in protected areas.


74

Institutional management For protection of nesting turtles as well as populations of wild and feral giant tortoises, NGOs and private land owners serve a critical role. Sea turtle conservation depends greatly on the auspices of: Aride Nature Reserve; Banyan Tree Resorts; Bird Island Lodge; Cousine Island Company; D’Arros Research Centre; Island Conservation Society (including Alphonse Resort, and developments on Desroches Island); Lemuria Hotel; Marine Parks Authority; MCSS; Nature Seychelles; NPTS, North Island Company; Seychelles Islands Foundation. Survival of wild tortoises at Aldabra depends on stewardship provided by Seychelles Islands Foundation. And tortoise conservation is also enhanced by protection provided feral populations by: Bird Island Lodge; Cousine Island Company; D’Arros Research Centre; Fregate Island Private; Island Conservation Society; Curieuse Island Marine Park; Nature Seychelles; North Island Ltd.; and NPTS. Seychelles Government needs to take steps to ensure protection of marshland and the habitats needed to maintain lizard and snake populations. Education, Capacity building, Awareness This is a crucial component for long-term continuation of conservation actions in Seychelles. Descriptions of the numerous workshops to create awareness and train personnel in turtle monitoring techniques, that were conducted in the context of the GEF J1: Turtle and Tortoise Conservation Project and the GEF SEYMEMP Project: Turtle Component, are described in the reports on those two projects (Mortimer 1998, 2004). Workshops were subsequently conducted under the BHC/MCSS Turtle Project, and training sessions privately on behalf of individual agencies (i.e., SCMRT-MPA, North Island Company, Island Conservation Society, and others). Many educational and awareness activities focusing on turtles and tortoises have been developed in the last 30 years by DoE, Ministry of Education, Nature Seychelles, Wildlife Clubs, and BirdLife International, amongst others, and a multitude of TV and radio programmes, and newspapers and popular magazine articles exist on the subject -- many of these are described in reports of the GEF turtle projects (Mortimer 1998, 2004). Educational publications have been published (Mortimer 1986) and some are still in use. For the general public, wildlife guides that describe reptiles also have an important educational and awareness role. Recommendations 14. Restoration and protection of marshes in perpeturity is critical and reintroduction of terrapins to these sites should be encouraged where appropriate. 15. Establishment of feral tortoise populations at islands that can accommodate them should be encouraged. 16. Monitor the presence of invasive reptiles, such as the Crested Tree Lizard, control their numbers and distribution and eradicate them where feasible. 17. Capacity of Seychellois veterinarians needs to be developed to enable them to deal with sea turtles injured by poachers or other anthropegenic factors, and tortoises injured accidently (for example by vehicles on private islands). Restrictions preventing transfer of tortoises between islands needs to be defined and enforced to preclude possible transfer of disease – in particular, no tortoises from anywhere should be brought to Aldabra.


75

18. In the outer islands, a network of protected areas for nesting sea turtles, that would be large enough and away from the effect of artificial lighting or coastal development need to be defined, and assigned complete protection in perpetuity. 19. Campaigns of public awareness, education of school children, and training of conservation and relevant government services personnel about conservation of native reptiles and prevention of invasion by exotic reptiles need to be continued in the long term. 20. Continue to implement and promote management protocols/measures (e.g. seasonal protections) to promote sea turtle conservation.


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III.6

Amphibians & freshwater fishes (J. Gerlach)

Studies of Seychelles amphibians and freshwater fish mainly cover taxonomy, phylogeny and biogeography. A significant proportion of papers have covered frog ecology, but these are largely superficial. I 1 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 7 8 8 9 9 10 10 10 10 10 11 11 11 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 13 13 13 13


Amphibians 8 1 2 1 1

Frogs 3

Caecilians 2

2 3 2

1

1

4

3 5

4

9

1

11 1

1 5 1

1

1

5

2

Freshwater fishes 7 1 1

3 2 2

1

2 30 19

1 40 25

11 9

20 9

TOT 20 2 5 5 7 0 0 0 0 5 0 13 2 6 21 2 0 2 0 7 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 101 62

III.6.1 WHICH SPECIES DO WE HAVE? 1-Exploration Amphibian research in Seychelles started with Brauer’s collections in 1894, followed by the Percy Sladen Memorial Expeditions of 1905 and 1908-9. In the 1970s several hundred specimens were collected by Nussbaum in the 1970s and 1980s. These have covered most of the populations and further collection on this scale is not needed. For the frogs the methods of Gerlach & Willi (2002) demonstrate that live material can be used for morphological analysis. Molecular data can be obtained from small tissue samples or swabs rather than destructive sampling. Studies of fish are far more restricted, Pachypanchax playfairii was first recorded by E.P. Wright in 1868, small collections were made subsequently but no systematic studies of freshwater species until the surveys by the Reunion Association for Aquaculture

Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Amphi. & fresh. fishes - J.Gerlach (2010)

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Development/Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle/Ministry of Environment (Seychelles) in 2003. 2-Exploration gap analysis Frogs have been well studied in all localities with the exception of the summit of Montagne Planeau on Mahé. The report of a sooglossid on Praslin is being investigated, its identification and origin remain gaps in knowledge at present. Caecilians are much less well studied and there is a need for systematic research on this group in all areas. Biogeographical questions could be resolved based on the large number of specimens collected by Nussbaum. This material has not been fully studied. With the Reunion Association for Aquaculture Development/Museum Nationale d’Histoire Naturelle/Ministry of Environment 2003 project, freshwater fish have been adequately surveyed. Molecular studies have been carried out on all amphibian species for taxonomic purposes (Green et al., 1988; Hedges et al., 1993; Meijden et al., 2007; Zhang & Wake, 2009). Population genetics studies are currently a gap and should be seen as a high priority. Existing specimens and non destructive sampling should be used. 3-Specimen preparation and curation Specimens of Seychelles amphibians are mainly found in the British Museum (Natural History), University Museum of Zoology, Cambridge and Museum of Comparative Zoology, Michigan. Fish collections are scattered in different institutions, the most important material is in British Museum (Natural History) and Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris. 4-Taxonomic revisions Seychelles supports only 11 native amphibian species but this is an exceptionally high level of diversity for such a small land area. All native species are endemic and the presence of an endemic family (Sooglossidae) is particularly notable. The caecilians and the sooglossids frogs are remnants of the Gondwana fauna and are of considerable biogeographical and evolutionary interest. Two endemic species of freshwater fish are present as well as several introduced species. The taxonomy of the Seychelles amphibians is relatively well defined. The Sooglossidae have been reviewed recently (Meijden et al., 2007) and although it is possible that a recently reported population on Praslin may represent a new taxon, most species have been well defined. The tree frog has been included in reviews of the Madagascar tree frog fauna and is similarly well defined. The caecilians have not been reviewed recently and DNA analysis may identify further cryptic species although the current levels of diversity for Seychelles are exceptionally high already. Taxonomic reviews should combine morphological and DNA analyses. For the frogs morphological analysis should use the methods of Gerlach & Willi (2002) for Sooglossidae and Nussbaum & Wu (1995) for Tachycnemis. Recommendations 1. Identification of Praslin sooglossid – the ongoing investigation into the identity (species) and origin (native/introduced) of the Praslin sooglossid is a very high priority.

III.6.2 HOW DO WE RECOGNIZE THESE SPECIES? The Seychelles frogs and fish are all readily identifiable and have been covered in recent taxonomic literature and field guides. Caecilians cannot be accurately identified by nonSeychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Amphi. & fresh. fishes - J.Gerlach (2010)

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specialists and identification of most species requires molecular analysis or microscopic examination of preserved specimens (Taylor 1968). Identification tools can be considered reasonably sufficient. Recommendations None as identification tools are sufficient.

III.6.3 WHAT IS THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THESE SPECIES? Distribution maps of all native Seychelles amphibians are included in the Global Amphibian Assessment and are available on-line. Recommendations 2. Species distribution data: improve knowledge on Caecilian and freshwater fishes distribution. Fine scale mapping could be carried out for frogs but is a low priority.

III.6.4 WHICH TYPES OF HABITATS / COMMUNITIES DO WE HAVE? The habitats of the frogs are well defined in terms of altitude, climate and general vegetation. There have not been any studies of communities. Recommendations None

III.6.5 HOW DO WE RECOGNIZE THESE HABITATS / COMMUNITIES? Not relevant here (amphibians are not used for the description of habitat types) III.6.6 WHAT IS THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THESE HABITATS / COMMUNITIES?

Not relevant here (amphibians are not used for the description of habitat types)


There have been no direct studies of what factors determine the habitat use by Seychelles amphibians although this can be inferred from their distribution patterns (data in Global Amphibian Assessment and Gerlach 2007). The main amphibian habitat categories are (based on distribution data and general discussion in Nussbaum 1984): Generalist – not altitude limited, with a wide habitat tolerance (eg. Grandisonia alternans, Hypogeophis rostratus) Marsh/river species – associated with permanent or semi-permanent water (Tachycnemis seychellensis) High forests – above 250m, associated with damp forest (Sooglossidae, some caecilians)


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Cloud forest – mainly above 500m, may occur lower in microhabitats, limited by humidity and temperature (Sooglossus sechellensis, S. thomasseti, Praslinia cooperi, Grandisonia brevis) Recommendations 3. Caecilian ecology – full studies of caecilian ecology describing their preferential habitats, and how environmental parameters determine their distribution are a high priority. Investigate how important marshes and possibly other restricted threatened habitats are for the different species of Caecilians.


The ecology of the Sooglossidae has been studied (Mitchell & Altig, 1983; Gerlach 2007, 2010). At present data on diets is limited. Data on other frogs is similarly limited (Rocamora 2003; Gerlach & Rocamora 2004). More detailed studies of the other amphibians, especially the caecilians are urgently required. Methodologies of caecilian study have recently been defined for African and Indian species (Measey 2006; Measey et al. 2003, 2006; Gaborieau & Measey 2004), and should be adopted in Seychelles. Recommendations 4. Ecological studies: studies of ecology are needed for all amphibans. These should expand dietary data for sooglossids and tree frogs and initiate dietary studies for caecilians. Studies of reproductive dynamics are needed for all species. Ecological studies of the fish populations should also be considered.


(EVOLUTION PROCESSES)? Biodiversity Published studies give an explanation for the distribution of Seychelles frogs (Nussbaum 1984; Gerlach 2007). The main causes of diversity distributions for amphibians appears to be microclimate and invertebrate distribution. The invasive Mascarene frog is largely limited to lowland, disturbed habitats whilst the sooglossids are associated with low-disturbance highaltitude habitats. There is a strong altitude influence on invertebrate distributions which will result from a combination of three interlinked factors: climate, habitat distribution and lower levels of anthropogenic disturbance at higher elevations. Data on caecilian distribution are currently inadequate for explanation of biodiversity patterns. Fish distributions are probably determined primarily by water chemistry, invertebrate abundance and the abundance of predatory fish. Monitoring of mist forest on Silhouette was initiated in 2009 to evaluate the effects of climate change on biodiversity (including amphibians). Data on amphibian habitat requirements could in future be combined with other data on habitat sizes and trends. Biogeography The amphibians are particularly interesting from a biogeographical point of view being a group with very limited powers of dispersal across areas of ocean and this has been the focus of many publications (e.g. Hedges et al. 1993; Zhang & Wake 2009). The biogeography of the


80

amphibians is therefore very well known, and is based on morphological and molecular analyses. Molecular studies have not been carried out for the fish, Pachypanchax playfairi belongs to a Seychelles-Madagascar endemic genus, probably originating when both areas formed a single land-mass (Keith 2007). Parioglossus is Indo-Pacific and nothing is known of the biogeographical affinities of P. multiradiatus (Keith 2007). Recommendations 5. Biodiversity studies – a fully detailed analysis of diversity should be carried out. as soon as basic ecological data on the factors that determine distribution (e.g. diet and reproduction) become available. This is particularly true for caecilians.


Population size and trends Population estimates have been published for Sooglossidae (Gerlach 2007; Global Amphibian Assessment) based on population density estimates. Monitoring of Sooglossidae on Silhouette is in place and could be undertaken on Mahé using the direct assessment methods described in Gerlach (2007), audio based counts for these species being unreliable. Audio transects could be applied to chorusing aggregations of tree frogs. There are no data for caecilians or for most fish populations. Habitat size and trends There have been no studies focusing on size and trends of suitable habitats for amphibians in Seychelles. Threats (general) Surveys of populations of Sooglossidae have reported habitat change (due to invasive plants and climate change) to be the most immediate threats in areas not subject to direct human impacts (Gerlach 2007, 2010). This is probably also true of the caecilians but this remains speculative at present. Monitoring data will ultimately allow threats to be evaluated more reliably. Invasive species (threat) There is no published synthesis of the impacts of invasive species on amphibians in Seychelles. Data on distributions suggest that invasive plants are associated with low amphibian diversity and abundance (for Sooglossidae and caecilians, but not the tree frog) (Gerlach, pers. obs.). Invasive animals (particularly the tenrec and crazy ants) may also have impact but this is only speculative at present; and similarly for fish as the introduced tilapia Oreochromis mossambicus may prey on native species. Pathogens No health threats have been identified in Seychelles to date. Globally amphibians are seriously threatened by the phenomenon of ‘rapid amphibian decline’ which is caused by Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (chitridiomycosis) fungal infection (Cunningham et al., 2003). This is believed to have been transported to many countries through introduction of frog species and possibly aquarium fish. No frogs have been introduced to Seychelles since the late 1700s and this source of infection is unlikely. Introduction of aquarium fish has occurred in the recent past and measures should be put in place to prevent the import of any further aquatic organisms. Monitoring will be required in the future to determine whether Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Amphi. & fresh. fishes - J.Gerlach (2010)

81

chitridiomycosis invasion may have occurred. If infection occurs assurance colonies will need to be established to prevent rapid extinction of amphibians. Monitoring protocols are well established for frogs in other countries and should be adopted in Seychelles immediately. Conservation priorities Conservation priorities for Sooglossidae were summarised in 2007 (Gerlach 2007) and is subject to a current review (Gerlach 2010), and key sites for amphibian conservation identified in the Key Biodiversity Areas analysis (Gerlach 2008). The conservation status of the Seychelles amphibians has been fully assessed through the Global Amphibian Assessment and are all assessed on the IUCN Red List. Recommendations 6. Population genetics – population genetic studies should be carried out for all species to identify important populations and particular areas of high conservation value. 7. Conservation priorities – priorities are easily defined for the restricted range Sooglossidae but ecological studies are needed before such areas can be defined for caecilians. 8. Monitoring - Specific monitoring methods for caecilians need to be developed in a dedicated research programme. All monitoring programmes should produce an annual report for circulation to parties interested in amphibians and to the Amphibian Specialist Group of IUCN for information and publication. Regular monitoring should be implemented for selected populations of freshwater fish. 9..Invasive species research – investigate effects of introduced invasive species on Amphibians (e.g. crazy ants and tenrecs on Vallée de Mai). The current distribution of alien species of amphibians and freshwater fishes (eg, rivers, pathways) and their possible impacts, should be researched.


(HUMAN THREAT)? Production sector No amphibians are utilized in Seychelles. Amphibians are highly sensitive to chemical pollution; the impacts of agricultural and domestic insecticides should be considered. Historical accounts Amphibians and the native freshwater fish have not been exploited in the past. Recommendations None


Rehabilitation / restoration No rehabilitation has been carried out specifically with the aim of conserving amphibians. Most rehabilitation work has been carried out on small islands which do not support amphibians, the exception is Frégate island which supports two common species of caecilian. Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Amphi. & fresh. fishes - J.Gerlach (2010)

82

A limited amount of restoration and conservation management has been carried out in midhigh altitude forests on Mahé and Silhouette and this needs to be expanded considerably. Conservation management in the Vallee de Mai probably benefits several caecilian species, the tree frog and the recently reported unidentified sooglossids. Conservation measures The primary conservation measure needed is habitat restoration in high forest areas. The impacts of invasive plant species need to be reduced and habitats need to be maintained in as natural and healthy form as possible to preserve their natural dynamism, this is the only way of minimising the impacts of climate change. Conservation medicine Although no health threats have been identified in Seychelles to date there is a serious risk that chitridiomycosis could be introduced in the future. Monitoring for the presence of infection is essential and ‘assurance colonies’ (captive breeding) may be needed if infection is detected. Sustainable Land Management Amphibians have never been considered in this regard. Further expansion of human activity inland, particularly in the highlands of Mahé would threaten the integrity of high forests and make them increasingly vulnerable to climate change. Fire and erosion are particular concerns for all species. Protected areas All Seychelles amphibians are present in protected areas (Morne Seychellois, Praslin and Silhouette National Parks). Institutional management Institutional management of areas important to amphibian and fish conservation is generally appropriate. Education, Capacity building, Awareness Amphibians have been publicised in the Seychelles media on many occasions and there is a reasonable level of public awareness of the amphibians. Although research capacity is low, the monitoring methods devised for Sooglossidae (Gerlach 2007) require only basic skills and only require implementation without the need of any increase in educational or infrastructural capacity. Monitoring of caecilians requires a dedicated research project first, this may subsequently require capacity building, but this cannot be evaluated at present. Identification resources are sufficient for current needs. It is practical to undertake basic monitoring as long as such projects have well defined aims and the support of an organisation that can maintain monitoring in the long term. Recommendations 10. Protected Areas Network: Include Montagne Planeau as a protected area. 11. Implement habitat management favourable to amphibians in protected areas; including extension of habitat restoration in mid-high altitude forests on Mahé and Silhouette 12. Monitor for the presence of chitridiomycosis and other infections and set up assurance colonies if infection is detected


83

13. Draw attention of Gvt Services (customs, SAA, DoE, etc.) and public on risks associated with introduced species of amphibians & freshwater fishes, and associated diseases; and on situation/progress of chitridiomycosis in neighbouring countries. 14. Legislation: beyond forbidding the importation of alien species into the country, their release into the wild should be strictly prohibited and punishable by law. This recommendation should not be limited to amphibians and freshwaters fishes but should concern all other taxonomic groups.


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Marine fishes, coral and other invertebrates (J. Bijoux)

III.7

1

8

8

5 1

1 2

2

6

4 1 4

1

4

1 1

1 1

1 11 4

1

1 5 3

14 1 10

1

1

1

1

16 24 1

12

1 14 22 2 6 17 8 32 1 2 2

1

5 3

1 2

2

4 1 2

1

1

1

1 3 14 56 89 8 39 52

4 1

2 1

3 1

2 126 7 1 94 3

1 5

2 2

1 1 2

4 1 1

3

2

2 1

3 1

1

1 2

Platyhelminthes

Annelida

Echinodermata

1

Porifera

27 13 10 21 7 5 2 4 1 3 4 2 17 3 5 8 35 1 2 3

Cnidaria

Worms

1

Nemertea

1

Mollusca

1 1

Hemiptera

6 6

Odonata

8

70 6 2 3 9

Insects

2

1

Crustacea

7 2

Arachnids

13 1 1

Arthropods

Invertebrates

3

Tardigrada

Osteichthyes

I Study types (secondary level) Mixed or all 12 1 Taxonomy 4 46 1 Collection effort 2 10 2 Identification 2 2 Systematic 3 3 Species distribution 8 25 4 Habitats and / or communities 12 11 5 Habitat identification 5 Habitat classification system 6 Habitat distribution 8 1 7 Habitats used (sp.) 1 7 Environmental determinism 1 8 Species biology and general ecology 7 33 8 Interactions, Dynamics & Functioning 9 21 9 Biodiversity 3 7 9 Biogeography 10 Population size and trends 14 10 Habitat size and trends 1 10 Threats 3 14 10 Economic value 2 1 10 Conservation priorities 2 11 Production sector 8 66 11 Environmental Impact Assessment 3 1 11 Historical accounts 4 12 Rehabilitation / restoration 1 12 Conservation measures 5 5 12 Sustainable Land Management 2 1 12 Protected areas 2 3 12 Institutional management 1 12 Legislation, policies, conventions 12 Education, Capacity building, etc. 13 Theory, modelling, methodology 13 Environmental factors 11 4 13 Metadatabases 13 Others 5 8 Total number of combinations (TOTc) 102 279 Total number of datasets (TOTd) 62 170

Chondrichtyes

Fishes

Mixed or all

These marine organisms are treated in 3 distinct chapters: fishes, Scleractinia and other invertebrates. The number of datasets entered in the metadatabase are summarised in the table below, for the main groups within these 3 sections.

5 2 1

1 1

9

1 1

2 1 3 2 222 32 31 60 2 113 18 18 35

1 1

13 14 9 11

4 3

TOT 12 237 37 10 15 92 72 0 0 14 3 3 93 66 20 18 60 10 61 4 4 140 7 7 1 21 4 9 1 0 0 0 28 0 23 1060 567

Marine Fishes (J. Bijoux)

III.7.1 WHICH SPECIES DO WE HAVE? There are 2 main groups of marine fishes. The cartilaginous fish or Chondricthyes include the sharks, rays, skates and chimaeras. The bony fishes or Osteichythes include the remainder of marine fishes and forms the largest group. Taxonomy All, if not most, of the recorded marine fishes from the Seychelles have been identified to species level with a number of new species having been described in the last decade (Holleman, 2007; Iwamoto et al., 2006). An update of marine fishes of the Seychelles is Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Marine life - J.Bijoux (2010)

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currently being undertaken by the South African Institute of Aquatic Biodiversity (SAIAB) based on new collections and recent publications describing new species. The predecessor of SAIAB, the J.L.B. Smith Institute of Ichthyology produced the first dedicated guide of the fishes of the Seychelles in 1969 (Smith and Smith, 1969) which listed close to 800 species. Out of this list 36 were cartilaginous species. Since then there has been revision of many species groups (e.g. Randall and Heemstra, 1991; Randall, and Klausewitz, 1973) and numerous species have been added and subtracted from the list (e.g. Egmond and Randall, 1994; Polunin 1984). A review by Polunin (1984) added 79 new species to the list while subtracting 15 synonyms composing mostly of dimorphic parrotfishes and wrasses. More recent collections from Oceanic Reefs of the Seychelles Expedition and other sources identified 108 new species (Randall and Van Egmond, 1994). The current list of species is close to 2,000 (SAIAB, unpublished data). Molecular studies have only been undertaken on a few species such as the parrotfish, Chlorurus sordidus (Bay et al., 2003) and the scalloped hammerhead shark, Sphyrna lewini (Duncan et al., 2006). Collection efforts The major collection efforts in the Seychelles, apart from the most recent ones, are documented by Smith and Smith (1969) and Randall and Van Egmond (1994). The French that first occupied Seychelles are known to have collected and sent specimens to Paris for identification. These formed part of the collection that was studied by Cuvier and Valenciennes and published in the early 19th century in the volumes of Histoire Naturelle des Poissons. The first species list, containing 211 records was produced by Playfair (1867). Early contributions were also made by Mobius who listed fish from Seychelles and Mauritius (Mobius, 1880; Mobius and Peters, 1883). The collection made by Gardiner in 1905 and 1908 as part of the Percy Sladen Expedition on H.M.S Sealark, which was later identified and published by Regan (1908), also made important contribution to knowledge on Seychelles marine fishes. In 1954 J.L.B and M.M. Smith made extensive collection of marine fishes all over the Seychelles Islands and published their work in The Fishes of the Seychelles Smith and Smith (1969). In 1972 and 1973 additional collections and observations were made throughout most of the archipelago by the Seychelles Coral Reef Expedition (Catford, 1972; Polunin, 1984). As part of the Oceanic Reefs of the Seychelles Expedition in 1992 and 1993 additional collections were made which added a substantial amount of new species to the list of known Seychelles fishes. Collections were also made by the Seychelles-Israeli expeditions in 1998-1999 (Baranes et al., 1999) which also sampled from the deep sea. The expedition documented the sharks of the Amirantes and described 2 new species of deep sea squaloid sharks (Baranes, 2003). The last extensive collection was undertaken by SAIAB in 2005 which collected extensively on coral reefs and in mangrove areas mostly around Mahé. Recommendations 1. Exploration gap analysis: The pelagic and coral reef associated species around the inner islands and Aldabra have been extensively explored. Future explorations should focus on the less visited island groups between Aldabra and the inner islands, mangrove and brackish water environment and the edge of the plateaux for species that are not targeted by current fishing gears.

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2. Specimens distribution: Investment is required to document the location of the various fish species from the Seychelles that are being held overseas by different museums and research organisations.

III.7.2 HOW DO WE RECOGNIZE THESE SPECIES? Identification The Fishes of the Seychelles by Smith and Smith (1969) is the only dedicated guide to marine fishes of the Seychelles and provides good quality colour plates for the identification of many species. However, this book is not reliable for the identification of parrotfishes and wrasses as a result of several misidentifications. Because of recent revisions in the taxonomy of many marine fishes and extensive additions to the marine fish list of the Seychelles The Fishes of the Seychelles is now outdated. As most marine fishes are wide ranging regional guides such as the many Indo-Pacific identification guides (e.g. Lieske and Myers, 2001; Debelius and Kuiter, 2006) that are in publication today provide good identification materials. Most of the sharks and rays can be identified from The Field Identification Guide to the Sharks and Rays of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (Bonfil and Abdallah, 2004). Identification guides are still lacking for deep sea fishes. The online fish database (www.fishbase.org) contains information on most known species and provide pictures and short descriptions along with more detailed information for each species, and is by far the most complete source of information on marine species. The Fishes of the Western Indian Ocean, a catalogue and identification book for the species of the Seychelles region is set to be published in 2011 by SAIAB and should provide up to date information and species checklist for all species that are known from the Seychelles. Recommendations 3. Prepare basic identification guide providing clear identification characteristics with accepted Creole name for commercially exploitable species. This will solve problems associated with naming of species and accurate collection of data by concerned authorities.

III.7.3 WHAT IS THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THESE SPECIES? Species distribution As their name suggest coral reef fishes are found in association with coral reefs and for some species with coral reef associated habitats such as seagrass beds and mangrove areas, which are also used as nursery grounds. Guide books such as Lieske and Myers (2001) provide broad geographical distribution for each species listed. At a more refined scale there have been few studies that have compared the diversity of reef fish between habitats (Jennings et al., 1995, Jennings et al., 1996a; Graham et al., 2006; 2007) but as yet no comparison of reef fish biodiversity between the different islands groups have been undertaken. The large pelagic fishes such as tuna and billfish are found throughout the majority of Seychelles waters and are usually abundant around floating objects that act as Fishing Aggregating Devices (FADs) (Moreno et al., 2007; Taquet et al., 2007). Lots of information is available on the vertical and latitudinal distribution of tuna as a result of the extensive tuna fishery in Seychelles waters (Stequert and Marsac, 1989). Information on the small scale distribution of other pelagics is scarce and is mostly available through studies looking at bycatch of the tuna fishery (e.g. Gamblin et al., 2007). At present, information on the Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Marine life - J.Bijoux (2010)

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distribution of deep seafishes remain scarce with little prospecting having taken place. Databases such as fishbase (www.fishbase.org), which also provide geographical range map for most species, can be used to verify the distribution of species at the regional level. Recommendations 4. Encourage research comparing fish communities between different parts of the country and factors that are responsible for observed differences. 5. Make use of genetics to explore connectivity between populations at the national and regional level especially for commercially, emblematic or regionally endemic species.

III.7.4 WHICH TYPES OF HABITATS / COMMUNITIES DO WE HAVE? Habitats and / or communities Fish are found throughout Seychelles waters from the oligotrophic open pelagic environment to the nutrient rich coastal areas. It is generally accepted that the habitat with highest diversity and abundance of marine fishes are coral reefs and algal beds, which shares many common species. The extent of these habitats down to around the 20 m isobaths have been mapped around Mahé (Anon, 1997) and most of the islands of the Amirantes (Spencer et al., 2009) but remains unmapped at other sites and beyond the 20 m isobaths. As a result the extent of these different types of habitats and the size of fish community they support remains largely unknown.

III.7.5 HOW DO WE RECOGNIZE THESE HABITATS / COMMUNITIES? Different habitats associated with fish distribution are often recognised by the communities of primary producers (algae, seagrass, corals and coastal phytoplankton) that they host and their depth. The extent of these habitats is usually defined by penetration of light for photosynthesis. As the water gets clearer, such habitats can be found at greater depths. The pelagic habitat is defined by depth, usually in excess of 100 m, and distinct open water oligotrophic phytoplankton community.


The shallow marine habitats in Seychelles waters can be found on the Mahé Plateau, the Amirantes ridge and other shallow areas around the coralline islands. The pelagic habitat as previously mentioned is defined by depth and can be found mostly off the plateaux and ridges.


Species ecology Of the 169 studies on marine fishes 33 concern species biology and general ecology, 21 interactions, dynamics and functioning, 14 population size and trend and another 14 concern Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Marine life - J.Bijoux (2010)

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threats. However, this has often been from a community instead of species specific perspective. Few studies have been undertaken on ecology of individual fish species. Most species specific ecological studies have focussed on feeding (Robertson and Polunin, 1981; Ledlie et al., 2007; Graham, 2007; Poitier et al., 2007) and reproductive ecology (Robertson, 1983; Robertson et al., 1979; Robinson et al., 2008) of a restricted number of mostly coral reef fishes. Behavioural ecology relating to mobility is becoming increasingly popular locally with certain studies already having been published on the whale shark (Rowat and Gore, 2007; Rowat et al., 2009), tuna (Dagorn et al., 2006; Marsac et al., 1996) and dolphin fish (Taquet et al., 2007; Girard et al., 2008). More projects are already underway and are making use of acoustic telemetry to study behavioural ecology of the lemon sharks, dynamics of various species around FADs and commercially important coral reef species forming spawning aggregations. For information on ecology of habitats please refer to the section dealing with Marine Plants & Fungi and the one dealing with Corals. Ecosystem Ecology Ecosystem ecology of marine fishes remain little studied. Ecosystem based studies carried out so far has mostly focussed on the impact of coral bleaching events and subsequent loss of structural complexity on reef fish communities (Spalding and Jarvis, 2002; Graham et al., 2006; 2007) and on the impact of fishing and protection on community structure (Jennings et al., 1995; 1996b). In the pelagic environment ecosystem ecology studies have focussed primarily on foraging ecology of tuna and other large pelagic species (Roger, 1994; Menard et al., 2007; Marsac et al., 2006). A number of studies have focussed on the effect of Fish Aggregating Devices (FADS) on pelagic species (Hallier et al., 2008) and on the effect of large scale event such as the El Nino on recruitment and catchability of tuna species (Marsac and Le Blanc, 1998). Recommendations 7. Encourage studies focussing on species ecology, especially of coral reef associated species and those that are commercially targeted. These studies should aim at understanding how events such as coral bleaching or overharvesting could affect fish and greater marine community.


Species biology There have been only 33 studies considering species biology and ecology, which is extremely low. Demographic studies have been undertaken on a number of coral reef fishes including groupers, snappers, parrotfishes and emperors using growth increment from otolith and length age relationship data Grandcourt et al., 2008; Grandcourt, 2002; 2005). There is currently a study ongoing on the biology of Siganus sutor. Length-weight and gonado-somatic index data and otolith samples are regularly collected for a number of species by the Seychelles Fishing Authority but little analysis has been undertaken to date. The biology of tuna has been better studied, the biology of various species being relatively well documented (Stobberup et al., 1999; Nootmorn et al., 2005). The Indian Ocean Tuna Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Marine life - J.Bijoux (2010)

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Tagging Programme has collected a wide array of biological information on Indian Ocean tunas and should be able to fill in some gaps in the biology of these species once the data are analysed. Ecosystem Dynamics & Functioning (trophic links, etc.) A number of interesting studies have been undertaken on ecosystem dynamic and functioning with regards to marine fishes. However, most of these studies have been undertaken in the coral reef environment. The functioning of coral reef and coral reef fish communities affected by fishing and coral bleaching and change in structural complexity has been the focus of most of these studies (Downing et al., 2005; Graham et al., 2006; 2007; Jennings et al., 1995; 1996a). In the pelagic ecosystem, studies have focussed mainly on how ecosystem functioning are altered by impact such as ENSO and the distribution of floating debris (Hallier et al., 2008; Marsac and Le Blanc, 1998). Recommendations 8. Encourage research on the reproductive timing and biology of species and integrate those into species management plans. 9. Encourage research dealing with ecosystem functioning of fishes in all types of marine environment


(EVOLUTION PROCESSES)? Biodiversity The factors explaining patterns of biodiversity have been little studied. In the few studies that have been undertaken to date, fishing (Jennings et al., 1995; 1996a) and availability of suitable habitat (Graham et al., 2006; Ledlie et al., 2007; Spalding and Jarvis, 2002) has been shown to have important influence on diversity at the local level. In the pelagic environment, biodiversity has been shown to be heavily influenced by the availability of food, which is in turn dependent on upwelling areas which bring nutrients to the surface to aliment the food web. Structures such as Fishing Aggregating Devices have also been shown to attract pelagic species and increase their vulnerability to fishing (Hallier et al., 2008). Physical change in water quality such as temperature brought about by the ENSO event in the pelagic environment is known to force both horizontal and vertical distribution of fish species by changing the depth of the cold layer (Marsac and Le Blanc, 1998). Biogeography Limited studies have been undertaken to explain Seychelles fish community from a biogeographic point of view. This is not surprising taken that most Seychelles species are distributed through a large part of the Indo-pacific. New studies using samples from the Seychelles are looking at the origin and evolution of species using genetics (Bay et al., 2003; Duncan et al., 2006) which could provide interesting new information on fish biodiversity in the Indian Ocean Basin. Recommendations 10. Increase research on factors that are responsible for driving biodiversity in fish communities, especially those relating to climate change and overharvesting of target species.


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11. Participate in regional and international studies on the biogeography of fish species, especially those focussing on the western Indian Ocean Biodiversity Hotspot.


Population size and trends A few stock assessments (Grandcourt et al., 2008; Lablache and Carrara, 1988) and demographic studies (Grandcourt, 2002; 2005) have been undertaken for a few commercially important species. The production potential of certain fishes such as the commercially important Bourgeois (Lutjanus sebae) has been found to have been overestimated in the past which highlighted the deficit of carrying out stock assessment without age-based demographic studies (Grandcourt et al., 2008). The Seychelles Fishing Authority record catch data for species targeted by the artisanal fishery and make this available through their yearly artisanal fishery statistics. Many commercially important species are believed to be overfished but there have been few species specific stock assessments which have been done to support this. A number of coral reef monitoring programs have been set up to look at changes in fish communities following coral bleaching events and their subsequent recovery; and have found certain species to have gone locally extinct while others have recorded large decreases in population densities. These were mostly species that are highly dependent on coral reef structural complexity. Threats (general) The main threat to marine fishes remains unsustainable fishing and degradation of habitat mostly caused by coral bleaching events and other anthropogenic activities (Graham et al., 2006; Jennings et al., 1995). Overestimation of production capacity in the fishery (e.g. Grandcourt et al., 2008) could have serious consequences. Invasive species (threat) Invasive species have not been detected as a threat to marine fishes. A baseline survey carried out in 2005 showed that there are no invasive fish species apart from the tilapia Oreochromis mossambicus (Abdullah, 2006) which typically lives in fresh and brackish water habitats. Conservation priorities Conservation Priorities are outlined in National Plan of Action for Sharks and the Environmental Management Plan of Seychelles 2000 – 2010. The priorities focus on protecting habitats and ecosystems. For species which are highly dependent on reef structure implementation of methods to ameliorate climate mediated disturbance has been proposed in conservation and management plans for coral reefs (Graham et al., 2007). From a fishery point of view it has been realised that for certain species such as the Lutjanus sebae the full growth potential for the resource might not be realized, but that there was as yet no practical means of achieving it (Grandcourt et al., 2008). Recommendations 12. Undertake regular stock assessment for the main commercially targeted species. 13. Make use of long-term data series on reef fish species (e.g. combined SEYMEMP and GVI data) to look at status of populations and integrate results into management, especially in Marine Protected Areas. Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Marine life - J.Bijoux (2010)

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14. Continue with enforcement of current regulations regarding restrictions of fishing gears. 15. Promote ecosystem based management of marine habitats so as to create optimal conditions to promote maintenance of high biodiversity, growth and reproduction. 16. Draft, revise and implement action plans for potentially overharvested species (e.g. sharks, bumped parrotfish, Napoleon wrasse)


(HUMAN THREAT)? Production sector Fishery contributes a large amount to the Seychelles GDP. For Lutjanus sebae, the only species so far for which a full stock assessment has been undertaken, there is reason to believe that an amount higher than sustainably possible is being taken (Grandcourt et al., 2008). Trap fishermen have also reported that the size of fish that they are catching are on the decrease, suggesting that there could be problems with sustainability of the fishery in the future. However, for species such as jacks, which are widely consumed locally, it appears that the stock is healthy. There has been yet no report detailing which species are under threat from over harvesting. Historical accounts Historical account of species targeted by the fishery and catch is available as a result of the importance that fisheries have played in the local economy from early on (see Wheeler, 1946). However, the very old information is more descriptive than qualitative. Nevertheless, even such descriptive information is useful when determining pre-exploitation level. Seychelles Fishing Authority has a comprehensive database on artisanal fishery stretching more than 20 years. Recommendations 17. Determine level for sustainable exploitation of commercially targeted species. Where current exploitation is above the defined amount introduce measures to bring the level of harvesting within sustainable limits. 18. Promote consumption of locally abundant species such as tuna by making them more readily available at cheaper prizes. 19. Find ways to make better use of fish bycatch from the tuna fishery. 20. Actively collate historical information on population levels of different species to act as baselines.


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Rehabilitation / restoration Rehabilitation and restoration projects can be piloted for coral reef fishes that are dependent on structural complexity. As trawling is not permitted in Seychelles waters, habitat damage has been limited mostly to anchor damage. Conservation measures There are a number of conservation measures that have been put in place for the protection of marine fishes. A number of marine protected areas have been designated and the Fisheries Act contains regulations on gears that may or may not be used. Gears such as overnight gill nets and spear guns are completely banned. Protected areas Six Marine National Parks and three Special Nature Reserves have been set up and play some part in fisheries management. These MPAs have been shown to have higher biomass than nearby fished areas (Graham et al., 2007; Jennings et al., 1996b). Institutional management The Seychelles Fishing Authority is the national institution mandated to manage fisheries resources. However, management decision has been mostly top-down. This is starting to change now with the set up of the fishing boat owners association (FBOA) and the Praslin Fishermen Association (PFA) Education, Capacity building, Awareness There has generally been little education and awareness raising concerning marine fishes biodiversity, ecology and biology. The FBOA has launched a campaign to promote sustainable fishing, which appears to be going well. In terms of capacity building, there are no major needs in terms of identification at the moment as the identification resources available are sufficient. and expected to be of good quality. Recommendations 21. Pilot habitat restoration projects and document their effectiveness in increasing fish diversity and biomass. 22. Revise the Fisheries Protection Act and its associate legislations to ensure that it is up-todate and can adequately respond to present day challenges. 22. Implement actions to deter illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fisheries in Seychelles waters. 24. Review effectiveness of current MPA network in fisheries management and strengthen organisations responsible for managing MPAs. 25. Strengthen the Seychelles Fishing Authority so that it could carry out more research on exploitable species and have a more active management. 26. Strengthen civil society organisations such as the Fishing Boat Owners Association, Praslin Fishermen Association and Association for Shark Fishermen so that they could become more active in fisheries management. Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Marine life - J.Bijoux (2010)

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27. SFA should regularly make information on long term stock or catch of species available to fishermen and the general public so that threats that the fisheries are facing could be better understand.

III.8

Marine Scleractinia: hard corals (J. Bijoux)

The phylum Cnidaria is divided into four classes comprising the Anthozoa, Cubozoa, Hydrozoa and Scyphozoa. The Anthozoa is the best known of these 4 classes in Seychelles with the order Scleractinia being relatively well studied. This section focuses solely on the scleractinian corals, also called hard corals.

III.8.1 WHICH SPECIES DO WE HAVE? Taxonomy Taxonomical classification has been done for all known scleractinian species and is available in one of the most complete worldwide guide books, Corals of the World by JEN Veron and Stafford-Smith (2000), with the most challenging Genus being part of another volume; Staghorn Corals of the World; by Carden Wallace (1999). 286 species from 65 genera and 17 families are known. Collection effort The collection effort relating to Scleractinian corals in the Seychelles started with collections made from the early 1900s by Stanley Gardiner (Gardiner, 1936). This was followed with collections by Levi (1961). After the involvement of the Royal Society with Aldabra atoll in the 1960s and 1970s collection effort substantially increased and formed the basis of important studies by Best et al. (1980); Braithwaite (1971); Faure, 1977); Lewis (1968; 1969); Pichon (1971); Rosen (1971; 1979) and Stoddart and Stoddart (1969). New collections were made as part of the Soviet-American expedition which took place between 1988 and 1989 (Selin et al., 1992), and the Dutch Oceanic Reefs of the Seychelles Expedition which took place in the early 1990s (van der Land, 1994). Supposedly, there were also collections made as part of the Seychelles-Israeli Expedition to the Amirantes in the late 1990s. The Museum of Tropical Queensland has one of the largest collections of corals from the Seychelles (see. Wallace, 1999); however, it is not known when such collections were made apart from a late collection in 2005 by Carden Wallace. Recommendations 1. The various Seychelles coral specimens being held in museums and research organisations overseas should be documented. 2. A checklist of Seychelles species should be drafted and should incorporate results from recent publications and collections.

III.8.2 HOW DO WE RECOGNIZE THESE SPECIES? Identification Several identification guides especially for the scleractinian have been produced since the 1980s. Corals of the World by Veron and Stafford-Smith (2000) is the most complete Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Marine life - J.Bijoux (2010)

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monograph on Scleractinian corals produced to date. It lists all known species, provides and for each a distribution map together with information on its identifying characteristics, habitat and abundance. It also provides keys to identify genera and species. The largest of the scleractinian genus, the Acropora, is the subject of another monograph Staghorn Corals of the World by Wallace (1999). It also provides for each species distribution maps, skeletal and field characteristics, information on the fossil record and further relevant literature. Field Guide to Corals of Mauritius by Moothien Pillay et al. (2002) lists most of the scleractinian corals found in the Seychelles, has identification keys and provides information on species regional distribution. Recommendations Manuals and identification keys for corals are widespread and easily obtainable and hence there are no major local needs.

III.8.3 WHAT IS THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THESE SPECIES? Species distribution No fine scale distribution maps are available for scleractinian corals within the Seychelles. However, worldwide distribution maps are available for all species in Corals of the World (Veron and Stafford-Smith, 2000) and specifically for Acropora in Staghorn Corals of the World (Wallace, 1999) which provide details on species collected from the Seychelles and identification code at the Museum of Tropical Queensland. As most species are widely distributed and as all parts of the Seychelles have similar marine climates it is expected that most species will be present where conditions are favourable for their growth. As coral polyps live in symbiosis with minute unicellular plants known as zooxanthellae, they are dependent on the product of photosynthesis which restrict their depth distribution to about 50 m depth in clear water. At a reef scale there are certain differences in the abundance and distribution of species, with sheltered sites often having higher diversity than more exposed sites and with branching species such as Acropora being more abundant and favouring the more exposed upper reef slope, and massive species such as some Porites favouring shallow back reef environment (Rosen, 1971a). Recommendations 3. Detailed maps of coral reef environment (such as those recently produced by Cambridge University using CASI) should be produced and made available to environmental professionals and researchers.

III.8.4 WHICH TYPES OF HABITATS / COMMUNITIES DO WE HAVE? Habitats and / or communities Scleractinian corals usually define the habitat where they are found as they form the basis of coral reefs. The extents of coral reefs are often controlled by water depth, since corals are dependent on photosynthesis and salinity as they have narrow salinity tolerances.

III.8.5 HOW DO WE RECOGNIZE THESE HABITATS / COMMUNITIES? Coral reefs are recognised mostly based on their geology and depth. They are made up from the accumulation of calcium carbonate from dead coral colonies which have accumulated Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Marine life - J.Bijoux (2010)

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over geological time (Braithwaite, 1971; Stoddart, 1971). This structure provides ideal conditions for the continued settlement of new coral larvae and continual growth of the system. As coral polyps are dependent on light the depth distribution of coral reefs are restricted to the penetration of Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR). The growth of coral colonies form complex micro-habitats which are used by many other animals and plants. As a result coral reefs are rich in biodiversity. When viewed from land coral reefs are often characterised by the breaking waves on the reef crest which protects the shore from wave action. Different part of the reef structure for Seychelles reefs is defined by Braithwaite (1975).


Habitat distribution It is estimated that Seychelles has 1,690 km2 of reef (Spalding et al., 2001). These coral reefs are found around the majority of islands (Stoddart, 1984) and are scattered in many shallow locations on banks and plateaux. Habitat mapping of coral reefs have been undertaken around the island of Mahé (COI, 1997; Bijoux, 2008), Ste Anne Group, Curieuse and Ile Cocos (Bijoux, 2008) and around most of the Amirantes (Spencer et al., 2009). Coral colonies in the Seychelles can often be found in macroalgae and seagrass habitats and on sandy bottom with underlying hard substratum. Recommendations See recommendation 3 above.


Species ecology The only known species specific ecological investigation of scleractinian coral from the Seychelles is that of Sloan (1982), who looked at the size and structure of echinoderm populations associated with different coexisting coral species at Aldabra Atoll. Ecosystem Ecology A few studies have focussed on ecosystem ecology of corals in the Seychelles. However, most of these studies have focussed on ecosystem impact of coral bleaching events and recovery of coral communities from such bleaching events (Engelhardt, 1998; Spencer et al., 2000; Stobart et al., 2005; Souter et al., 2005; Hagan et al., 2008) and factors protecting corals from bleaching episodes (Iluz et al., 2008). Certain studies have investigated the role of grazing by sea urchins (Wendling et al., 2004) and reef fish (Ledlie et al., 2008) on the recovery of corals, whereas others have looked at the role of protected areas in promoting recovery of coral reef (Payet et al., 2005). Various other studies have looked at the coral reef ecosystem and its relationship to other reef dwelling species such as echinoderms (Sloan, 1979; Sloan et al., 1979), mollusc (Taylor, 1968), crustacean (Farrow, 1971), etc. Recommendations 4. Future research on corals should aim at understanding their ecology in relation to other keystone species.


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5. Promote research studying the role of corals in the functioning of other reef dwelling species (e.g. crabs, echinoderms).


Species biology Little research has been undertaken on individual species biology. The only known species specific research on coral in the Seychelles is that of Bil et al. (1992) who studied carbon assimilation and photosynthetic products from zooxanthellae in Stylophora pistillata and Seriatopora coliendrum from different depths. The biology of most species is expected to be the same at most locations apart from the reproductive biology, especially in terms of timing of reproduction which is known to differ between the same species from various locations. Ecosystem Dynamics & Functioning (trophic links, etc.) Ecosystem dynamic and functioning studies have mostly focussed on the role of different variables of coral reef environment in shaping other communities such as reef type (Jennings et al., 1996) and coral cover (Graham et al., 2006; 2007; Spalding and Jarvis, 2002). Shift in coral species diversity following bleaching event has been investigated by Sheppard and Obura (2005). The role of coral reef in acting as coastal defence in the face of degradation caused by coral death has also been investigated (Sheppard et al., 2005). Recommendations 6. Increase research on biology of coral species, especially with regards to reproductive biology and how they cope with impacts such as warm water temperature, high turbidity, sedimentation and pollution. 7. Management organisation should learn from best practices being developed across the word with regards to the management of corals and coral reefs by forging partnerships and ties with similar organisations (e.g. GBR Marine Parks Authority).


(EVOLUTION PROCESSES)? Biodiversity The main factor influencing biodiversity in corals seems to relate to distance from the centre of origin, water circulation and coral biology (Veron and Stafford-Smith, 2000). The earlier studies mostly studied biodiversity patterns by comparing coral genera and species that are found at various localities in the Indian Ocean region (Best et al. 1980; Faure, 1977). Coral biodiversity between the east and the west of the granitic island group has been investigated by Engelhardt (2004) and a survey comparing species presence across different island groups has been undertaken by Selin et al. (1992). Biogeography The Biogeography of coral species is reported in detail in Veron and Stafford-Smith (2000). A survey in 2005 by Carden Wallace from the Museum of Tropical Queensland found regional endemics from East Africa, the Arabian Sea and the west coast of Australia that had never before been reported in Seychelles waters (C. Wallace pers. comm.), showing certain degree of connection between these endemic populations. Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Marine life - J.Bijoux (2010)

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Recommendations 8. Increase research on factors that are responsible for driving biodiversity in corals, especially those relating to climate change and natural phenomenon such as storms. 9. Participate in research looking at connectivity of Seychelles to other parts of the Indian Ocean using coral species with restricted distribution as a proxy.


Population size and trends After the 1998 coral bleaching event live scleractinian coral cover reduced to less than 5% on the majority of reef sites in the Seychelles inner granitic islands (Engelhardt, 2002). Reefs of the southern Seychelles also suffered extensively but not to the same extent (Teleki et al., 1999; Spencer et al., 2000; Spalding and Jarvis, 2002; Souter et al., 2005; Sheppard and Obura, 2005). Various monitoring programmes have been set up since 1998 to document the trends in live hard coral cover at many reef sites. The Seychelles Marine Ecosystem Management Programme (SEYMEMP) started one of the more extensive coral reef monitoring programmes in the inner islands in 2000, during which coral cover was documented on some 80 sites. Most of the original sites of the SEYMEMP programme on the west coast of Mahé and in the Curieuse Marine National Park continue to be regularly monitored to date by Global Vision International (GVI) and many sites have more than 10 years of data on coverage from different life forms, genus level diversity and abundance of coral recruits. The Aldabra Marine Programme (AMP) focuses on the reef of Aldabra and a few other islands in the southern Seychelles and has been active since 1998. Recent reports indicate that live coral cover is increasing at many reef sites after a long lag phase during which recovery was very low (Ahamada et al., 2008; Bijoux et al., 2008; Stobart et al., 2005). Threats (general) The main threats to corals of the Seychelles are outlined by Payet et al. (2005). These include reclamation, mining, sedimentation, physical damage, over fishing; coral diseases and increase thermal stress which causes wide spread coral bleaching and death. Robinson (1999) documents stress conditions in corals in the Ste Anne Marine Park suffering from chronic sedimentation caused by extensive dredging and land reclamation on the Mahé East Coast. Excessive grazing on corals have been reported as threats in various studies e.g. crown of thorn starfish (COTS), Acanthaster planci, (Engelhardt, 2000) and Black spine sea urchins (Wendling et al., 2004). Engelhardt (2004) reports on various forms of coral diseases in the inner islands. Invasive species (threat) Invasive species pose a potential threat to corals in terms of competition for space on the reef. A survey of marine alien species on a number of coral reefs and artificial substratum in the vicinity of Port Victoria undertaken in 2005 found low number of non-indigenous species (Abdullah, 2006). As yet none of these non-indigenous species have become invasive. Conservation priorities The Integrated Marine Protected Area System Plan (IMPASP; Engelhardt, 2004) highlights coral refugia that should be given additional protection to ensure long-term maintenance of hard coral diversity by acting as sources of seeds for affected areas. However, the system Plan Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Marine life - J.Bijoux (2010)

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has never been implemented and protection is given to corals only in formally designated Marine Protected Areas. Conservation priorities should focus on reducing stress to coral reefs so that reefs can recover more easily from coral bleaching events which has been predicted to increase in frequency and severity in the future (Sheppard, 2003). This can be done through improving water quality by reducing nutrient and sediment load and protecting corals from physical damage. Recommendations 10. Continue with the implementation of active coral reef monitoring programmes and expand in places where there is little information such as in many of the Southern Seychelles islands. 11. Limit threats to corals by reducing land based sources of pollution relating to the input of terrestrial sediments and high levels of nutrients. 12. Make use of land use planning to limit harmful activities close to the boundary of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). 13. Limit physical damage to reef structure by restricting activities such as reef dredging and land reclamation over coral reefs.


(HUMAN THREAT)? Production sector Few reports have documented the use of corals in the production sector. A survey by Gabrie and Richard (1989) suggested that around 63 different marine species, including corals, were being harvested for the curio trade. A 1996 study by the then Conservation and National Parks Section found that a wide range of hard corals and molluscs were being sold as part of the curio trade with most of the artisans surveyed reporting that they were dealing with both imported and locally supplied corals and shells. A third of the artisans reported that they were using only locally supplied marine products. Today most of the marine curio which is on the market is imported from countries such as the Indonesia, Malaysia and Madagascar. Historical accounts Historically, the main use of coral was for construction purposes. The back reefs were mined for coral blocks and for making cement. This practice is no longer allowed. Coral remains have been dredged in the recent past around Mahé and Praslin for the purpose of land reclamation (Payet , 1998). Recommendations 14. Adhere to restrictions on international trade of coral products imposed by CITES. 15. Since the local curio trade is small, allow for licensed harvesting of some corals for sale locally. 16. Put measures in place to limit tourism impacts on coral reefs.


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Rehabilitation / restoration A few coral reef rehabilitation attempts have been made in the past (e.g. Bijoux and Quatre, 2007). In all cases site rehabilitation was proposed to cater for land reclamation projects in which areas of high coral abundance were to be reclaimed and live coral needed to be moved to damaged sites. Coral reef rehabilitation has been attempted on the reef of Moyenne and Eden Island. Controlling the amount of grazing of coral recruit by black-spined sea urchin has also been trialled as part of the SEYMEMP project (Wendling et al., 2004). Conservation measures The few studies that have been undertaken identify conservation measures as the need to reduce anthropogenic stress to corals so that they are better able to deal with coral bleaching event (e.g. Payet et al., 2005). The main measures that are required relates to improving recruitment of corals through reducing sedimentation, improving substrate stability and reducing excessive grazing on recruits. As such conservation measures should focus on improving water quality and reducing direct damage to coral. Protected areas Most of Seychelles’ Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) were designated for the protection of coral reef environment. However, the 1998 coral bleaching event dramatically changed the coral community by reducing coral cover and diversity and by increasing the amount of rubble on the reef. A major phase shift was observed on the coral reefs of some marine parks from coral to algae dominated (Graham et al., 2006; Ledlie et al., 2008). The coral reef community is now slowly recovering with some of the fastest recovering reefs reported to be found within MPAs (Payet et al., 2005). Institutional management The conservation of corals outside Marine Protected Areas is the responsibility of the Conservation section within the Department of Environment. The section had a marine unit, which is presently unstaffed and its fate is unknown. The Seychelles National Parks Authority (SNPA) is responsible for the management of corals with the Marine National Parks. In the Special Nature Reserves (e.g. Aldabra, Aride, Cousin) the sites’ management organisation or (SIF, ICS & Nature Seychelles respectively; the last two being NGOs) is responsible for coral conservation. Most research work and monitoring is undertaken in collaboration with international institutions such as universities and volunteer programmes such as Global Vision International (GVI). Education, Capacity building, Awareness Education and awareness on coral reef conservation is presently not planned and carried on an ad hoc basis as the need arises. SNPA being the main organisation dealing with coral conservation no longer has an education section. A programme was initiated by SNPA in 2007 to train young divers and to foster their continued involvement on coral reef issues like monitoring and advocacy. However, only one batch of children joined the programme and since its completion there have been no indications that there will be other intakes. Capacity is still required in identification of corals down to genus level in scientists involved in coral reef monitoring programmes. GVI appears to be a good partner to work with to improve genus level identification. Once species can be identified down to genus level, further identification to species level should be relatively easy as most genus, apart from the Acropora, have only a few species. Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Marine life - J.Bijoux (2010)

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Recommendations 17. Pilot different rehabilitation techniques to promote the recovery of degraded coral reefs, especially those that are affected by physical abrasion from coral rubble. 18. Control the population of black spine sea urchin to promote recovery of coral reef at economically viable sites (e.g. MPAs). 19. Improve zoning of current MPA network to better protect coral refugia within them. 20. Strengthen the Department of Environment and the National Parks Authority to better enforce environmental legislation concerned with the protection of corals and coral reefs. 21. Revise and harmonise environmental legislation concerned with the protection of corals and coral reefs. . 22. Review effectiveness of current MPA network in protection of corals and strengthen organisations responsible for managing MPAs. 23. Strengthen the Seychelles National Parks Authority so that it could carry out more research on corals, coral reefs and associated habitats. 24. Strengthen civil society organisations such as environmental NGOs so that they could become more involve in marine conservation. 25. SNPA should regularly analyse data from coral reef monitoring programmes and make the results widely available to the general public. 26. Propagate coral species that are able to cope with higher water temperature in view of predicted increase in sea surface temperature. 27. Identify new coral refugia and provide them with certain degree of protection.

III.9

Marine Invertebrates other than Scleractinia (J. Bijoux)

The marine invertebrates come from a large number of different phyla and have a wide range of sizes from microscopic copepods to clams that can measure 1 m across. Understandably, the larger specimens have been better studied that their smaller counterparts which has created a gap in knowledge. III.9.1 WHICH SPECIES DO WE HAVE? Taxonomy Large numbers of marine invertebrates have been described from Seychelles waters. However, attention has been given to a few groups comprising mostly of echinoderms (Aziz, 1984; Bell, 1909), molluscs (Kaas, 1996; Winckworth, 1940), sponges (Levi, 1961; Tomas, 1973), crustacea (Banerjee, 1960; Fransen, 1994), marine worms (Mortimer and Mackie, 2006; Rouse, 1994) and cinadria (Janes, 2008; Millar and Bouillon, 1973; Warburton, 1932). From the phylum cnidaria the scleractinian (hard corals) are considered independently in a separate section due to their important role in the formation of coral reefs. Molecular biology Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Marine life - J.Bijoux (2010)

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has also been used for taxonomical study (Nichols and Barnes, 2005; Westheide and HassCordes, 2001) but remains under used as a tool in the Seychelles. The number of marine invertebrate species from the Seychelles is presently unknown. Collection efforts It has not been possible to get access to many of the old literature documenting collection of marine invertebrates in Seychelles waters and it has not been possible to put all collections of marine invertebrates in chronological order. It is believed that collection started in 1878 with the expedition of HMS Alert to the Indian Ocean followed by the Percy Sladen Trust Expedition of 1905 on HMS Sealark and the John Murray Expedition of 1933/34. The last major collection was done as part of the Netherlands Oceanic Reefs of the Seychelles Expedition in 1992. In between, there have been many collections by various scientists. Collections on marine copepods are reported by Galienne et al. (2004), Galienne and Smythewright, 2005), Marques (1976), Susumu and Conway (2005), Vinogradov and Voronina (1961). Collections of decapod crustacean are reported by Banerjee (1960), Barnard (1962), Boradaille (1917), Bruce (1967, 1969, 1970, 1971, 1974, 1975, 1976, 1978, 1979), Courtiere (1921), Fransen (1989; 1994), Galil and Maning (2001), Garth (1984), Haig (1983), Laurie (1926), McClaughlin and Hogarth (1997, 1998), Miers (1884), Ng (1996), Serene (1977), Tirmizi (1959) and Wouters (2002). Collections of isopod and amphipods are reported by Bowman (1966), Stebbing (1909) and Walker (1908). Collections of molluscs are reported by Barnes et al. (2004), Kaas (1961), Mackie et al. (2005), Mortimer and Mackie (2006), Oliver (2001), Taylor (1969; 1971), Thore (1949), Viader (1937, 1938, 1951) and Winckworth (1940). Collections of echinoderms are reported by Aziz (1984), Bell (1909), Clarck (1980; 1984), Ebert (1979), Gardiner and Cooper (1907), Sloan (1979; 1982) and Sloan et al. (1979). Collections of sponges are reported by Dendy (1922), Levi (1961), Ridley (1884), Soest (1994), Thomas (1973, 1981) and Topsent (1893). Collection of octocorals are reported by Janes (2008), Malyutin (1992), Ofwegen and Slierlings (1994), Thompson and Mackinnon (1910), Thompson et al. (1909), Tixier-Durivault (1966), Van der Land (1994), Verseveldt (1976) and Warburton (1932). Collections of hydroids are reported by Bouillon (1974), Jarvis and Gardiner (1936), and Millard and Bouillon (1973) whereas collections of bryozoa is reported by Thornelly (1911). Collections of marine worms are reported by Artois and Tessens (2008), De Clerck (1994), Hartman (1974), Nichols and Barnes (2005), Rouse (1994), Toman (1977; 1989), Westheide (2001), and Wheeler (1927) whereas that of Chaetognaths is reported by Oresland and Bray (2005) and foraminifers by Wright (1877). Exploration gap analysis To date none of the documents consulted provide a synthesis of the collected material. We do not know nor have an idea of the total number of specimens collected in the Seychelles and the international distribution of the collections. Nobody has analyzed for gaps in collection. From the available literature it appears that only the shallow water echinoderms, sponges, octocorals, pontonid shrimps and brachyuran crustacean have been studied to a sufficient level. Most of the studies carried out so far have been either at Aldabra or in the inner islands and there is a gap of survey location in-between these 2 island groups. As could be expected, deep sea areas have received minimal attention. Recommendations 1. Future explorations should focus on the less studied groups such as the Cnidaria (with exception of the hard and soft corals), ascidians, flatworms, etc. as well as deeper areas that can now be accessed using SCUBA.


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2. Exploration efforts should focus around the less explored islands between the Aldabra and the inner islands. 3. A checklist of all known Seychelles marine invertebrate species should be produced and made available for scientific use. 4. Specimens being held overseas should be documented.

III.9.2 HOW DO WE RECOGNIZE THESE SPECIES? Identification Unfortunately identification guides and catalogues seem to exist only for the largest and more colourful marine invertebrate groups such as the gastropods (Viader, 1937; Winckworth, 1940; Jarret, 1970; 2000), nudibranchs (Debelius, 1996), crustaceans (Guinot, 1966; Debelius, 1999), but these are not exhaustive within these groups. Most species can only be identified from taxonomic papers which first described them. Recommendations 5. Little exist in terms of identification guide for locally occurring marine invertebrates and for some groups there are little taxonomical experience globally. It is hence recommended that we make use of international publish identification guides for most groups. 6. For commercially exploited marine invertebrates a colour guide should be produced to facilitate identification and for fisheries monitoring purposes. 7. Curation of marine invertebrate should be initiated at the Natural History Museum.

III.9.3 WHAT IS THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THESE SPECIES? Species distribution In most cases the taxonomic description indicates where type specimens are from. Generally, as marine invertebrates constitute a large group, they can be found in all habitats ranging from coral reefs, seagrass beds, the pelagic environment and in the deep. Field guides and catalogues often provide general species distribution and habitat association for groups. There is no global database archiving information on marine invertebrate yet as it exists for fish species. The latest expeditions (e.g. Oceanic Reefs of the Seychelles (van der Land, 1994)) have the GPS location of each sample taken.

III.9.4 WHICH TYPES OF HABITATS / COMMUNITIES DO WE HAVE? Habitats and / or communities Being such a large group, marine invertebrates are associated with all types of marine habitats. However, most of the collections done to date have focussed on shallow marine habitats that can be accessed using SCUBA diving and conventional equipments such as trawls and grabs. Few studies have actually looked at the association between habitat and communities, and marine invertebrates’ distribution.


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III.9.5 HOW DO WE RECOGNIZE THESE HABITATS / COMMUNITIES? Not applicable III.9.6 WHAT IS THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THESE HABITATS / COMMUNITIES?

Not applicable


Species ecology Information on species ecology is rare and scattered. The crustaceans appear to be the most studied with a total of 11 studies reporting on some aspects of species biology and ecology. Five such studies are also available for echinoderms and molluscs whereas one exists for both sponges and marine worms. Ecosystem Ecology Ecosystem ecology of marine invertebrate remains little studied particularly because there is no commercial interest in the topic. Most ecosystem ecology studies concerning marine invertebrates to date have focussed on vertebrate associations with different habitat features (Malyutin, 1992; Mackie et al., 2005; Sloan, 1979; Sloan et al., 1979). Recommendations 8. Future studies of marine invertebrates should also contain information on associated habitats and species. 9. Studies on marine invertebrates should be encouraged across all fields of biology and ecology due to the chronic lack of information.


Species biology Species biology remains poorly studied for all species with the possible exception of the spanner crab (Ranina ranina). Even for important commercial species such as lobsters and octopus biological information is scarce. A few studies have focussed on sponges and active substances that they produced (e.g. Chen et al. (2001)). Ecosystem Dynamics & Functioning (trophic links, etc.) Ecosystem dynamics and function studies in marine invertebrates have been few. In the Seychelles, studies have focused primarily on the echinoderms on coral reefs. The effect of crown-of-thorns (Acanthaster planci) grazing on corals have been investigated by Engelhardt (1998) and the effect of black spine sea urchin grazing on coral recruits have been investigated by Wendling et al. (2004).


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Recommendations See recommendation 9 above.


(EVOLUTION PROCESSES)? Biodiversity The factors explaining patterns of biodiversity have been little studied in most marine invertebrates in Seychelles. Barnes et al. (2009) has looked at littoral biodiversity of marine invertebrates and have found high taxonomic richness as well as large differences in biodiversity within and between islands, with species richness generally increasing from upper to lower shore. Similar studies have also been undertaken by Taylor (1968) who studied coral reefs and associated invertebrate communities around Mahé, and (Taylor (1971) who studied intertidal zonation in marine invertebrate communities at Aldabra. Biodiversity of some marine invertebrates have also been investigated by Ingram (2000), Mackie et al. (2005), Malyutin (1992), Oliver (2001), Pittman (1996), Lewis and Taylor (1966) and Taylor and Lewis (1970), Biogeography Biogeography of marine invertebrates in the tropics, let alone in Seychelles waters, have only been considered for a few species (e.g. Klaus et al. (2006); Nichols and Barnes (2005)). For most species range distribution have not been analysed and records for certain species are not clear. Recommendations See recommendation 9 above.


Population size and trends Population size and trends have been investigated only in the case of commercial species such as the spanner crab, Ranina ranina (de Moussac, 1988), lobsters (Bautil, 1991; 1992; Domingue and Boullé, 1995) and octopus (Payet, 1996). The most detailed resource assessment that has been undertaken to date in Seychelles waters is one for sea cucucmbers which took place between 2003 and 2004 (reported by Aumeeruddy and Skewes, 2005). The lobster fishery has on a number of occasions been suspended because of reduced catch per unit effort. Data on some invertebrate species such as sea urchin, sponges and ascidians are collected as part of coral reef monitoring programs which are underway but these are rarely analysed in detail. SFA has also surveyed benthic shrimp population at the edge of the Mahé Plateau, but result show that they are not abundant enough to sustain a profitable fishery. Threats (general) Threats to marine invertebrates, apart from scleractinian corals, have never been discussed as a topic of its own in past literature from the Seychelles. For species directly dependent on photosynthesis such as giant clams (partially), soft corals and sea anemones (partially) ocean warming causing bleaching and death is considered as a major threat as it often affects them more than scleractinian corals. These species also face other threats that affect scleractinian corals such as chronic sedimentation. The edible sea cucumber is threatened by over fishing Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Marine life - J.Bijoux (2010)

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as a result of the high effort which is going into the fishery and its profitability. Species associated with coral reefs are threatened by loss of habitat caused by bleaching events and other destructive impact on coral reef. Invasive species (threat) Invasive species have not been detected as a threat to marine invertebrates. A baseline survey carried out in 2005 showed that there were some exotic marine invertebrate species that were detected but that none of them had become invasive yet (Abdullah, 2006). Conservation priorities Conservation measures for marine invertebrates are not really dealt with in detail in the literature. In the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) it is dealt with mainly from an ecosystem approach. Conservation priorities should focus on species that are being threatened by overfishing or habitat degradation and on protecting important habitats and life processes such as reproduction. For species that are being commercially exploited, gear type and retention limit should be set if achievable so that the age of first capture is superior to the age of first sexual maturity to reduce risks of overfishing. Recommendations 10. Undertake regular stock assessment for the commercially targeted species (e.g. lobsters, sea cucumbers). 11. Make information of stock and catch of exploited marine invertebrate available to fishermen so that they can see for themselves the trends in status of resources. 12. Implement management measures for commercially exploited species.


(HUMAN THREAT)? Production sector Only a few marine invertebrates are currently harvested from the wild and include sea cucumbers, octopus, lobsters, slipper lobsters, spanner crabs, some shells and a few clams. Demand for sea cucumber and lobster is high and licenses for the sea cucumber fishery have been capped at 25 boats per year. Lobsters on the other hand have a closed season, which has been in force for the past 2 years. Octopus is mostly harvested only around the granitic islands and quantity seems to fluctuate quite a lot. There is very little information on marine gastropods that are collected and sold on the curio market, but most shells these days come from overseas, as local stocks seem to have been already depleted outside of protected areas. Historical accounts Little historical accounts are available for the marine invertebrate fishery. Wheeler (1946) provides a good account of the fishery which was happening at that time and approximate amounts which were taken. Even then, the sea cucumber fishery was an important one. Trochus spp. were once caught for mother of pearl but this has been mostly discontinued. Recommendations 13. Determine level for sustainable exploitation of commercially targeted species. Where current exploitation is above the defined amount introduce measures to bring the level of harvesting within sustainable limits. Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Marine life - J.Bijoux (2010)

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14. Actively collate historical information on population levels of different exploited species to act as baselines.


Rehabilitation / restoration Restoration of habitat for the protection of marine invertebrates will apply in the Seychelles only from a coral reef ecosystem point of view as current fishing for most marine invertebrates is done by SCUBA and free diving, which has limited physical impact on habitat. Conservation measures Conservation measures that have been adopted is closed season and minimum size for the lobster fishery, license restriction and closed season for sea cucumber, and export restrictions for certain species that are in CITES appendices, particularly gastropod shells, gorgonians and whip corals. In terms of habitat protection, there is a ban on bottom trawling and destructive fishing practices such as use of chemicals. Protected areas The current system of marine protected areas also protects marine invertebrates, particularly those associated with shallow marine habitats such as coral reefs and seagrass beds. Few studies have thus far considered the effectiveness of MPAs in protecting marine invertebrates, apart from scleractinian corals. There are 4 shells reserves on Mahé, Praslin and La Digue but these are not enforced, particularly because of the low demand for local shells. Institutional management The Seychelles Fishing Authority (SFA) has the portfolio to manage all exploited marine species, include invertebrates, apart from those involved in the curio trade. They have so far been successful with controlling the different fisheries associated with marine invertebrates. The Department of Environment is the management institution for dealing with all other invertebrates, including those in the curio trade, and is responsible for providing export permits and for reviewing Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) for development projects that could potentially affect marine invertebrates and their habitats. Education, Capacity building, Awareness As with the terrestrial invertebrates, there has been little education and awareness with regards to issues concerning marine invertebrates. Often little information is given to explain biology of species and the need for a close season. Capacity building is extremely low and most species cannot be locally identified apart from common ones, which are illustrated in catalogue or field guides. Recommendations 15. Ensure that it is clear which organisation has mandate for the protection or management of particular species. 16. Improve information dissemination on the diversity of marine invertebrates, their current and potential use.


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III.10

Terrestrial & Freshwater Invertebrates (J. Gerlach)

Nemertea

Annelida

Platyhelminthes

1

4

9

2

4 16

2

1

2 2

22

2

1

7

2

3

1

1 2 20 19 3 2 2 1 10 2 1 11

2 2 1

2

1

6

1

1

12 1 1 5

7 1

2

2

1 5

3

2

1

1

1

6

1

1 2 2

1 7 10 1 3

5 2 1

39 100 8 35 48 8

7 119 36 45 2 109 31 35

1

1

4 142 3 2 122 3

9 5

1 2 2

17 13

2 2

Nematoda

Rotifera

81

Worms

Mollusca

87 22 18 1 1 1 4 3 3 1 13 1 1

Cnidaria

1

Crustacea

6 2

5

Myriapoda

7

Arachnids

7 3 1

Arthropods

3

Tardigrada


Invertebrates

I 1 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 7 8 8 9 9 10 10 10 10 10 11 11 11 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 13 13 13 13

Mixed or All

Although there are 1927 terrestrial and freshwater invertebrate publications, these are largely taxonomic. For tardigrades only taxonomic publications exist (containing some distribution data). Insects cover a wider range of topics but still include only a small proportion of ecological or conservation publications (13% and 18% respectively).

TOT 17 258 4 4 13 2 52 4 0 0 1 2 0 2 89 8 7 25 10 2 4 31 0 3 0 1 9 9 10 1 4 0 0 5 2 3 0 1 25 558 24 428

The insects are worth considering separately as the most diverse taxonomic group. Publications on insects have concentrated mainly on the most diverse groups Diptera, Coleoptera, Lepidopera, Hemiptera and Hymenoptera. Other groups are less diverse and correspondingly there are fewer publications on them. This is probably not the case for Collembola where only three publications treat this group despite a high species number, this reflects global neglect of this ecologically important group. As with other taxa, insect papers are mainly taxonomic, although this bias is less extreme due to significant ecological, agricultural and conservation interest in certain pest species of Hymenoptera, Hemiptera, Coleoptera and Diptera (e.g. invasive ants, invasive scale insects, biological control beetles and mosquitos). It is notable that there are no publications on conservation measures or protected areas and almost none on conservation priorities, or population sizes and trends. Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Terrestr. & fresh. Invert. - J.Gerlach (2010)

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8

2 1

9

1

1 1

2

8 2 1 4 1

2

1

7

1

1

4

2

45 65 116 1 1 1 3 3 2 8 4 7 1 1

3

18 13 19 1 2 1

1

1

1

2

10

19 25 17

1

4

5 2

2

2

1

1

2 2

1 1 45 28

3 3

1 1

4 4

2 2

8 6

5 5

9 7

4 4

1 31 26

6 5

1 14 102 119 171 11 80 106 157

Diptera

3

Orthopteroidea

10

Lepidoptera

4

Coleoptera

7

Hemiptera

5

Hymenoptera

Trichoptera

3 1

Neuroptera

2

Odonata

4

Thysanoptera

Zygentoma

1

Phthiraptera

Archaeognatha

3

Psocoptera

Protura

5

Ephemeroptera

Collembola

Study types (secondary level) Taxonomy Collection effort Identification Systematic Species distribution Habitats and / or communities Habitat identification Habitat classification system Habitat distribution Habitats used (sp.) Environmental determinism Species biology and general ecology Interactions, Dynamics & Functioning Biodiversity Biogeography Population size and trends Habitat size and trends Threats Economic value Conservation priorities Production sector Environmental Impact Assessment Historical accounts Rehabilitation / restoration Conservation measures Sustainable Land Management Protected areas Institutional management Legislation, policies, conventions Education, Capacity building, etc. Theory, modelling, methodology Environmental factors Metadatabases Others Total number of combinations (TOTc) Total number of datasets (TOTd)

Insects

I 1 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 7 8 8 9 9 10 10 10 10 10 11 11 11 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 13 13 13 13

TOT 70 56 147 554 1 1 4 1 2 5 3 3 2 19 14 3 7 55 1 1 6 0 0 0 1 1 2 0 14 13 25 123 2 8 1 1 3 2 15 34 1 2 0 17 1 13 102 0 1 1 1 3 1 6 15 0 2 5 3 12 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 5 123 83 230 960 114 74 200 816

III.10.1WHICH SPECIES DO WE HAVE? 1-Exploration Invertebrate exploration started in Seychelles in the early 19th century, with small collections of natural history curiosities. Many of these are poorly localized or lack any collection data. The first systematic collections were made by Dufo (1840) who collected molluscs, and was followed by Nevill (1869). Small collections of insects were made by Wright (1867). The most significant collections were made by Alluaud (1892), Brauer (1894) and, to a lesser extent, the Valdivia expedition of 1895-6. Most of Seychelles biodiversity data still relies on the outstanding research carried out by the Percy Sladen Memorial Expeditions of 1905 and 1908-9. These data have since been supplemented by small collections from amateur or professional botanists or entomologists (most notably Dupont and Thomasset in the early 1900s, Vesey-Fitzgerald in 1936-9 and Brown in 1952), specific collection missions (Legrand collecting Lepidoptera in 1954 and 1956) and notable material collected by individual collectors (especially Lionnet). More extensive collections were made in the southern atolls by the Royal Society Aldabra expedition of 1967-8, the Musée Royal de l’Afrique Centrale Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Terrestr. & fresh. Invert. - J.Gerlach (2010)

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(Benoit and Van Mol) of 1972 and the Soviet Expedition of 1984. The material of the latter has not been fully studied and most of its results remain unavailable. Further taxonomic collecting was carried out by Saaristo (spiders in 1999), the 2000-2005 biodiversity assessments of Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, the Avian Ecosystems project of BirdLife Seychelles (now Nature Seychelles) in 1999-2000 and the ICS-FFEM Rehabilitation of Island Ecosystems in 2005-2009. In addition there have been several individual research projects from visiting researchers and Seychellois naturalist Pat Matyot which have collected notable material. 2-Exploration gap analysis All taxonomic studies from 1840 to the present are synthesised in the monographic series on the Seychelles fauna, coordinated by NPTS. This provides a complete synthesis of Seychelles invertebrate taxonomy, and allows an evaluation of the remaining taxonomic gaps. Over 90% of the recorded invertebrate species in Seychelles have been identified to species level and many have been the subject of recent revisions. Accordingly the taxonomy can be considered to be reasonably reliable. The following groups can be considered to be insufficiently well known: Platyhelminthes – well collected but still in need of full identification, the shortage of flatworm taxonomists internationally is the primary limitation. Nematoda – only preliminary surveys have been carried out, analysis indicates a very high proportion of undescribed species. New collection is needed as identifications can be provided. Parasitic nematodes are almost completely unstudied in Seychelles. Annelida – not adequately identified due to a paucity of good material and a shortage of taxonomists. Arthropoda: Insecta – insects are currently adequately studied. Some families of flies and beetles in particular need new taxonomic revisions, but the lack of recent studies is due to a global shortage of specialists on these families and Seychelles taxonomy is no less reliable than for any other part of the world. Arthropoda: Myriapoda – very well studied except for Symphyla and Pauropoda. Symphyla cannot be identified to species due to the lack of taxonomists (only a single specialist in the world). Pauropoda are inadequately collected in Seychelles. Arthropoda: Acari – the taxonomy of Seychelles species is stable but undoubtedly only a small proportion of species have been identified. Material is easily collected but identification of most mites is impossible due to a lack of taxonomists internationally. Molecular studies have been carried out on only a very small proportion of species and application of DNA analysis techniques will undoubtedly identify many more species in the future. Such studies should be considered a high priority. No population genetics studies have been carried out for any Seychelles invertebrate. The primary gaps in Seychelles invertebrate taxonomy are therefore genetic studies at species and population levels. 3-Specimen preparation and curation Specimens of Seychelles invertebrates are scattered between international collections. Extensive collections of insects and snails were presented to the National Museum by I. Robertson, G. Lionnet and J. Gerlach, however these are almost unusable due to deterioration. NPTS maintains a reference collection in good condition in its Silhouette Information Centre, but limited curatorial capacity make this of limited accessibility. This collection primarily covers Silhouette species.

Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Terrestr. & fresh. Invert. - J.Gerlach (2010)

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4-Taxonomic revisions Invertebrates cover the most poorly known groups of multicellular organisms, but make up the main part of biodiversity. Based on the recent monographic revisions some 3,000 species of terrestrial and freshwater invertebrates are present in Seychelles, with approximately 60% endemism. These comprising the following phyla: Platyhelminthes, Nemertea, Nematoda, Annelida, Rotifera and Arthropoda. In addition there is a report of a freshwater Cnidaria species but this has not been substantiated. Table Number of taxa at species or infra-specific level for the main invertebrate groups, based on currently available data from recent revisions. Platyhelminthes Nematoda Nemertea Annelida Mollusca Rotifera Tardigrada Myriapoda Arachnida Crustacea Insecta Total

Natives 5 43 1 2 17 36 15 24-34 128-142 48 1253-1263 1572-1606

Endemic 2 7 0 4 50 0 19 34 204 24 1669 2013

Exotic 0 0 0 9 8 0 0 3-13 15-30 5 135-145 175-210

Total 7 50 1 15 75 36 34 71 362 77 3067 3795

Recommendations 1. Exploration gap analysis: recent invertebrate surveys have aimed to cover geographical areas that have been neglected previously, accordingly geographical coverage is good. Further surveys would be appropriate for the taxa that needs further taxonomic work (see 2 below) and for one group which has not been collected adequaterly – Nematoda. 2. Taxonomic revisions and faunas: Completion of the ongoing taxonomic monograph series (scheduled for 2011). The following groups are research priorites but are constrained by a lack of taxonomists globally: -Platyhelminthes -Annelida -Symphyla -Acari

III.10.2HOW DO WE RECOGNIZE THESE SPECIES? Until recently few non-specialist identification resources have been available for Seychelles invertebrates. Only butterflies were treated at a regional level in a photographic guide (Desgaulx de Nolet, 1984) and taxonomic papers were widely scattered in libraries, in diverse languages and often in obscure journals. The series of monographs on the Seychelles fauna published from 2006 onwards provides complete identification resources to all Seychelles terrestrial and freshwater species (Mollusca, Vertebrates, Orthopteroidea, Diptera and Coleoptera published to date; Arachnida and Myriapoda in press and Other Insects and Minor Phyla in preparation). With the completion of this series in 2011 identification tools can be considered reasonably sufficient.


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Identification resources for the non-specialist remains a gap. It is inevitable that invertebrate identification is a specialist occupation (except possibly for Lepidoptera) but basic resources for identification to class and, in some cases, family level should be prepared. Recommendations 3. Specialist identification resources: Completion of the ongoing taxonomic monograph series (scheduled for 2011). 4. Non-specialist identification resources: Preparation of a basic level identification guide(s).

III.10.3WHAT IS THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THESE SPECIES? The taxonomic literature provides island records for most species and in many cases gives general collecting localities. In some cases even such basic distribution data are missing. No distribution maps of invertebrates have been produced in Seychelles with the exception of terrestrial and freshwater molluscs (Gerlach 2007). Distribution lists are published in the Seychelles fauna monographs, these are as comprehensive as possible and reflect data availability limitations. Distributions are being compiled in digital form which will ultimately be freely accessible on-line through IUCN’s Species Information Service. Recommendations 5. Species distribution data: Knowledge on species distribution from recommendations 2 and 3 should be reliable but is not easily interpreted. A database of distributions could be compiled.

III.10.4WHICH TYPES OF HABITATS / COMMUNITIES DO WE HAVE? No studies of invertebrate communities have been undertaken with the exception of invertebrates in birds nest ferns in 1990 (Floater 1995) and in rotten wood on Cousine island in 2001 (Kelly & Samways, 2003). A PhD study is currently being conducted on the typology of invertebrate island communities in several islands and their change following rat eradication (Galman et al.; in prep.). Many different invertebrate communities could be defined in relation to habitats in which there are found. For example, three major ecological categories can be distinguished: - Lowland species: mainly found below 250m, widespread species, many introduced. Associated with open, disturbed or littoral habitats - Widespread species: not altitude restricted, mostly introduced and many invasive. - High altitude species: mainly above 350m, many habitat specialists, many endemic. Recommendations 6. Ecological studies – ecological studies should be carried out for all invertebrates communities identified. Identify main different invertebrate communities and indicators in different habitat types. (linked with No. 7).

III.10.5HOW DO WE RECOGNIZE THESE HABITATS / COMMUNITIES? not relevant for invertebrates Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Terrestr. & fresh. Invert. - J.Gerlach (2010)

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III.10.6WHAT IS THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THESE HABITATS / COMMUNITIES?

Such data can be derived from existing information on vegetation and ecosystem typology but it has not been produced or specifically investigated for invertebrates and should result from detailed ecological studies.

III.10.7WHICH HABITATS DO THESE SPECIES USE AND WHAT ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS SHAPE THEM?

Very few studies have considered habitats specifically used by invertebrates and their determinism in Seychelles. . Amongst the few exceptions investigating invertebrate communities was a study in the Pisonia forest on Silhouette in 1990 (Floater 1995) and another one in rotten wood on Cousine island in 2001 (Kelly & Samways, 2003). Recommendations 7. Invertebrate habitat studies – in-depth ecological studies should be carried out for all habitats.

III.10.8WHAT IS THE BIOLOGY, GENERAL ECOLOGY AND FUNCTIONING OF THESE SPECIES AND HABITATS?

Very few studies of invertebrates include significant ecological data. Specific ecological studies have been carried out for the giant millipede (Lawrence & Samways, 2003), herbivorous insects (Dietz et al 2004), some butterflies (Lawrence 2004). Ecology and biology of invasive invertebrates have been the subject of short term studies recently, with a view to control invasions (whiteflies) (Hazell et al. 2007), this builds on more detailed studies of agricultural pests in the 1950s and 1970s (Melitomma and rhino beetles) (e.g. Brown 1954). In addition there has been one compilation of ecological data on Drosophilidae (e.g. Cariou et al. 2008) Species biology The only comprehensive studies of species biology of invertebrates in Seychelles comprise research on the Melittoma beetle and the invasive carnivorous snail Euglandina rosa (Gerlach 1994). No other comprehensive studies of species biology have been undertaken; some aspects of the biology of the crazy ants, giant tenebrionid beetle, stick insects, some butterflies, carnivorous snails and Pachnodus snails have been published or currently investigated (e.g. leaf-insect diet and breeding). Ecosystem Dynamics & Functioning (trophic links, etc.) No information relating to invertebrates is available and this remains a critical gap in knowledge. The only studies on ecosystem ecology considering invertebrates have focussed on pollination systems and no published results are available at present. Such research should be considered a high priority. A PhD study is currently being conducted on the recovery of invertebrate communities following eradication of rats and restoration processes (Galman et al.; in prep.).


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Recommendations 8. Ecological studies – basic ecological studies should be carried out on a wide range of invertebrates and focused on indicator species. A range of species and habitats needs to be covered before any comprehensive discussion can be made of general ecology and ecosystem function. Studies of invertebrates should include both native/endemic species and invasives (especially ants). 9. Interactions with production sector – promote studies to investigate benefits and negative interactions between terrestrial invertebrates (both local and alien) with essential sectors of the economy (agricultural production, soil fertility, heath).

III.10.9WHICH ARE THE FACTORS EXPLAINING THE PATTERNS OF DIVERSITY

(EVOLUTION PROCESSES)? Biodiversity The pattern of distribution of invertebrates has been studied using quantitative data on diversity and species richness (Gerlach, 2003, 2008b). This indicates that the main cause of diversity distributions for invertebrates appears to be habitat distribution. Invasive species are primarily linked to disturbed habitat whilst many endemics are associated with lowdisturbance or regenerating habitats. There is a strong altitude influence on invertebrate distributions which will result from a combination of three interlinked factors: climate, habitat distribution and lower levels of anthropogenic disturbance at higher elevations. Hotspots of diversity have been described (Gerlach 2008b). Biogeography Biogeography has been considered in many invertebrate publications, including general reviews and taxonomic studies of particular groups. These have drawn on the pioneering work of Scott (1933), but new taxonomic revisions indicate that most publications are based on incorrect data. A comprehensive analysis and revision is in progress. Molecular studies are urgently needed to provide a modern perspective on biogeographical questions; although Seychelles was one of the first geographical areas to be recognised as biogeographically interesting no progress has been made for nearly 80 years and the islands have now fallen behind better studied regions such as islands of the Pacific and Caribbean. Recommendations 10. Plot-based analyses: detailed analysis of the patterns of diversity should be undertaken using quantitative survey data, to understand what determines invertebrate biodiversity. 11. Occurrence-based analyses: species distribution data could be analysed to produced general diversity patterns in more detail than has been attempted to date. 12. Biogeography: Molecular studies of a wide range of selected taxa are urgently needed. Our understanding of biogeography in Seychelles has fallen behind international standards and DNA based studies need to be encouraged to remedy this quickly.


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WHICH ARE THE SPECIES, HABITATS AND SITES WITH THE HIGHEST CONSERVATION VALUE?

III.10.10

Population size and trends Population estimates have been published for terrestrial and freshwater molluscs (Gerlach 2007) based on population density estimates. Specific population studies of individual species have been carried out on Frégate island for the giant tenebrionid beetle, Frégate Pachnodus snail, giant millipede and scorpion (Gerlach 2005). These were all monitored in 1999 and 2002, but not subsequently. This aspect needs to be developed for the monitoring of other rare and threatened species. Monitoring has been carried out for hawkmoths on Silhouette island since 1999 (Gerlach, Matyot & Samways 2005) and of molluscs since 1990. Monitoring of abundance of main invertebrate groups (in some case down to individual species) using the same methods (leaf counts, malaise and pit-fall traps) has been conducted on several islands (e.g. Conception, North Island, Frégate) since 1999 or 2005 as part of either the DoE Seychelles White-eye Recovery Programme, the BirdLife GEF Management of Avian Ecosystem project (Hill, 2002) or the ICS-FFEM Rehabilitation of Island Ecosystems (Galman, Rocamora et al., in prep.). Systematic monitoring of invertebrates was initiated in a range of habitats on Silhouette island in 2009. Habitat size and trends There are no published studies of this topic. Monitoring of mist forest on Silhouette was initiated in 2009 to evaluate the effects on climate change on biodiversity (including invertebrates). Data on invertebrate habitat requirements could in future be combined with other data on habitat sizes and trends. Threats (general) Identification of threats to invertebrates have been largely speculative. The only specific studies have been on the impacts of rats and rat poisoning on Frégate island, the impacts of crazy ants (Bird Island) and of invasive carnivorous snails on Mahé. Ecological studies indicate serious threats from habitat change, climate change and, to a lesser extent, invasive species. A review of threats was published in 2008 (Gerlach 2008a). Invertebrates have never been considered in regard to land management. The majority of endemic species are either tolerant of human activity or may have already become extinct in areas with active land management. Further expansion of human activity inland, particularly in the highlands of Mahé would threaten many restricted range species. Fire and erosion are particular concerns for all species. Invasive species (threat) There have been a small number of studies on the threat posed by invasive animals, focussing on rats and ants. Wider threats posed by invasive invertebrates have also been published, mainly concerning whiteflies. The impacts of invasive plants on invertebrates have not been widely considered although as far as invertebrates are concerned this threat could be more severe than that posed by invasive animals. Pathogens No work has been done on this subject in Seychelles invertebrates. Only one point of concern has been identified – the infection of captive stock of the Frégate giant tenebrionid beetle by the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae (Ferguson & Pearce-Kelly 2005). This is thought to have been brought in from wild collected stock; the fungus may have been introduced to Seychelles as a biological control agent but its impacts on the fauna are Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Terrestr. & fresh. Invert. - J.Gerlach (2010)

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unknown. One other infective agent is known to be present in Seychelles: the bacterium Aeromonas hydrophila infecting snails, although this affects many species it has not been implicated in any population declines (Gerlach 2001). Conservation priorities Conservation priorities were outlined in 2008 (Gerlach 2008a, b) and sites of conservation concern identified in the Key Biodiversity Areas analysis (Gerlach 2008b) which identifies sites with a particularly rich biodiversity, critical populations and other international criteria. Globally Threatened Species and near-threatened species in Seychelles are identified through the IUCN Red List; invertebrates are under-represented on the list and of the Seychelles invertebrate fauna only molluscs have been comprehensively assessed. The expansion of invertebrate Red List assessments is now a high priority for IUCN. Recommendations 13. Invasive species database: A comprehensive database of invasive species should be created and developed, as is recommended for plants. 14. Conservation priorities: completion of Red Listing for all Seychelles biodiversity is needed. 15. Climate change: Studies on the impact of climate change on invertebrates have not been undertaken. As invertebrates may be particularly sensitive to climate change (Deutsch et al 2008) some invertebrate species will probably prove to be highly sensitive indicators of climate change.

ARE WE USING BIODIVERSITY RESOURCES IN A SUSTAINABLE WAY (HUMAN THREAT)?

III.10.11

Production sector No terrestrial or freshwater invertebrates are harvested to any significant extent. Freshwater crayfish are occasionally consumed but this is very occasional and localised. The impacts of agricultural and domestic insecticides are completely unknown. Historical accounts No data are available but it is unlikely that there has been any change in invertebrate exploitation. Recommendations None

WHICH CONSERVATION ACTIONS MAY BE SET UP FOR SPECIES AND HABITATS?

III.10.12

Few relevant studies have been undertaken and only two publications refer to specific conservation actions for invertebrates (Gerlach, Matyot & Samways 2005; Gerlach 2008a).


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Rehabilitation / restoration Most rehabilitation work has been carried out on small islands, such as Aride, Cousin and Cousine which have relatively low invertebrate biodiversity. The rehabilitaition project which has done most to conserve invertebrates indirectly is that on Frégate island. Restoration of North island offers the potential for invertebrate conservation introductions although the significance of such actions remains debatable. The most important rehabilitation / restoration actions for invertebrates would be the restoration of mid-high altitude forests on the larger islands. Some work has been undertaken in this regard but has been very small scale and generally not maintained. On Mahé the rate of habitat degradation exceeds the rate of restoration. Restoration of high forests should be considered the highest priority for invertebrate conservation. Conservation measures Few relevant studies have been undertaken and only two publications refer to specific conservation actions for invertebrates. The main measures required are habitat restoration, invasive plant control, site protection and research. Conservation medicine No work has been done on this subject in Seychelles invertebrates. Concerns (as described above) include the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae.. Sustainable Land Management Invertebrates have never been considered in this regard. Protected areas Although a large part of Seychelles is under legal protection this has been based primarily on water catchment protection and the distribution of birds and tortoises; invertebrates have only been protected incidentally. The Silhouette National Park is aimed at biodiversity protection, of which invertebrates form the main part. The Key Biodiversity Areas analysis identifies sites that need protection (mainly covered by the Morne Seychellois, Praslin and Silhouette National Parks, but also needing the includsion of Montagne Planeau as a high priority). Institutional management No institutions are dedicated to invertebrate conservation, management or research. Organisations with special interest in invertebrates include the governmental department of Agriculture and of Environment. Both rely largely on overseas consultants for specific programmes, mainly associated with invasive species. NGOs have also been involved in invertebrate projects (Island Conservation Society – island rehabilitation projects; Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles – taxonomic and ecological research, permanent monitoring; Nature Seychelles – student projects, island ecosystem surveys). Islands such as Aride, Cousine and North have also supported invertebrate research projects from visiting experts or students. As invertebrates covers an enormous range of organisms and issues, coordination of research activity beyond the normal research approval system is not appropriate. Education, Capacity building, Awareness Globally invertebrate conservation is perceived as a low priority and is generally carried out as a sideline to other conservation actions. However, the ecological role of invertebrates, and their potential as highly sensitive ecological indicators, means that they are increasingly being recognised as important groups for research and monitoring. Invertebrate monitoring in Seychelles has been limited by identification problems and expertise. The publication of the Seychelles fauna monographs now mean that identification is practical for the majority of


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groups without specialist expertise. Several recent ecological studies have included publication of monitoring techniques and training exercises. It is practical to undertake basic monitoring as long as such projects have well defined aims and the support of an organisation that can maintain monitoring in the long term. The 2005 review of invertebrate conservation in Seychelles recommended better utilization of existing monitoring capacity (Gerlach, Matyot & Samways 2005). Recommendations 16. Site management – habitat restoration and management to promote diversity and abundance of invertebrates is urgently needed in key forest areas. 17. Marsh protection – as the most threatened habitat all remaining marshes should be protected as an immediate priority. This should be the highest level of protection possible to prevent any further drainage and pollution. 18. Research – studies of the conservation needs of species identified as at risk (in recommendation 14) should be undertaken to determine the best ways of conserving these species. 19. Awareness – develop educational/information programmes on benefits and negative interactions between terrestrial & freshwater invertebrates, both local and aliens, and essential sectors of the economy: agriculture production, soil fertility, health, tourisme, etc. 20. Preventive measures for aliens – enhancement of measures to prevent introduction and spread of alien species into the country


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III.11

Protista, non eucaryots and others (B. Senterre)

Baseline The Protista and non eucaryots have been compiled in the metadatabase and contain respectively 39 and 31 datasets (see metadatabase for more details). The Protista are a totally polyphyletic group, i.e. do not constitute a natural lineage but several distant lineages with similar degree of complexity. The algae are treated in 23 datasets, mostly on taxonomy (checklist), but also on species biology and general ecology. The protozoa are treated in 13 datasets, most of them categorised in "others" for the study type and actually dealing with human health. Bacteria and viruses are mostly treated in datasets dealing with pests (classified in "Production sector"), human health ("Others") and also species biology and general ecology (interactions with species from other taxonomic groups). We compiled 13 datasets for bacteria and 19 for viruses. Much more is to be found, of course, in the medical literature. I Study types (secondary level) All or many 1 Taxonomy 1 Collection effort 2 Identification 2 Systematic 3 Species distribution 4 Habitats and / or communities 5 Habitat identification 5 Habitat classification system 6 Habitat distribution 7 Habitats used (sp.) 7 Environmental determinism 8 Species biology and general ecology 8 Interactions, Dynamics & Functioning 9 Biodiversity 9 Biogeography 10 Population size and trends 10 Habitat size and trends 10 Threats 10 Economic value 10 Conservation priorities 11 Production sector 11 Environmental Impact Assessment 11 Historical accounts 12 Rehabilitation / restoration 12 Conservation measures 12 Sustainable Land Management 12 Protected areas 12 Institutional management 12 Legislation, policies, international conventions 12 Education, Capacity building, Awareness 13 Theory, modelling, methodology 13 Environmental factors 13 Metadatabases 13 Others Total number of combinations (TOTc) Total number of datasets (TOTd)

Mixed 17 15 18 4

Protista 3

19 25

14 1 28 13 20 8 6 1 30 3 19 21 4 28 7 17 9 17 5 1 1 19 19 9 398 236

1

1

5 4

Algae Protozoa Bacteria Viruses Environment Others TOT 17 15 2 2 3 40 1 1 1 21 1 5 1 1 8 1 8 3 39 1 1 27 0 0 1 9 24 1 3 0 8 1 10 47 1 1 15 3 2 1 27 2 1 2 5 18 1 7 1 10 5 4 49 3 6 1 20 1 10 3 1 6 42 4 8 7 43 1 8 1 18 1 10 17 1 6 1 0 1 1 1 94 115 1 1 21 1 10 7 7 34 50 16 34 37 127 20 687 23 13 13 19 122 20 446

Environmental studies have also been included in our compilation. In total, 159 datasets include some aspects of environmental studies. Among these, 122 datasets are strictly dealing with this (i.e. are in the IBWG List 2010 "Environmental studies", see output 4b). Most of the datasets entered deal with Climatology / Meteorology (56) and Geology (51), and several important documents deal with soil science (15).

Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Protista & others - B.Senterre (2010)

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Note that, in the context of botanical studies, I found very few published information on the detailed patterns of climate within the main granitic islands. For example, I have not found any detailed, or satisfying map showing the rain fall patterns. The best map I found was from Cazes-Duvat & Robert (2001). Data on monthly rain fall are spread in the Annual Report of Agriculture, and in several other documents (Sachet et al. 1983; Stoddart 1984; Stoddart & Mole 1977; Stoddart & Walsh 1979; Walsh 1984). Many data are synthesized in the appendices of Henry (1976), probably also in Fox (1980, not seen). Finally, meteorological data are managed at Seychelles Meteorological Service (SMS), but are unpublished, or only partly (e.g. Payet & Agricole 2006). Finally, the category "mixed" includes datasets that are dealing with most of the taxonomic groups, or with several unspecified taxonomic groups. While reviewed the gaps non-gaps for a given taxonomic group, these datasets should be reviewed jointly. Recommendations 1. Develop GIS for environmental factors: One of the most important layer would be a map of rain fall patterns for each of the main granitic islands, at least Mahé. This should include the annual rain fall but not only, e.g. maximum number of consecutive dry months, Köppen climate type, etc. (see also Köppen 1918; Kottek et al. 2006; Rivas-Martínez et al. 2004).

Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5 - Protista & others - B.Senterre (2010)

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IV

PRIORITIZING GAPS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The consultants listed and then reviewed the data sources (literature, etc.) existing on Seychelles biodiversity. They described the existing knowledge, emphasized the gaps and provided a list of specific recommendations. This review consists in the ca. 120 pages of text here over, and we repeat that the argumentation or discussions on prioritizing is to be found in this detailed review, the present chapter being no more than a brief abstract. In addition, our review is nothing more than "our" review, i.e. the reader should keep in mind that the basic information to use for the reader's own interpretation is to be found in the listed and consolidated datasets (output 4a, or Access metadatabase, or Excel version). The material sent to the stakeholders before the workshop included: -outputs 4a, 4b and 5 (pdf files) -an Excel version of the metadatabase -an Excel file containing an extract of all recommendations with a column for the priority rating made by the consultant and another column (empty) for the rating of the stakeholders (to be sent back to the consultant). No response or comment has been received on the Excel file of recommendations. During the workshop, B. Senterre, G. Rocamora and J. Bijoux presented briefly the summarised recommendations and their rating, and this time the stakeholders participated actively to the debate (see Appendix 2 for the minutes). As a result of the debate, some recommendations were suppressed, and others were modified or added. In many cases, the priority rating has been discussed and adjusted. Those modifications have been introduced in the text of the present output 5. The recommendations are synthesized here with their rating. For some chapters, the stakeholders' input is made explicit by including track changes, for others only the new version is provided. IV.1 Synthetic list of recommendations and their priority rank The prioritization rating is made using a semi-quantitative scale from 1 to 5, 1 being the lowest priority and 5 the highest (all this being "relative to the other priorities"). Plants and Fungi Note that there are very few recommendations on fungi, which are totally understudied and where everything remains to be done. Therefore I mentioned them in recommendation 3 (taxonomic studies), simply because we do not even have enough knowledge on the species themselves. It is a very high priority to study the fungi, i.e. inventory them, collect them and describe the new species. But this task can't be achieved without international collaborations. 1. Exploration gap analysis (compilation of specimens): It is a relatively important priority to proceed to a detailed exploration gap analysis. In order to address this important gap of knowledge, and analyse precisely the patterns of specimen collection, it is needed to compile into a database as many specimens as possible, along with data on localities and habitats (from the specimens' label). The present metadatabase can provide the list of data sources to be considered for such a synthesis by filtering datasets on "Collections, expeditions, explorations" and "Species distribution". The main sources are Awmack 1997; Baker 1875, 1877; Christensen 1912; Robertson 1989; Summerhayes 1931; Tardieu-Blot 1960, and the herbarium of Kew (K), Paris (P) and Seychelles (SEY). For mosses and lichens we rely mostly on the checklists recently published. 2. National Herbarium (curation, database, awareness): We need to rehabilitate the National Herbarium to be able to use it (see previous point) and not only to conserve it. The 2 sub-collections of specimens need to be put altogether and properly organized, i.e. classification system following plant systematic and using current valid names. The herbarium should be managed using a herbarium database (e.g. Brahms, MS Access or other). This recommendation is necessary for the development of the recommendation 1, and other dependant recommendations (mostly 7, 8 and 20). It is also important to redevelop the national herbarium jointly with the development of awareness on taxonomy, and on the importance of collecting unknown species (i.e. many exotic species are probably still not even recorded in the flora). Senterre, Rocamora, Bijoux, Mortimer & Gerlach (2010) Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5

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3

4

3. Taxonomic revisions and floras: Detailed floras are needed for monocots, ferns, mosses, fungi and updates for dicots. Nevertheless this is a long term endless task and we propose to focus at this stage on vascular plants (dicots, monocots, ferns). I highly recommend compiling information for floras (i.e. observing characters on specimens, or compiling them from literature) using interactive, modern and easily updatable tools, e.g. DELTA electronic floras (see Appendix 1). The main problem for this recommendation is that there are very few plant taxonomists in the Seychelles. In order to develop such capacities in the country it will be important to develop more regional and / or international collaborations (La Réunion, Madagascar, Paris, etc.), through projects involving local students exchanges. Such projects may focus on taxonomy or be indirectly linked to taxonomy, e.g. plant diversity, phylogeography, etc. 4. Virtual Herbarium: In first instance, improvement of local capacities for species identification could be achieved by compiling all available illustrations, e.g. photographs, drawings, scanned specimens, paintings, etc. These illustrations should be stored electronically and managed in a common database with the National Herbarium database (so that they could be linked with details on synonymies and other species data, see recommendations 14, 15, 18, 22, 24, 25). 5. Herbarium library: A basic plant "systematic"-"taxonomy" library should be created and managed within the National Herbarium. This library should include copies of the basic documents existing for the identification of plant families, recent generic monographies or revisions, regional floras, etc. (see references cited in output 3 and Appendix 1: p.8), and of course taxonomic documents on Seychelles. 6. Interactive keys of identification: Interactive keys and electronic floras should be developed jointly with the reviewing of floras for vascular plants (see recommendation 3), e.g. DELTA-IntKey. Indeed, interactive keys of identification are by far the most user-friendly tool for identification by non specialists, and in addition they constitute a very powerful tool for proceeding to taxonomic revisions themselves. It is therefore preferable to try to kill two birds with one stone. The virtual herbarium can also be linked in a DELTA flora. 7. Gazetteer of localities: We need to develop a gazetteer of localities for the Seychelles. This will consist in compiling the datasets mentioned here over, but also compiling localities from the herbarium specimens collected (see recommendation 1). 8. Species distribution data: The knowledge on species distribution which would result from recommendations 1, 2, 3, should be completed with non taxonomic datasets mentioned here over. Nevertheless, it will be important to include information of the species identification confidence (depending on authors' experience, presence of voucher specimens, etc., see Appendix 1). 9. Vegetation gap analysis (literature review): Compile all available data from previous vegetation studies (semi-quantitative and quantitative) and analyse the gaps of collection (analogous to recommendation 1). 10. New vegetation inventories: New vegetation plots should be inventoried following the best practices recommended here (see Appendix 1), if possible completed with mosses nested plots. Our suggestion for the priority sites for new vegetation plots, based on the author's field knowledge of habitat types in Seychelles, include: -Lowland rain forest (on Silhouette, Félicité, La Digue, Praslin), -Submontane rain forest (on Silhouette and Praslin), -Montane rain forests (on Silhouette and especially Mahé, in Morne Seychellois and Montagne Planneau areas), -Saxicolous (drier type) forests (on Mahé and especially on Silhouette, also on Praslin), -Other inselberg vegetation types (on Mahé and Silhouette). In second order of priority, the secondary vegetation types should be studied in order to understand the dynamics of these ecosystems and the strategy of the constitutive species, but also to monitor to patterns of invasions (cf. recommendation 16). 11. National System of Habitat types: A comprehensive revision of vegetation types should be undertaken based on results of recommendation 9 and 10. This is a very difficult task that can only be achieved by a specialist of the description and classification of vegetation types. It needs a deep knowledge of community ecology, tropical vegetation, ecosystem dynamics, and needs to take into account the principle of the replaceability of ecological factors. It is also indispensable to have an extensive field experience in Seychelles, especially on the main granitic islands (where the most original vegetation types are found). 12. Field guides of habitat types: Using the results of recommendation 11, 3 types of products are necessary to ensure a good dissemination and an efficient use of the knowledge on habitat types: (1) a classification system for the described vegetation types, (2) an illustrated field guide of habitat types, and (3) interactive keys of identification (e.g. in DELTA). 13. Vegetation mapping: In a biodiversity context, the highest priority gap to address is the mapping of the vegetation (actual and potential) for the main inner islands. This will need to be done in correspondence with a more suitable definition of habitat types (see recommendation 11). Mahé, Silhouette, Praslin, La Digue and Félicité are surely the main priorities. Specific methods are not recommended here, but a general introduction is provided in Appendix 1. 14. Ecological groups database: The knowledge on species ecology (s.s.) is indissociable of the recommendations 9, 10 and 11, i.e. must be done through improved knowledge of habitat types. Therefore, my recommendation here is to compile the information on species ecology, from available literature and from future vegetation studies (see recommendation 9), in a "species database", i.e. a database centred on the species names. I do not recommend to create a specific database for that purpose but rather to integrate these Senterre, Rocamora, Bijoux, Mortimer & Gerlach (2010) Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5

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aspects into the "specimens database", i.e. the National Herbarium database. The reason is that these two aspects are closely related. 15. Plant functional types: I personally think that the absence of studies on plant functional types is a major gap of knowledge. This consists in defining a system of plant functional types and in using it to identify (define) the functional type to which all native species belong to. The spectrum of functional types can than be compared between islands (within the Seychelles and within the Indian Ocean region), between sites, and / or between habitats. Such studies are important to better understand ecosystem long-term functioning, and therefore to improve the effectiveness of conservation actions. 16. Vegetation dynamics and ecosystem processes: Quite a lot of studies do exist on vegetation dynamics, including many recent studies. Such studies should be pursued, but the study of vegetation dynamics being closely linked to the study of vegetation itself, I recommend to develop also studies based on more detailed plots (see objective 3, recommendation 10), and focussing in priority on the main vegetation types. Vegetation plots should be set up in study sites characterised by distinct levels of rejuvenation, e.g. old growth, late secondary, early secondary, pioneer (time factor), all other factors kept as constant as possible (environmental factors, type, intensity and frequency of disturbance, etc.). The vegetation plots should be permanent and revisited e.g. every year (mortality, recruitment, diameter growth, etc.). Plot design may vary, depending on the specificities of the studies, from plots similar to those recommended in objective 4 to plots more adapted to forest canopy gaps (cf. Appendix 1). Note that this is just a proposition. I personally think that this is a very good way to study vegetation dynamics, but methodology will vary following authors. 17. Species interactions: The many studies currently developing on species interactions, and the many historical studies, need to be pursued (plant-soil interactions, dispersalism, pollination, symbioses, competition, facilitation, etc.). My only recommendation, probably influenced by my personal convictions and experience, is to integrate more in these studies the knowledge on vegetation types, which is also developing in parallel and which has been, I think, too poorly considered. For example, comparing species interactions in invaded vs. pristine habitats may describe patterns not only linked to the level of invasion in case the invaded site is not ecologically homologous (same climax) to the pristine site, e.g. a pristine montane forest vs. a submontane invaded forest, etc. 18. Species biology and general ecology: Finally, of course, we need to go on developing our knowledge on the biology and general ecology for the most threatened native species. Following K. Beaver & L. ChongSeng (pers.comm.), several native species may have problems for reproducing in their environment: e.g. Craterispermum microdon, Campnosperma seychellarum, Brexia madagascariensis (see also current studies on pollination by C. Kaiser). Maybe those species could be considered in priority? 19. Plot-based diversity analyses: using the data of the vegetation plots recommended in objective 4, it is possible to study the patterns of diversity with much details, i.e. between strata and biological types, between habitats and sites, controlling the biases of sampling effort, etc. 20. Occurrence-based diversity analyses: Based on species distribution data (see recommendations 8), it is possible to develop detailed studies on the patterns of diversity (e.g. Kier & Barthlott 2001; Linder 2001). This should not be limited to woody species, but rather include all vascular plants. 21. Phylogenetic diversity / structure: Studies on the phylogenetic structure of plant communities, and phylogenetic diversity, are a relatively recent advance in ecology. Such studies are absolutely possible in the Seychelles and could contribute to very interesting findings, through comparisons with continental regions or other islands, etc. 22. Phytogeography: We need to review the phytogeographical spectrum for the flora of Seychelles, integrating the results of the taxonomic revisions that have been published during the last few decades. The first step is to define a system of "chorological types", i.e. categories of areas of species distribution (e.g. Malagasy, Mascarene, Afrotropical, etc., see Summerhayes 1931: p.264; Rakotondrainibe et al. 1996: p.111; Renvoize 1971; Fraser-Jenkins 2008). The data on the species chorological type should be compiled into a "species database", see recommendation 14 (included in the National Herbarium database). Finally, analysis can be done using comparisons of floras, and / or vegetation inventories, etc. 23. Phylogeography: The ongoing search for understanding speciation processes and evolution of floras needs to be pursued using molecular analysis coupled with taxonomic revisions (see link with recommendation 3). Such activity is a good opportunity to develop collaborations in the region and, on medium term, to develop taxonomic capacities in the Seychelles. 24. Invasive plant species database: We need to create a database compiling information on species invasiveness and concern which would be compatible with the different conceptions / definitions of "invasive", i.e. dissected in specific criteria. I also suggest integrating this into the "species database", within the National Herbarium database. 25. Conservation priorities database: Exactly as for invasiveness, the categories of threatened species need to be compiled exactly in the same way, i.e. included in the taxonomic database (National Herbarium) and dissected into criteria. The system proposed by Huber & Ismail (2006) is probably a good base, but there is a need to address some other gaps (see mostly recommendations 1 and 8) supposed to provide the required Senterre, Rocamora, Bijoux, Mortimer & Gerlach (2010) Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5

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input data. Studies on population size and trends may also be needed to check / update conservation status of some species. 26. Climate change impact: Studies on the impact of climate change on plants are still rare in the Seychelles. Good indicator species could be found in the herbaceous flora, especially ferns and mosses. Lichens are also well known as good indicators (e.g. pollution). The proposed network of permanent vegetation plots (recommendation 16) would be a very useful base for such studies on climate change impact, if those indicators groups are included and if some plots are situated near the "transition" levels between vegetation belts. 27. Reclaim degraded lands for agriculture / forestry: Develop agroforestry and slash-and-char agriculture (see Appendix 1) on degraded or degrading lands would release the pressure on less degraded areas on Mahé for example. Redeveloping forestry on degraded lands would also contribute to Carbon sequestration and local climate change. Many hectares are to be reclaimed on Praslin. 28. Reorganize forestry to have a sustainable wood production for local use, mostly on Mahé and Praslin. This will need the development of a database on forestry resources and management, to be linked with a geodatabase. 29. Protected Areas (PAs) categories: Revise protected areas categories in line with international norms (e.g. Boitani et al. 2008; Goriup & Creed 2004). 30. PAs criteria: Develop sound technical and scientific criteria for the identification and designation of protected areas. I suggest to consider the following "best practice" references: Vreugdenhil 2002; Vreugdenhil et al. 2003; and / or Langhammer et al. 2007 (with a personal preference for Vreugdenhil, because more integrated, but needs more input data) 31. Protected Areas Network (PAN): Review the effectiveness of the current Network of Protected Areas: Do the current PAs still meet reasons for designation?; Are there unprotected areas that would need to be incorporated?; Are the current status and delimitations suitable or do they need update? Note also that several basic data, needed for undertaking a satisfying PAs gap analysis (see criteria in e.g. Vreugdenhil et al. 2003), are unfortunately current gaps of knowledge. Therefore to achieve a good PAs gap analysis, the most important recommendations to be addressed include 1, 8, 13, 19, 20 and 25 (corresponding partly to Nevill 2010: p.40). These linked recommendations depend themselves on other recommendations of which the most important are 2, 7, 10, 11, 12 and 14). These gaps of knowledge partly explain for example why Montagne Planneau is not currently included in the PAN. Addressing these gaps is a difficult and long task. I understand that we need to progress little by little, i.e. we can not achieve everything perfectly, comprehensively, directly. But I strongly recommend bearing in mind that the task is long and complex, and not to underestimate it, or oversimplify it. I also strongly recommend to use abundantly the "best" practices detailed in Vreugdenhil et al. (2003), to set up a strong basis and a suitable long-term planning. Montagne Planneau should already be considered as a very high priority for integration into the network of protected areas. Indeed, it has an outstanding value in terms of biodiversity and water catchments (Gardiner 1907; and pers.obs.), but is still mostly ignored and absent from PAs documents. This is to me one of the most important gaps in the actual system of protected areas. 32. National PAs Policy: Develop, through an iterative process of stakeholder consultation, and publish a National Protected Areas Policy (see Nevill 2010). 33. PAs management plans: For all protected areas, develop management plans that are designed in the context of an overarching Protected Areas Network (Emerton et al. 2006; Hockings 2003). For management, see also more specific recommendations in Nevill 2010, in "Policy" and "Institutional". 34. Legislation review / update: Create a single law for protected areas, which consolidates, as much as pragmatically possible, transfer, all PA categories under one law (e.g. a revised / updated NPNCA, National Parks and Nature Conservancy Act) (Nevill 2010). See also more specific recommendations in Nevill 2010, in "Legislation". 35. Develop international / regional collaborations: Finally, in order to develop local capacities and knowledge, it is indispensable to put more emphasis on developing international and regional collaborations. There are many ways to do this. A Global Island Plant Conservation Network (GIPCN) now exists that facilitate contacts. Phylogenetic studies are a good opportunity and should be promoted (i.e. facilitate access to samples), especially for projects which aims not only at developing knowledge on a one-shot bases but also aims at developing concrete long term links between future partners of future projects. This is especially important because there is a gap of taxonomic knowledge in the Seychelles, which knowledge is the base of everything.

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Protista, non eucaryots and others (corresponding to the chapter III.11) 1. Develop GIS for environmental factors: One of the most important layer would be a map of rain fall patterns for each of the main granitic islands, at least Mahé. This should include the annual rain fall but not only, e.g. maximum number of consecutive dry months, Köppen climate type, etc. (see also Köppen 1918; Kottek et al. 2006; Rivas-Martínez et al. 2004) Senterre, Rocamora, Bijoux, Mortimer & Gerlach (2010) Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5

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Land mammals 1 Extend comparative DNA analysis to all bat species, and complete by comparative measurements of Voice (echo-location) and Ecology; and undertake measurements of genetic diversity at infra-specific level for Sheath-tailed bat and other rare species 2. Encourage collection and storage of samples of invasive land mammals from all islands, especially when an eradication is planned for future studies. 3. Produce a publication (poster, guide, etc.) allowing for the identification of all Seychelles bats, especially new species identified from Aldabra. 4. Improve knowledge on the distribution of Sheath-tailed bat in the large granitic islands and of rare bat species on Aldabra. 5. Determine the distribution of all introduced mammals in the outer islands (presence/absence in the different islands). 6. Encourage further studies on bat communities, especially in the Aldabra group, and compare them with those from neighbouring islands and archipelagos. 7. Encourage identification, inventory and mapping of habitats being used or suitable for bats, especially for rare or endangered endemic forms. 8. Specific research needs to be conducted in Seychelles to determine key parameters of the biology of certain species of bats, including their movements for fruit bats through miniature GPS or other type of tags as they become available. 9. Conduct more research on the biology and ecology of introduced mammals in Seychelles. 10. Develop research on the ecological functioning of ecosystems affected by introduced mammals. 11. Undertake more research on patterns of bat biodiversity in Seychelles, with a species focus on Aldabra. 12. Encourage additional research on the impact of introduced mammals on native biodiversity 13. Determine or update national population size estimates for all Seychelles bats, both in the inner and outer islands, with a priority for rare and threatened species. 14. Consider monitoring extent of (potentially or actually used) habitat and/or food source availability for bats in Seychelles, at least for rare and threatened species. 15. Further research should be conducted on threats on bats, especially the impact of invasive species (mammals, birds, plants) 16. Investigate economic benefits associated with bats (e.g. ecotourism, human consumption); as well as the very high negative economic value of introduced mammals such as rats on ecosystems and human society. 17. Update the inventory of Environment Sensitive Areas in Seychelles, with a special importance for bats. 18. Produce a new Red Data Book for Seychelles using IUCN guidelines. 19. Encourage research on possible effects of pesticides and other chemicals (used in agriculture, around hotels & habitations) on bats in Seychelles. 20. Determine levels of harvest sustainability on the Seychelles Fruit bat, which trapping and consumption is authorised under certain conditions. 21. Produce a consistent Species Action Plan for the critically endangered Sheath-tailed bat and advertise it, this species being the most threatened vertebrate of Seychelles. 22. Develop species and habitat restoration programmes and associated research activities to improve the conservation status of the Sheath-tailed bat, and to control or eradicate introduce invasive mammals (see also Threats). 23. Protect roosting sites of bats, especially caves of the critically endangered Sheath tailed bat, prevent anthropogenic disturbance, control introduced predators, and conduct further monitoring and research into species biology and ecology. 24. Encourage conservation medicine research on diseases and parasites affecting bats and introduced mammals such as rats, especially those that can be transmitted to other native species and humans (e.g. leptospirosis). 25. Integrate the needs of the critically endangered Sheath tailed-bat into future land use planning. 26. Promote research activities within protected areas, while always kept compatible with the mission of conservation and protection of the bat populations concerned. 27. Consider integrating some popular publications, at least those with some relevant information not published elsewhere, into the database. 28. Promote legislation, policies and international conventions willing to improve the protection and conservation of bat populations in Seychelles, and prevent the spread of invasive alien mammals, especially colonisation of rat-free islands 29. Conserve traditional races of introduced animals farmed in Seychelles and important for agricultural purposes (NOT in the wild). Senterre, Rocamora, Bijoux, Mortimer & Gerlach (2010) Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5

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Marine mammals 1. Our knowledge of the occurrence of cetaceans in the western Indian Ocean is still preliminary. Basic surveys to document what species occur in Seychelles are needed throughout the territorial waters of Seychelles. 2. Genetic studies of cetacean populations throughout the Indian Ocean region and beyond are needed to clarify phylogenetic relationships, patterns of migration, and population structure. 3. The use of guidebooks with a regional focus need to be promoted to enable effective data gathering . 4. Habitat preference of cetaceans warrants much further study 5. Almost any information about the biology and general ecology, including geographic movements, of most species of cetaceans would provide valuable insights about these poorly studied species. Almost any observations of live animals are of value. When stranded animals are encountered necropsies need to be conducted to record data on diet, reproductive state, and other characteristics relative to the natural history of the animals 6. Baseline surveys and long term monitoring is needed to identify habitats with the highest conservation value and to quantify population trends; to be done as part of a regional network. 7. Threats to cetaceans (such as pollution, boat collision, etc.) need to be better identified and evaluated. Techniques that can be used to assess such threats are discussed by Kiszka et al. (2008b), Kiszka et al. (2008c), and Kiszka et al. (2009). Moore et al. (2010) present a revised protocol for future interview-based bycatch assessments. 8. Seychelles needs to: better enforce current legislation that prohibits the capture of cetaceans in Seychelles waters; integrate into EIA guidelines evaluation of risks linked to oil and gas exploration techniques; and regulate recreational interactions betwen humans and marine mammals (i.e., guidelines for eco-tourism, divers, etc). 9. Seychelles needs to establish a network of protected areas in the outer islands of Seychelles where cetaceans and dugongs can be better protected and systematically monitored and better protected. 10. Advocate for renewal of the Indian Ocean Whale Sanctuary, a concept originally proposed by Seychelles in the 1980s, which will enhance the ecotourist potential for Seychelles and the region. 11. Seychelles needs to encourage cetacean tourism in its territorial waters and also to design official protocols and sensitise tourism operators in regard to approaching the animals in order to prevent their harassment and to avoid dangerous situations. 12, Education and awareness programmes about conservation issues related to marine mammals need to be developed and conducted. 13, Conduct more research to reduce the problem of depredation by cetaceans on long-liners.

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Birds 1.Complete lacking taxonomical studies for all Seychelles endemic forms, starting by the most threatened ones, including measurements of genetic differentiation at both inter and intra specific level, but also the analysis of vocal and ecological differentiation where appropriate. 2. Compile a catalogue of all known bird specimens collected in Seychelles and now scattered across many museums around the world, mainly in Europe and the USA. 3. Prepare an identification audio CD providing sounds and calls for all the birds of Seychelles, including Aldabra & the outer islands. 4, Continue to update regularly the checklist of the birds of Seychelles and publications giving official local names in Creole. 5, Consider producing an Atlas of the birds of Seychelles, providing the distribution maps for all resident and regular migrants species, for the larger islands (Mahé, Praslin, Silhouette, La Digue). 6,. Encourage studies on Seychelles bird communities, especially seabird or waterbird communities from specific islands or atolls, to compare them with other archipelagos. 7. Encourage mapping of habitats suitable for birds as part as biological assessments of islands in view of reintroductions of endangered species in an ecosystem approach perspective, and of the IBA inventory revision. 8, Undertake specific research to investigate the biology of non-breeding species in Seychelles, including migrant landbirds, waders and seabirds. 9, Continue ecological research on endemic species, both the threatened and also the unthreatened ones, and on breeding seabirds. 10. Encourage more specific studies on species interactions, relationship between bird communities and their habitats, and the determinism of environmental factors on both. 11. Undertake more research on patterns of bird biodiversity in Seychelles Senterre, Rocamora, Bijoux, Mortimer & Gerlach (2010) Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5

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12. Encourage additional biogeographic and phylogenetic studies, especially for endemic species. 13. Compile or update national population size estimates for shorebirds, seabirds and rare landbird species for both the inner and outer islands, and produced or update population size and trends estimates for common landbirds. 14. Monitor size of suitable habitat for all rare and threatened bird species, as well as shorebirds especially in IBAs and islands threatened by human developments. 15. Continue monitoring and research on threats, including invasive species and climate change, for bird populations, especially rare and threatened species, but also seabird and waterbird populations (e.g. invasive species on endemic landbirds, overfishing of tunas on seabirds). 16. Encourage research and monitoring on diseases and parasites affecting or likely to affect native birds (landbirds, seabirds and shorebirds), with a focus on threatened species. Closer links should be developped between NGOs, Vet health department and the avicultural sector regarding diseases that may contaminate wild birds, and vice-versa in the case of migrants. 17. Studies on the economic value of birds should be developed, especially in the context of ecotourism. However, island introductions of threatened endemics should always be done for the best interest of the species, and not mainly for economic or other reasons. 18. Update the inventory of Important Bird Areas for Seychelles, and promote it throughout decision makers and the general public through a national publication. 19. Encourage research to identify Important Bird Areas at sea around Seychelles and beyond in the Indian Ocean. 20. Produce a new Red Data Book for Seychelles using IUCN guidelines. 21. Encourage research on possible effects of pesticides and other chemicals (used in agriculture, around hotels and habitations) on endemic and native birds in Seychelles. 22. Identify EIAs providing a genuine contribution to the knowledge of bird populations in particular sites. 23. Species Action Plans for all Globally Threatened bird species should be updated regularly, and circulated to all decision makers and stakeholders in Seychelles. 24. Conduct more research on measures to minimise bycatch and possible impact of overfishing of predator fishes like tunas on seabird populations (also covered by 15). 25. Encourage further island or habitat restoration programmes through specific projects and partnerships, in a more ecosystem approach perspective. 26. Consider projects to rehabilitate or restore habitats for waterbirds, to restore the carrying capacity of Mahé and the granitic Seychelles for these communities. 27. Promote research activities within protected areas, while always kept compatible with the mission of conservation and protection of the bird populations concerned. 28. Encourage more studies on impact of land management (fire, beach erosion, etc.) on bird populations and prevention methods. 29. Consider integrating popular publications, at least those with some relevant information not published elsewhere, into the database (ex: Birdwatch articles, Zwazo articles and other popular articles). 30. Undertake more studies on legislation, policies and international conventions in order to improve the protection and conservation of bird populations in Seychelles. 31. Assess the conservation status of all IBAs and pass the necessary legislations to ensure that they are adequately protected.

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Reptiles 1. For turtles, further work is needed to clarify the taxonomic status of the giant tortoises (i.e. how many extant species there are and what Latin binomials are appropriate for the Aldabra tortoise) the relationship between terrapins in Seychelles and mainland Africa, and for green turtles and hawksbills, the degree of variation between nesting populations within Seychelles and the relationships to those at the regional and global level 2. The taxonomy of lizards in Seychelles needs further revision 3. Identification tools will need to be produced to incorporate the eventual revisions currently underway for tortoises and lizards. 4. Distribution maps for lizards and snakes need to be produced once once taxonomic revisions are complete. Distribution of foraging sea turtles of various age classes throughout the WIO region needs further study. 5. What marine foraging habitats are utilized by the various age classes of sea turtles of all species needs further study, as does habitat utilization by various species of lizards & snakes. 6. More study of the in-water ecology of sea turtles is needed for all species and age classes. Studies of reproductive and feeding ecology of lizards and snakes are needed for all species.


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7. Given the relatively high biomass of reptiles in both marine and terrestrial ecosystems of Seychelles more study of the role of reptiles in ecosystem functioning is warranted for virtually all species in Seychelles. 8. The functioning of both terrestrial and marine ecosystems in Seychelles warrants continued study. 8. Questions relating to biodiversity and biogeography of the herpetofauna of Seychelles remain unanswered, and given the unique situation of Seychelles as a group of islands scattered across the western Indian Ocean with shared componenets of both Asian and African flora and fauna, this topic warrants further study. 9. National populations sizes and trends for all native species of reptile fauna need continued monitoring--i.e. sea turtle nesting populations, wild and feral tortoise populations, terrapins, and lizard species. 10. Continued monitoring of the status of habitat for all native reptile species is critical. For sea turtles this includes monitoring of beach profiles and incubation temperatures as they relate to climate change and sea level rise. 11. Illegal sea turtle exploitation needs to be monitored and prosecuted. 12. Exploitation of reptile species for the pet trade needs to be monitored (i.e. tortoises, and various species of lizards & snakes). 13. Develop programmes that integrate ecotourism with turtle monitoring and create tourism facilities for giant tortoises. 14. Restoration and protection of marshes in perpeturity is critical and reintroduction of terrapins to these sites should be encouraged where appropriate. 15. Establishment of feral tortoise populations at islands that can accommodate them should be encouraged. 16, Monitor the presence of invasive reptiles, such as the Crested Tree Lizard, control their numbers and distribution and eradicate them where feasible. 17. Capacity of Seychellois veterinarians needs to be developed to enable them to deal with sea turtles injured by poachers or other anthropegenic factors, and tortoises injured accidently (for example by vehicles on private islands). Restrictions preventing transfer of tortoises between islands needs to be defined and enforced to preclude possible transfer of disease. 18. In the outer islands, a network of protected areas for nesting sea turtles, that would be large enough and away from the effect of artificial lighting or coastal development need to be defined, and assigned complete protection in perpetuity. 19. Campaigns of public awareness, education of school children, training of conservation and relevant government services personnel about conservation of native reptiles and prevention of invasion by exotic reptiles need to be continued in the long term. 20. Continue to implement and promote management protocols/measures (e.g. seasonal protections) to promote sea turtle conservation.

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Amphibians & freshwater fishes 1. Identification of Praslin sooglossid – the ongoing investigation into the identity (species) and origin (native/introduced) of the Praslin sooglossid is a very high priority. 2. Species distribution data: improve knowledge on Caecilian and freshwater fishes distribution, fine scale mapping could be carried out for frogs but is a low priority. 3. Caecilian ecology – full studies of caecilian ecology describing their preferential habitats, and how environmental parameters this determines their distribution are a high priority. Investigate how important marshes and possibly other restricted threatened habitats are for the different species of Caecilians. 4. Ecological studies: studies of ecology are needed for all amphibans. These should expand dietary data for sooglossids and tree frogs and initiate dietary studies for caecilians. Studies of reproductive dynamics are needed for all species. Ecological studies of the fish populations should also be considered 5. Ecological Biodiversity studies –a fully detailed analysis of diversity should be carried out as soon as basic ecological data on the factors that will determine distribution (e.g. diet and reproduction) become available are needed before a fully detailed analysis of diversity can be carried out. This is particularly true for caecilians, 6. Population genetics - population genetic studies should be carried out for all species to identify important populations and particular areas of high conservation value. 7. Conservation priorities - priorities are easily defined for the restricted range Sooglossidae but ecological studies are needed before such areas can be defined for caecilians. 8. Monitoring - Specific monitoring methods for caecilians need to be developed in a dedicated research programme. All monitoring programmes should produce an annual report for circulation to parties interested in amphibians and to the Amphibian Specialist Group of IUCN for information and publication. Regular monitoring should be implemented for selected populations of freshwater fish. 9. Implement monitoring for chitridomycosis infection using the Mascarene frog as an indicator Invasive species research – Investigate effects of introduced invasive species on Amphibians (e.g. crazy ants and Senterre, Rocamora, Bijoux, Mortimer & Gerlach (2010) Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5

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tenrecs on Vallée de Mai). The current distribution of alien species of amphibians and freshwater fishes (eg, rivers, pathways) and their possible impacts, should be researched. 10. Protected Areas Network: Include Montagne Planeau as a protected area. 11. Implement habitat management favourable to amphibians in protected areas; including extension of habitat restoration in mid-high altitude forests on Mahé and Silhouette 12. Monitor for the presence of chitridiomycosis and other infections using the Mascarene frog as an indicator and set up assurance colonies if infection is detected 13. Draw attention of Gvt Services (customs, SAA, DoE, etc.) and public on risks associated with introduced species of amphibians & freshwater fishes, and associated diseases; and on situation/progress of chitridiomycosis in neighbouring countries 14, Legislation: beyond forbidding the importation of alien species into the country, their release into the wild should be strictly prohibited and punishable by law. This recommendation should not be limited to amphibians and freshwaters fishes but should concern all other taxonomic groups.

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Marine Fishes 1. Exploration gap analysis: The pelagic and coral reef associated species around the inner islands and Aldabra have been extensively explored. Future explorations should focus on the less visited island groups between Aldabra and the inner islands, mangrove and brackish water environment and the edge of the plateaux for species that are not targeted by current fishing gears. 2. Specimens distribution: Investment is required to document the location of the various fish species from the Seychelles that are being held overseas by different museums and research organisations. 3. Prepare basic identification guide providing clear identification characteristics with accepted Creole name for commercially exploitable species. This will solve problems associated with naming of species and accurate collection of data by concerned authorities. 4. Encourage research comparing fish communities between different parts of the country and factors that are responsible for observed differences. 5. Make use of genetics to explore connectivity between populations at the national and regional level especially for commercially, emblematic or regionally endemic species. 7. Encourage studies focussing on species ecology, especially of coral reef associated species and those that are commercially targeted. These studies should aim at understanding how events such as coral bleaching or overharvesting could affect fish and greater marine community. 8. Encourage research on the reproductive timing and biology of species and integrate those into species management plans. 9. Encourage research dealing with ecosystem functioning of fishes in all types of marine environment 10. Increase research on factors that are responsible for driving biodiversity in fish communities, especially those relating to climate change and overharvesting of target species. 11. Participate in regional and international studies on the biogeography of fish species, especially those focussing on the western Indian Ocean Biodiversity Hotspot. 12. Undertake regular stock assessment for the main commercially targeted species. 13. Make use of long-term data series on reef fish species (e.g. combined SEYMEMP and GVI data) to look at status of populations and integrate results into management, especially in Marine Protected Areas 14. Continue with enforcement of current regulations regarding restrictions of fishing gears 15. Promote ecosystem based management of marine habitats so as to create optimal conditions to promote maintenance of high biodiversity, growth and reproduction. 16. Draft, revise and implement action plans for potentially overharvested species (e.g. sharks, bumped parrotfish, Napoleon wrasse) 17. Determine level for sustainable exploitation of commercially targeted species. Where current exploitation is above the defined amount introduce measures to bring the level of harvesting within sustainable limits. 18. Promote consumption of locally abundant species such as tuna by making them more readily available at cheaper prizes. 19. Find ways to make better use of fish bycatch from the tuna fishery. 20. Actively collate historical information on population levels of different species to act as baselines. 21. Pilot habitat restoration projects and document their effectiveness in increasing fish diversity and biomass. 22. Revise the Fisheries Protection Act and its associate legislations to ensure that it is up-to-date and can adequately respond to present day challenges. 23. Implement actions to deter illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fisheries in Seychelles waters. 24. Review effectiveness of current MPA network in fisheries management and strengthen organisations responsible for managing MPAs.


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25. Strengthen the Seychelles Fishing Authority so that it could carry out more research on exploitable species and have a more active management. 26. Strengthen civil society organisations such as the Fishing Boat Owners Association, Praslin Fishermen Association and Association for Shark Fishermen so that they could become more active in fisheries management. 27. SFA should regularly make information on long term stock or catch of species available to fishermen and the general public so that threats that the fisheries are facing could be better understand.

3 5 3

Marine Scleractinia 1. The various Seychelles coral specimens being held in museums and research organisations overseas should be documented. 2. A checklist of Seychelles species should be drafted and should incorporate results from recent publications and collections. Manuals and identification keys for corals are widespread and easily obtainable and hence there are no major local needs. 3. Detailed maps of coral reef environment (such as those recently produced by Cambridge University using CASI) should be produced and made available to environmental professionals and researchers. 4. Future research on corals should aim at understanding their ecology in relation to other keystone species. 5. Promote research studying the role of corals in the functioning of other reef dwelling species (e.g. crabs, echinoderms). 6. Increase research on biology of coral species, especially with regards to reproductive biology and how they cope with impacts such as warm water temperature, high turbidity, sedimentation and pollution. 7. Management organisation should learn from best practices being developed across the word with regards to the management of corals and coral reefs by forging partnerships and ties with similar organisations (e.g. GBR Marine Parks Authority). 8. Increase research on factors that are responsible for driving biodiversity in corals, especially those relating to climate change and natural phenomenon such as storms. 9. Participate in research looking at connectivity of Seychelles to other parts of the Indian Ocean using coral species with restricted distribution as a proxy. 10. Continue with the implementation of active coral reef monitoring programmes and expand in places where there is little information such as in many of the Southern Seychelles islands. 11. Limit threats to corals by reducing land based sources of pollution relating to the input of terrestrial sediments and high levels of nutrients. 12. Make use of land use planning to limit harmful activities close to the boundary of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). 13. Limit physical damage to reef structure by restricting activities such as reef dredging and land reclamation over coral reefs. 14. Adhere to restrictions on international trade of coral products imposed by CITES. 15. Since the local curio trade is small, allow for licensed harvesting of some corals for sale locally. 16. Put measures in place to limit tourism impacts on coral reefs. 17. Pilot different rehabilitation techniques to promote the recovery of degraded coral reefs, especially those that are affected by physical abrasion from coral rubble. 18. Control the population of black spine sea urchin to promote recovery of coral reef at economically viable sites (e.g. MPAs). 19. Improve zoning of current MPA network to better protect coral refugia within them. 20. Strengthen the Department of Environment and the National Parks Authority to better enforce environmental legislation concerned with the protection of corals and coral reefs. 21. Revise and harmonise environmental legislation concerned with the protection of corals and coral reefs. . 22. Review effectiveness of current MPA network in protection of corals and strengthen organisations responsible for managing MPAs. 23. Strengthen the Seychelles National Parks Authority so that it could carry out more research on corals, coral reefs and associated habitats. 24. Strengthen civil society organisations such as environmental NGOs so that they could become more involve in marine conservation. 25. SNPA should regularly analyse data from coral reef monitoring programmes and make the results widely available to the general public. 26. Propagate coral species that are able to cope with higher water temperature in view of predicted increase in sea surface temperature. 27. Identify new coral refugia and provide them with certain degree of protection. Senterre, Rocamora, Bijoux, Mortimer & Gerlach (2010) Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase - Output 5

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Marine Invertebrates other than Scleractinia 1. Future explorations should focus on the less studied groups such as the Cnidaria (with exception of the hard and soft corals), ascidians, flatworms, etc. as well as deeper areas that can now be accessed using SCUBA. 2. Exploration efforts should focus around the less explored islands between the Aldabra and the inner islands. 3. A checklist of all known Seychelles marine invertebrate species should be produced and made available for scientific use. 4. Specimens being held overseas should be documented. 5. Little exist in terms of identification guide for locally occurring marine invertebrates and for some groups there are little taxonomical experience globally. It is hence recommended that we make use of international publish identification guides for most groups. 6. For commercially exploited marine invertebrates a colour guide should be produced to facilitate identification and for fisheries monitoring purposes. 7. Curation of marine invertebrate should be initiated at the Natural History Museum. 8. Future studies of marine invertebrates should also contain information on associated habitats and species. 9. Studies on marine invertebrates should be encouraged across all fields of biology and ecology due to the chronic lack of information. 10. Undertake regular stock assessment for the commercially targeted species (e.g. lobsters, sea cucumbers). 11. Make information of stock and catch of exploited marine invertebrate available to fishermen so that they can see for themselves the trends in status of resources. 12. Implement management measures to commercially exploited species. 13. Determine level for sustainable exploitation of commercially targeted species. Where current exploitation is above the defined amount introduce measures to bring the level of harvesting within sustainable limits. 14. Actively collate historical information on population levels of different exploited species to act as baselines. 15. Ensure that it is clear which organisation has mandate for the protection or management of particular species. 16. Improve information dissemination on the diversity of marine invertebrates, their current and potential use.


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Terrestrial & freshwater invertebrates 1. Exploration gap analysis: recent invertebrate surveys have aimed to cover geographical areas that have been neglected previously, accordingly geographical coverage is good. Further surveys would be appropriate for the taxa that needs further taxonomic work (see 2 below) and for one group which has not been collected adequaterly - Nematoda. 2. Taxonomic revisions and faunas: Completion of the ongoing taxonomic monograph series (scheduled for 2011). The following groups are research priorites but are constrained by a lack of taxonomists globally:Platyhelminthes, -Annelida, -Symphyla, -Acari 3. Specialist identification resources: Completion of the ongoing taxonomic monograph series (scheduled for 2011). 4. Non-specialist identification resources: Preparation of a basic level identification guide(s) 5. Species distribution data: Knowledge on species distribution from recommendations 2 and 3 should be reliable but is not easily interpreted. A database of distributions could be compiled 6. Ecological studies – in-depth ecological studies should be carried out for all invertebrates habitats and communities identified. Identify main different invertebrate communities and indicators in different habitat types. (linked with No. 7).

5 5 3 2 3 4 3 4

7. Invertebrate habitat studies – in-depth ecological studies should be carried out for all habitats 8. Ecological studies – basic ecological studies should be carried out on a wide range of invertebrates, and focused on indicator species. A range of species and habitats needs to be covered before any comprehensive discussion can be made of general ecology and ecosystem function. Studies of invertebrates should include both native/endemic species and invasives (especially ants). 9. Interactions with production sector – promote studies to investigate benefits and negative interactions between terrestrial & freshwater invertebrates (both local and alien) with essential sectors of the economy (agricultural production, soil fertility, heath, tourisme). 9. Plot-based analyses: using quantitative survey data detailed analysis of the patterns of diversity should be undertaken, using quantitative survey data to understand what determines invertebrate biodiversity. 10. Occurrence-based analyses: species distribution data could be analysed to produced general diversity patterns in more detail than has been attempted to date. 11. Biogeography: Molecular studies of a wide range of selected taxa are urgently needed. Our understanding of biogeography in Seychelles has fallen behind international standards and DNA based studies need to be encouraged to remedy this quickly. 13. Invasive species database: A comprehensive database of invasive species should be created and developed, as is recommended for plants. 14. Conservation priorities: completion of Red Listing for all Seychelles biodiversity is needed. 15. Climate change: Studies on the impact of climate change on invertebrates have not been undertaken. As invertebrates may be particularly sensitive to climate change (Deutsch et al 2008) some invertebrate species will probably prove to be highly sensitive indicators of climate change 16. Site management - habitat restoration and management to promote diversity and abundance of invertebrates is urgently needed in all key forest areas. 17. Marsh protection - as the most threatened habitat all remaining marshes should be protected as an immediate priority. This should be the highest level of protection possible to prevent any further drainage and pollution. 18. Research - studies of the conservation needs of species identified as at risk (in recommendation 14) should be undertaken to determine the best ways of conserving these species. 19. Awareness – develop educational/information programmes on benefits and negative interactions between terrestrial & freshwater invertebrates, both local and aliens, with essential sectors of the economy: agriculture production, soil fertility, health, tourisme,etc. 20. Preventive measures for aliens – enhancement of measures to prevent introduction and spread of alien species into the country


5

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IV.2

About the logic and the meaning of prioritisation

There are several major problems to "prioritizing": -Firstly, comparing recommendations made in very distinct groups or disciplines is sometimes like comparing pears and apples, i.e. incommensurability. -Secondly, we need to make the difference between importance and priority. Of course, the most important should be the main priority, but achieving some objectives may require previously treating other problems, which may not seem very important themselves but would be also priorities if they are a sine qua non condition for achieving the big objective. In the present consultancy, levels of priority are often actually understood as levels of importance. -Thirdly, even for a given recommendation, two distinct persons may have totally different point of view, i.e. subjectivity.

For these reasons, it would be best to combine "prioritization" with "contextualisation", i.e. ensure a "comprehensive" approach, where many recommendations are listed and especially where the links between the recommendations are emphasized. Then, these recommendations would not be seen as isolated entities, compared one to another, rated on a single linear scale from low to high, but would be seen within their context (e.g. Figure 5), in a multidimensional space of prioritisation. This means that the priorities would depend on the context. Consider the following quote from Edgard Morin about "complex thinking" (not to be confused with complicated thinking ...): "Il nous faut comprendre que la révolution d’aujourd’hui se joue non tant sur le terrain des idées bonnes ou vraies opposées dans une lutte de vie et de mort aux idées mauvaises et fausses, mais sur le terrain de la complexité du mode d’organisation des idées"4 (Edgar MORIN, La Méthode 4-Les idées, page 238). The workshop focused largely on the "recommendations", taken one by one, and for which the "priority level" was discussed. But, it is important that the stakeholders not take the recommendations and their "agreed priority level" too much to the letter. These recommendations should not become a constraint to future research but should be no more than a guiding tool. Remember also that the scientific research that will develop first will partly depend on some opportunist factors, like funds available through projects, available capacities in the country, and solicitations from international collaborations.

4

Here traduced: We need to understand that nowadays the revolution is not so much in terms of ideas good or true opposed in a deadly fight against ideas bad or false, but more in terms of the complexity of the organisation of ideas.


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23. Phylogeography 7. Gazetteer of localities 35. Develop collaborations in the region

Develop local capacities

3. Taxonomic revisions and floras 6. Interactive keys of identification, practical tools Taxonomy awareness

35. Develop international and regional collaborations

1. Exploration gap analysis (compilation of specimens) New exploration missions and collections 8. Species distribution data

Priority 5 4 3 2

9. Vegetation gap analysis (literature review) 10. New vegetation inventories (plots)

4. Virtual Herbarium 5. Herbarium library

12. Field guides of habitat types

13. Vegetation mapping

11. National System of Habitat types 14. Ecological groups database

20. Occurrence-based diversity analyses

19. Plot-based diversity analyses 21. Phylogenetic diversity / structure

24. Invasive plant species database 26. Climate change impact 27. Reclaim degraded lands for agriculture / forestry 28. Reorganize forestry

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29. Protected Areas (PAs) review categories

Population size and trends

22. Phytogeography 16. Vegetation dynamics and ecosystem processes

15. Plant functional types 17. Species interactions 18. Species biology and general ecology

30. PAs criteria

25. Conservation priorities

31. Protected Areas Network effectiveness

32. National PAs Policy

33. PAs management plans

SUSTAINABLE USE AND CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY RESOURCES

34. Legislation review / update

Figure 5. Contextualized picture of the recommendations made for plants and their links, as a base for interpretation, and reinterpretation of the priority levels. The position of the recommendations tries to emphasize the analogies between the species and the ecosystem levels of organisation, respectively the left and right sides of the figure.


2. National Herbarium (curation, database, awareness)

Gaps and recommendations sp. ecosyst. Vegetation database (plots)

V

CONCLUSIONS

During the last workshop (30/9/2010), the remaining outputs of the present consultancy have all been demonstrated and discussed, i.e. output 4 (consolidated list of data sources) and output 5 (gap analysis and prioritization). Datasets have been compiled on the biodiversity of the Seychelles (Output 4a). Their citation can be consulted along with the most important metadata in several outputs: 4a (Word version), attached Excel file (see details in Output 4b: flat version of the metadatabase) and in the Access metadatabase itself. For specific searches of gaps of knowledge, or for searches on the existing knowledge, the user may explore these outputs. The present document (output 5) represents such an analysis by the consultants in their respective taxonomic fields. The reader will find here our interpretation of the datasets found, sometimes in the form of an annotated bibliography, sometimes in the form of a synthesis of the knowledge itself. Throughout the text, what we considered gaps of knowledge are introduced and discussed, and recommendations are made emphasizing all the gaps that need to be addressed (in our sense), in the near or far future, with a proposed level of priority (that could be further discussed). It is important to remind here that both "defining gaps of knowledge" and "prioritizing these gaps" is a partly subjective exercise, i.e. it will often depend on personal experiences, interests, etc. Since two persons will nearly always have somewhat different experiences, interests, etc., debating the priorities may ends in pseudo-conclusions (i.e. affirmations of truth that are actually relative belief). Debates should not be centered on "who is right", "where are the mistakes", "what is the best practice", etc., but should concretely serve to decision making on short, medium and long term. Such decisions and actions will need to consider the local constraints, i.e. the local capacities, local experiences, and local interests. And these local characteristics are not unchangeable: capacities develop, interests change. Hence, these recommendations should be considered as a simple guiding tool to help fill the gaps for future research on biodiversity in Seychelles.

VI

REFERENCES

References are not repeated here: see output 4a for Seychelles datasets, and output 3 for international "best practice references".

VII APPENDICES Appendix 1. Introduction to some references, listed in output 3 as "best" practices, to complement recommendations made for the gap analysis on plants, or more generally. Appendix 2. Minutes of Workshop on Gap Analysis (30/09/10) (by Venessa Quatre, with input by Gérard Rocamora) Appendix 3. Slide presentation made by B. Senterre during the workshop (General introduction; Plants and Fungi; Databases) Appendix 4. Slide presentation made by G. Rocamora during the workshop (Land Mammals, Marine Mammals, Birds, Reptiles, Amphibians & Freshwater fishes, and Land & Freshwater Invertebrates) Appendix 5. Slide presentation made by J. Bijoux during the workshop (Marine fishes and invertebrates).


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Appendix 1. Introduction to some references, listed in output 3 as "best" practices, to complement recommendations made for the gap analysis on plants, or more generally. by Bruno SENTERRE Note that his text was originally written for the description of "best practice" criteria for biodiversity studies. This text was submitted to intern review of IBWG and it was decided that, although useful, it was outside the limits of the present consultancy. Later, this was again discussed with the stakeholders during the first workshop, and they agreed with the principle of "best practices" formulated as simple lists of references. Nevertheless, I thought that this text being written, it could be useful to share it with potentially interested stakeholders, or young researchers. It closely corresponds to the list of "best practice references" that I provided in output 3, which were just a copy of the reference list of the present text, where I retained only the most basic ones. The present document is an original synthesis for the objectives where I am more specialized (1-7 and 8-10 pro parte); for other objectives, it is just a basic introduction to some concepts and to some international references. I personally think that this is more appropriate for the aim of our consultancy than just a list of "best practice references" without any explanation. As a start, I think that it is very important to remind here the base of the scientific knowledge. What is the general attitude to adopt when investigating a specific question? Which questions do we need to ask ourselves to develop a good scientific reasoning and what are the principles of our scientific reasoning? I will not further develop this introduction but I will better make reference to several excellent documents that have been the most helpful to me, and that I therefore recommend: Fortin 2002; Knyazeva 2004; Kuhn 1970; Morin 1981, 1999a, 1999b, 2005a, 2005b, 2008; Vallejo-Gomez 2008. General sources of information on biodiversity: BHL (2010): The Biodiversity Heritage Library (BHL). - Online database. URL http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/. Botanicus (2010): Botanicus Digital Library. - Online database. URL http://www.botanicus.org/. Chapman, A.D. (2005): Uses of Primary Species-Occurrence Data, version 1.0. Report, Global Biodiversity Information Facility, Copenhagen. Digital Book Index (2000 -2010): Digital Book Index. - Online database, Thomas R. Franklin. URL http://www.digitalbookindex.org. e-journals (2010): Electronic Sites of Leading Botany, Plant Biology and Science Journals. - Online database. URL http://www.e-journals.org/botany/. Google (2010): Google Books. - Online database. URL http://books.google.com/. Google (2010): Google Scholar. - Online database. URL http://scholar.google.com. IA (1996 -2010): The Internet Archive. - Online database, San Francisco. URL http://www.archive.org/. IRD: Horizon / Pleins textes, la base de données documentaire de l'IRD. - Online database, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement. URL http://www.documentation.ird.fr/. ISI Web of Knoledge. URL http://isi15.isiknowledge.com

Appendix 1. Senterre - Introduction to further elements of "best" practice

1

JSTOR (2010): JSTOR Plant Science. - Online database. URL http://plants.jstor.org/. Royal Botanic Gardens (2010): Kewbooks - Publications of the Royal Botanic Gardens. Online database, Kew. URL http://www.kewbooks.com. Wikipedia - The free encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, http://en.wikipedia.org. 1. Which species do we have? If we want to know what we are losing, we need to know what we have. Starting from zero, the best practices to address this question include the following steps: 1-Collect specimens in representative areas, habitats and seasons in the studied region 2-Prepare, store and manage the collected specimens in a Herbarium 3-Compile the existing input data for a taxonomic revision 4-Review the collections of specimens, the nomenclature of involved taxa, and literature These activities are part of taxonomic studies, or are closely related to it, and taxonomic studies continuously review previous results based on additional data or collections. In taxonomic groups like plants and fungi, the number of species is so high that none of these activities can ever be considered as totally achieved. In addition, the flora and vegetation are dynamic, i.e. they change, or evolve, in time. Some species spread, or invade, others get extinct, etc. 1-Exploration methods Is there a best practice for biodiversity exploration? Exploration methods must be adapted to a given set of organisms depending on their biological type rather than coherent taxonomic units. Some methods are adapted to exploration of trees, but poorly efficient for exploration of epiphytes, etc. The best practices may be as numerous as the number of distinct biological types. Some reviews of methods exist for vascular plants (Senterre 2005b), canopy epiphytes (Stévart 2003; Stévart et al. 2010), Bryophyta (Frahm et al. 2003), Fungi and other groups (Hicks & Hicks 1978; Merwin & Nadkarni 2001; Mueller et al. 2004). In addition, the method will also be influenced by the state of knowledge of the studied area. Here, we will only introduce some of the main methods for most plants. The criteria that differentiate exploration methods are: -effort of observation associated with the collections (locality, gps, stand, etc.) -biological types collected (herbs, trees, shrubs, epiphytes, epiphyllous, etc.) -systematic inventory (all individuals within a given area) or not -environmental heterogeneity (homogeneous to very heterogeneous) -geographic range (surface explored and geographic extent) Mass collections: This method consists in collecting as much as possible (e.g. > 50 specimens per day, often much more). The collector walks along paths, roads or whatever and collects all species seen in a big bag, e.g. rice bags. It may be considered appropriate in places totally unexplored, and for taxonomic purpose only. The major disadvantage is that specimens are collected without detailed observations, e.g. without habitat and without locality. Many old collections (from the 19th century or earlier) were made based on this method which explains why old specimens sometimes hold very few information. Appendix 1. Senterre - Introduction to further elements of "best" practice

2

Transect collections: A transect consists in a continuous line, most often straight, crossing the major environmental gradients of a landscape, e.g up and down a mountain, across valleys, etc. Plants are observed on both sides of this line on a width varying on the focus, e.g. 25 m for timber trees to 1 m for smaller plants. When all individuals within the transect are observed and localised (position on the line), this method allows the finding of more species, especially those rarely flowering, or with cryptic flowers, or more difficult to see (Senterre 2005b). Indeed such plants are mostly missed if walking through, .i.e. without looking carefully all individuals. The main disadvantages are that the stand corresponding to the collected plants are rarely observed, and the focus is generally only on one type of plants. Nested plot collections: Several plots are nested within a given stand (i.e. ecologically homogeneous), each one adapted to the observation of a given biological type. The effort of observation is very high, most biological types are included, and all individuals receive attention. This method allows very detailed observations, and a very high potential for multi-purpose use, but has the disadvantage of covering generally only small areas (Senterre 2005b). This disadvantage can be reduced if the plots are placed not at random but in distinct stands along a transect. The author used this method in central Africa, in a National Park that had been explored intensively for a decade. Among one thousand of species collected, one hundred were extremely rare (e.g. known from very old collections only), and about 20 were new to science. Following the author, this is the best method, especially in areas where the flora is already relatively well known. 2-Exploration gap analysis At the same time as botanical explorations, or previously to it, it is good to know the amount of exploration already done, i.e. where, when, in which types of habitats, and for which types of plants. For this reason, a good flora or checklist should always include an introduction chapter giving an estimation of the degree of exploration, and especially on the gaps of exploration. The most basic indicator is the total number of specimens collected in the whole area. Ideally, these known collections should be mapped in order to visualize the areas not collected. If GPS coordinates are not available, this may be approximated by localities, or other administrative entities (e.g. districts, etc.). Not only the geographical gaps of collection should be assessed but also the ecological gaps. This may be achieved by assessing the number of specimens collected by habitat type. Such considerations are so important that some scientific papers only deal with that specific question (Friedmann 1983; Funk et al. 2005; Kier et al. 2005; Léonard 1965; Senterre 2005a). Note also that the chronological pattern of collection may be very important to consider, as for geographical and ecological components, in the case of seasonal habitats (dry vs. wet season) or groups (e.g. migrants, etc.). Thus, the best practice to assess the gap / non-gap of botanical explorations is by compiling a list of all historical collections made in the study area. Each specimen should be accompanied by the precise locality, GPS, habitat and collection date. The data compiled should then be analyzed preferably quantitatively (Funk et al. 2005), or semiquantitatively (Senterre 2005a).


3

3-Specimen preparation and Herbarium curation Once collected, the specimens must be prepared and stored in such a way that they can be preserved and studied for long term. The best practices related to these aspects have been abundantly detailed in the literature (Hicks & Hicks 1978). -For collecting vascular plants: Bean 2006; De Vogel 1987; Fish 1999; Womersley 1981 -For collecting Bryophytes: Frahm et al. 2003 -For collecting seaweeds: Collins 1901; Setchel 1931 -For collecting Fungi: Hawksworth 1974 -For curation aspects: Bridsen & Forman 1999; Fosberg & Sachet 1965; Hohn 2008 -For herbarium databases: Filer 2004, 2010; Pankhurst 1983, 1988 4-Taxonomic revisions When the studied area has been explored sufficiently, and the specimens stored properly, the next step is the taxonomic revision of the material in order to identify the correct name for the species collected. Many types of revisions exist like the description of new taxa, new records, checklists, floras, monographies of genus or family, etc. Such studies differ following their (1) geographical range, (2) taxonomic range and (3) revision intensity (see De Vogel 1987: p.11), but they share the same principles for the methods involved. Floras generally cover large taxonomic groups (e.g. all flowering plants) for local to regional scales. The intensity of the revision effort can vary a lot depending on the authors, time available and size of the flora (number of taxa included). In diverse areas, floras are often realized separately for distinct families. In all cases, such revisions will be facilitated if most species have already been described and if monographies already exist for the most complex families (Grimes 1998). Floras, monographies, or other types of taxonomic revisions are based on the same type of data (taxonomic data). Many documents exist that describe the best practices for taxonomic revisions. One of the most famous and most educative is De Vogel (1987); see also Grimes 1998; Leenhouts 1968; Maxted 1992. The basic elements to be considered are: 1-compile an index to all names of the taxa involved 2-compile an index to all specimens involved (i.e. herbarium vouchers) 3-compile an index to all the literature references involved 4-review as many specimens as possible and especially type specimens 5-identify the correct name of your specimens groups, and review the synonymies 6-write the flora (or monography, etc.) The first three steps need to be compiled in parallel. Finding of names will allow finding of specimens and literature references, which will in turn allow finding more of the other taxonomic data. Therefore, one has to start somewhere and progressively compile an as


4

comprehensive as possible amount of taxonomic input data. A practical example on how to proceed is detailed by De Vogel (1987, p.153). Nowadays, online taxonomic databases exist that greatly facilitate these steps: Index Kewensis (www.ipni.org), TROPICOS (separately for mosses and vascular plants, http://mobot.mobot.org), Base de données des plantes d'Afrique 3.3 (http://www.ville-ge.ch/musinfo/bd/cjb/africa/). In addition, many specimens (including types) and specimen data are now available online for the main world Herbaria, e.g. http://ww2.bgbm.org (B), http://apps.kew.org (K), http://coldb.mnhn.fr (P), www.linnean-online.org, http://plants.jstor.org/, http://www.aluka.org/action/doBrowse?sa=1. Many old taxonomic documents and paperfloras have been digitalised and are available online: www.botanicus.org, www.archive.org/details/floredelledela00jacorich (Flore de la Réunion), http://books.google.com (Baker's flora of Seychelles; Stoddart's "Biogeography and Ecology of the Seychelles Islands"), etc. For a more comprehensive list of online resources, see GBIF portal (Chapman 2005; http://www.gbif.org) and the present metadatabase. The basic principles for the revision of the specimens (4-5) are introduced by De Vogel (1987, p.76). For further details on the rules of nomenclature, in order to establish the correct name for the taxa recognized by the revision, the basic document is the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (De Vogel 1987: p.128; Mcneill & Barkworth 1996; Mcneill et al. 2006; see present metadatabase, Hicks & Hicks 1978 and Chapman 2005 for other Taxonomic Codes). Finally, once the taxa have been revised, their description can be created, updated or rectified. This will be done preferably using electronic flora methods (Dallwitz et al. 1993; for an example of flora written in DeLTa see Senterre & Castillo-Campos 2009) and using appropriate terms for observation of the characters and their states (see among many others Beentje 2010; De Vogel 1987; Gómez-Pompa & Moreno 1985; Harris & Harris 2001; Letouzey 1969; Moreno 1984; Radford et al. 1974; Rejmánek & Brewer 2001; Sporne 1970; Thirakul 1983). 5-Writing floras At this stage all the taxa present in your area are correctly named and the data sources clearly identified (indexes of names, references, and specimens with curational data). All this information need to be compiled into a comprehensive flora. Many authors have tried to define standards for the writing of flora (Frodin 2001; Palmer et al. 1995; Pyšek et al. 2004). We here present the key elements that should be included in a good flora, i.e. contributing to the "good practice". A flora should basically contains three sections: an introduction, the core part of the flora (species data), and indexes. The introduction section should include: -A description of the context of the flora (geographic and taxonomic limits, which should also appear in the title of the document), and of the studied material (number of taxa included, number of specimens included / seen, consulted herbaria) -A synthesis of the main collectors, main collected localities / Districts, islands, main collected habitats, main collected periods, and an analysis of exploration gaps -Keys of identification to families


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The core section of the flora should include: -Keys of identification to genera and to species or infraspecific levels -The described taxa ordered alphabetically, and providing information on: -Currently accepted and valid name for the taxon, followed by the place published and the type material corresponding to the name -List of synonyms, ordered chronologically, with place of publication and type material -Vernacular names in the study area -Full description (at least half a page, including biological type, diaspore type) -List of studied specimens (specimen citations, at least the most representative, ideally all) -Geographic distribution (distinguish native from exotic distribution) -Distribution map -Chorology (i.e. phytogeographical distribution) -Origin status (exotic, native, etc.) -Time and mode of immigration -Ecology (or habitat types, including functioning, niche) -Altitudinal range -Phenology (flowering, fruiting) -IUCN status -Invasiveness and Invasion concern -Uses and properties -Critical taxonomic notes (including diagnosis and similar taxa) -Literature references (where is the species cited) -Taxonomic illustrations (where is the species illustrated) The third section of the flora should include three indexes: -An index of all scientific names (including the synonyms) -An index of vernacular names -An index of cited specimens The citation of specimens is extremely important in "paper-floras". We need to know which specimens have been used, or seen, for the description of the taxa, or better said for the description of the "names". These names may be wrong, if the author made a mistake, or may change in the future, if subspecies are described later, or changes in synonymies, etc. Those specimen references are the only way for tracking and updating such mistakes or changes. For this purpose, standards exist and are relatively international for the citation of the reference specimens: collectors, collection number, herbarium depository, and the herbarium voucher(s) ID(s). For example, "F.R. Fosberg 52194 (P-91360; K-240601)" means that the specimen numbered 52194 and collected by Fosberg, has one duplicate deposited at the herbarium of Paris (with the ID number 91360) and another duplicate deposited at Kew (with the ID number 240601). In addition, in order to distinguish a specimen cited from a previous study, but not personally checked, from a specimen which has been checked, the cited specimens which were seen must be followed by a "!", e.g. "F.R. Fosberg 52194 (P-91360!; K-240601)". This means that I have personally checked the duplicate of Paris, but I have not seen the duplicate from Kew. Hopefully, all the duplicates from the same collection number


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should belong to the same species, but here again mistakes are not so rare (mixed collection or mistakes while mounting the duplicates). In some cases, the recording of species in a given region may be accepted without having any proof, i.e. specimen cited. This is the case for taxonomic groups with relatively few and well known species. But still, the experience of the person reporting the presence of the species may need to be considered, especially for young student thesis. Floras sometimes list species only known from such record under a special section "doubtful records". 2. How do we recognize these species? When knowledge on the species does already exist and is up to date, we generally still have the problem of recognizing them, especially in diverse groups. Taxa are described by specialists, but such taxonomists are rarely those proceeding to biodiversity inventories, and inversely. The former concentrate themselves most often on a very limited group of species (e.g. one genus, or one family), while the later will generally use taxonomically more widely defined indicators (e.g. all trees, or epiphytes, etc.). As a consequence, scientists inventorying biodiversity will need adapted tools that allow them managing the large amount of information produced by the taxonomists, in order to identify all or most of the species they will potentially see on the field. What concretely helps the non specialist to identify species on the field, or in the herbarium, is a well illustrated document, accompanied by good keys of identification. Traditional floras and faunas are the most widely used documents for such purpose, but field guides are also very precious (Lawrence & Hawthorne 2006). The former are generally poorly illustrated but contain detailed keys of identification, while the later are often extensively illustrated but with very few keys. Elaboration of keys of identification is closely linked to the discipline of classifying taxa, i.e. the systematic. Good keys of identification should reflect the systematic of the species included, i.e. should allow identification of supra-specific taxa and emphasize the corresponding characters. Ideally, vegetative characters (i.e. those generally present on all specimens) should be included as much as possible in the keys (Rejmánek & Brewer 2001) More recently, there has been a development of "electronic floras and faunas" (Dallwitz 1980; Dallwitz et al. 1993). Such tools allow more powerful taxonomic treatments and direct practical outputs with the production of interactive keys of identification that could be used by specialists and non-specialists to identify species. The user just has to "enter" the observed character on the plant in any order, generally beginning with the most striking characters (e.g. size of the leaves, flower, etc.). The software will automatically select all the taxa whose variability includes the character value entered. In addition, the software will propose the most relevant characters to distinguish the remaining taxa from the first round. Therefore the correct identification of a species only needs the user to understand the terminology of the characters (although the software can also propose illustration of characters and their states) and to have good observation skills.


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In addition to field guides and electronic floras, even more sophisticated tools have been developing like automatic image identification systems, DNA barcoding methods (Agarwal et al. 2006; Kress 2004; Kress & Krupnick 2006). Such methods will greatly improve the collection of missing information on the field. "A taxonomist who is on a field expedition should be able to readily access via wireless communication [...] critical comparative information on plant species that would allow him/her 1) to quickly identify the plant in question through electronic keys and/or character recognition routines, 2) to determine if the plant is new to science, 3) to ascertain what information, if any, currently exists about this taxon (e.g., descriptions, distributions, photographs, herbarium and spirit- fixed specimens, living material, DNA tissue samples and sequences, etc.), 4) to determine what additional data should be recorded (e.g., colours, textures, measurements, etc.), and 5) to instantaneously query and provide information to international taxonomic specialists about the plant. Providing these data directly and effectively to field taxonomists and collectors would greatly accelerate the inventory of plants throughout the tropics and greatly facilitate their protection and conservation as well." (Kress 2004: p.2125) Regional floras useful for the flora of Seychelles (cf. recommendation 5) Alston, A.H.G. & Schelpe, E.A.C.L.E. (1952): An annotated checklist of the Pteridophyta of Southern Africa. - Journal of South African Botany 18: 153-176. Australian Biological Resources Study (1998): Flora of Australia. Volume 48: Ferns, gymnosperms and allied groups. CSIRO Publishing, xxi + 766 pp. pp. Australian Government (2010): Flora of Australia Online. Australian Biological Resources Study. - Online database, Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Canbera. URL http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/abrs/onlineresources/flora/main/index.html. Badré, F. & Cadet, L.J.T. (1978): The pteridophytes of Reunion Island. - Fern Gaz. 11 (6): 349-365. Badré, F. (2009): Flore des Mascareignes: Ptéridophytes 1, Psilotacées à 26, Marsiléacées. IRD Editions. Beentje, H.J. & Ghazanfar, S.A. (2008-): Flora of Tropical East Africa. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. URL www.kewbooks.com Bosser, J. Flore des Mascareignes: La Réunion, Maurice, Rodrique. IRD Éditions, in association with Institut de recherche pour le développement, Paris, Mauritius Sugar Industry Research Institute, Ile Maurice and the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. URL www.kewbooks.com Brownsey, P.J. & Smith-Dodsworth, J.C. (1989): New Zealand ferns and allied plants. David Bateman Ltd., Auckland. Christensen, C. (1932): The pteridophyta of Madagascar. - Dansk. Bot. Ark. 7 (I-XV): 1253. Chuah-Petiot, M.S. (2003): Mosses, liverworts and hornworts of Kenya. An illustrated guide with descriptions and figures of over 300 species and keys for identification. Jouve, Paris, 273 pp. Crandall-Stotler, B. & Stotler, R. (2000): Morphology and classification of the Marchantiophyta. - In: A.J. Shaw & B. Goffinet (eds.): Bryophyte Biology. Pp. 21-70. Cambridge University Press.


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Crandall-Stotler, B., Stotler, R.E. & Long, D.G. (2009): Phylogeny and classification of the Marchantiophyta. - Edinburgh Journal of Botany 66 (1): 155-198. De Cordemoy, E.J. (1895): Flore de l'Ile de La Réunion (Phanérogames, Cryptogames vasculaires, Muscinées) avec l'indication des propriétés économiques & industrielles des plantes. - J. Lechevalier (ed.), Librairie Médicale & Scientifique, Paris, 574 pp. Exell, A.W. & Wild, H. Flora Zambesiaca. Kew Publishing and Flora Zambesiaca Managing Committee. www.kewbooks.com Humbert, H. (1936-): Flore de Madagascar et des Comores (plantes vasculaires). Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris. Jardin botanique national de Belgique (2010): Flore Numérique d'Afrique Centrale (République Démocratique du Congo, Rwanda & Burundi). Jardin Botanique National de Belgique, Bruxelles. http://www.br.fgov.be Jones, E.W. (1990): African Hepatics XL. An artificial key to the genera of African Hepatics. - J. Bryol. 16: 9-40. Madhusoodanan, P.V. & Nampy, S. (1998): Fern Flora of South India. Daya Pub. House, 141 pp. Merwin, M.C. & Nadkarni, N.M. (2001): 100 years of tropical bryophyte and lichen ecology: a bibliographic guide to the literature from 1901 - 2000. - Tropical Bryology 21: 97-118. Missouri Botanical Garden (2010): Catalogue of the Vascular Plants of Madagascar, The Vahinala Project. - Online database. URL http://www.tropicos.org/project/mada. NUS (2010): Interactive Malesian Moss Database. - Online database, National University of Singapore. URL http://sinu.science.nus.edu.sg/. Onraedt, M. (1976): Bryophytes des îles mascareno-malgaches et Seychelles: I et II. Bulletin du Jardin Botanique National de Belgique 46 (3/4): 351-378. Roux, J.P. (2009): Synopsis of the Lycopodiophyta and Pteridophyta of Africa, Madagascar and neighbouring islands. Strelitzia. Vol. 23, South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria. Schelpe, E.A.C.L.E. (1970): Flora Zambesiaca. Pteridophyta. Crown Agents for Oversea Governments and Administration, London, 254 pp. Sim, T.R. (1915): The ferns of South Africa: X. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, 384 pp. TBG (2010): Bryophytes of the Mascarene Islands. Tropical Bryology Group. URL http://www.nhm.ac.uk/hosted_sites/bbstbg/mascarenes.htm Tardieu-Blot, G. (1949): Le peuplement ptéridologique de Madagascar. - Mém. Inst. sc. Madag. 1 (sér. B.): 65-73. Tardieu-Blot, M.L. (1951): Marattiacées, Ophioglossacées, Hymenophyllacées, Cyathéacées (1-4). - In: H. Humbert (ed.) Flore de Madagascar et des Comores (plantes vasculaires). - Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris. Tardieu-Blot, M.L. (1951-1971): Les Ptéridophytes. - In: H. Humbert (ed.) Flore de Madagascar et des Comores. Vol. 1-13bis. - Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle de Paris, Paris. Tardieu-Blot, M.L. (1952): Parkériacées, Gleichéniacées, Schizéacées, Osmondacées, Marsiléacées, Salviniacées (6-11). - In: H. Humbert (ed.) Flore de Madagascar et des Comores (plantes vasculaires). - Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris.


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Tardieu-Blot, M.L. (1958): Polypodiacées s. lat. (Dennstaedtiacées à Aspidiacées) (5/1). In: H. Humbert (ed.) Flore de Madagascar et des Comores (plantes vasculaires). Pp. 391. - Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris. Tardieu-Blot, M.L. (1960): Polypodiacées s. lat. (Blechnacées a Polypodiacées s.str.) (5/2). - In: H. Humbert (ed.) Flore de Madagascar et des Comores (plantes vasculaires). Pp. 133. - Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris. Turrill, W.B. (1952): Flora of Tropical East Africa. Crown Agents for the Colonies. Some taxonomic revisions useful for the flora of Seychelles (cf. recommendation 5) Bublitz, L.R. (1964): Key to the New Zealand Filmy Ferns (Hymenophyllaceae). Tuatara 12 (3): 147-153. Ebihara, A., Hennequin, S., Iwatsuki, K., Bostock, P.D., Matsumoto, S., Jaman, R., Dubuisson, J.Y. & Ito, M. (2004): Polyphyletic origin of Microtrichomanes (Prantl) Copel. (Hymenophyllaceae), with a revision of the species. - Taxon 53 (4): 935-948. Ebihara, A., Dubuisson, J.Y., Iwatsuk, K., Hennequin, S. & Ito, M. (2006): A taxonomic revision of Hymenophyllaceae. - Blumea 51 (2): 221-280. Govaerts, R. (2010): World Checklist of Monocotyledons Database. The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. URL http://www.kew.org/monocotchecklis Hameed, C.A., Rajesh, K.P. & Madhusoodanan, P.V. (2003): Filmy Ferns of South India. M/s. Penta Book Publishers & Distributors, Calicut, Kerala, India. Iwatsuki, K. (1985): The Hymenophyllaceae of Asia, excluding Malesia. - J. Fac. Sci. Univ. Tokyo 13 (Sect. 3, Bot.): 501-551. Kornas, J. (1984): Notes on African Hymenophyllaceae 3 Hymenophyllum inaequale (Poir.) Desv. New to East Tropical Africa. - Bulletin du Jardin Botanique National de Belgique 54 (1/2): 15-21. Kramer, K.U. (1972): The Lindsaeoid ferns of the Old World — IX Africa and its islands. - Bulletin du Jardin Botanique National de Belgique 42: 305-345. Le Thomas, M.A. (1961): Etude anatomique du rhizome et du pétiole des Hyméophyllacées d’Afrique Occidentale et de la région Malagache. - Bulletin de la Societe Scientifique de Bretagne 36: 217-264. Stefanović, S. & Rakotondrainibe, F. (1996): New Taxa and a New Rank of Selaginella (Selaginellaceae) from Madagascar and the Comoros. - Novon 6 (2): 203-209. Stone, B.C. (1973): Synopsis of African Species of Pandanus. - Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 60 (2): 260-272. Tardieu-Blot, M.L. (1941): Hymenophyllacées nouvelles ou litigieuses de Madagascar. Notulae Systematicae 10: 90-93. Tardieu-Blot, M.L. (1977): Sur quelques Hymenophyllaceae des îles Mascareignes. Adansonia 17: 147-150. Useful documents for the identification of plant families (cf. recommendation 5) Heywood, V.H., Brummit, R.K., Culham, A. & Seberg, O. (2007): Flowering Plant Families of the World. Kew Publishing, 424 pp. Keller, R. (2004): Identification of tropical woody plants in the absence of flowers: a field guide. - Identification of tropical woody plants in the absence of flowers: a field guide (Ed.2): xii + 294 + 32 pp.


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Lejoly, J. (2005): Systématique des plantes à fleurs en relation avec les principales plantes médicinales. Vol. 2, Presses Universitaires, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Notes à l’usage des étudiants du 1er Bac en Sciences pharmaceutiques, Biologie végétale BIOL-J-1-02, 295 pp. Letouzey, R. (1969): Manuel de Botanique Forestière. Centre Technique Forestier Tropical. Rejmánek, M. & Brewer, S.W. (2001): Vegetative identification of tropical woody plants: state of the art and annotated bibliography. - Biotropica 33 (2): 214-228. Watson, L. & Dallwitz, M.J. (1992 -): The families of flowering plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, and information retrieval. Version: 29th July 2006. Interactive key, flora. URL http://delta-intkey.com. 3. What is the geographical distribution of these species? There are 2 basic sources of information on species distribution: (1) those supported by collected specimens (e.g. in herbaria or cited in taxonomic documents), and (2) those not supported by collected specimens (e.g. published species records, or unpublished sight records). The records without specimens have the advantage of constituting often a bigger mass of data, but the disadvantage is that such records will not evolve (are not updatable) with the evolution of taxonomic knowledge (e.g. changes in synonymies, species circumscription, etc.) and the species identification can not be checked. These two types of sources are therefore useful and the important is to mention clearly the type of source for each individual record. The specimens compiled (see recommendation 1) and records need to be accompanied by information on the locality of occurrence, habitat and date, plus taxonomic identification. For each of these information, the database should allow entering and filtrating the data at distinct levels of precision. For example, the localisation may be the country only, or the island, island group, a specific locality or geographic coordinates. A given record may concern a taxon identified to species level, or only to genus, etc. The database should also allow entering the level of confidence on the information. For example, a specimen or record identified to species level (good precision) may be more or less trustable depending on the revision effort, the best being the name identified following a recent published revision, or a specimen reviewed by a specialist. Identifications based on local names are particularly problematic, in some cases, due to the fact that one Creole name may correspond to several species. Names provided for sight records only are also more doubtful, especially if the authors are not experimented botanists, e.g. young students. It is highly important to note here that data at locality level will be useful only if they can be clearly identified in a "gazetteer" of localities. A gazetteer is a document listing all the names of localities in a given area, including synonyms, corresponding coordinates, and information on the type of locality (e.g. river, mountain top, village, etc., e.g. Bamps 1982 or http://gnswww.nima.mil/geonames/GNS/index.jsp). Such gazetteers are basic tools for biodiversity studies. The Bamps' gazetteer is an excellent example of good practice. Appendix 1. Senterre - Introduction to further elements of "best" practice

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Finally, more recent methods may be mentioned about mapping species distribution, i.e. predictive models (Anderson et al. 2003; Hirzel et al. 2002; Reuter et al. 2003). It may also be used to assess the area that an invasive species could colonize (Peterson & Vieglais 2001). 4. Which types of habitats / communities do we have? The concept of "habitat" has been introduced earlier (cf. output 3, appendix 2). The question on how to describe and characterise habitats has more than a century (see references cited in my corresponding chapter of Output 3), and corresponds to my main specialisation. I have already abundantly reviewed methods relative to this question, mostly in tropical forest ecosystems (Senterre 2001, 2002; Senterre 2005b; Senterre 2005d, 2006; Senterre & Lejoly 2001; Senterre et al. 2004) and I have recently adapted my method to the Seychelles (Senterre et al. 2009). What I consider as the best practice consists in: 1-Compiling or collecting habitat "specimens", i.e. vegetation plots 2-Analyzing the floristic assemblages using clustering and ordination methods 3-Characterise and review the groups obtained by searching for indicator species 4-Review literature on vegetation types in the region studied, review the literature on the ecology of the indicator species identified, and finally adjust the delimitation of the habitat types and their description. 1-Compiling or collecting habitat "specimens", i.e. vegetation plots This first step is the one which most needs to be detailed. Earlier, at species level, I provided references explaining best practices for the collection of herbarium specimens and the description of plants. No equivalent exists for the ecosystem level, at least for the humid tropics. Here after, I propose a synthesis of best practice for doing vegetation plots, or relevés. If you collect a single leaf and make a herbarium specimen with it, your specimen may not be very valuable. A good specimen, will be a specimen showing as many characters as possible. While for species the characters were morphologic, anatomic, genetic, etc., at ecosystem level, the characters will be physiognomic (forest, grassland, etc., as integrator of macro- and microclimate, e.g. Holdridge 1947, 1967; Webb 1959), floristic (species composition, e.g. Braun-Blanquet 1932), environmental and functional (i.e. the basic components of ecosystems, e.g. Grossman et al. 1998). Since an ecosystem can not be put in press, its description is much more important than the description of plant specimen or the description of a species. In order to provide information on these characters, a vegetation plot should be (see e.g. Gillet 2000; Grossman et al. 1998; Jennings et al. 2009; Mueller-Dombois & Ellenberg 1974; Senterre 2005b): -Homogeneous: in an ecologically "homogeneous" stand (e.g. a plot running from riverside to well drained hillsides would include more than one individual of habitat) -Ecological data: the ecological characterization of the stand should be observed using more or less standard semi-quantitative criteria, focussing on those easily observable Appendix 1. Senterre - Introduction to further elements of "best" practice

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without any sophisticated tools or analysis (see GROSSMAN et al. 1998: 90-109; Senterre 2005b: p.118-120) -Georeferencing data: the geographic coordinates should be provided by gps or using detailed maps; ideally a description of the access path should be provided -Physiognomic data: the general physiognomy of the vegetation should be described semi-quantitatively, at least the type of formation (Gillison 2002; Senterre 2005b) -Complete: at least all vascular plant species should be included. Trees, or woody plants, have long been the main group studied, but it has now been demonstrated that understorey herbs bring an important set of indicator species. If possible mosses should be included through addition of suitable nested plots (Ah-Peng et al. 2007; Lovanomenjanahary et al. 2010) -Systematic: all individuals included within the limits of the (sub)plots are observed successively -Representative: the sampling effort must be high enough to be representative of the floristic composition of the stand, and small enough to limit the problems of heterogeneity. A sampling of 100 individuals (for trees) is considered as the minimum in diverse rain forests (Condit et al. 1998) -Quantitative or semi-quantitative: the abundance and relative abundance are estimated quantitatively (individual counts) or semi-quantitatively (but then using preferably Van der Maarel's coefficients: Senterre 2005b: p.110; Van Der Maarel 1979) -Consistent through strata and structural sets: all strata and structural sets should be more or less equally representative, i.e. similar sampling effort in terms of individuals. The best solution is to sample "nested plots", i.e. plots of different size (in terms of area), larger for trees than for shrubs and herbaceous strata (Senterre 2005b) -Sampling effort: measured preferably quantitatively in terms of individuals plus surface, or surface only for semi-quantitative methods -Functional data: the microhabitat should be described for each individual (at least the stratum) or sampling to be done by synusia subplots (see Senterre 2005b: p.123). -Species identification level: the identification to the most detailed taxonomical level (check for infra-species levels) or to morphospecies. The identification should be accompanied with an estimation of the level of certainty (e.g. Senterre 2005b: p.114). -Floristically verifiable: at least one dried specimens should be collected for each species or, if not, the author should give the reference of a herbarium voucher that has been consulted. The technique of the "field herbarium" has proved to be extremely efficient (see Senterre 2005b: p.116) -Illustration: the plot should be illustrated (drawn) or photographed (analogy with scanned herbarium specimens) -Administrative data: plot authors, plot number (should be unique references), Date, time needed to realize the plot, etc. Additional data to collect for improving the possibilities of use of the data: -Labelling individuals: the labelling of the plot reference points and of all sampled individuals (at least the woody species); the labels should be placed at 1.4 m above ground, or 10 cm above the exact place of measurement of the trunk diameter (for precise monitoring).


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-Height and DBH (Diameter at Breast Height, i.e. 1.3 m above ground) in order to be able to extract subsets of the data. e.g. DBH > 2.5 or 5 or 10 cm, canopy trees, etc. -Spatial data: the position in a system of x, y coordinates is noted for every individual included in the plot. The characteristics of a vegetation plot are one thing, the sites for the realization of these plots is another thing. Theoretically, one should choose the field sites or relevés at random. However, the random sampling approach requires a great number of samples, because all factors influencing the vegetation would be analysed at the same time, and because more hybrids plots will be done. In first instance, the best approach is therefore to select (a priori) the most important environmental variables shaping the main vegetation types and select sites for relevés with all other factors kept as constant as possible (Braun-Blanquet 1932; Jörg 2003; Moravec 1992). Other criteria influencing the choice of sites for relevés include: -Sites in areas still poorly known -The need to check a class identified from remote sensing analysis -Representative (preferably each predefined vegetation unit should be sampled by at least 3-4 plots, preferably in different locations to reduce the problem of spatial autocorrelations) -Accessibility and Opportunism -Time and cost considerations The principles introduced here over have been applied to the Seychelles in a recent study (Senterre et al. 2009). We suggest this method to be reproduced for future vegetation plots in forest ecosystems (if possible with plots 2 times bigger). For other types of formation, the method needs to be adapted (e.g. plot shape), but following the same principles. 2-Analyzing the floristic assemblages using clustering and ordination methods For the analysis of the floristic assemblages, it is recommended to use both clustering and ordination methods. For the clustering, the best method will depends on the specific data you have. In most cases, with quantitative or semi-quantitative data, the index of BrayCurtis and the UPGMA grouping is appropriate. For ordination, correspondance analyses (CA and DCA) are often recommended (Kent & Coker 1992; Legendre & Legendre 1998). 3-Characterise and review the groups obtained by searching for indicator species The identification of indicator species as long been done with TWINSPAN (Hill 1994), but a more recent method has proved to be much more efficient, although still rarely used, i.e. IndVal (Dufrêne & Legendre 1997). 4-Review literature on vegetation types and indicator species ecology The whole process of reviewing habitat types is very similar and analogous to the process of a taxonomic revision (cf. 1). The index of specimens is the list of vegetation plots done in the study area. The index of names is the list of names given by other authors for the


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studied habitats. The results of a revision of habitat types can even follow the same sections as those detailed for a flora (see chapter 1). 5. How do we recognize these habitats / communities? Even worldwide, such question is still poorly addressed. Here again we can emphasize the analogies with the species level. In order to facilitate the identification of a given habitat, we need to use a classification system which emphasizes the diagnostic characters. Such diagnostic characters should not be limited to any of the distinct types of characters detailed here over (e.g. only floristic, only environmental, etc.), but use a mixture of those. For some ecosystems, abiotic factors will be more important (e.g. rock outcrops, granite boulders), for others plant communities (forest types) or animal communities (e.g. coral reefs). In analogy, at species level, classifications (i.e. systematic) are not based on only one type of characters, e.g. flowers, but include vegetative and even genetic characters. Unfortunately, at ecosystem level, there is no widely accepted system of nomenclature and classification. The main references on this problematic are: Aubréville 1965; BraunBlanquet 1932; Bruelheide & Chytrý 2000; Descoings 1976; Fosberg 1961; Gillet et al. 1991; Grossman et al. 1998; Holdridge 1947; Krajina 1960; Küchler 1949, 1973; Nichols 1923; O'neil et al. 1986; Pfister & Arno 1980; Shelford 1932; Steele 1984; Unesco 1973; Webb 1976; Weber et al. 2000; Whittaker 1980. Nevertheless, currently, two systems are more commonly and widely used, i.e. the TNC system (Grossman et al. 1998) and the phytosociological system (synsystematic, i.e. Braun-Blanquet 1932; Gillet et al. 1991; Weber et al. 2000). Except for the terminology, these two systems mostly overlap. As for species, it is possible to use numerical taxonomy software to create interactive keys of identification of habitats. This has the advantage that it does not need to have any system of classification of the distinct habitat types. Indeed, the characters are coded separately, and many classifications can be produced from the dataset, focussing on distinct characters and using distinct characters order (e.g. physiognomy first, altitudinal belts first, biogeography first, etc.). As far as I know, such tools have never been applied to ecosystem approach. The only difficulty that remains is the definition of the characters and their states, but this has been quite thoroughly detailed in TNC system (Grossman et al. 1998). I would suggest to use this system but with some modifications for the treatment of the main environmental gradients, i.e. altitudination, soil depth, drainage and some others (Senterre 2005b). Sometimes, habitat types are described and illustrated in field guides, which then are very important tools for the identification of habitats, but are often much simplified in the tropics due to lack of basic information. Electronic field guides to habitat types can be linked to electronic guides to species, or virtual herbarium in such a way that indicator species can be recognized even without the need of strong taxonomic knowledge. The user could then see species illustrations by ecological groups, e.g. a selection of species indicator of submontane forest, etc. For more information on how to manage image data (e.g. species or habitats images), see the excellent book of Lawrence & Hawthorne (2006). Appendix 1. Senterre - Introduction to further elements of "best" practice

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6. What is the geographical distribution of these habitats / communities? The study of habitat distribution follows exactly the same principles as for the distribution of species, i.e. compiling individual records considering the identification confidence and precision, plus the geographic confidence and precision. The problem is that the nomenclature and classification of habitat types does not follow any standards as for species level. The same habitat may be named differently by different authors, and distinct habitats may have similar names. Nevertheless, when a detailed revision of habitat types have been done, and indicator species and determinant factors are identified, it becomes possible to compile data and assess the identification confidence of the habitat records. It is also possible to use the knowledge on the distribution of the indicator species, and the distribution of the determinant factors (for an example applied to the submontane forests of Atlantic Central Africa, see Senterre 2005b: p.269; see also Vreugdenhil et al. 2003). Once a list of localities has been compiled for the presence of a given habitat type, it becomes possible to apply the same methods of potential distribution as already introduced for species level (BioMapper, etc.: Hirzel et al. 2002). The second possibility is to establish the environmental determinism of the studied habitat based on floristic analysis (see CCA: Legendre & Legendre 1998, ter Braak & Smilauer 2002), and then map habitat distribution based on GIS data for some of the most diagnostic factors. For example, once you identified that submontane forest are associated with elevations between ca. 350 and 550 m, on well drained, non superficial soils, it is possible to create a map of potential distribution (see Senterre et al. 2009, Senterre 2005b: p.278). Other methods focus more on remote sensing data (aerial photographs or satellite imagery) and less on field knowledge of the vegetation types and their ecological determinism. Such methods have developed recently with the development of new softwares (e.g. Definiens Developer, Erdas, Imagine, Envi, ArcGIS) and satellite imagery (Landsat Thematic Mapper, MSS, SPOT, IKONOS, etc.). Analysis of these documents may combine one or several of the following basic approaches: visual, textural, multispectral (e.g. Dickinson 1979; Du Puy & Moat 1999; Hirose et al. 2004?; Kluser 2000; Komura & Muramoto 2007; Lillesand et al. 2004; Paine 1981). Whatever the method used, many conceptual and practical problems need to be considered while producing maps: see Anderson et al. 1976; Küchler 1973; Küchler & Zonneveld 1988; Loxton 1980; Robinson et al. 1978; Zonneveld 1989. These problems are mostly linked with classification problems. We can map the existing vegetation or the potential vegetation (late seral, or mature). The context of the vegetation units also has its importance: a given habitat type can be found in different types of landscapes (mosaics, transitions, continua), with different landscape scales (e.g. inselberg fringe, altitudinal gradient, etc., see Senterre 2009). Therefore map units may differ from vegetation units (see Grossman et al. 1998). In conclusion, vegetation maps may be as diverse as classification systems, but the characters describing the vegetation types remain constant. Classification and mapping will use any set of these characters, in any order, in relation with their specific purpose (conservation, ecology studies, land use, etc.)


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7. Which habitats do these species use (species ecology sensu stricto)? The ecology of a species is the study of its affinities for distinct environmental factors, e.g. altitude, soil depth, drainage, macroclimate, etc. When the ecology is considered for the species individually (or independently), we use the term "autecology". By contrast, the ecology of species assemblages (i.e. the species not taken independently) is referred as "synecology", or plant community ecology. In fact, the study of the ecology of species and habitats are closely linked because in order to understand the environmental factors that a species likes, we need to understand the environmental determinism of the habitats in which we see this species. All the species that have similar environmental affinities can be grouped into "ecological groups" (Senterre 2005b; Tanghe 1995). When they are found living together in the same region, we talk about "socioecological groups". Two distinct habitats that have the same environmental determinism (e.g. submontane tropical rain forests) are said homologous habitats and are characterised by the same ecological group (i.e. species may differ but they belong to the same ecological group). The definition of ecological groups is relatively complex because species may have more or less wide ecological ranges, and they may transgress from one habitat type to another one due to ecological equalizations (Budowski 1965; Rübel 1935; Senterre 2005b; White 1978). For a complete discussion on the principle of the definition of ecological groups, and for full definitions of the concepts introduced here, see Senterre (2005b: p.43-79, 222-227). In the latter document, I presented an original synthesis where ecological groups are treated in analogy with the treatment of chorological groups, i.e. ecology in analogy with phytogeography. This principle is based on the analogy between the types of endemism (geographic conception) and the types of ecological specialization of species, known as the "fidelity", or ecological endemism (Senterre 2005b: p.50-51, 73). In order to study the ecology of plant communities (or habitat types), it is recommended to use at least vegetation plots following the methodology detailed in the chapter 4. With such data, it is than possible to analyze the environmental factors that are related with the floristic variability using Canonical Correspondance Analysis (CCA) or Mantel tests (Brocard et al. 1992; Legendre & Legendre 1998; Senterre 2005b; Ter Braak & Smilauer 2002; Tuomisto & Ruokolainen 1994). When determinant factors have been identified (or confirmed), and when indicator species are well known, a more precise definition of the ecological ranges could be achieved using a complementary approach of data sampling, i.e. using transects for the most determinant factors. 8.

What is the biology, general ecology and functioning of these species and habitats? In functional ecology, we define the strategy of a species for facing disturbances and for maintaining its population on the long term by (1) the type resources exploited, (2) the way of exploiting these resources, (3) the type of response to disturbances and (4) the mechanism of this response (Gitay & Noble 1997). Species having exactly the same strategy are grouped into "functional types" or "guilds", i.e. they occupy the same ecological niche. Appendix 1. Senterre - Introduction to further elements of "best" practice

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The biology of a species is the study of its life cycle, its reproduction, its strategy for the exploitation of resources, and for these reasons the biology of a species is closely linked to its "functioning", i.e. its life strategy or niche. The biology of a species can be seen as an integrator of its functioning, exactly as a plant community is seen as an integrator of the stand ecosystem. For example, stilt roots are a common adaptation of species in tropical damp or ravine forests, long-distance dispersal capacities are a common adaptation for species in habitats with archipelago-like distribution, etc. Such characters can therefore be considered as functional symptoms. The main principles driving the definition of guilds are those synthesized here over. The "best practice" would be to consider these principles while defining guilds, but within these principles there are many possibilities and probably no detailed "best practice" could be defined. Many distinct definitions of guilds can be elaborated, based on distinct symptoms or combinations of symptoms. Distinct types of guild's definition may be suitable to answer distinct questions within the whole thematic considered here. The following documents can be considered as examples: Blanc 2002; Díaz & Cabido 1997; Gitay & Noble 1997; Gitay et al. 1999; Graham et al. 2006; Grime 1979; Hawkins & Macmahon 1989; Holmes et al. 1979; Jaksic & Medel 1999; Julve 1989; Köhler et al. 2000; Lavorel et al. 1997; Macarthur & Wilson 1967; Muñoz & Ojeda 1997; Parolly & Kurschner 2004; Petchey & Gaston 2002; Pianka 1973; Pugnaire & Valladares 2007; Root 1967, 2001; Senterre 2005c; Shugart 1997; Simberloff & Dayan 1991; Smith et al. 1997; Tilman 2001; Vitousek et al. 1996; Walker et al. 1999. The present author has recently reviewed the definition of plant functional types in tropical rain forests based on a simple combination of such functional symptoms (see Senterre 2005b: p.18-29). The system proposed in this document allowed to elaborate a new hypothesis on a previously unknown type of glacial refuge, and had direct application in a conservation perspective (Senterre 2005b: p.251-255, 285). It could be applied to Seychelles. At ecosystem level, functional aspects include the mechanisms of regeneration, i.e. ecosystem dynamics, and the analyses of ecosystem processes (e.g. interactions between functional units, or guilds). Ecosystem dynamics is still poorly understood in tropical forest environments, although the recent international literature is abundant (e.g. Bautista-Cruz & Del Castillo 2005; Jans et al. 1993; Molino & Sabatier 2001; Newbery et al. 1999; Phillips et al. 1994; Poorter et al. 2005; Poorter et al. 1996; Schnitzer & Bongers 2005; Sheil 1999, 2001; Sheil & Burslem 2003; Sheil et al. 2000; Van Breugel et al. 2007; Van Der Meer & Bongers 1996; Van Der Meer et al. 1994; Van Der Meer et al. 1998). For an overview of some basic historical contributions to this topic, see also: Budowski 1965; Clements 1916, 1928, 1936; Mangenot 1958; Oldeman 1990; Steele 1984; Tansley 1920, 1929, 1935; Van Steenis 1958. At ecosystem level, the functional entities sometimes used in order to understand ecosystem processes include e.g. synusia (see Gillet et al. 1991; Senterre 2005b). Studies on pollinators, dispersers, etc. (Kaiser et al. 2010) are also functional studies at ecosystem level.


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9. Which are the factors explaining the patterns of diversity (evolution processes)? A vast number of methods have been developed during about three decades to help design representative systems of conservation areas (see next chapter). Nevertheless, such methods all rely on input data, i.e. require information on the spatial distribution of biodiversity throughout a region of interest. Ideally, we would need a complete and detailed knowledge of the distribution of all entities of biodiversity (genes, populations, species, communities, ecosystems) occurring within the region of interest. In reality, our knowledge of the distribution of individual biodiversity entities is far from complete. A common solution to this problem is to use those entities for which we do have distributional information as "surrogates" for spatial pattern in biodiversity as a whole (Fig. 1, Ferrier 2002). Figure 1. Surrogates commonly used in regional conservation planning to achieve representation of spatial pattern in biodiversity (Ferrier 2002).

The most commonly used surrogate is based on species distribution data, because species are the best known biodiversity entities (compared to ecosystems or genes). Not all species of all groups can be included, so such analyses are based on a selection of species: endemics, a recently revised family or genus, trees (for which there are more data in tropical rain forests), etc. (Linder 2001; Vreugdenhil et al. 2003). One of the main problems with species distribution data is that it is very difficult to deal with sampling biases, i.e. areas more or less inventoried (Ferrier 2002), and beta diversity


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(inter-community diversity). Therefore, other approaches are based on communities rather than species (Parmentier et al. 2007; Ter Steege et al. 2003; Vreugdenhil et al. 2003). In this case, input data are made of vegetation plots in which the sampling biases are controlled and more biodiversity parameters can be measured (Condit et al. 1998; Senterre 2005b). The main problem of community studies is that they rely nearly always on time consuming field observations and more complex data synthesis and analysis. However, Seychelles being rather small (for the main granitic islands) and with a reduced and well known flora, habitat approach is not a problem. A third basic approach is based on remote sensing data (Hernandez-Stefanoni & PonceHernandez 2004), coupled with only reduced field observations. This has the advantage that larger areas can be analyzed but the level of details is much lower. The best practice is probably to use together the three main approaches, in order to compensate the weaknesses of one method by the strength of the others, the three approaches being complementary (Ferrier 2002; Vreugdenhil et al. 2003). The analysis of habitat types allows characterising their biodiversity patterns precisely. Then, the knowledge on the distribution of the indictor species of these habitats, and analysis of remote sensed data (including distribution of the environmental factors determinants for the habitat types) reduced much the biases in interpolating habitat biodiversity statistics. Whatever the approach considered, there is still the problem of the units of biodiversity: richness (counts of species, genera, habitats, etc.), diversity indices (Shannon-Wiener, Fisher alpha, etc.), endemism richness (Kier & Barthlott 2001), phylogenetic diversity (Hardy & Senterre 2007), etc. (Humphries et al. 1995). When diversity patterns are analyzed though the angle of endemism, the methods are investigating biogeographic patterns (Kier & Barthlott 2001; Linder 2001; White 1979). Biogeography generally mostly investigates the historical determinants of the present day patterns of diversity (e.g. ice ages, etc.), but there is actually a continuum of studies from ecological to historical biogeography (Crisci 2001; Crisci et al. 2003; Crisci et al. 2006). When biogeography is based on molecular data, the term phylogeography has been introduced (Avise 2000). In conclusion, the most important to note here is that most of the methods introduced require input data on the distribution of species and habitats, thus emphasizing the importance of the respective questions treated in the chapter 3 and 6. Herbarium specimens and vegetation plots need to be collected in all representative areas and habitats of a studied region, and their data need to be compiled in one database, or in several linked databases. 10. Which are the species, habitats and sites with the highest conservation value? In the previous chapter, we introduced some methods for the study of the distribution patterns of biodiversity, and for understanding the factors responsible for such patterns. Since resources available for conservation efforts are limited, we need to define priorities based on these distribution patterns and other factors. Such priorities can be defined for species, habitats or areas. There are six main types of criteria for the establishment of the conservation value: the inner diversity (diversity or richness of the components), the Appendix 1. Senterre - Introduction to further elements of "best" practice

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rarity, the irreplaceability (or uniqueness), the vulnerability (trends and threats), the socio-economic value, and the representativeness (complementary). A. Criteria Diversity The diversity criterion is widely used at habitat and site levels. Habitats with a higher species diversity and / or richness will have a higher conservation value (all other criteria being constant). For sites, those combining a higher species and habitats richness or diversity will have higher conservation value. At species level, the criterion diversity is less often used. We can define it in analogy with the other levels, i.e. a species with a higher genes richness and / or diversity. Rarity Rarity mostly applies to species level. Endemic species have a restricted distribution range and therefore a higher conservation value than widespread species. But the global or general geographic range is not the only criteria for rarity. For example some fern species of the Seychelles have a very wide range (up the Pacific Ocean) but are extremely rare throughout their range (suffusively rare species: Mills & Schwartz 2005; Schoener 1987). Finally, the ecological rarity can also be considered: an endemic species occupying a wide range of habitat types would not be treated as an endemic species found in only one habitat type. Therefore, rarity can be defined at several geographical scales (global, regional, national, etc.), considering additional criteria such as population size and habitat range (Rabinowitz 1981; Vreugdenhil et al. 2003: p.47). Rarity can be established based on the following set of criteria: -Global geographical range (area of occupation) -Population size -Number of sub-populations (fragmentation / aggregation) -Sub-population size -National geographical range (area of occupation) -National population size -National number of sub-populations -National number of islands where present -National sub-population size -Ecological range (ecological rarity, see chapter 7) At habitat level, the rarity includes the rarity of the habitat itself (based on analogous criteria) and the rarity of its components, i.e. a habitat containing rare species will have a higher conservation value. This is also true at site level, but then rarity of habitats presents in the site is also considered. Irreplaceability (uniqueness) The irreplaceability (or uniqueness) of a site is the degree to which geographic (or spatial) options for conservation will be lost if that particular site is lost (Pressey et al.


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1994). Irreplaceability is closely linked to rarity, e.g. a locality containing the only known population of a species (i.e. a local endemic) would be irreplaceable. Sites that hold significant fractions of a species’ entire population during particular periods of the year (e.g., migratory bottlenecks and routes) are also highly irreplaceable (Langhammer et al. 2007). At habitat level, this criterion has not been used although it is relevant. At species level, the irreplaceability criterion is even less evident, or less explicitly mentioned in the literature. Nevertheless, the particular interest in endemic species belonging to endemic monotypic1 genera is an example: if the species get extinct, this is the whole lineage that is lost. The higher is the rank of the monotypic taxon, the higher is its conservation value, e.g. the Medusagynaceae in the Seychelles. Vulnerability (trends and threats) To establish conservation priorities, rarity is not enough. Some rare species may be spreading while others regressing. It is therefore important to consider the trend of the population size, and the determinant factors related to such trends (mostly threats). -Proportion of reproductive population -Generation length -Trends in population size (observed and / or predicted, based on reversibility, trend determinism and the presence or absence of the identified factor of the trend). As previously, the vulnerability can be assessed at habitat and site levels based on their own vulnerability and / or on the vulnerability of some of their constituents. At habitat and site levels, the vulnerability criterion includes the presence, abundance and trends in invasive species populations, or other sources of degradation. For a given habitat, the most important locality to be preserved will be the most pristine one; this is not to be confounded with the criterion representativeness. Socio-economic value The rarity and threat of a species are not all. For two species with the similar rarity, we will attribute more importance to the one which is more "useful". For example, the Kokod-mer is a much more abundant species compared to the Mapou-d-gran bwa (Pisonia sechellarum), but if we have to chose which one will be the priority for conservation, it will be the Koko-d-mer, because it has a high economic and cultural value. At habitat level, forests (for example) have higher economic value than glacis due to the ecological services they provide, like water supply, etc. Among forests, cloud forests have a higher value for the same reason (i.e. contribute more to water supply, and other ecological services). In addition, cloud forests have most of the other criteria also in favour of a higher conservation value (mostly rarity).

1

A monotypic genus or family contains only one species. When a genus or family contains only few species but more than one, it is called a paucispecific taxon (for more details, see Aubréville 1970 and Senterre 2005b).


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Representativeness (complementary) Representativeness is a criterion that has only recently become more widely applied for the selection of conservation areas, i.e. site level (Austin & Margules 1986; Grossman et al. 1998). At site level, representativeness explicitly attempts to include the range of natural variation of both biotic and abiotic features (e.g., landforms, soils, elevation zones) of a region within a system of preserves (Austin & Margules 1986). To assess the representativeness of particular conservation areas, coarser-scale descriptions of the regional patterns of environmental and biological variability are required, as well as the environmental relationships of the biota, and the actual biotic distribution patterns. At habitat level, the representativeness of a given "individual" of habitat (i.e. a given stand) will depend on the proportion of the species associated with such habitat that are presents. This criterion, at this level, is rarely used and is generally covered by the criteria diversity and vulnerability: a given individual of habitat which is highly invaded will contain less constituents of the native composition, and an individual of habitat with a high diversity value will generally include more native species associated with this habitat. Such considerations are included in the important plant areas concept (see "best sites" in Langhammer et al. 2007, for both the presence of a species and a habitat). B. Classification systems for conservation value Species conservation value At species level, there is a system widely accepted for assessing the conservation value, i.e. the IUCN categories of threatened species (Iucn 2001, 2006). This system integrates the rarity of the species with trends and previsions on population size. Variants of this system have been proposed that consider more restricted geographical scale (more relevant for isolated small islands) and that include the socio-economic criterion: see Bañares et al. 1998; Burger & Stampfli 2005; Huber & Ismail 2006; Miller et al. 2007; Milner-Gulland et al. 2006. Habitats conservation value Analogous systems to IUCN for habitat level are much less common, and should not be confused with the IUCN system of protected areas categories (which are management categories only partly related with conservation value: Boitani et al. 2008). The most widely used and most relevant system was defined in relation with the International Vegetation Classification System (Grossman et al. 1998: p.60). Sites conservation value Site-scale approach integrates species and habitat level approaches, i.e. the prioritization of sites will depend on the prioritization of species and habitats. One of the first system developed was based on Important Bird Areas (IBAs: Osieck & Morzer Bruyns 1981) and has later been applied to other taxonomic groups: Important Plant Areas (IPAs: Anderson 2002), Prime Butterfly Areas, Important Mammal Areas. The concept of Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs) combines all these systems (Langhammer et al. 2007: p.5).


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The KBA system is based on four criteria: vulnerability (but only of species: IUCN threat categories), irreplaceability (> 5% of global population at site), rarity (restricted-range species) and representativeness (best sites concept). The main weakness of this system is that it is based on only few criteria and it poorly integrates the ecosystem approach. Another famous system is based on the definition of biodiversity "hotspots" (Myers et al. 2000). This system is based mostly on diversity and vulnerability criteria, and only partly rarity. It is mostly designed for wider scales, i.e. not site-scales but regional scales. Nevertheless, it has sometimes been adapted to small regions, e.g. areas of exceptionally high biodiversity (Gerlach 2008). The most comprehensive and integrated approach (in my sense and among the documents I consulted) has been developed as a result of a World Bank project for the mapping of ecosystems of central America (Meerman & Sabido 2001; Meyrat et al. 2002). The Honduran part of that map was used to evaluate the presence and gaps of ecosystem representation in the protected areas system. A MS-Excel based spreadsheet evaluation programme called “MICOSYS” was used to compare the relative importance of each area and to design alternative models for protected areas system for different scenarios of conservation security and socio-economic benefits (Vreugdenhil 2002; Vreugdenhil et al. 2003). The remarkable strength of this system is that it is based on strong ecological principles. It integrates species distribution data with a coherent system of habitat types and corresponding vegetation maps (based on the UNESCO physiognomic-ecologic system). It includes much more criteria than the KBA approach, and is more powerful, but it needs more input data (vegetation maps). It is enriched with some new considerations on species survival (Minimum Viable Population and Minimum Area requirements). This system is country-size independent and may be applied anywhere in the world. It is very flexible and may be complemented with other methods, particularly KBAs. For a detailed description of this system, see Vreugdenhil et al. (2003). 11. Are we using biodiversity resources in a sustainable way (human threat)? These aspects are more directly linked to production sector, and only indirectly to biodiversity. Therefore, we will only introduce very briefly some references. For the study of pharmacological properties or uses (ethnobotanical studies), there is a very detail and comprehensive methodology described for the PHARMEL database (Adjanohoun et al. 1994). For ethnobotanical data analysis methods, see Höft et al. 1999. Forestry good practices can be found in many documents (e.g. Evans & Turnbull 2004; Wadsworth 1997). The same is true for agronomy (Gret 2004; Guigaz 2002; Kinsey & Walters 2006; Squire & Azam-Ali 2001), but we may emphasize on some aspects very important for the humid tropics, especially on poor soil types, i.e. agroforestry (Beetz 2002; Charles & Kanoje 2008; Elevitch & Wilkinson 2000; Mcclintock 2004; Richardson et al. 2004a; Richardson et al. 2004b; Van Eijk-Bos & Mozeno 1986) and the Terra Preta phenomenon, i.e. slash-and-char (Gav 2008; Glaser 2007; Glaser et al. 2001; Kim et al. 2007; Lehmann et al. 2006; Steiner et al. 2004).


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12. Which conservation actions may be set up for species and habitats? Conservation action may include rehabilitation / restoration (e.g. Akeroyd & WyseJackson 1995; Dobson et al. 1997; Falk et al. 2006; Triolo 2005; including monitoring and / or eradication of invasive species: e.g. D'antonio & Meyerson 2002; Usher & Ramakrishnan 1991), setting of conservation measures for species and habitats and / or sustainability of land management (Fleischer-Dogley 2005; Fleischer-Dogley 2006), setting of protected areas (Boitani et al. 2008; Goriup & Creed 2004; Iucn & Mcginley 2009) and their institutional management (Emerton et al. 2006; Hockings 2003; Iucn 2008). In addition, education, capacity building, and building awareness are also actions that can be considered for conservation of biodiversity. Many of these aspects are further developed in two documents already abundantly cited here: Langhammer et al. 2007; Vreugdenhil et al. 2003.

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Appendix 2. Minutes of Workshop on Gap Analysis (30/09/10) (by Venessa Quatre, with input by Gérard Rocamora)

GOS- UNDP-GEF MAINSTREAMING BIODIVERSITY MANAGEMENT INTO PRODUCTION SECTOR ACTIVITIES PROJECT “SYNTHESIZE EXISTING DATA AND UNDERTAKE PRIORITY GAP ANALYSIS FOR BIODIVERSITY INFORMATION IN SEYCHELLES Minutes of Workshop on Gap Analysis (30/09/10) 1. Welcome and Introduction Dr Gerard Rocamora welcomed the participants to the workshop. He provided a brief introduction about the Mainstreaming Biodiversity project and explained that the objective of this workshop was to prioritize the gap analysis and stressed that any queries regarding the management of the metadabase can be addressed in another workshop.

2. Overview of Data Synthesis Consultancy Dr Bruno Senterre then proceeded to a general presentation which was divided into three main parts and presented an overview of this specific consultancy along, with its deliverables. He explained that the first part pertains generic information regarding Biodiversity (eg introduce the concept and provide basic explanation of the term). It was suggested by Mr Senterre omitted this part of the presentation and if anyone required any information, he would forward a copy to them personally.

Mr Senterre then proceeded on a brief summary on what was presented in the last workshop conducted in May, as part of the second component of the presentation. This focused on the different formats of the metadatabase. Mr Senterre presented examples of using each of the three different formats of the database. These were in Microsoft Word, Excel and Acess.

The participants queried whether each of the different versions could be updated in the same manner. They were informed that the changes for each format are relatively similar with slight difference. For example, ‘Access’ has one main advantage; It can make searches not in the flattened version but rather the full version.

Participants also asked if they can gain access to information as to what format the data is in ( eg; full paper, pdf etc) Mr Senterre replied that this information can indeed be accessed in all formats, under the function of ‘my library’ . Mr Senterre also pointed out that in ‘Access’, information can be filtered by different levels and that ‘Acess’ is perhaps the most powerful tool amongst the three, but has one major limitation; It is not very user friendly and therefore detailed knowledge is needed in order to manipulate effectively

3. General Overview of different taxonomic groups The third part of the presentation provided an overview of 10 chapters of different taxonomic groups and the general considerations of the gap analysis. Mr Senterre started by presenting the general statistics. He pointed out that care should be taken when going through the statistics provided for each group and to understand the limitations, but from statistics we can nevertheless deduce the conclusions as to the status of what has been more thoroughly studied. Similarly, an insight can be gained as to which groups are understudied.

4. Recommendations and prioritization for plants and fungi Mr Senterre presented the recommendations and priotization for plants and fungi. It was pointed out that by participants that this graphical display clearly illustrates what information about different species are actually missing/lacking and what we should seek to investigate or research and what species have been studied or neglected. It was thus recommended by the consultant that consideration should be given to the links between different groups and to regroup databases covering similar studies. Commenting on the different study types that have been prioritized for this particular group, the participants highlighted that the issue of climate change, although considered a priority by many, is recognized as often being a subjective matter and that perhaps the question is ‘how can it be narrowed down and made more objective. It was suggested by others that perhaps that the matter should be looked at from different perspective eg scientific or from an economic standpoint or livelihood that affects the production sector. To conclude the chapter, Mr Senterre also invited the participants who were willing to add or contribute anything, to fill up the provided Excel form and submit the inputs to the consultants. Some important remarks were done by the assistance:

-

priorities should be reviewed to match more with the production sector (Dr Kayser & others). The importance of defining land use plans at district levels taking into account all the available information on areas important for biodiversity, also outside exist protected areas. A review of the entire protected areas system will be conducted soon through a UNDP-GoS consultancy.

5. Recommendations and prioritization for birds Dr Gerard Rocamora presented the submitted chapter for birds. He briefly provided some back ground information on birds whereby he stated that Birds are a very well known group both locally and internationally; birds can generally be divided into 3 main groups depending on their main habitat: Landbirds, Waterbirds and Seabirds; and also according to their breeding and migratory status in the country : Breeding, Annual Migrant and Vagrant. These two classifications can be combined into more categories. Only about a hundred species are regularly observed in Seychelles, but even more have been recorded as occasional visitors. Dr Rocamora then proceeded to present the recommendations and prioritization for this taxonomic group.

The participants then provided their suggestions and comments. Queries were made on priorities for research. Considering that a considerable amount of research has been done for birds, wouldn’t that depend on availability of funding? Dr Rocamora responded that priority already existed within species according to their global vulnerability level (IUCN Red List status) and endemic status, and also for a number of rare or localized endemic forms considered – for the time being - as endemic subspecies but that could be recognized as full species at some point. The importance of ecosystem approach rather than being species specific was highlighted. This should go under point number 7 but it was nevertheless not deemed as critically needed at this point in time. The occurrence of IBAs in Seychelles and whether they are currently adequately protected under the Seychelles law was also queried. The participants were informed that this is not always the case.

Participants wanted to know whether there has been an assessment of which bird areas should be protected? It was therefore deliberated that there is a need for such an assessment and that IBAs status should be assessed, published and act as a means of providing a revision of the existing inventory done in 1997.

Concern was expressed about the issue of translocation and stretching the biology/niche of species. Point Number 17 should be able to accommodate for such considerations. However, it was deduced that care should be taken to reduce conflict of interest resulting in transfers being done mainly for reasons other than the main interest of the species.

Another recommendation for point Number 13 was to address other birds related to agriculture. Participants wanted to know whether it would make sense to assess number of chickens or other ‘backyard birds’. Dr Rocamora answered that if they are being reared and cropped then they are isolated from natural ecosystem and should therefore not be included.

One other suggestion was that the agricultural census should also be taken into account and mentioned since it can feed into point 15 and 13 of the recommendations for this chapter and can increase the inputs for Diseases linked with agricultural sector. Census on migratory birds was also queried whereby participants asked if such census are created and monitored since these birds also bring in diseases, although research linked to avian flue has shown that transmition of diseases go mainly from farmed birds to wild birds than the reverse.

Participants also mentioned that such data collection and synthesis on wild birds can be useful in providing information to the government sectors eg. Agriculture and should be more circulated to them. Views expressed towards this pointed out also the need for more participation from NGOs to provide expertise when the system is up and running. A regional programme ‘Faune sauvage’ coordinated by IRD in La Réunion on emerging diseases linked to fauna (Centre de Recherches et de Veille sur les maladies émergentes de l’Océan Indien) has been set up, and several goverment services dealing with farming and Vet services, local NGOs (Nature Seychelles, ICS) and private experts (Dr Rocamora) are participating to it. 6. Recommendations and prioritization for amphibians and freshwater fishes Dr Rocamora presented the chapter for amphibians and fresh water fishes on behalf of Dr Justin Gerlach. He indicated that studies of Seychelles for amphibians and freshwater fished mainly cover taxonomy, phylogeny and biogeography. Following his presentation on the recommendations and prioritization, the participants provided their inputs;

It was suggested that a pre-development assessment is often needed for freshwater ecosystems since it is likely from the presented data that we have limited knowledge of the species composition of these ecosystems. For example, are wetlands known to be important for Caecilians ? Participants also wanted to know why mapping was considered such a low priority. Mr Rocamora answered that Mr Gerlach probably did not deem this as a big gap, since gross distributions for amphibians had been compiled by him and provided through an IUCN amphibian assessment from internet and publications. For example for Caecilians, did Dr Gerlach consider their distribution sufficiently well known ? However, it was strongly suggested that this should be reconsidered and that it would certainly be good to tackle this matter and give higher priority to determine more precise distributions of amphibians due to increasing physical development, especially in the lowlands.

It was drawn to the attention of other participants that there should be more studies being undertaken, seeking to highlight threats of invasive species eg. Introduced amphibians and crazy ants which renders native amphibians vulnerable. To add to this point, it was also suggested that pathways of entry of disease affecting these species should also be investigated and targeted (eg by DoE or SCCA) so as not to keep the door open. Examples of one unsuspected pathway was also suggested for investigation or consideration eg; entry of disease by scientists whom by using same equipments in other parts of the world over, can transmit the disease into Seychelles.

The recommendations for this taxonomic group included; -

Alien species released in the wild should be prohibited and the current distribution of alien species eg, rivers, pathways and their possible impacts, should be researched.

-

‘Protected area criteria’ should really be considered as a high priority from a Land Use Plan of view. This would ensure that the area is sealed off and can be protected from development.

-

Draw attention of Gvt Services (customs, SAA, DoE, etc.) and public on risks associated with introduced species of amphibians & freshwater fishes, and associated diseases; and on situation/progress of chitridiomycosis in neighbouring countries

7. Recommendations and prioritization for land mammals Dr Rocamora presented the recommendations and prioritization for land mammals. He provided some background information on this taxonomic group. For example, he stated that the only native land mammals in Seychelles are basically half a dozen species of bats since there are no native non-flying ones.

There are also dozen of introduced species including wild (Tenrec) and feral ones (dogs, cats, hares, goats, pigs, cows). While the introduced mammals are relatively well known, there is a need for more research on bats. Dr Rocamora then proceeded with presenting the recommendations and prioritizations. It was stated by one participant that there is an action plan for the sheath tail bat that has been prepared, or at least drafted, contrary to what the submitted report for this consultancy mentionned. It was then agreed that a copy of this document be forwarded to the consultants. However, this document is of only one page and thus the need for a more consistent and detailed action plan (in line with what has been done for other threatened species) is still there, bearing in mind the STB is the most threatened vertebrate in Seychelles is still needed. Comments on the recommendations for this taxonomic group included; -

The protection of the two species of bat: Sheath/fruit should be given higher priority eg. Legislation where legislation is concerned

-

The consultants might want to consider to ‘cluster’ the priorities (also valid for birds)

-

Should consider domesticated and animals important for the agricultural purposes and genetic uses eg; conserving genetic material in order to encourage conservation of genetic resources in line with agricultural sectors, however, care should be taken so this does not lead to the animals becoming feral. this agricultural biodiversity should be more taken into consideration by other studies more specifically oriented on agriculture.

-

It was also pointed out that the main objectives of this overall project is of mainstreaming biodiversity into production sector

-

Availability of food resources for these species should also not be ruled out. For example, if residential and agricultural areas are increased, leaving less food for the bats we are protecting. Therefore should also consider further investigation of food resources and changes in behavior. That can feed into point 15 or under point 14.

-

Effects of pesticides on bats should also be captured. At the present, the agricultural sector is not solely responsible. Other sectors such as by tourism and domestic sectors should also not be ruled out. It is also important not only to use the term ‘pesticides’ but also other ‘chemicals’ with the aim of encompassing anything that can affect food source of birds and bats

8. Recommendations and prioritization for marine fish, marine scleractinia and other marine invertebrates

Mr Jude Bijoux presented the chapter for marine fish and marine scleractinia. He provided a background on the group and stated that it is important to know about the distribution of species order to bridge the gap. He also presented ‘other marine invertebrates. Comments from the participants were as follows; -

Tagging to measure connectivity should also be included under Point 4 ( for marine fish) instead of only genetic as a base

-

Is there a need to look at revising the legislation for all marine fish?

-

Stock assessment should also be included under point 16

-

The baseline is actually lacking for a lot of species but should be researched because they have been documented back in the 18000

-

Open access to outer island lagoon for fishing should be restricted. This has been noted down as part of revised legislation.

-

Linkages to Tourism development should also be considered as a recommendation.

-

Use of by catch should be used for other purposes to avoid wastage and make value-added products should also be considered.

-

EIA requirements should be deepened and revised for all requirements that can have an impact on the marine environment in general, existing EIAs tending to be too general.

-

Promote methods to reduce sea bird and turtle by catch should also be included.

-

Impacts of climate change as being one major issue at the present time should not be ignored. It might perhaps be ideal to study/investigate how species will behave.

-

Limit physical destruction of reefs eg; in land use plans

-

Investigate impacts on coral reefs of various aggressive factors (bleaching, pollution, tsunami).

-

Investigate impact of coral reefs (status, species composition, etc.) on other forms of life in view of their alteration by various factors (climate change, pollution, etc.).

-

Keystone species should also be investigated.

-

Restrict development in coastal area s bordering with MPAs

-

Set up checklist of all known marine invertebrates. This is also valid for other taxonomical groups without checklists, and a general biodiversity checklist for Seychelles should be considered as part of future studies to be done.

-

Include marine invertebrates in Education / information programmes

Shell reserves were also discussed. It seems that SFA does not consider them relevant any longer (no enforcement, partly reclaimed). Should they be reconsidered ?

Jude Bijoux said he will circulate the section on Marine plants prepared with Bruno Senterre. Marine plankton is included in the Other invertebrates chapter.

It was also pointed that the consultants will contact the organization who could not attend the workshop, to provide their inputs for the marine group, namely SFA and MCSS.

10. Recommendations and prioritization for terrestrial and freshwater invertebrates Dr Rocamora presented a chapter on behalf of Dr. Gerlach. He indicated that despite a fair amount of publications on terrestrial and freshwater invertebrate, they are mostly focused on taxonomic. Insects on the other hand, cover a wider range of topics but still include only a small proportion of ecological or conservation publications. The comments and recommendations from the participants were as follows; -

It was suggested that number 7 “Invertebrate habitat Studies” should be a higher priority instead of being considered as priority level 3.

-

Focus on indicator species rather than in depth over other species

-

Rapid surveys could be done for certain groups that can provide an indicator to a certain extent

-

Bio-geography should be given a high priority since it can promote Seychelles more, scientifically.

-

Interactions between invertebrates, both local and aliens, with essentials sectors of economy including agriculture, tourism, etc. as well as on human health should also be investigated, highlighting their functional role, this should be considered as a higher priority.

-

There is currently nothing available on our invertebrate eg. Schools curriculum and this should be improved in order not to neglect this group.

-

“Habitat Management” needs to be specified. Add another recommendation for ‘enhancement for preventive measures’ for the introduction and spread of aliens into the country.

11. Recommendations and prioritization for reptiles Dr Rocamora presented this chapter on behalf of Dr Mortimer. He provided a background on reptiles and indicated that Reptiles are a very important for the country’s biodiversity in terms of biomass and also their functional roles in both terrestrial and marine ecosystems; but that species numbers are relatively low.

The comments and suggestions from the participants were as follows:

-

Recommendation No. 8 is too general and should be deleted.

-

Recommendation No. 10: Add ‘sizes’ after ‘populations’

-

Recommendation No. 11: mention beach profile, temperature and sea level rise as part of climate change for sea turtles.

-

New Recommendation: : Monitor the presence of invasive reptiles, such as the Crested Tree Lizard, control their numbers and distribution and eradicate them where feasible. Priority ?

-

Recommendation No. 14: Develop programmes that integrate ecotourism with turtle monitoring and create tourism facilities for giant tortoises (e.g. Réserve de la Vanille in Mauritius)

-

Recommendation No. 16: (Vet training, control of island transfers). Priority 3 suggested. What about for birds also ? (to be added).

-

Recommendation No. 18: Add increase of awareness of relevant government services personnel about conservation of native reptiles and prevention importation of/invasion by exotic reptiles (e.g; Red-eared terrapins)

-

Add a recommendation on Define management protocols/measures (e.g.seasonal protections to promote turtle conservation

12. Recommendations and prioritization for marine mammals. Dr Rocamora presented this chapter on behalf of Dr Mortimer. He provided a very brief background on the number of species that had been found in Seychelles compared to the number known to be present in the Indian ocean region. They has been relatively few publications on caetaceans, most of them focusing on distribution and conservation issues, but very little on the biology and ecology of these species. The comments and suggestions from the participants were as follows;

-

Recommendation No. 3: there is a guide book for the caetaceans of the region produced by WIOMSA that seems to be unknown to the consultants. David Derand (NS) will forward its reference. So change ‘production’ of guide book into ‘distribution’ or ‘promotion’.

-

Recommendation No. 6: Monitoring of caetaceans needs to be done as part of the existing regional network (put is clearly in the text also).

-

Recommendation No. 8 : integrate into EIA guidelines evaluation of risks linked to oil and gas exploration techniques; and regulate recreational interactions betwen humans and marine mammals (i.e., guidelines for eco-tourism, divers, etc).

-

Recommendation No. 10: Advocate for renewal of the Indian Ocean Whale Sanctuary, a concept originally proposed by Seychelles in the 1980s, which will enhance the ecotourist potential for Seychelles and the region.

-

Add a recommendation on the need to Conduct more research to reduce the problem of depredation by cetaceans on long-liners.

-

Recommendation No. 5: geographic movements of caetaceans deserve investigation and should be mentioned.

-

Recommendation No. 11 : official protocols to approach the animals and prevent their harassment or dangerous situations should be designed and tourist operators sensitized.

Appendix 3. Slide presentation made by B. Senterre during the workshop (General introduction; Plants and Fungi; Databases)

Seychelles Biodiversity Metadatabase

Presented by Bruno Senterre on 30th of September 2010, Victoria, Seychelles Citation of the report: Senterre B., Rocamora G., Bijoux J., Mortimer J. and Gerlach J. (2010) Seychelles biodiversity metadatabase. Consultancy report, Ministry of Environment-UNDP-GEF project, in prep.

Seychelles Biodiversity Metadatabase Part I Introduction: what is "biodiversity" ? An introduction to entities and concepts of biodiversity -Organisation levels: from simple to complex -Classification levels: from objects to concepts -Compartimentation levels: from holistic to pragmatic -Time dimension: from static to dynamic Biodiversity:

from concepts to measurements

Part II Main outputs: Word, Excel, Access format Part III Gap analysis for plants and gap analysis methodology

Part II Main outputs Word, Excel, Access format of the Metadatabase

Introduction:

Objectives

and

Outputs

1.

List of existing Seychelles’ biodiversity data sources. (Deadline Nov. 2009; achieved Jan. 2010) = Output 2 (output 1 = workplan)

2.

Report on agreed Objectives and Criteria for national biodiversity inventories, assessments, indicators and monitoring. (Deadline Feb. 2010; achieved July 2010) = Output 3

1

Output 3: Report on agreed Objectives and Criteria Objectives: In order to avoid biodiversity loss, we need to know: 1. Which species do we have? 2. How do we recognize these species?

Species level

3. What is the geographical distribution of these species? 4. Which types of habitats do we have? 5. How do we recognize these habitats?

Ecosystem level (habitats, communities)

6. What is the geographical distribution of these habitats 7. Which habitats do these species use and what environmental factors shape them ? 8. What is the biology, general ecology and funcioning of these species and habitats? 9. Which are the factors explaining the patterns of diversity (evolution processes)? 10. Which are the species, habitats and sites with the highest conservation value? 11. Are we using biodiversity ressources in a sustainable way?

Both species and ecosystem level

12. Which conservation actions may be set up for species and habitats?

2

Output 3: Report on agreed Objectives and Criteria Objectives? Why do we need to assess biodiversity, i.e. in order to answer which question? Our main question is: "How to achieve a “significant reduction of the current rate of biodiversity loss at the global, regional, and national level"? (CBD) Questions (objectives) can be classified hierarchically: primary, secondary ... objectives. Logical framework:

-Primary objective

How?

-secondary objective 1 -secondary objective 2

Why? 0. How to improve our quality of life on long term? 1. How to reduce biodiversity loss ...? 2. How to know which species we have in the Seychelles? 3. How to collect the required data (exploration, etc.)? 3. How to analyse these data and to produce the list of species? 2. How to know which species are threatened? ...

3

Introduction:

Objectives

and

Outputs

1.

List of existing Seychelles’ biodiversity data sources. (Deadline Nov. 2009; achieved Jan. 2010) = Output 2 (output 1 = workplan)

2.

Report on agreed Objectives and Criteria for national biodiversity inventories, assessments, indicators and monitoring. (Deadline Feb. 2010; achieved July 2010) = Output 3

3.

Consolidate the list in a metadatabase. (Deadline Apr. 2010; achieved July 2010)

= Output 4

4.

Final Priority Gap Analysis on Seychelles’ Biodiversity knowledge and information. (Deadline May 2010; expected September 2010) = Output 5

5.

Final Report on Biodiversity Data Synthesis and Gap Analysis in Seychelles. (Deadline June 2010; expected September 2010) = Output 6

4

Output 4: Consolidated list of existing Seychelles’ biodiversity data sources Biodiversity knowledge has been compiled in 3 types of outputs: -MS Word metadatabase: see Output 4a -only to visualise the datasets and only few metadata -only basic searches, using indexes at the end -can be printed -MS Excel metadatabase: see "SEY_Biodiv_meta_database.xls" and Output 4b for a description -only to visualise the datasets and synthetic version of metadata -relatively powerful searches, not complex -require basic knowledge of Excel, and reading the manual (output 4b)

-MS Access metadatabase: see "SEY_Biodiv_meta_database.mdb" and Output 4b for a description -store, manipulate, update, input dataset and metadata -powerful searches, but complex -require basic knowledge of Access, and reading the manual (output 4b)

5

Output 4: Consolidated list of existing Seychelles’ biodiversity data sources

Life demonstration of the 3 distinct output ...

6

Part III Gap analysis methodology General statistics from the metadatabase Gap analysis for Plants and Fungi

Output 5:

Content of the Gap Analysis report

The gap analysis is presented by chapters corresponding to different authors and taxonomic groups Plants and Fungi

(B. Senterre)

Land Mammals Marine Mammals Birds Reptiles Amphibians & freshwater fishes

(G. Rocamora) (J. Mortimer) (G. Rocamora) (J. Mortimer) (J. Gerlach)

Marine Fishes Scleractinia (hard corals) Marine Invertebrates (other than Scleractinia)

(J. Bijoux) (J. Bijoux) (J. Bijoux)

Terrestrial & Freshwater Invertebrates

(J. Gerlach)

Protista, non eucaryots and others

(B. Senterre)

In each of these chapters: -the statistics are provided, -a brief sketch of the main datasets is presented, emphasizing the gaps, strengths, weaknesses -recommendations are proposed

1

Output 5:

General statistics

The metadatabase contains 3754 items on the biodiversity of Seychelles (3816 since last update) 1500

Number of datasets 1234

1000 658 500

567

617

391 237 103

40

53

9

23

17

31

123 20

La nd M M am ar m in al e s M am m al s Bi rd s Re p Am tiles Fr ph es ib M hw ia ar ns a in te e rF La fis nd is h he & s & es Fr es In hw ve rt. at er In Pl ve an rt. ts & Fu ng i A N lg on ae Eu Pr oto ca ry zo ot s& a V iru s M En ix vi ed ro nm en tal O th er s

0

(!! The total of the values in the figure is 4123 ?)

(Indeed some datasets concern more than 1 group)

2

Output 5: Plants & 12 Fungi 7% 11 10%

General statistics (% of datasets per main objective 1-12, 13 = others)

13 4%

1 20%

●

●

●

10 19%

● 9 7%

T. & F. Invert. 10

11 2%

6 7 8 2% 2% 11%

12 13 2% 1%

617 Land Mam. 2 4%

4 1% 2 3%

7 3%

●

8 22%

10 35%

9 4%

13 2%

12 12%

1 8%

2 2%

●

-Terr. Invert. still mostly subject of taxonomy understudied -Animals vs. Plants: Species conservation (8,10,12) vs. Ecosystem understanding (3,4,5,9) -Amphibians as a model for biogeography and plants still not enough valorised for that perspect

658 Amph. 3 9%

4 1%

13 14 12 4% 3% 1%

10 27%

●

10 12% 2 12%

●

● 8 28%

9 4%

53

1 17%

7 2% 1 56%

7 0.3%

3 8% 4 0.5%

●

8 13%

103

2 2%

●

11 5%

9 5%

1 6%

●

1234 Birds

10%

3 7%

12 17%

11 2%

3 5% 4 9% 5 0.2%

13 1%

3 4%

9 28% 8 13%

7 6%

3

Output 5: Gap Analysis for plants and fungi

Marchantiomorpha (liverworts) (non vascular plants) (=mosses sensu lato)

Anthocerotophyta (hornworts) Bryophyta (mosses sensu stricto) Lycopodiopsida (fern allies)

Kingdom

Pteridophyta (ferns sensu lato) (seed plants) (=Spermatophytes) (=Phanerogams)

(vascular plants) (=Tracheophytes)

Plantae

Polypodiopsida (ferns sensu stricto)

Gymnosperms (Cycads, Conifers, etc.) Magnoliophyta (flowering plants) (=Angiosperms)

Phylum

Palaeodicots (Magnolia, Piper) Monocots (Palms, Vacoa, grasses) Eudicots (most plants)

Class

Orders, Families, Genera, Sp.

4

Output 5: Gap Analysis for plants and fungi

1527 1500

1358

1000 610 500 142

230 31

39

82

NE

Prot.

Fu.

0

Mix.

Fungi (general): Lichens:

68 14

Pl.

Inv.

V.

Phanerogams: Ferns: Mosses:

523 64 35

5

Output 5: Gap Analysis for plants and fungi Study type I (primary objectives) 01. Species list (taxonomy) 02. Species identification 03. Species distribution 04. Habitat types 05. Habitat types identification 06. Habitat types distribution 07. Habitat use & env. determinism 08. Biology, general ecology, funct. 09. Diversity, biogeography 10. Conservation value & threats 11. Sustainable use 12. Conservation actions 13. Others Total number of combinations (TOTc)

Study type I (primary objectives) 01. Species list (taxonomy) 02. Species identification 03. Species distribution 04. Habitat types 05. Habitat types identification 06. Habitat types distribution 07. Habitat use & env. determinism 08. Biology, general ecology, funct. 09. Diversity, biogeography 10. Conservation value & threats 11. Sustainable use 12. Conservation actions 13. Others

#

%

Phanerogams 125 34 32 93 3 26 24 124 60 201 92 87 44 945

Ferns 52 9 3 9

Phanerogams 13 4 3 10 0.3 3 3 13 6 21 10 9 5

?

Mosses 28 4 1 4

1 3 4 9 7

3 8 1

1 2 100

3 52

Ferns 52 9 3 9

Mosses 54 8 2 8

1 3 4 9 7

6 15 2

1 2

6

Fungi 32 26 2

1 19 5 30 23 1 1 140

Fungi 23 19 1

1 14 4 21 16 1 1

Lichens 12 1 1 1

1 3 1

20

Lichens 60 5 5 5

5 15 5

TOTc 249 48 63 109 3 27 28 151 85 240 115 89 50 1257

TOTc 20 4 5 9 0 2 2 12 7 19 9 7 4

6

Output 5: Gap Analysis for plants and fungi Study types (tertiary level) Taxonomy Taxonomy (new taxon paper) Taxonomy (new record paper) Taxonomy (monography, revision) Taxonomy (checklist) Taxonomy (flora-fauna) Genetic differentiation Collection effort Collections, expeditions, explorations Exploration effort analysis Exploration gap analysis Total number of combinations

Pl 20 1 5 1 35 6

Mo 2 2

Gy

9 10 1

Di 2 8 2 7 4 1

28 1

3

2

1

97

27

26

4

3

F 3 3 20 17 8

Mos Bry Mar Ant 1 2 1 2

6

3 7

5

1

1

56

8

14

2 4

3

Fu 8 13 7 1 4

?

Li 1 3 2 4 2

2

8

3

35

12

TOT 36 33 17 45 97 18 0 0 43 1 0 290

The listed datasets, thus including Seychelles, may be more or less relevant (comprehensive, accuracy, outdated, etc.)

These exemples show how we have explored the metadatabase to develop our argumentation on the proposed "gaps of knowledge"

7

Output 5:

Main recommendations - priorities

I suggested 35 recommendations for plants

(for fungi: there are more gaps than knowledge ...)

!!! Recommendations are inevitably influenced by personal interest and experiences !!! !!! Prioritization further amplifies this subjectivity !!! The only way to discuss the priorities is by emphasizing the links between them

What we need to discuss is: -Have we missed gaps of knowledge?

(i.e. enrich the debate)

-Are we inventing gaps where they aren't?

(track the mistakes or misinterpretations)

-Can we add recommendations and / or modify the proposed ones? -If a recommendation is considered as priority, is it an independant task or does it need other recommendations as input?

Filing gaps of knowledge will be mostly conditioned by funding / collaboration opportunities, i.e. priorities of those who have money, and capacities available locally

8

Output 5:

Main recommendations - priorities

The 6 most important (less subjective?) priorities to me are: 25. Analyse the efficiency of the Protected Areas Network, and add new sites if needed (Planneau) 19. Develop quantitative analysis of the patterns of diversity within islands with plots data 20. Develop quantitative analysis of the patterns of diversity within islands using sp. occurences 13. Develop maps of vegetation for the main granitic islands 11. Develop a National System of Habitat types 35. Develop international / regional collaborations and local capacities But to develop these recommendations, we have to work on several other important ones: 2. Redevelop the National Herbarium (collections, database, capacities, expertise, etc.) 8. Compile and develop scientific knowledge on species distribution within islands 6. Develop tools for species identification (field guides, interactive keys: ferns, mosses, etc., with n° 3) 10. Set up new field inventories of vegetation using plots adapted for vegetation description 16. Vegetation dynamics and ecosystem processes 12. Field guide of habitat types 15. Initiate the study of Plant functional types 22. Phytogeographic studies on the flora of Seychelles, integrating results of the taxonomic revisions 25. Review the conservation priorities for species, habitats and sites

(needs most of the remaining recommendations as input: invasives, ...)

33. PAs management plans: For all protected areas, develop management plans

9

2. National Herbarium (curation, database, awareness) 23. Phylogeography 7. Gazetteer of localities 35. Develop collaborations in the region

Develop local capacities

3. Taxonomic revisions and floras 6. Interactive keys of identification, practical tools Taxonomy awareness

Gaps and recommendations sp. ecosyst. Vegetation database (plots) 35. Develop international and regional collaborations

1. Exploration gap analysis (compilation of specimens) New exploration missions and collections 8. Species distribution data

Priority 5 4 3 2

9. Vegetation gap analysis (literature review) 10. New vegetation inventories (plots)

4. Virtual Herbarium 5. Herbarium library

12. Field guides of habitat types

13. Vegetation mapping

11. National System of Habitat types 14. Ecological groups database

20. Occurrence-based diversity analyses

19. Plot-based diversity analyses 21. Phylogenetic diversity / structure

24. Invasive plant species database 26. Climate change impact 27. Reclaim degraded lands for agriculture / forestry 28. Reorganize forestry

29. Protected Areas (PAs) review categories

Population size and trends

22. Phytogeography 16. Vegetation dynamics and ecosystem processes

15. Plant functional types 17. Species interactions 18. Species biology and general ecology

30. PAs criteria


31. Protected Areas Network effectiveness

32. National PAs Policy

33. PAs management plans

SUSTAINABLE USE AND CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY RESOURCES

34. Legislation review / update

Output 5:

Gaps and recommendations about databases in the Seychelles

152 Databases (in its wide sense) 5 3 3

Bibliographic collections Maps / images collections Specimens collections

25 International Databases (e.g. PIER, MOBOT, P herbarium) 22 Government of Seychelles 41 Parastatal agencies 57 NGOs 7 Private

Mostly -Population monitoring -Species ecology s.l. (feeding, reprod.) -Production sector -Environmental data

-Birds -Reptiles -Phanerogams (flowering Plants)

11

Output 5:


Most databases are spreasheets in Excel, sometimes spreadsheets in Access, but rarely relational Db. "Monthly Data Seychelles Airport.xls" Too many spreadsheets!

-Locality

On the long term this will become a problem

-Month

-Year

and exploitation of the data is more difficult

-Value

-Variable

"Praslin-La Digue Monthly Rainfall.xls"

One spreadsheet per variable measured multiplied by the number of localities

11

Output 5:

Gaps and recommendations about databases in the Seychelles Now all the data can be stored in 1 spreadsheet Variables with a bigger but limited number of columns (or fields) Values

Similar data is placed in similar place Data exchanges or take over are easier Climatic indexes or calculations are easier (e.g. dry month if P < 2 x T)

11

Output 5:


Actually, all the difficulty is to know which are the data types, and list them properly The next step in database shaping consists in organising these datatypes alltogether

11

Conclusion and next step We proposed

-gap analysis ;

-recommendations ;

-priorities

Now we need to discuss these: -Have we missed gaps of knowledge? -Are we inventing gaps where they aren't? -Can we add recommendations and / or modify the proposed ones? -Priorities are often very subjectives (depend on interests) Can we nuance with some other subjective points of view?

The aim of the discussion is mostly to enrich the debate, not to solve it (i.e. not to get to agreement)

Filing gaps of knowledge will be mostly conditioned by funding / collaboration opportunities, i.e. priorities of those who have money

19

Gran mersi pour zot latansyon! Many thanks to UNDP and colleagues!

Appendix 4. Slide presentation made by G. Rocamora during the workshop (Land Mammals, Marine Mammals, Birds, Reptiles, Amphibians & Freshwater fishes, and Land & Freshwater Invertebrates)

Proposed recommendations for Land Mammals, Marine Mammals, Birds, Reptiles, Amphibians & Freshwater fishes, and Land & Freshwater Invertebrates

M A M M A L S .S pe ci e 02 . S s lis t( pe ta ci xo es 03 no id .S m pe ent y) if ic ci es 05 at io di .H n st 04 ab ri b . i ut Ha 06 tat io 07 bi n . H typ ta .H es ab tt ab yp id i ta en ita es 08 tt tu tif yp .B ic es se io at lo i di gy & e st o n nv r ,g . d ibut e n 09 io et n er . D er a 10 l m iv ec .C in ol on ersi og ism t se y, y, rv bi og fun at io ct eo n . g va r a lu ph 11 y .S e& 12 t u hr .C st e ai on na at s se bl rv e at us io e n ac ti 13 ons .O th er Al s lo rm an y

01

L A N D Number of datasets

80

70

60

50

40 Series1

30

20

10

0

L A N D M A M M A L S

I Study types (secondary level) All or many 1 Taxonomy 1 Collection effort 2 Identification 2 Systematic 3 Species distribution 4 Habitats and / or communities 5 Habitat identification 5 Habitat classification system 6 Habitat distribution 7 Habitats used (sp.) 7 Environmental determinism 8 Species biology and general ecology 8 Interactions, Dynamics & Functioning 9 Biodiversity 9 Biogeography 10 Population size and trends 10 Habitat size and trends 10 Threats 10 Economic value 10 Conservation priorities 11 Production sector 11 Environmental Impact Assessment 11 Historical accounts 12 Rehabilitation / restoration 12 Conservation measures 12 Sustainable Land Management 12 Protected areas 12 Institutional management 12 Legislation, policies, international conventions 12 Education, Capacity building, Awareness 13 Theory, modelling, methodology 13 Environmental factors 13 Metadatabases 13 Others Total number of combinations (TOTc) Total number of datasets (TOTd)

International Regional National 3

2

1 2

1 1

2

Island 1 4 1

Locality

2

2

2

1

2 1

3 1

11

3 1

3

2

1

15 5 2

13 6 2

3 3

15 1 24

12 2 26

1

2

1 1

1 1 1

2 6 14

2

10 10 2

5 1

1

1

18 11

10 7

110 39

95 41

10 5

TOT 1 11 1 2 2 17 1 0 0 0 6 0 35 14 7 1 31 3 53 0 3 1 0 3 17 25 0 2 0 0 5 2 1 0 0 243 103


Proposed Prior ity level (1low to 5high)

Recommendation (short title)

Recommendation (full statement)

1,Comparative DNA & vocal analysis for bats

1 Extend comparative DNA analysis to all bat species, and complete by comparative measurements of Voice (echo-location) and Ecology; and undertake measurements of genetic diversity at infra-specific level for Sheath-tailed bat and other rare species

5

2, Collection of samples prior to eradications

2. Encourage collection and storage of samples of invasive land mammals from all islands, especially when an eradication is planned for future studies.

3

3, Identification material (poster, guide) for bats

3. Produce a publication (poster, guide, etc.) allowing for the identification of all Seychelles bats, especially new species identified from Aldabra.

3

4, Distribution knowledge on rare bats

4. Improve knowledge on the distribution of Sheath-tailed bat in the large granitic islands and of rare bat species on Aldabra.

5

5, Outer island distribution of introduced sp.

5. Determine the distribution of all introduced mammals in the outer islands (presence/absence in the different islands).

4

6, Studies on bat communities on Aldabra

6. Encourage further studies on bat communities, especially in the Aldabra group, and compare them with those from neighbouring islands and archipelagos.

3

7, Mapping of suitable habitats for rare bats

7. Encourage identification, inventory and mapping of habitats being used or suitable for bats, especially for rare or endangered endemic forms.

3

8, Biology of bats, including movements

8. Specific research needs to be conducted in Seychelles to determine key parameters of the biology of certain species of bats, including their movements for fruit bats through miniature GPS or other type of tags as they become available.

5


9, Biology and ecology of introduced sp.

9. Conduct more research on the biology and ecology of introduced mammals in Seychelles.

3

10. Functionning of ecosystems affected by aliens

10. Develop research on the ecological functioning of ecosystems affected by introduced mammals.

4

11, Patterns of bat biodiversity on Aldabra

11. Undertake more research on patterns of bat biodiversity in Seychelles, with a species focus on Aldabra.

4

12, Impact of introduced sp. on native biodiversity

12. Encourage additional research on the impact of introduced mammals on native biodiversity

5

13, National population size estimates for bats

13. Determine or update national population size estimates for all Seychelles bats, both in the inner and outer islands, with a priority for rare and threatened species.

4

14, Extent of suitable habitat for bats

14. Consider monitoring extent of (potentially or actually used) habitat for bats in Seychelles, at least for rare and threatened species.

4

15, Threats on rare bats, inc. alien sp. & climate change

15. Further research should be conducted on threats on rare bats, especially the impact of invasive species (mammals, birds, plants).

5

16, Economic benefits associated with bats

16. Investigate economic benefits associated with bats (e.g. ecotourism, human consumption); as well as the very high negative economic value of introduced mammals such as rats on ecosystems and human society.

3

17, Update Environmental Sensitive Areas (bats)

17. Update the inventory of Environment Sensitive Areas in Seychelles, with a special importance for bats.

4

18, New national Red Data Book (IUCN guidelines)

18. Produce a new Red Data Book for Seychelles using IUCN guidelines.

5

19, Effects of pesticides on bats

19. Encourage research on possible effects of pesticides used in agriculture on bats in Seychelles.

5

20, Sustainability of Fruit bat harvest

20. Determine levels of harvest sustainability on the Seychelles Fruit bat, which trapping and consumption is authorised under certain conditions.

2


21, Action Plan for Sheath-tailed bat

21. Produce a Species Action Plan for the Sheath-tailed bat, this species being the most threatened vertebrate of Seychelles.

5

22, Species & habitat restoration programme for STB

22. Develop species and habitat restoration programmes and associated research activities to improve the conservation status of the Sheath-tailed bat, and to control or eradicate introduce invasive mammals (see also Threats).

5

23, Protect & rehabilitate bat roosts

23. Protect roosting sites of bats, especially caves of the critically endangered Sheath tailed bat, prevent anthropogenic disturbance, control introduced predators, and conduct further monitoring and research into species biology and ecology.

5

24, Diseases & parasites affecting bats & alien mammals

24. Encourage conservation medicine research on diseases and parasites affecting bats and introduced mammals such as rats, especially those that can be transmitted to other native species and humans (e.g. leptospirosis).

4

25, Integrate STB requirements into Land Use Plans

25. Integrate the needs of the critically endangered Sheath tailed-bat into future land use planning.

5

26, Research activities in protected areas

26. Promote research activities within protected areas, while always kept compatible with the mission of conservation and protection of the bat populations concerned.

4

27, Popular publications in biodiversity database

27. Consider integrating some popular publications, at least those with some relevant information not published elsewhere, into the database.

2

28, Legislation & international conventions

28. Promote legislation, policies and international conventions willing to improve the protection and conservation of bat populations in Seychelles, and prevent the spread of invasive alien mammals, especially colonisation of rat-free islands

3

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08

07

05

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02

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M A M M A L S 01

M A R I N E Num ber of datasets

30

25

20

15 Series1

10

5

0

M A R I N E M A M M A L S

I 1 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 7 8 8 9 9 10 10 10 10 10 11 11 11 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 13 13 13 13


International

Regional

National

Island

1 2

15

5

1

1

1

5 1

6 1

3

2 1

5

2 1

1

1

2

2

1

1

2

1

2 1

3 1

1

1

1

15 8

1 35 18

14 9

11 5

TOT 0 0 1 0 24 1 0 0 0 3 0 14 3 0 0 5 0 9 0 1 0 0 2 0 7 0 2 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 75 40

M A R I N E M A M M A L S

Proposed Priorit y level (1-low to 5high)



1, Occurrence/Distribution surveys

1. Our knowledge of the occurrence of cetaceans in the western Indian Ocean is still preliminary. Basic surveys to document what species occur in Seychelles are needed throughout the territorial waters of Seychelles.

5

2, Genetic studies

2. Genetic studies of cetacean populations throughout the Indian Ocean region and beyond are needed to clarify phylogenetic relationships, patterns of migration, and population structure.

3

3, Guide books (regional)

3. Guidebooks with a regional focus might be devised to assist relatively inexperienced whale-watchers.

4

4, Habitat preference

4. Habitat preference of cetaceans warrants much further study

4

5, Biology & Ecology (inc. necropsies)

5. Almost any information about the biology and general ecology of most species of cetaceans would provide valuable insights about these poorly studied species. Almost any observations of live animals are of value. When stranded animals are encountered necropsies need to be conducted to record data on diet, reproductive state, and other characteristics relative to the natural history of the animals

5

6, Monitoring population trends & identification of priority habitats

6. Baseline surveys and long term monitoring is needed to identify habitats with the highest conservation value and to quantify population trends.

4

7, Identification & monitoring of population threats

7. Threats to cetaceans need to be identified and evaluated. Techniques that can be used to assess such threats are discussed by Kiszka et al. (2008b), Kiszka et al. (2008c), and Kiszka et al. (2009). Moore et al. (2010) present a revised protocol for future interview-based bycatch assessments.

5

8, Legislation enforcement

8. Seychelles needs to better enforce current legislation that prohibits the capture of cetaceans in Seychelles waters.

5

9, Protected areas network

9. Seychelles needs to establish a network of protected areas in the outer islands of Seychelles where cetaceans and dugongs can be protected and systematically monitored and better protected.

5

10, Develop caetacean tourism

10. Seychelles needs to encourage cetacean tourism in its territorial waters.

4

.S pe

ci

B I R D S 02

e . S s lis t( pe ta ci xo es 03 no .S id m e pe nt y) i ci es f ica 05 tio .H di n s 04 ab t . H rib u i ta 06 t io t ab 07 . H typ i t .H at n es ab ty ab id ita pe i e 08 ta tt n s tu yp tif .B i e c s io at e s lo d i & i gy st on en r ib ,g v. ut e d ne 09 io et n . D ra er 10 l m i ec .C v in ol ism on e rs o i ty g se , b y, rv f io at ge un c io n o g t. va r 1 1 lu e ap h .S y 12 & us th .C re ta on at se ina s b rv l e at us io e n ac t 13 ion s .O t A l her lo s rm an y

01

Num ber of datasets

350

300

250

200 Series1

150

100

50

0

B I R D S

I 1 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 7 8 8 9 9 10 10 10 10 10 11 11 11 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 13 13 13 13


15 1 6 2 17

landbirds 61 2 22 2 79 5

seabirds 30

shorebirds 15

17

13

39 2

21

2

3 12

3

3

33 8 1 3 24 2 8 2 2 3

202 37 21 14 149 17 83 1 16 12

82 16 2 4 95 6 29 9 8 17

11 2 1 1 12

8 1 10

19 39 101 4 20

8 4 33 2 9

3

2 9 9 3

2 3

2

9 953 442

3 423 212

2 101 48

1

2 151 85

4 3

3 5

TOT 121 3 58 4 156 7 0 0 3 20 0 328 63 25 22 280 25 124 12 29 32 0 38 44 147 6 35 0 2 9 13 6 0 16 1628 658

B I R D S

Proposed Priority level (1-low to 5high)



1, Taxonomic studies for all endemic forms

1.Complete lacking taxonomical studies for all Seychelles endemic forms, starting by the most threatened ones, including measurements of genetic differentiation at both inter and intra specific level, but also the analysis of vocal and ecological differentiation where appropriate.

5

2, Catalogue of specimens in foreign museums

2. Compile a catalogue of all known bird specimens collected in Seychelles and now scattered across many museums around the world, mainly in Europe and the USA.

3

3, Identification CDs for all residents & common migrants

3. Prepare an identification audio CD providing sounds and calls for all the birds of Seychelles, including Aldabra & the outer islands.

3

4, Updates of Bird Checklist of Seychelles

4, Continue to update regularly the checklist of the birds of Seychelles and publications giving official local names in Creole.

4

5, Atlas of the birds of Seychelles

5, Consider producing an Atlas of the birds of Seychelles, providing the distribution maps for all resident and regular migrants species, for the larger islands (Mahé, Praslin, Silhouette, La Digue).

4

6, Studies on seabird & waterbird communities

6,. Encourage studies on Seychelles bird communities, especially seabird or waterbird communities from specific islands or atolls, to compare them with other archipelagos.

4

7, Mapping of suitable habitats for threatened birds

7. Encourage mapping of habitats suitable for birds as part as biological assessments of islands in view of reintroductions of endangered species

3

8, Biology of non-breeding species

8, Undertake specific research to investigate the biology of nonbreeding species in Seychelles, including migrant landbirds, waders and seabirds.

4

9, Ecological research on endemics and seabirds

9, Continue ecological research on endemic species, both the threatened and also the unthreatened ones, and on breeding seabirds.

5

B I R D S

10, Species interactions; bird communities & habitats

10. Encourage more specific studies on species interactions, relationship between bird communities and their habitats, and the determinism of environmental factors on both.

4

11, Patterns of bird biodiversity in Seychelles

11. Undertake more research on patterns of bird biodiversity in Seychelles

3

12, Biogeographic & phyllogenetic studies

12. Encourage additional biogeographic and phylogenetic studies, especially for endemic species.

3

13, Population size estimates for shore, sea & landbirds

13. Compile or update national population size estimates for shorebirds, seabirds and rare landbird species for both the inner and outer islands, and produced or update population size and trends estimates for common landbirds.

5

14, Suitable habitat size for rare landbirds, & shorebirds

14. Monitor size of suitable habitat for all rare and threatened bird species, as well as shorebirds especially in IBAs and islands threatened by human developments.

4

15, Threats on native landbirds, seabirds & shorebirds

15. Continue monitoring and research on threats, including invasive species and climate change, for bird populations, especially rare and threatened species, but also seabird and waterbird populations (e.g. invasive species on endemic landbirds, overfishing of tunas on seabirds).

5

16, Diseases & parasites of land, shore, and sea birds

16. Encourage research and monitoring on diseases and parasites affecting or likely to affect all native birds, including landbirds, seabirds and shorebirds, and with a special focus on threatened species.

4

17, Economic benefits associated with birds

17. Studies on the economic value of birds should be developed, especially in the context of ecotourism.

2

18, Update IBA inventory and publish national book

18. Update the inventory of Important Bird Areas for Seychelles, and promote it throughout decision makers and the general public through a national publication.

5

19, Marine IBAs in Seychelles & Indian Ocean

19. Encourage research to identify Important Bird Areas at sea around Seychelles and beyond in the Indian Ocean.

4

B I R D S

20, New national Red Data Book (IUCN guidelines)

20. Produce a new Red Data Book for Seychelles using IUCN guidelines.

4

21, Effects of pesticides on native birds

21. Encourage research on possible effects of pesticides used in agriculture on endemic and native birds in Seychelles.

4

22, EIAs contributing to bird knowledge at particular sites

22. Identify EIAs providing a genuine contribution to the knowledge of bird populations in particular sites.

2

23, Update and publication of Species Action Plans

23. Species Action Plans for all Globally Threatened bird species should be updated regularly, and circulated to all decision makers and stakeholders in Seychelles.

5

24, Impact of overfishing and bycatch on seabirds

24. Conduct more research on measures to minimise bycatch and possible impact of overfishing of predator fishes like tunas on seabird populations (also covered by 15).

5

25, Island / Habitat restoration programmes

25. Encourage further island or habitat restoration programmes through specific projects and partnerships.

5

26, Restore waterbird habitats in Mahé and inner islands

26. Consider projects to rehabilitate or restore habitats for waterbirds, to restore the carrying capacity of Mahé and the granitic Seychelles for these communities.

4

26, Research activities in protected areas

27. Promote research activities within protected areas, while always kept compatible with the mission of conservation and protection of the bird populations concerned.

4

27, Land management risks and prevention

28. Encourage more studies on impact of land management (fire, beach erosion, etc.) on bird populations and prevention methods.

3

27, Popular publications in biodiversity database

29. Consider integrating popular publications, at least those with some relevant information not published elsewhere, into the database (ex: Birdwatch articles, Zwazo articles and other popular articles).

2

28, Legislation & international conventions

30. Undertake more studies on legislation, policies and international conventions in order to improve the protection and conservation of bird populations in Seychelles

3

.S pe ci e 02 . S s l is t( pe ta ci xo es 03 no .S id m e pe nt y) if ic ci es 05 at io .H di n 0 4 st r ab . H ibu ita 06 t io t ab 07 . H typ n i ta .H es ab t ty ab id ita pe ita en 08 tt s tu yp ti f .B i e c s io at e s lo i di gy & e st on n r ib ,g v. ut e d ne 09 io et n . D ra er 10 le m iv .C in co ism o n e rs l o ity g se , b y, rv f io at ge u n c io n o g t. va r 11 lue aph .S y 12 & us th .C re ta on a i n se ab ts rv le at us io e n ac t 13 io ns .O t A l he r lo s rm an y

R E P T I L E S 01

Num ber of datasets

180

160

140

120

100 Series1

80

60

40

20

0

R E P T I L E S

I 1 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 7 8 8 9 9 10 10 10 10 10 11 11 11 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 13 13 13 13


Reptiles 44 11 5 9 1

Testudines 40 5 5 1 26 1

1

6

17 1 4 8 11 1 4

123 36 16 16 87 17 56 4 9 10

2

2 2 8 1 6

25 14 86 2 8

Lizards 24

Snakes 4 1

Crocodiles 2 1

2 2 1

1

16 2 5 9 3

1 1 2

1

1

4 15 1 2 2 140 75

3 618 302

66 46

10 5

3 3

TOT 114 18 12 1 38 3 0 0 0 7 0 157 39 26 35 101 18 61 4 11 10 0 27 16 95 3 14 0 4 15 1 2 0 5 837 391

R E P T I L E S

Proposed Priorit y level (1-low to 5high)



1, Taxonomic/genetic studies for chelonians

1. For turtles, further work is needed to clarify the taxonomic status of the giant tortoises (i.e. how many extant species there are and what Latin binomials are appropriate for the Aldabra tortoise) the relationship between terrapins in Seychelles and mainland Africa, and for green turtles and hawksbills, the degree of variation between nesting populations within Seychelles and the relationships to those at the regional and global level

2

2, Taxonomy of lizards

2. The taxonomy of lizards in Seychelles needs further revision

4

3, Identification tools

3. Identification tools will need to be produced to incorporate the eventual revisions currently underway for tortoises and lizards.

3

4, Distribution maps (atlas ?)

4. Distribution maps for lizards and snakes need to be produced once once taxonomic revisions are complete. Distribution of foraging sea turtles of various age classes throughout the WIO region needs further study.

3

5, Foraging habitats of sea turtles & habitat use of lizards & snakes

5. What marine foraging habitats are utilized by the various age classes of sea turtles of all species needs further study, as does habitat utilization by various species of lizards & snakes.

3

6, In-water ecology of sea turtles & feeding ecology of lizards & snakes

6. More study of the in-water ecology of sea turtles is needed for all species and age classes. Studies of reproductive and feeding ecology of lizards and snakes are needed for all species.

2

7, More research on role of reptiles in ecosystem functionning

7. Given the relatively high biomass of reptiles in both marine and terrestrial ecosystems of Seychelles more study of the role of reptiles in ecosystem functioning is warranted for virtually all species in Seychelles.

2

8, Functionning of both terrestrial & marine ecosystems in Seychelles

8. The functioning of both terrestrial and marine ecosystems in Seychelles warrants continued study.

3

R E P T I L E S

9, Biodiversity & biogeography of herpetofauna i Seychelles

9. Questions relating to biodiversity and biogeography of the herpetofauna of Seychelles remain unanswered, and given the unique situation of Seychelles as a group of islands scattered across the western Indian Ocean with shared componenets of both Asian and African flora and fauna, this topic warrants further study.

4

10, National populations & trends for all species of reptiles

10. National populations and trends for all native species of reptile fauna need continued monitoring--i.e. sea turtle nesting populations, wild and feral tortoise populations, terrapins, and lizard species.

5

11, Monitoring of habitat conservation status

11. Continued monitoring of the status of habitat for all native reptile species is critical.

5

12, Law enforcement of sea turtle protection

12. Illegal sea turtle exploitation needs to be monitored and prosecuted.

5

13, Monitoring of exploitation of reptiles for pet trade

13. Exploitation of other reptile species for the pet trade needs to be monitored.

5

14, Restoration & protection of marshes, and terrapin reintroduction

14. Restoration and protection of marshes in perpeturity is critical and reintroduction of terrapins to these sites should be encouraged where appropriate.

5

15, Establishment of feral tortoise populations

15. Establishment of feral tortoise populations at islands that can accommodate them should be encouraged.

3

16, Training of Seychellois vets, and control of tortoise island transfers

16. Capacity of Seychellois veterinarians needs to be developed to enable them to deal with sea turtles injured by poachers or other anthropegenic factors, and tortoises injured accidently (for example by vehicles on private islands). Restrictions preventing transfer of tortoises between islands needs to be defined and enforced to preclude possible transfer of disease.

4

17, Network of protected areas for sea turtles in outer islands

17. In the outer islands, a network of protected areas for nesting sea turtles, that would be large enough to away from the the effect of artificial lighting or coastal development need to be defined, and assigned complete protection in perpetuity.

5

18, Public awareness, school education & training

18. Campaigns of public awareness, education of school children, and training of conservation personnel need to be continued in the long term.

5

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es l is t(

03

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es

ta

xo no id e pe nt m y) i ci e s f ica 05 ti o .H d n 04 ist r ab i . b Ha u 0 6 i ta t 07 t bi t io n .H yp ta .H es ab tt ab yp i ta i d ita en es 08 tt tu yp tif .B ic es se io at lo d & io i gy s tr i n , g env bu tio 0 9 en e . d e te n . D ra 10 rm iv l e .C i on e rs colo n ism i ty se , b g y, rv f io at ge unc io n t va og r . ap 1 1 lu hy .S e& 12 us .C t t a hr e on se in a a t s bl rv e at us io e n ac t 1 3 io n .O s t A l her lo s rm an y

02

.S

& Freshwater fishes 01

A M P H I B I A N S Num ber of datasets

25

20

15 Series1

10

5

0

A M P H I B I A N S & Fresh water fishes

I 1 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 7 8 8 9 9 10 10 10 10 10 11 11 11 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 13 13 13 13


Amphibians 8 1 2 1 1

Frogs 3

Caecilians 2

2 3 2

1

1

4

3 5

4

9

1

11 1

1 5 1

1

1

5

2

Freshwater fishes 7 1 1

3 2 2

1

2 30 19

1 40 25

11 9

20 9

TOT 20 2 5 5 7 0 0 0 0 5 0 13 2 6 21 2 0 2 0 7 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 101 62


Proposed Priority level (1-low to 5-high)



1. Identification of Praslin sooglossid

1. Identification of Praslin sooglossid – the ongoing investigation into the identity (species) and origin (native/introduced) of the Praslin sooglossid is a very high priority.

5

2. Species distribution data

2. Species distribution data: Fine scale mapping could be carried out but is a low priority.

2

3. Caecilian ecology

3. Caecilian ecology – full studies of caecilian ecology and how this determines their distribution are a high priority

5

4. Ecological studies

4. Ecological studies: studies of ecology are needed for all amphibans. These should expand dietary data for sooglossids and tree frogs and initiate dietary studies for caecilians. Studies of reproductive dynamics are needed for all species. Ecological studies of the fish populations should also be considered

4

5. Ecological studies

5. Ecological studies – basic ecological data on the factors that will determine distribution (e.g. diet and reproduction) are needed before a fully detailed analysis of diversity can be carried out. This is particularly true for caecilians

4

6. Population genetics

6. Population genetics - population genetic studies should be carried out for all species to identify important populations and particular areas of high conservation value.

5



7. Conservation priorities - priorities are easily defined for the restricted range Sooglossidae but ecological studies are needed before such areas can be defined for caecilians.

-

8. Monitoring

8. Monitoring - Specific monitoring methods for caecilians need to be developed in a dedicated research programme. All monitoring programmes should produce an annual report for circulation to parties interested in amphibians and to the Amphibian Specialist Group of IUCN for information and publication. Regular monitoring should be implemented for selected populations of freshwater fish.

5

9. Implement monitoring for chitridomycosis infection

9. Implement monitoring for chitridomycosis infection using the Mascarene frog as an indicator

5

10. Protected Areas Network

10. Protected Areas Network: Include Montagne Planeau as a protected area.

5

11. Habitat management in protected areas; including restoration in mid-high altitude forests

11. Implement habitat management favourable to amphibians in protected areas; including extension of habitat restoration in mid-high altitude forests on Mahé and Silhouette

5

12. Monitor presence of chitridiomycosis and other infections and set up assurance colonies if positive

12. Monitor for the presence of chitridiomycosis and other infections and set up assurance colonies if infection is detected

Land & Fresh water .S pe ci e 02 . S s l is t( pe ta ci xo es 03 no .S id m e pe nt y) i ci e s f ica 05 ti o .H di n s 0 ab t ri 4. b ita Ha u 06 t 07 bi t io n . H typ ta .H es ab tt ab yp id ita i e es 08 ta tt tu yp n ti f .B ic es se io at lo d i & i gy st o n en r ib ,g v. ut e d 09 ne io e te n . D ra 10 r le m iv .C in co ism o n e rs l o ity g se , b y, rv f io at ge u n c io n o g t. va r 1 1 lu e a p h .S y 12 & us th .C re ta on at se ina s b rv l e at us io e n ac t 13 io ns .O t A l he r lo s rm an y

01

I N V E R T E B R A T E S Num ber of datasets

900

800

700

600

500 Series1

400

300

200

100

0

Land & Fresh water

8

2 1

9

1

1 1

2

8 2 1 4 1

2

1

7

1

1

4

2

18 13 1 2

1

1

1

10

19 25

1

4

5 2

2

2 1

1 1 45 28

3 3

1 1

4 4

2 2

8 6

5 5

9 7

4 4

1 31 26

6 5

TOT 70 56 147 554 1 1 4 1 2 5 3 3 2 19 14 3 7 55 1 1 6 0 0 0 1 1 2 0 19 14 13 25 123 1 2 8 1 1 3 2 2 15 34 1 2 0 17 17 1 13 102 0 1 1 1 3 1 1 6 15 0 2 2 5 2 3 12 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 5 171 123 83 230 960 157 114 74 200 816

45 65 116 1 1 1 3 3 2 8 4 7 1 1

3

1 14 102 119 11 80 106

Diptera

3

Orthopteroidea

10

Lepidoptera

4

Coleoptera

7

Hemiptera

5

Hymenoptera

Trichoptera

3 1

Neuroptera

2

Odonata

4

Thysanoptera

1

Phthiraptera

Zygentoma

3

Psocoptera

Archaeognatha

5

Ephemeroptera

Protura

Study types (secondary level) Taxonomy Collection effort Identification Systematic Species distribution Habitats and / or communities Habitat identification Habitat classification system Habitat distribution Habitats used (sp.) Environmental determinism Species biology and general ecology Interactions, Dynamics & Functioning Biodiversity Biogeography Population size and trends Habitat size and trends Threats Economic value Conservation priorities Production sector Environmental Impact Assessment Historical accounts Rehabilitation / restoration Conservation measures Sustainable Land Management Protected areas Institutional management Legislation, policies, conventions Education, Capacity building, etc. Theory, modelling, methodology Environmental factors Metadatabases Others Total number of combinations (TOTc) Total number of datasets (TOTd)

Collembola

I 1 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 7 8 8 9 9 10 10 10 10 10 11 11 11 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 13 13 13 13

Insects

I N V E R T E B R A T E S

Land & Fresh water

Rotifera

Nemertea

Annelida

Platyhelminthes

Nematoda

81

1

4

9

2

17

4 16

2

1

2 2

2

22

2

1

2

7

2

3

Worms

Mollusca

87 22 18 1 1 1 4 3 3 1 13 1 1

Cnidaria

1

Crustacea

6 2

5

Myriapoda

7

Arachnids

7 3 1

Arthropods

3

Tardigrada


Invertebrates

I 1 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 7 8 8 9 9 10 10 10 10 10 11 11 11 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 13 13 13 13

Mixed or All


1

1 2 20 19 3 2 2 1 10 2 1 11

2 2 1

2

1

6

1

1

12 1 1 5

7 1

2

2

1 5

3

2

1

1

1

6

1

4

1 2 2

1 7 10 1 3

5 2 1

39 100 8 35 48 8

7 119 36 45 2 109 31 35

1

1

4 142 3 2 122 3

9 5

1 2 2

17 13

2 2

25 24

TOT 258 4 4 13 52 4 0 0 1 2 0 89 8 7 25 10 2 31 0 3 0 1 9 9 10 1 4 0 0 5 2 3 0 1 558 428


Proposed Priority level (1low to 5-high)



1. Exploration gap analysis

1. Exploration gap analysis: recent invertebrate surveys have aimed to cover geographical areas that have been neglected previously, accordingly geographical coverage is good. Further surveys would be appropriate for the taxa that needs further taxonomic work (see 2 below) and for one group which has not been collected adequaterly - Nematoda.

5

2. Taxonomic revisions and faunas

2. Taxonomic revisions and faunas: Completion of the ongoing taxonomic monograph series (scheduled for 2011). The following groups are research priorites but are constrained by a lack of taxonomists globally:Platyhelminthes, -Annelida, -Symphyla, -Acari

5

3. Specialist identification resources

3. Specialist identification resources: Completion of the ongoing taxonomic monograph series (scheduled for 2011).

5

4. Non-specialist identification resources

4. Non-specialist identification resources: Preparation of a basic level identification guide(s)

3

5. Species distribution data

5. Species distribution data: Knowledge on species distribution from recommendations 2 and 3 should be reliable but is not easily interpreted. A database of distributions could be compiled

2

6. Ecological studies for all communities.

6. Ecological studies – in-depth ecological studies should be carried out for all habitats and communities

3

7. Invertebrate habitat studies

7. Invertebrate habitat studies – in-depth ecological studies should be carried out for all habitats

3

8. Ecological studies – basic ecological studies should be carried out on a wide range of invertebrates. A range of species and habitats needs to be covered before any comprehensive discussion can be made of general ecology and ecosystem function. Studies of invertebrates should include both native/endemic species and invasives (especially ants).

4

Land & Fresh 8. Ecological studies water


9. Plot-based analyses

9. Plot-based analyses: using quantitative survey data detailed analysis of the patterns of diversity should be undertaken.

4

10. Occurrence-based analyses

10. Occurrence-based analyses: species distribution data could be analysed to produced general diversity patterns in more detail than has been attempted to date.

3

11. Biogeography

11. Biogeography: Molecular studies of a wide range of taxa are urgently needed. Our understanding of biogeography in Seychelles has fallen behind international standards and DNA based studies need to be encouraged to remedy this quickly.

5

13. Invasive species database

13. Invasive species database: A comprehensive database of invasive species should be created, as is recommended for plants.

3


14. Conservation priorities: completion of Red Listing for all Seychelles biodiversity is needed.

3

15. Climate change

15. Climate change: Studies on the impact of climate change on invertebrates have not been undertaken. As invertebrates may be particularly sensitive to climate change (Deutsch et al 2008) some invertebrate species will probably prove to be highly sensitive indicators of climate change

5

16. Site management

16. Site management - habitat management is urgently needed in all forest areas.

5

17. Marsh protection - as the most threatened habitat all remaining marshes should be protected as an immediate priority. This should be the highest level of protection possible to prevent any further drainage and pollution.

5

18. Research - studies of the conservation needs of species identified as at risk (in recommendation 13) should be undertaken to determine the best ways of conserving these species.

4

Land 17. Marsh protection & Fresh18. Research water

Appendix 5. Slide presentation made by J. Bijoux during the workshop (Marine fishes and invertebrates).

Marine Fishes

1

8

8

5 1

1 2

2

6

4 1 4

1

4

1 1

1 1

1 11 4

1

1 5 3

14 1 10

1 1

1

16 24 1

12

1

1 14 22 2 6 17 8 32 1 2 2

1

5 3

1 2

2

4 1 2

1

1

1

1 3 14 56 89 8 39 52

4 1

2 1

3 1

2 126 7 1 94 3

1 5

2 2

1 1 2

4 1 1

3

2

2 1

3 1

1

1 2

Platyhelminthes

Annelida

Echinodermata

1

Porifera

27 13 10 21 7 5 2 4 1 3 4 2 17 3 5 8 35 1 2 3

Cnidaria

Worms

1

Nemertea

1

Mollusca

1 1

Hemiptera

6 6

Odonata

8

70 6 2 3 9

Insects

2

1

Crustacea

7 2

Arachnids

13 1 1

Arthropods

Invertebrates

3

Tardigrada

Osteichthyes

Chondrichtyes

Fishes

Mixed or all


5 2 1

1 1

9

1 1

2 1 3 2 222 32 31 60 2 113 18 18 35

1 1

13 14 9 11

4 3

TOT 12 237 37 10 15 92 72 0 0 14 3 3 93 66 20 18 60 10 61 4 4 140 7 7 1 21 4 9 1 0 0 0 28 0 23 1060 567

Recommendations Taxonomy 1. Exploration gap analysis: The pelagic and coral reef associated species around the inner islands and Aldabra have been extensively explored. Future explorations should focus on the less visited island groups between Aldabra and the inner islands, mangrove and brackish water environment and the edge of the plateaux for species that are not targeted by current fishing gears. Priority: 2 2. Specimens distribution: Investment is required to document the location of the various fish species from the Seychelles that are being held overseas by different museums and research organisations. Priority: 4

Identification 3. Prepare basic identification guide providing clear identification characteristics with accepted Creole name for commercially exploitable species. This will solve problems associated with naming of species, especially by fishermen. Note: detailed identification guide is being prepared Priority: 5

Distribution 4. Encourage research comparing fish communities between different parts of the country and factors that are responsible for observed differences. Priority: 4 5. Make use of genetics to explore connectivity between populations at the national and regional level especially for commercially, emblematic or regionally endemic species.

Priority: 4

Habitat Use and Environmental determinism 6. Encourage studies focussing on species ecology, especially of coral reef associated species and those that are commercially targeted. These studies should aim at understanding how events such as coral bleaching or overharvesting could affect fish and greater marine community, Priority: 5 Biology, General ecology, functioning 7. Encourage research on the reproductive timing and biology of species and integrate those into species management plans. Priority: 5 8. Encourage research dealing with ecosystem functioning of fishes in all types of marine environment

Priority: 5

Diversity, Biogeography 9. Increase research on factors that are responsible for driving biodiversity in fish communities, especially those relating to climate change and overharvesting of target species. Priority: 4 10. Participate in regional and international studies on the biogeography of fish species, especially those focussing on the western Indian Ocean Biodiversity Hotspot. Priority: 3

Conservation values & Threats 11. Undertake regular stock assessment for the main commercially targeted species. Priority: 5 12. Make use of long-term data series on reef fish species (e.g. combined SEYMEMP and GVI data) to look at status of populations and integrate results into management, especially in Marine Protected Areas. Priority: 5 13. Continue with enforcement of current regulations regarding restrictions of fishing gears. Priority: 5 14. Promote ecosystem based management of marine habitats so as to create optimal conditions to promote maintenance of high biodiversity, growth and reproduction. Priority: 4 15. Draft, revise and implement action plans for potentially overharvested species (e.g. sharks, bumped parrotfish, Napoleon wrasse) Priority: 5

Sustainable Use 16. Determine level for sustainable exploitation of commercially targeted species. Where current exploitation is above the defined amount introduce measures to bring the level of harvesting within sustainable limits. Priority: 5 17. Promote consumption of locally abundant species such as tuna by making them more readily available at cheaper prizes. Priority: 4 18. Actively collate historical information on population levels of different species to act as baselines. Priority: 3

Conservation actions 19. Pilot habitat restoration projects and document their effectiveness in increasing fish diversity and biomass. Priority: 5 20. Revise the Fisheries Protection Act and its associate legislations to ensure that it is up-to-date and can adequately respond to present day challenges. Priority: 5 21. Implement actions to deter illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fisheries in Seychelles waters. Priority: 5 22. Review effectiveness of current MPA network in fisheries management and strengthen organisations responsible for managing MPAs. Priority: 4

23. Strengthen the Seychelles Fishing Authority so that it could carry out more research on exploitable species and have a more active management. Priority: 3 24. Strengthen civil society organisations such as the Fishing Boat Owners Association, Praslin Fishermen Association and Association for Shark Fishermen so that they could become more active in fisheries management. Priority: 5

25. SFA should regularly make information on long term stock or catch of species available to fishermen and the general public so that threats that the fisheries are facing could be better understand. Priority: 3

Hard Corals

1

8

8

5 1

1 2

2

6

4 1 4

1

4

1 1

1 1

1 11 4

1

1 5 3

14 1 10

1 1

1

16 24 1

12

1

1 14 22 2 6 17 8 32 1 2 2

1

5 3

1 2

2

4 1 2

1

1

1

1 3 14 56 89 8 39 52

4 1

2 1

3 1

2 126 7 1 94 3

1 5

2 2

1 1 2

4 1 1

3

2

2 1

3 1

1

1 2

Platyhelminthes

Annelida

Echinodermata

1

Porifera

27 13 10 21 7 5 2 4 1 3 4 2 17 3 5 8 35 1 2 3

Cnidaria

Worms

1

Nemertea

1

Mollusca

1 1

Hemiptera

6 6

Odonata

8

70 6 2 3 9

Insects

2

1

Crustacea

7 2

Arachnids

13 1 1

Arthropods

Invertebrates

3

Tardigrada

Osteichthyes

Chondrichtyes

Fishes

Mixed or all


5 2 1

1 1

9

1 1

2 1 3 2 222 32 31 60 2 113 18 18 35

1 1

13 14 9 11

4 3

TOT 12 237 37 10 15 92 72 0 0 14 3 3 93 66 20 18 60 10 61 4 4 140 7 7 1 21 4 9 1 0 0 0 28 0 23 1060 567

Recommendations Taxonomy 1. The various Seychelles coral specimens being held in museums and research organisations overseas should be documented. Priority: 4 2. A checklist of Seychelles species should be drafted and should incorporate results from recent publications and collections. Priority: 3

Identification Manuals and identification keys for corals are widespread and easily obtainable and hence there are no major local needs

Distribution 3. Detailed maps of coral reef environment (such as those recently produced by Cambridge University using CASI) should be produced and made available to environmental professionals and researchers. Priority: 4

Habitat Use and Environmental determinism 4. Future research on corals should aim at forecasting impact of future bleaching events and increase occurrence of large scale impacts such as storms. Priority: 4

5. Promote research studying the role of corals in the functioning of other reef dwelling species (e.g. crabs, echinoderms).

Priority: 4

Biology, General ecology, functioning 6. Increase research on biology of coral species, especially with regards to reproductive biology and how they cope with impacts such as warm water temperature, high turbidity, sedimentation and pollution. Priority: 4 7. Management organisation should learn from best practices being developed across the word with regards to the management of corals and coral reefs by forging partnerships and ties with similar organisations (e.g. GBR Marine Parks Authority). Priority: 5

Diversity, Biogeography

8. Increase research on factors that are responsible for driving biodiversity in corals, especially those relating to climate change and natural phenomenon such as storms. Priority: 4 9. Participate in research looking at connectivity of Seychelles to other parts of the Indian Ocean using coral species with restricted distribution as a proxy. Priority: 3

Conservation values & Threats 10. Continue with the implementation of active coral reef monitoring programmes and expand in places where there is little information such as in many of the Southern Seychelles islands. Priority: 5 11. Limit threats to corals by reducing land based sources of pollution relating to the input of terrestrial sediments and high levels of nutrients. Priority: 4 12. Carry out early population control programmes when outbreaks of coral plague organisms (e.g. crown-of-thorns starfish) are reported. Priority: 5 13. Limit physical damage to reef structure by restricting activities such as reef dredging and land reclamation over coral reefs. Priority: 5

Sustainable Use 14. Adhere to restrictions on international trade of coral products imposed by CITES. Priority: 5 15. Since the local curio trade is small, allow for licensed harvesting of some corals for sale locally. Priority: 3 Conservation actions 16. Pilot different rehabilitation techniques to promote the recovery of degraded coral reefs, especially those that are affected by physical abrasion from coral rubble. Priority: 5 17. Control the population of black spine sea urchin to promote recovery of coral reef at economically viable sites (e.g. MPAs). Priority: 5

18. Improve zoning of current MPA network to better protect coral refugia within them. Priority: 5 19. Empower the Department of Environment and the National Parks Authority to better enforce environmental legislation concerned with the protection of corals and coral reefs. . Priority: 5 20. Revise and harmonise environmental legislation concerned with the protection of corals and coral reefs. Priority: 5 21. Review effectiveness of current MPA network in protection of corals and strengthen organisations responsible for managing MPAs. Priority: 5

22. Empower the Seychelles National Parks Authority so that it could carry out more research on corals, coral reefs and associated habitats. Priority: 4 23. Strengthen civil society organisations such as environmental NGOs so that they could become more involve in marine conservation. Priority: 5 24. SNPPA should regularly analyse data from coral reef monitoring programmes and make the results widely available to the general public. Priority: 3

Marine Invertebrates

1

8

8

5 1

1 2

2

6

4 1 4

1

4

1 1

1 1

1 11 4

1

1 5 3

14 1 10

1 1

1

16 24 1

12

1

1 14 22 2 6 17 8 32 1 2 2

1

5 3

1 2

2

4 1 2

1

1

1

1 3 14 56 89 8 39 52

4 1

2 1

3 1

2 126 7 1 94 3

1 5

2 2

1 1 2

4 1 1

3

2

2 1

3 1

1

1 2

Platyhelminthes

Annelida

Echinodermata

1

Porifera

27 13 10 21 7 5 2 4 1 3 4 2 17 3 5 8 35 1 2 3

Cnidaria

Worms

1

Nemertea

1

Mollusca

1 1

Hemiptera

6 6

Odonata

8

70 6 2 3 9

Insects

2

1

Crustacea

7 2

Arachnids

13 1 1

Arthropods

Invertebrates

3

Tardigrada

Osteichthyes

Chondrichtyes

Fishes

Mixed or all


5 2 1

1 1

9

1 1

2 1 3 2 222 32 31 60 2 113 18 18 35

1 1

13 14 9 11

4 3

TOT 12 237 37 10 15 92 72 0 0 14 3 3 93 66 20 18 60 10 61 4 4 140 7 7 1 21 4 9 1 0 0 0 28 0 23 1060 567

Recommendations Taxonomy 1. Future explorations should focus on the less studied groups such as the Cnidaria (with exception of the hard and soft corals), ascidians, flatworms, etc. as well as deeper areas that can now be accessed using SCUBA. Priority: 4

2. Exploration efforts should focus around the less explored islands between the Aldabra and the inner islands. Priority: 4 3. A checklist of all known Seychelles marine invertebrate species should be produced and made available for scientific use. Priority: 5 4. Specimens being held overseas should be documented. Priority: 4

Identification 5. Little exist in terms of identification guide for locally occurring marine invertebrates and for some groups there are little taxonomical experience globally. It is hence recommended that we make use of international publish identification guides for most groups. Priority: 5 6. For commercially exploited marine invertebrates a colour guide should be produced to facilitate identification and for fisheries monitoring purposes. Priority: 5 7. Curation of marine invertebrate should be initiated at the Natural History Museum. Priority: 3

Distribution 8. Studies on marine invertebrates should be encouraged across all fields of biology and ecology due to the chronic lack of information. Priority: 5 Habitat Use and Environmental determinism

9. Future studies of marine invertebrates should also contain information on associated habitats and species. Priority: 5 Biology, General ecology, functioning See 8 above Diversity, Biogeography See 8 above

Conservation values & Threats

10. Undertake regular stock assessment for the commercially targeted species (e.g. lobsters, sea cucumbers). Priority: 5 11. Make information of stock and catch of exploited marine invertebrate available to fishermen so that they can see for themselves the trends in status of resources. Priority: 5 12. Implement management measures for commercially exploited species. Priority: 5

Sustainable Use 13. Determine level for sustainable exploitation of commercially targeted species. Where current exploitation is above the defined amount introduce measures to bring the level of harvesting within sustainable limits. Priority: 5 14. Actively collate historical information on population levels of different exploited species to act as baselines. Priority: 3 Conservation actions 15. Ensure that it is clear which organisation has mandate for the protection or management of particular species. Priority: 5 16. Improve information dissemination on the diversity of marine invertebrates, their current and potential use. Priority: 3