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Results from a longitudinal study on factors influencing conscience development contributed to our appreciation of the importance of moral internalization for a child's well-being. In this article we first present a summary of the research on moral development in children, including findings from infant research, with emphasis on the work of Robert N Emde. Characteristics of classical psychoanalytic theory about superego development are compared with more recent insights. This is followed by a short description of two cheating games—as a measure of conscience development— played with 101 preschoolers. Some contrasts in our empirical data between the fair-play group and the children that cheated are presented and discussed in the light of the theoretical points of view. Finally some reflections on future research and the implications for parenting, prevention and clinical work are followed by suggestions for psychoanalytic theory. Keywords: conscience /moral development; superego; socialization; infant research; Robert N Emde "The major task of conscience is to take care of your well-being" J. H. Hokse, Groningen (1983)1
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Willem Stapert is child psychiatrist and psychoanalyst and has worked at the departments of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry of the Universities of Groningen, Amsterdam and Nijmegen in the Netherlands. Sanny Smeekens is member of the staff at the Department of Developmental Psychology, Behavioral Science Institute, Radboud University Nijmegen, the Netherlands. The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child 65, ed. Robert A. King, Samuel Abrams, A. Scott Dowling, and Paul M. Brinich (Yale University Press, copyright © 2011 by Robert A. King, Samuel Abrams, A. Scott Dowling, and Paul M. Brinich). 1. At that time J. H. Hokse was a training analyst in Groningen, the Netherlands. His statement was noted down in a discussion during the theoretical course of the training.
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IN A LONGITUDINAL STUDY ON CONSCIENCE DEVELOPMENT, IN A CO?v1-
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munity sample of children, we used two cheating games, played with 101 children at the age of 5 years, as a behavioral measure for conscience development. A minority of these children (15%) stood out by the absence of any form of transgression in the two games, designed to challenge their fair play principle. We asked ourselves how their behavior could be understood in terms of conscience development. Was it the effect of a severe superego, already effectively inhibiting the child at this early age? If so, we expected to find signs of anxiety and inhibition in their emotional functioning. Or, should their behavior be regarded as a sign of a positive development? In that case we would expect to find other positive signs when assessing their emotional functioning. The first hypothesis would fit best with classical psychoanalytic theory about conscience development. The latter would support more recent opinions about early conscience development in psychoanalytic theory and in infant research. In the following paragraphs, we will place the premises of these hypotheses in a historical perspective, with emphasis on Robert N. Emde's theory about early conscience development. Following, his ideas are compared with classical psychoanalytic theory about superego development. In a subsequent section empirical data are presented, with a short explanation of the method used, comparing the children who cheated with the ones who played according to the rules, showing data both at the group level and at the individual level. Finally, the results and limitations of our approach are discussed, followed by some reflections on future research and some implications of our findings for parenting, prevention, and clinical work, with suggestions for psychoanalytic theory. THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON CONSCIENCE DEVELOPMENT
Sigmund Freud was the first to formulate a psychological theory about conscience and its development. Before that time, reflections on the origin of ethical principles, moral motives, and moral behavior belonged to the domain of philosophers, like Aristotle, Plato, Spinoza, Kant, and Hume, or to the domain of theologians like Augustine. In Freud'S theory (1914, 1923) the superego is the heir of the Oedipus complex, in which the child is about to be overwhelmed by fear, due to strong
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c onflicting emotions toward his or her parents: rivalry, rage, sexual desire and a longing for love. Only by identification with the parent of the same sex and internalizing his or her moral values can the child, according to Freud's theory, find peace of mind in this existential turmoil. From that moment onward, the child has an autonomous conscience. No longer is anxiety dominating his/her internal world, but feelings of guilt following transgressions of parental precepts and prohibitions. This development is slightly different for boys and girls. A few years later, Piaget (Piaget & Gabain, 1932) formulated his theory about children's moral development. He made it part of his epistemology and consequently of cognitive development. He focused on interactions with peers, moral reasoning, justice, and self-reflection. In his view, these arose as the natural consequence of engaging with the rules of games that predominate among peers in early and middle childhood. In the 1960s, Piaget's theory about cognitive development became popular in the United States and Kohlberg (Kohlberg & Kramer, 1969) expanded Piaget's structuralistic model into a lifespan theory of moral development with six stages of moral reasoning. Following Piaget, another approach to conscience development came in the 1930s from a group of behaviorists at the Yale University (e.g., Dollard et al., 1939). This group tried to reformulate Freudian theory of conscience development into stimulus-response schemes; for example, identification was operationalized as imitation. Their approach differed fundamentally from Freud's, but there were also similarities. They put conscience development and the internalization of moral values at the center of their theory, but they considered conscience exclusively as the result of conditioning processes and opposed to the idea of developmental stages, as proposed by Freud and Piaget. Finally, Hoffman (1970, 1977) formulated a theory of moral development based on the innate human potential for empathy and empathic concern, leading to prosocial behavior. In his view, morality develops along with cognitive development, but is essentially emotional in its origin. Guilt is the price for not responding to the empathic call. Hoffman's ideas have become influential in recent years because of an interest in empathy and morality in sciences as ethology (e.g., Preston & de Waal, 2002), neurosciences (Blair, 2005), and social psychology (Haidt, 2001, 2002). These various theoretical approaches are founded in very different kinds of Weltanschauung and this divergence hindered the progress of scientific research and free exchange of ideas for a long time, with followers of one theory giving little regard to the ideas of the others. However, this situation changed in recent years, as is clearly illustrated
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for it. For that reason, we will briefly summarize Emde's theory of early social and moral development.
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A Re-Examination and Re-Application of the Psychoanalytic Assessment for Older Adults CAROLA CHASE, LCSW
In 1962 Anna Freud published her pioneering paper on the Diagnostic Profile, proposing a framework for organizing relevant clinical material and observations for the assessment of a child's inner world. Since that time, the Profile has been applied, with modifications, to work with babies, adolescents, adults, blind children, and others. This paper strives to demonstrate the Profile's applicability to a group often neglected in the psychoanalytic literature, namely the older population, a vibrant group frequently seeking psychotherapy and even psychoanalysis. A case study of a woman in her 70s is used to illustrate the advantages for clinicians of the Profile for a clearer understanding, both diagnostically and intrapsychically, of the older adult.
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Member, New York Freudian Society. An earlier version of this paper received the 2009 Anna Freud Award. I am grateful to Samuel Abrams and the Anna Freud Foundation for their invaluable suggestions and recommendations on my original paper. I would also like to thank Henry Mallard for his generosity in providing encouragement, a careful reading, and a thoughtful critique on an earlier version of this paper. Also, both Barbara Bock and Hannah Chase offered excellent editorial observations. The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child 65, ed. Robert A. King, Samuel Abrams, A. Scott Dowling, and Paul M. Brinich (Yale University Press, copyright © 2011 by Robert A. King, Samuel Abrams, A. Scott Dowling, and Paul M. Brinich).
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Haglund, M. E. M., 139 Haidt, J., 217, 236 Hampstead Index, 223 Hanly, C., 111 "Hans Tietze and Erica Tietze-Conrat" (Kokoschka), 296, 297 Happiness, 139-40 Hare, R. D., 236 Harnik, J., 338 Harris, A., 36, 50 Harrison, A., 52 Harry Potter series, 81 Hart, B., 140 Hartmann, H., 66, 249 Hegel, G., 104n2, 336n3 Heidegger, M., 349 Heidi (Spyri), 82 Hemispheric brain asymmetry, 140-41 Herodotus, 107-18, 115n10 Herschkowitz, S., 313-31 Hill, J., 235
Himmelfarb, G., 124 Historiography: and assertion of "truth," 116-18; and authenticity, 112, 113, 118; and cataloging facts, 112, 113-14, 118; clinical case supporting argument for, 104-6; and cognitive organization, 120-21; and coherence theory of truth, 111-12; and correspondence theory of truth, 111-12; course outline for, 106-26; definition of, 104, 104n1; definitions of history, 106-7, 124n22, 125n23; effects of, 124-26; and emplotment, 119-20; Hegel on, 104n2; and Herodotus, 107-18; and history as literature, 119-24; and ideological influences, 121-22; and irony, 123-24; justification for course on, 103-4; and metaphor, 123; and metonymy, 122-23; and poetic rhetorical trope, 122-24; and selection, 112, 114-15, 118; and synecdoche, 123; and Zeitgeist, 112-13, 115-16, 118 History: definitions of, 106-7, 124n22, 125n23; as literature, 119-24. See also Historiography Hodges, J., 179, 180 Hofer, M., 40 Hoffman, I. Z., 333, 337, 337n4, 338, 340, 343, 347 Hoffman, M. L., 217-19, 237 Hokse, J. H., 215 Home Alone movies, 83 House-Tree-Person Drawings, 21 Hughes, D., 182 Hume, David, 216 Hurry, A., 154 Hurvich, M., 249, 340 Huston, A. C., 80 Hypomania, 302
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Galatzer-Levy, R., 40, 50, 73 Gallese, V., 237 Gender role identity: higender identity of eight-year-old girls, 27-28; fluidity of, during middle childhood and preadolescence, 22, 30, 31, 33, 35-37; in middle childhood and preadolescence, 22-44; of nine-year-olds, 29-30; of preadolescents, 30-35; Rorschach gender representation scoring, 22; in six-to-eight-year-olds, 24-28; socialization of, 36-37 Genetics, 138-39 Gergely, G., 53, 69 Gesell, A., 39 Gewirtz, J. L., 218 Gill, M. M., 104 Gilmore, K., 40, 49 Girls. See Females Giroud, F., 294 Give and take, 220 Global empathy, 219 Global self-esteem, 229 Golding, W., 42, 83 Goldner, V., 36 "Good enough" parenting, 180 Green, A., 338n8 Greenacre, P., 305 Gropius, W., 294, 302-3 Grossmann, K and K., 177 Grotjahn, M., 334 "Group Psychology" (S. Freud), 325 Gulf War, 328nn8-9
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ËËË ËËiË iïïiËÈ ËËt iËiËï+gË *Ëï ËiiÏËiË leff ËËfi g; *Ë FË cË rËË Í ï ËËË?ïË ;ïiï, ËilïïïiiË iË Ë trË E * ïËÊË Ë ËË iïËàËË
Fredrickson, B. L., 139, 140 Freud, A.: on Adult Diagnostic Profile, 246; on adult patients, 121; and Bowlby's theory, 176; on children's developmental process, 6-7; on children's literature, 82; compared with Klein, 121, 169, 170-71; on defenses, 42, 140, 155; on developmental disturbance, 153; on developmental lines, 3, 40, 51, 246; Diagnostic Profile of, applied to older adults, 245-73; on drives, 165; on middle childhood, 38, 80; Neubauer's interest in work of, 3; on positive emotions, 140; on progressive forces and regressive tendencies, 140; on retirement, 248; on uncertainty as important task, 7 Freud, S.: on aggression, 346; analysis of G. Mahler by, 294; on body ego, 291; on catastrophe, violence, and war, 325; on continuities and discontinuities in development, 73-74; on countertransference, 110; on death drive, 333n1, 339-40; against death's representability, 332-54, 333n1, 338n8; developmental theory of, 6, 39, 40, 49-50; dreamwork of, 119n17, 124n21, 340n13; on drives, 219, 350n19; on ego and ego strength, 66, 137, 291; and German language, 149; on id, 338, 344; on importance of contemporary experience, 325-26; on latency defenses, 42; on libido, 344; on literature, 80; and Little Hans case, 342n15; and metaphor of archaeology, 110; on middle childhood, 80; on "Nachtraglichkeit," 326; on negation, 336; and Oedipus complex, 108, 114; on perversion, 64; on pleasure in mastery, 139; on pleasure principle, 139; "Rat Man" case of, 138; on representation, 349n18, 350-51n19; on sexuality, 114-15, 338, 341, 342, 342n15; on superego, 216-17, 223, 236; on transference, 110, 342-43; on transformation, 6; on unconscious, 326, 332, 335-52, 337n4, 345-46n16, 351n19; on visual thinking, 289. See also specific works Friedlaender, K., 82 Friedman, T. L., 132 Fukuyama, F., 121 Furman, E., 80, 146 Gabain, M., 217 Gabbard, G., 80
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MacArthur story stem battery, 179 Madsen, S., 178 Mahler, A., 293-308 Mahler, G., 294-95, 299, 300 Mahler, M. S., 51, 52, 55, 56, 58, 69, 305 Mahler Separation-Individuation Study/ Follow-up Study, 55 Main, M., 52, 54 Males: anger and aggression of adult males, 144-45; attachment disturbances in latency-aged boys, 182-208; depression of, 321; gender role identity in middle childhood and preadolescence, 22-44; impotence of, 321-22; omnipotent views of adult male, 145-46; six- to eight-year-old boys, 22-25; transformational process and therapeutic action with adolescent male, 5-18 Mayans, S., 185 Marans, W., 185 Marcoen, A., 229 Markus, H. J., 80 Marx, K., 121 Matas, L. A., 223 Mathematical genius, 286-87 Matte Blanco, I., 337, 337n5 Mayes, D., 178 Mayes, L., 39-40, 43 Mayes, L. C., 50, 66, 71, 73, 153, 156 Mayr, E., 138
McDevitt, J., 59-64 McDougall, J., 64 Me and Miss Mandible (Barthelme), 85, 96 -99 Memory, A (Welty), 85-86, 90 Men. See Father-child relationship; Males Menstruation, 31, 32 Metahistory (White), 119 -24 Meyer, J. E., 333, 338n8 Michelangelo, 288 Middle childhood and preadolescence: adult narratives of, 84-85; aggression during, 23-27, 29-34, 36, 37-39; attachment disturbances during, 182-208; character development during, 80; children's literature on, 82-84; developmental theory on, 39-44; dreams during, 23-30, 32, 33, 38-39; dynamic systems theory on, 43-44; fiction on, 79-99; fragmentation and incompleteness during, 91-98; gender role identity in, 22-44; knowledge and perspective during, 87-91; latency defenses during, 42; mastery and control game during, 280-81; and menstruation, 31, 32; nine-year-olds, 29-30; nonlinear development in, 19-44; obsolescent parents during, 85-87; oedipal feelings during, 23-28, 31-33, 38-39; parent-child relationships during, 23-28, 30, 37; play of adopted latency-aged girl, 152-67, 169-74; preadolescence, 30-34; research method on, 20-22; in Sam case, 58-59; sexuality in, 26-35, 37-39, 92-97, 164-65; six- to eight-year-olds, 22-28 Miller, G. A., 40 Mischel, W., 141 Mitchell, J., 115 Moffit, T. E., 235, 236 Moll, C., 295 Moral development. See Conscience development Moral dilemmas, 222-23 Moral emotions, 222-23 Mother-child relationship: and ChildParent Psychotherapy (CPP) program, 181; and conscience development, 224; delayed triangulation in, 67-68; and delay in self-object differentiation, 67; detrimental impact of maternal emotional unavailability, 235; and emotional muscle development, 131-44, 146-49; in middle childhood, 23-28, 30, 37; and perversion, 64; in Sam case
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Lacan, J., 340n13, 353n23 Lachmann, F., 333 Lakoff, G., 148 Lament, C., 5-18, 51, 250, 251, 273 Lampl-De Groot, J., 224 Lanyado, M., 157 Latency: attachment disturbances in latency-aged boys, 182-208; defenses during, 42, 165; fiction on, 79-99; nonlinear development in middle childhood and preadolescence, 19-44; play of adopted latency-aged girl, 152-67, 169-74; in Sam case, 68. See also Middle childhood and preadolescence Laufer, M., 140 Le Doux, J. E., 326, 326n6 Lee, H., To Kill a Mockingbird, 36 Lewin, B. D., 338, 345 Lewis, C. S., 83 Libido, 344. See also Sexuality Lieberman, A., 181 Lifton, R. J., 333 Lindgren, A., 36, 82 Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, The (Lewis), 83 Literature: adult narratives on latency, 84-85; children's literature themes,
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82-84; and cognitive organization, 120-21; detached narrator in, 86; and emplotment, 119-20; fragmentation and incompleteness of middle childhood in, 91-98; history as, 119-24; and ideological influences, 121-22; and irony, 123-24; knowledge and perspective of middle childhood in, 87-91; and metaphor, 123; and metonymy, 122-23; on middle childhood, 79-99; obsolescent parents in, 85-87; and poetic rhetorical trope, 122-24; and synecdoche, 123 Little Hans case, 342n15 Little Lord Fauntleroy (Burnett), 82 Little Princess, The (Burnett), 82 Loewald, H., 91 Lord of the Flies (Golding), 42, 83 Loudest Voice, The (Paley), 85, 86, 88-89 "Lovers, The/Two Nudes" (Kokoschka), 300, 301 Luthar, S. S., 141 Lyons-Ruth, K., 178
367
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Kokoschka, 0. (continued) 302-3; and Alma doll, 303-7; artistic career of 294-96, 303, 306-7; biblical themes in paintings by, 296, 302; childhood and family background of, 293-94, 305, 306; cityscapes and landscapes by, 307; depression of, 296, 302; destruction of Alma doll by, 305-6; doll paintings by, 306-7; fans for A. Mahler by, 301-2, 303; fantasies of, 299-300; fetishism by, 304-5; hypomania of, 302; influences on, 296; marriage of, 307; paintings representing A. Mahler and her affair with, 296-303; plays by, 299, 306; portraits by, 296, 297; and World War I, 302-3; and World War II, 307 Kramer, A., 64 Kramer, R., 217 Kris, A., 52, 87 Kris, E., 80, 105n4, 106, Ill, 287, 287n1 Kroes, M., 233 Kubler-Ross, E., 334 Kuczynski, L., 218 Kuhl, P. K., 220 Kulish, N., 36 Kurtines, W. M., 218
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366
(birth to five years), 56-58, 60, 63, 65, 67-70, 73; and Slade's reflective parenting program, 181; Winnicott on, 157. See also Attachment "Motoric perception," 277-91 Munslow, A., 124 Mutuality, 220 Myers, W., 248
"Nachtraglichkeit," 326, 330n12 Nader, K., 326n6 Narratives of emotion, 221 Narrative stem assessments, 179 National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, 141 Nemiroff, R. A., 248, 257 Neubauer, P., 3-4, 7, 51, 152, 155, 248, 313-31 Neuroscience, 236, 237, 287n1. See also headings beginning with Brain Nickman, S., 205 Nightmare. See Dreams 9/11 terrorist attack. See September 11 terrorist attack Nonlinear development. See Developmental process Novick, J., 50, 131-51 Novick, K. K., 50, 131-51 Nunberg, H., 313-31 Nurius, P. S., 80
Object loss anxiety, 337 Object relations theory: on internal representational mental models, 176-77; on perversion, 65-66 O'Connor, F., 85, 88 O'Connor, T., 178-79, 182 Oedipal phase: and S. Freud, 108, 114, 216-17, 342n15; and Kokoschka, 295, 299; in middle childhood, 23-28, 31-33, 38-39; in Sam case, 57-58, 67-68; waning of, 91 Oedipus Rex (Sophocles), 108 Older adults. See Aging Olesker, W., 36, 37, 48-78, 80, 250, 251 Oliner, M. M., 315n1 One Writer's Beginnings (Welty), 86 "On Sexuality Theories of Children" (S. Freud), 342n15 "On Transience" (S. Freud), 333n1 "Open-system" self-regulation, 137-38 Open-system versus closed-system model of development, 138-42 Oppenheim, D., 179, 219 Orgel, S., 313-31
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Sadomasochism, 299, 302 Sam case: during adolescence, 60-61, 66, 68, 70; aggression in, 69; attachment in, 69; and birth of sibling, 57, 69; continuities in, 67-69; delayed triangulation in, 67-68; delay in self-object differentiation in, 67; delay of ego development in, 68-69; and dependency issues, 63-64; discontinuities in, 70-72; early childhood (birth to five years), 56-58, 65-66, 68-69; and exhibitionism, 60-61, 63, 70; latency in, 68; and love relationship, 61-62, 70-71; and marriage and fatherhood, 64; Oedipal phase in, 57-58, 67-68; phallic insufficiency in, 59-64; sexuality in, 59-64, 68; at ten years, 58-59; transforming into and out of perversion in, 59-74; and work habits, 62-64, 71-72; during young adulthood, 59-64 Sander, L., 40, 50 Sandler, J., 155, 223, 236, 333 Sarnoff, C., 80, 82 Schafe, G. E., 326n6 Schafer, K, 296, 297 Schafer, R., 21, 112, 118, 223, 236 Schilder, P., 288 Schimek, J. G., 337n4, 349n18 Schoefs, V., 229 Schore, A., 177, 235 Schweikart, L., 114n9 Scoptophilia, 65-66 Searles, H. F., 333 Seckin, B., 83 Segal, H., 304 Self-esteem, 59, 229, 255, 267 Self/object differentiation, 67, 70 Self-preservation, 341-42, 346 Self-regulation, 137-38. See also Emotional muscle Seligman, M. E. P., 139, 140
ï iï*,,i..ïr=Ë ËiiËáËg ;ËáË, uÈ iiËíË ïru *l*= ËË ÊË íiíË' ::is* iu
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September 11 terrorist attack: acute traumatic reactions to, 315-16; cases on, regarding impact on ongoing psychoanalysis, 316-25; change in analyst's role in time of crisis, 327-28; impact of, on analysts and patients, 313-31, 330n12; interaction between analyst and analysand following, 319-20; and intrapsychic change, 325-26; and meaning of shared experience, 328-29, 329n10; patient's view of, as vicarious success, 320-25; questions on, 316; reactions to generally, 314; regressive and progressive effects of, 327; relationship between adult experience of, and intrapsychic organization, 325-31; television watching following, 316-20 Sexual abuse of children, 205, 259-61, 264-69, 272 Sexuality: during adolescence, 60-61, 164-65; S. Freud on, 114-15, 338, 341, 342, 342n15; impotence of adult male, 321-22; in middle childhood, 26-35, 37-39, 92-97, 164-65; phallic insufficiency in Sam case, 59-64; in Sam case, 59-64, 68 Shakespeare, W., 125, 251, 252, 273 Shapiro, T., 41, 55, 73, 80 Shepherd, R., 156 Shiner, V M., 175-211 Shonkoff, J. P., 137 Shustarovich, E., 79-102 Simburg, E. J., 246, 255 Slade, A., 53, 181, 207 Slotkin, P., 219 Smeekens, S., 215-44 Smetana, J. G., 218 Smith, L. B., 40, 43, 66 Social referencing, 221, 222 Solnit, A., 40, 51, 153 Sophocles, 108 Spence, D. P., 112 Spielrein, S., 289 Spinoza, Baruch, 216 Spitz, R., 219 Spyri, J., 82 Sroufe, L., 177, 178, 221 Stapert, W., 215-44 Steele, H., 55 Steele, M., 55, 178-81, 206 Stein, R., 64 Steinberg, S., 277-92 Steiner, J., 172-73 Steiner, R., 153 Stern, D. N., 219, 221, 234
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RAD (Reactive Attachment Disorder), 179 Rank, 0., 333 Rapaport, D., 104 Rathbone, J., 138 Rationalization, 266, 322 "Rat Man" case, 138 Ray, R. B., 80 Razinsky, L., 332-57 Reaction formation, 265 Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD), 179 Reconstruction, 52 Reflective parenting program, 181 Regression: assessment of, by Diagnostic Profile for Older Adults, 256, 268-69; and emotional muscle, 140; hypnotic regression, 106, 124; and play therapy, 161; progression versus, and impact of September 11 terrorist attacks, 327; progression versus, in literature on middle childhood, 84, 95 Reich, A., 64 Renik, 0., 148 Repression, 266, 326 Resilience, 137-38, 140, 144. See also Emotional muscle Rheingold, J. C., 341n14 Rhode, M., 166 Riksen-Walraven, J. M. A., 225, 225n4 Ripke, M. N., 80 Risley, T. R., 140 Robertson, J. and J., 178 Robinson, J., 225n4, 228, 235 Robinson, J. L., 37
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Robinson Crusoe, 82 Rogosch, F., 181 Rogosch, F. A., 137, 138 Romer, D., 141 Rorschach Test, 21-26, 29, 33, 35, 41, 42, 58, 59, 80 Rosen, V., 286-87 Rosenbaum, A., 146 Roth, P., 85, 87, 88, 89 Royster, C., 125 Rubinstein, W. D., 125 Rushton, A., 178 Rustin, M. and M., 80, 82, 83
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Play (Brodkey), 85, 92-93 Pleasure in mastery, 139 Pleasure principle, 139 Pollock, G. H., 344 Popper, K., 103 Positive emotions, 139-40 Positive psychotherapy, 140 Preadolescence. See Middle childhood and preadolescence Preston, S. D., 217 Pretorius, I., 208 Prince and the Pauper, The (Twain), 82 Procedural knowledge, 220 Projective identification, 186, 205-6 Protoconversation, 219 Psychoanalysts. See Analysts Public catastrophe. See September 11 terrorist attack Pygmalion and Galatea, 305
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Paley, G., 85-86, 88-89 Panic attacks, 58 Panksepp, J., 139 Papini, G., 288 Papousek, H., 234 Papousek, M., 234 Parent-child relationship: and "baby talk," 234-35; and conscience development, 221, 222, 224, 228, 232-35. See also Attachment; Father-child relationship; Mother-child relationship Parsons, M., 65 Pascal, B., 123n20 Peavler, T., 85, 94 Peller, L., 80, 82 Perry, R., 41, 80 Personal myth, 105n4 Perversion: as adaptive transformation, 66-67; assumptions on, 49; and attachment theory, 69; and continuities in Sam case, 67-69; and discontinuities in Sam case, 70-72; theories of, 64-66; transforming into and out of perversion in Sam case, 59-74 Peter Pan (Barrie), 81, 82, 83-84 Peters, E., 225 Phantom Toll Booth, The (Juster), 81, 84 Phillips, A., 157 Phillips, D. A., 137 Piaget, J., 38, 40, 52, 217, 220 Pick, I. B., 169-74 "Piggle" case, 156 Pindar, 115n10 Pine, F., 54, 55, 56, 66, 305 Pippi Longstocking, 36, 81, 82 Piven, J., 333, 340, 343, 351n20 Plato, 216 Play: absence of capacity for, 165-66; by adopted boys with attachment disturbances, 187, 190, 194-200; American writings on, in child analysis, 152-53; displacement of, 152, 155, 158, 161, 166-67, 173; homosexual play during middle childhood, 39; in middle childhood, 23-24, 26, 31, 37, 39; and narrative stem assessments of attachment, 179; nonlinear relationship between interpretation and, 152-67, 169-74; in Sam case (three to five years), 58; Winnicott on, 152, 156-58, 160, 161, 165, 166, 172
369
Index
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"Orpheus and Eurydice" (Kokoschka), 303 Ovid, 305
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Tanner, J. M., 31, 33, 34 Target, M., 53, 68, 208, 237 Tarzan, 82, 92 TAT (Thematic Apperception Test), 21, 24-25, 28-31, 33, 34, 58, 80 Tavistock Clinic, 182 "Tempest, The/The Bride of the Wind" (Kokoschka), 297-300, 302 Terrorist attack. See September 11 terrorist attack Thaler, R. H., 143 Thelen, E., 40, 43, 50, 66 Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), 21, 24-25, 28-31, 33, 34, 58, 80 "Thoughts for the Times on War and Death" (S. Freud), 335, 335n2 "Thoughts on War and Death" (S. Freud), 325 "Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality" (S. Freud), 6 Thucydides, 109, 109n7 Tietz, H. and E., 296, 297 Time: id and timelessness, 338; and instincts, 337, 337n6; and unconscious, 335, 336-38 To Kill a Mockingbird (Lee), 36 Totem and Taboo (S. Freud), 352n21 Toth, S., 181 Toynbee, A. J., 121 Transference: and adolescent male, 10-11; analyst as transformational object, 16-17; in child analysis of adopted latency-aged girl, 158, 160-64, 171; and fantasies, 342-43; S. Freud on, 110, 342-43; impact of September 11 terrorist attack on, 320; Winnicott on, 156
What Maisie Knew ( James), 5, 18 White, E. B., 81, 83 White, H., 104n2, 112-14, 116n13, 118n16, 119-24, 119n17, 124n21 White, R. W., 139 "Why War?" (S. Freud), 325 Widzer, M. E., 82 Winds, The (Welty), 85, 93-94 Winkler, J., 296, 297 Winnicott, C., 156 Winnicott, D. W., 152, 156-58, 160, 161, 165, 166, 172 WISC-R (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised Edition), 21 Wizard of Oz, 83 Wolfflen, H., 288 Women. See Females; Mother-child relationship Wood, G. S., 124 World War I, 302-3, 325 World War II, 307, 325
"ÉS5 SËË-gFÈÈÈÈÈ-Ë"SSS
Transference neuroses, 326 Transformation: conflict and compromise formation, 51-52; developmental transformations, 51, 72-74; different paths to developmental transformation, 51-53; S. Freud on, 6; and interpretation, 17; into and out of perversion in Sam case, 59-64; and reconstruction, 52; stepping-stones for, 17-18; and therapeutic action with adolescent male, 5-18 Trauma. See September 11 terrorist attack Traumatization, 326, 326n4 Treseder, J., 178 Trevarthen, C., 219, 221 Triangulation, 67-68 Tronick, E., 52 Trowell, J., 182 Tuber, S., 21, 36 Turkheimer, E., 140 Turn-taking games, 220 Tustin, F., 166 Twain, M., 82, 247 "Two Nudes/The Lovers" (Kokoschka), 300, 301 Tyson, P., 39n10, 40, 50 Tyson, R., 39n10, 40, 155
x
Index
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Stern, M., 333 Stock, R., 294 Stoller, R., 64 Story of My Dovecote, The (Babel), 85, 86-87, 89-90 "Strange Situation Procedure," 177-78 Strassler, R. B., 107, 115n10 Stuart Little, 81 Sublimation, 266, 302 Sunstein, C. R., 143 Superego: assessment of, in Diagnostic Profile for Older Adults, 255-56, 267-68; and conscience development, 216-17, 223-24, 267; S. Freud on, 216-17, 223, 236. See also Conscience development Superman, 82 Sweetnam, A., 36
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Index x
I--
370
