had been drummed into her head by old Master Lenihan, late principal of Ardfinnan schoolâ¦â (79). ...... McCarthy, Conor. Modernisation, Crisis and Culture in ...
Sing your song. Dance your dance. Tell your tale. Frank McCourt
Table of Content
1.
Introduction.............................................................................................................. 1
2.
Context and Concepts ............................................................................................. 3 2.1.‘Roots’ and ‘Routes’: Migration and Re-Migration ............................................ 4 2.1.1. Migration................................................................................................ 4 2.1.2. Re-Migration.......................................................................................... 7 2.1.3. Immigrant Literature ............................................................................. 9 2.2. The Irish Perspective........................................................................................... 12 2.2.1. The Irish Diaspora ............................................................................... 13 2.2.2. The Irish in America ........................................................................... 17 2.2.3. Irish Immigrant Literature .................................................................. 22
3.
Literary works of analysis ................................................................................... 25 3.1. Angelas’s Ashes ................................................................................................... 25 3.1.1. Aspects of Migration and Re-Migration ............................................ 27 3.1.2. New York City .................................................................................... 34 3.1.3. Gender .................................................................................................. 39 3.1.4. Religion ................................................................................................ 49 3.2. Bessy Conway ...................................................................................................... 55 3.2.1. Aspects of Migration and Re-Migration ............................................ 56 3.2.2. New York City .................................................................................... 63 3.2.3. Gender .................................................................................................. 67 3.2.4. Religion ................................................................................................ 73
4.
Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 81
5.
Works Cited ........................................................................................................... 84
Bibliography ............................................................................................................................ 89 Plagiarism Statement .............................................................................................................. 90
1. Introduction Memories are vital forces within the formation and maintenance of human culture as well as the process of shaping cultural identities (see Stock 24). The reference to a common set of memories, being of imaginary or physical nature, creates invisible bonds of belonging. This, of course, is especially the case when dealing with experiences of any form of migration (ibid.). Leaving one’s place of origin, being faced with feelings of dislocation and cultural dispersion, as well as having to cope with the dichotomy between place and placelessness (see Knott 79) has strong influences on the nature of memories and on the culture of remembrance (see O’Toole and King 1): Memories, both personal and collective, form the frame of reference we all use to meaningfully interpret our past and present experiences and orient ourselves towards the future. This means that migrants’ perceptions and dreams of home and belonging are fuelled by memories of prior homes, by notions of where ‘we’ came from. (Stock 24)
This mentioned orientation towards the future, as well as the longing for a common place of origin, raises the question of identity, of how to perform the new selves within the diasporic spaces of the host societies (ibid.). Ultimately, the state of belonging to multiple places asks for a definition how these spaces construct and shape diasporic identities and how they contribute to a cultural memory as well as a diasporic imaginary (ibid.). In reference to the first concept, I define cultural memory as “… a heritage that unites people in space and through time” (Corporaal 4). In contrast, the latter can be perceived as a set of images to recreate a place called ‘home’. However, these memories are not necessarily only the mere knowledge of past experiences such as migration to the diasporic place itself, but they can also lie in the imaginary (ibid.). Finally, they have to be set in a diasporic context, in which they are reinforced, processed, interpreted, and reconstructed (ibid.). This context provides the basis for an analysis of spaces, identities, and cultural memories. The Irish Diaspora is very unique because it not only describes one of the vastest mass migrations in modern history, but in that it also left lasting imprints on its country of origin. Due to this circumstance, I will use Ireland1 as the reference point for this paper. In his work Wherever green is worn, Tim Coogan states very aptly that “Emigration became the Irish leitmotiv” (xiii). Irish folklore (see Clark 57), the concept of the ‘American Wake’ (see O’Toole and ac Éinrí 10-1; see Ó hAllmhuráin 127), as well as popular culture (see Gray 172) are just a few examples for the omnipresence of emigration in Irish culture. Due to this and the “circulation of individual and collective modes of remembrance between Ireland and its diasporic locations” (O’Toole and King 1), it is not possible to depict the Irish perspective on migration without referring to its diasporic space at the same time.
1
This term refers to the jurisdiction of the Republic of Ireland only in the context of post-independence.
Klaes 1
Home to a vast number of ethnicities, nationalities and races, America2, as the major destination for Irish emigrants, provides space for the emergence of international, interethnic, interracial, as well as hybrid identities, relations, and cultures (see Barrett 2). Within popular culture these realities of immigrant lives have been victims of transfiguration. Questions that arise at this point refer to issues concerning the migration experience and its influence on identities, spaces, and memories: What is the diasporic perspective on Irish migration? How do Irish American selves (inter)act in the multiethnic society? How do these identities commemorate Irish transatlantic movements? An insight into Irish American 3 diasporic culture will contribute to enhance our understanding of these issues and will help us to answer these questions (see Jenkins 90). The aspects of memory and the experience of migration within a diasporic context of Irish American culture can be examined most profoundly in the context of literary science. This way, the personal dimension of migration becomes evident and pays tribute to individual experiences, while at the same time an Irish American cultural set contributes to the collective perspective: “… [d]iasporas consistently open up spaces for individual reflection on the divergence between official histories and private traumas, including traumas that have been transmitted through generations” (Kabir 146). Furthermore, literature can fill these aforementioned spaces of ambivalence with a richness and variety in creative responses (ibid.) and, by doing so, create a diverse picture of the migrants‘ experience, where not only the issues of emigration and immigration will be addressed, but the aspect of remigration will be made subject as well. The latter might also be able to reveal references to a common ‘home’ and to illustrate various points of national and cultural self-identification as well as the perceptions of historic contexts these memories were set in (see O’Toole and Mac Éinrí 11). Irish immigrant literature in particular can be interpreted as being part of the Irish diasporic culture, hence, being a source of reinforcement of migratory memories within a common cultural heritage. The aspects of memories and migration within the context of Irish (-American) culture have been subject to a multitude of scholarly publications within the field of diasporic studies (see O’Toole and King 1; see McCarthy 198). Additionally, works by scholars of transatlantic studies such as Lindsay Janssen, Christopher Cusack or Marguerite Corporaal, have contributed to a diverse picture of Irish American ties as well. However, as Tina O’Toole and Jason King proclaim, the “… cultural implications both for
2
This term will be used synonymously with the United States of America. Although Canada plays an important role in the history of Irish settlement in North America, it will be left out of this study. 3 I will make use of the unhyphenated form – adjectives included - as the hyphenated form would hold the implication of a cultural setting that is distinctively different from being “American” (Kenny The American Irish 148). Hence, I strongly oppose Roosevelt’s statement that “[t]he men who do not become Americans and nothing else, are hyphenated Americans and there ought not to be rooms for them in this country” (qtd. in Barrett 11).
2
those who left and those who stayed are [still] less well understood” (O’Toole and King 3). Moreover, when looking closely at what research has done on Immigrant literature and Irish Immigrant literature over all, core topics of research are not as diverse as the amount of publications might suggest. In fact, “… little attention has been devoted to literature as an alternative ‘medium’ for recollecting the Irish exodus” (Corporaal and Cusack 344). As a result, these key notes cause this paper to focus on the relationship between literary recollections of Irish migration and its contribution to a broader commemorative culture. In relation to my work’s title, the aim of this paper is to explore how prominent concepts of Irish American Immigrant literature commemorate Irish transatlantic migration over the years. Moreover, I will scrutinize in how far these recollections of migratory experiences contribute to an idea of a distinct Irish cultural memory in the American diaspora. Thus, I promote that Irish American immigrant authors decidedly use these various aspects of migration to reinforce nostalgic images of Irish identity which extensively contributes to a transatlantic memory of Irish migratory movements. Since (re-)migratory movements are able to translocate cultural memories through time and space (see Corporaal 4), I will provide background information on the topics of migration and remigration. In connection, I will elaborate on the related issues of immigration and emigration and connect them to shared themes of immigrant literatures. This will allow me to shed light on the Irish perspective of migration by referring, firstly, to the Irish Diaspora, while, secondly, giving an overview of the history of Irish people in America. Finally, this will enable me to focus on the distinct Irishness within the field of immigrant literature. This foundation will help me to establish a certain set of concepts which are the guiding themes of my analysis. Since both works have not yet been subjects to extensive analyses in the context of literary studies, I will then provide a detailed analysis of Frank McCourt’s memoir Angela’s Ashes and Mary Anne Sadlier’s didactic novel Bessy Conway; Or, the Irish Girl in America with respect to the aforementioned concepts and their contribution to a collective culture of remembrance. Ultimately, I will summarize my findings and provide an outlook in a concluding chapter.
2. Context and Concepts To start with, I want to provide background information on the aspects of migration and remigration as general terms within the greater academic field of diasporic studies. I will provide insights into a distinct Irish perspective on these aspects by elaborating on the Irish Diaspora and the development of an Irish American culture. In a last step, I will investigate the main body of major concepts of Immigrant literature on a general level.
3
2.1. ‘Roots’ and ‘Routes’: Migration and Re-Migration As widely assumed, cultures of remembrance are transportable and transnational (see Corporaal 4). This idea provides access to migratory movements that allow for cultural memory, hence, cultural identity to travel “… over long as well as short distances, across water as well as over land” (Harper and Constantine 1). Since I maintain that the depictions of cross-Atlantic migration and related concepts within Irish American Immigrant literature contribute to the construction and shaping of a distinct Irish American culture of remembrance, one has to focus more closely on the character of representation of those concepts of migration and remigration. 2.1.1. Migration In the past I used to associate migration with the concept of cultural memory, as well as with the ideas of identity, home, roots, journey, homesickness, adventure, oppression, displacement, dislocation, and with emigration and immigration. These aspects are all closely connected to the concept of diaspora which plays an important role within the history of migration. However, both terms, diaspora and migration, should not be used interchangeably Diaspora in contrast to the fleeing and fugitive notion of migration is of a more durable nature (see Van Hear 37). Nonetheless, gradual and routine migration such as in the case of the Irish Diaspora contributes to the formation of diasporic spaces (see 34). Etymologically, the term derives from the Greek nouns dia- and speírein which can be translated with ‘to scatter about, spread, disperse, and be separated’ (M. Baumann 20; see Vásquez 128). Paul Gilroy’s definition incorporates such a general claim, as he defines diaspora as … a network of people, scattered in a process of non-voluntary displacement, usually created by violence… Diaspora consciousness highlights the tensions between common bonds created by shared origins and other ties arising from the process of dispersal and the obligation to remember a life prior to flight … (qtd. in Alexander 112)
Gilroy points out a very important aspect, namely the involuntary nature of migration in the diaspora (see 328). Manning extends this thought onto a cultural level. For him “[m]igration, whether voluntary or involuntary, provides more possibilities for identity. For instance, those settling in a new place can identify themselves as pioneers in a new home or as exiles from their old home” (138; see Miller 104). Both quotations manage to address the issue of a constant longing for and belonging to multiple places at the same time (see Ahmed et.al 8). According to O’Toole and Mac Éinrí, these processes result in the constitution of ethnic identities within a “third space” (7). Kim Knott fills this space as she suggests that the term diaspora “… carries the entwined concepts of ‘root’ and ‘route’” (79). This idea encompasses the complex relationship between home or place of origin and the concepts of move, displacement, and dislocation people have faced throughout the history of migration. 4
Furthermore, diaspora in itself includes a dichotomy of ‘home’ and ‘away’ in a space of constant conflict (ibid.) in which migratory individuals have to interact. I claim that diasporic spaces of exile and dispersion can take various forms and reflect this ambivalence between place and placelessness which lies at the core of the migrant experience (ibid.). This perception leads to the question of transnational identities and it becomes apparent that this complex set of identities is not necessarily bound to physical places but may also dwell in “symbolic spaces of belonging” (Stock 25; see Manning 158). I take this notion of diasporic transnationalism to be in line with Corporaal’s perception of memory as being transportable (see 4). This not only provides access to the multidimensional nature of diaspora (Knott 79), but also shows that memories of migration can refer to both, physical and imaginary movements. Ellen McWilliams bridges the gap between a cultural memory and diaspora. She associates the latter with “[a] collective memory and myth about the homeland” (13). In relation to this idea, diaspora is metaphorically associated with people on the move, with home, exile, return, displacement, and transnationalism (see Knott 79). Especially the latter does not only entail strong influences on the diasporic space of the host society, but it also implies that migrants did not break with their home countries and their cultural environments (see Van Hear 37). However, in reference to diasporic spaces, intercultural linkages “…were not only between the host and home societies, but also with other societies in which diaspora members were located” (ibid.). To further this thought, the migration experience is as much about non-migrants as it is about migrants, as both groups, namely first-generation immigrants and multigenerational ethnic groups, often occupy the same space (see Levitt 41). When we talk about ethnic groups in America such as Irish Americans we deal with two sets of ethnic and national data. In the context of migration, this not only includes connections to their national or ethnical imprints but it also refers to experiences of immigration and emigration. According to the Merriam Webster Online Dictionary4, emigration, deriving from the Latin word emigrare – to migrate, can be translated with “to leave a country or region to live elsewhere”. This reveals that emigration is directly linked to leaving behind national frontiers; thus, to the framework of nationality (see Fanning 1). Reasons for emigration are diverse but certain tendencies within the modern history of migration can be drawn. For the most part, emigration was fueled by a range of adverse factors (push factors) such as economic and political instability, (systematic) persecution, and the limitation of personal and political freedom (see Manning 151). Daniels summarizes these 4
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/emigrate
5
thoughts in the term of “economic betterment” (28). This form of oppression was one main factor for the historic emigrations to America, since “those who moved to the United States might be seen as having left to escape the empire” (Manning 151). Another factor was the pursuit for adventure (see Harper and Constantine 23-4; see Daniels 28). Harper and Constantine support this thought by saying that people “… were motivated by a spirit of adventure, a curiosity about ‘abroad’, an itch to be scratched by travel and experience” (247). On the other hand, Immigration is defined5 as an action when people “come into a country of which one is not a native for permanent residence” and as a “… moving across national frontier[s]” (Daniels 3). Reasons for immigration lie in the transported images of the country of destination (see 17). Hence, this concept can only be analyzed in reference to a specific national framework. Since it will be of great importance as a setting for later elaborations and at the same time it represents the major destination for migrations since the beginning of modern times (see 11; 23), immigration will be exemplified with regard to the national system of America. America has been the major destination for migratory individuals throughout modern settlement history. Roughly fifty-five million immigrants came to “what is now the United States” (23). Major reasons for entering America in particular can be found in the quest for personal, economic, political, and religious freedom (see Manning 151). Particularly, in reference to the United States, these aspects caused chain immigration of initial migrant’s family members and friends to the same destination (see Gjerde 103; see Miller 489). Additionally to the realities of migration, a culture of myth emerged around American immigration concepts, such as The Statue of Liberty and Ellis Island, and Plymouth Rock as representations of the admittance to a better life (see Daniels 17). Besides that, the iconographic depiction of American colonization and immigration in popular culture, often focusing on women, children, and family groups (see 19; 27), reinforces stereotypes and legends around the concept of American immigration. I deduce that these immigrant imaginaries not only helped to promote the idea of the American Dream and as such served as pull factors for further immigration, but permeated a commemorative culture as well. By contrasting push and pull factors as well as emigration and immigration, we can detect that fleeing poverty and an exploitative political and economic system can function as push factors, while their positive counterparts, namely the search for stability, self-government, and freedom, represent pull factors This subtle distinction plays an important role when dealing with migrant’s identities. As two perspectives of migration, emigration and immigration underlay the formation of transnational identities. Migrants, who solely focus on the aspect of 5
Merriam Webster Online Dictionary: http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/immigration
6
emigration might have difficulties to settle in the country of destination. This circumstance often leads to a backward look and feelings of belonging to a former place of origin (see O’Toole and Mac Éinrí 9). This ‘home’, as a central concept when dealing with multiethnic identities, is often lived reality for diasporic subjects (see Stock 27). Not only when dealing with concepts of migration but also in reference to the aspect of remigration or return migration, longing and striving for the place of ancestry plays an important role. Thus, I will elaborate on the aspect of remigration within the framework of diasporic studies to get a broader understanding of the entire migration profile (see Fitzgerald 48). 2.1.2. Re-Migration The reason for a closer look at the aspect of remigration lies in its strong connection to the Irish diasporic imaginary and in the fact that remigration, as an expression of intense ties to the place of origin, has always been perpetuated within the Irish American community (see Wyman 19). The aforementioned concepts, such as home, place of origin, and destination play an important role when it comes to the term diaspora in connection with return migration. “At the core of the concept of diaspora lies the image of a remembered home that stands at a distance both temporally and spatially. This ‘place of origin’ may be the focus of a sustained ‘ideology of return’” (Brah qtd. in Stock 24). That provides access to the metaphorical sphere of remigration and its connection to a common cultural memory. Namely, that there is no necessity for diasporic individuals as “an imagined community” (Janssen 163) to actually physically remigrate in order to participate in the diasporic culture of remembrance. Instead, they constantly reproduce memories about a collective home. In fact, as Stock furthers, a reference to the place of origin described with a strong sense of “feeling at home” often occurs with notions of the impossibility of returning and of making oneself at home in the diasporic space (see 25). To paraphrase this thought, precisely the fact of not being able to go back home fuels this strong, almost nostalgic, connection to the place of ancestry. This also expands to the aspect of a mystified home, as well as emphasizes the difference between an actual migrant experience and an experience of a metaphorical space of personal attachment and identification (Armbruster in Stock 25). To elaborate further on the last aspect, the reference to ‘home’ as a nation can have different notions and intensities and is open to several imaginaries (see Stock 25; see Ahmed 9), as it can have been left only recently or generations ago, can be a place of regular home trips or lie completely in the realm of imagination (see Stock 24). “Though we are often strangers to one another, we form an ‘imagined community’ because we share an idea of the nation and what it stands for” (Hall qtd. in Janssen 163). This reference to a mystification of home as the ‘originary 7
homeland’ cannot only result in dreams of visiting the country of origin but for many it offers a platform on which to base their identities. Brah calls this phenomenon a “mythic place of desire in the diasporic imagination” (qtd. in Stock 25). Again, this idea is nurtured by Ní Laoire: The dream of return is a powerful myth of diasporic discourses, playing an important symbolic role in the maintenance of diasporic identities and ideologies. It contributes to nostalgic and idealized imaginings of a homeland, around which identities in the diaspora can be mobilised. As a result, return migration is frequently conceived in terms of an opposition between myth and reality, highlighting a disjuncture between ‘home’ as dream and ‘home’ as actually experienced. (37)
Having elaborated on remigration as ‘returning home’ and as a constant longing for a place of origin, I now want to further elaborate on the physical reality of remigration. For some diasporic individuals ‘home’ embodies a physical place and leads to a transnational way of living. This transnationalism can imply various dynamics such as constant circular migration, regular and sporadic transfers, and constant exchanges between the place of origin and the new home (see Van Hear 37; see O’Toole/Mac Éinrí 9). The aspect of return migration is of great importance in its role as a contributor to this transnational culture within a diasporic space. Thus, a closer look might be able “to reveal the ways in which they [return migrants] constantly move between the shifting positions of ‘insider’ and ‘outsider’” (Ní Laoire 35). Not only does this aspect, again, reveal a certain dualism of the experience of migration but it also reflects the complexity of identities within the context of ‘returning home’. Indeed, the intensity of identity-shaping effects of initial migratory parallels that of return migration (see 37). However, it appears that the ruling forces are of quite a different nature and that … return migrants develop fluid identifications and narratives that make sense to them and to others in the context of the encounters, disruptions and affirmations they experience as part of the return migration process. Affirming a sense of belonging to the place of return is one possibility. (37-8)
This reference makes clear that processes of remigration as opposed to experiences of migration still need to be filled with meaning. Ní Laoire, referring to Pattie, supports this idea in saying that “return migrants are able to ‘construct narratives that render meaning to their experience of homecoming’” (Pattie qtd. in Ní Laoire 39). Specific reasons for ‘going home’, though, do not create this meaning per se. Economic reasons, such as the accumulation or loss of fortune within the host society, as well as personal reasons, such as the death of relatives in the diaspora or back home, illness, homesickness, and lack of social networks, can be interpreted as initial triggers for return migration (see Fitzgerald 43; see Wyman 21-2). However, the process of creating meaning of remigrations is of a retrospective nature and requires reflecting on the memories of migrations in the context of ‘home’ (see Harper and Constantine 324). Here lies the uniqueness of 8
narratives of remigration, not only does the individual have to come to terms with this experience but, in fact, the home society also has to cope with return migration. With regard to homecoming as the major way to attribute meaning to experiences of return migration (see 314), home societies often fail to integrate these individuals properly (see 330). This lack of intervention is most of the time accompanied by the perception that migrants are quite often not considered to be “… ‘migrants’ at all” (Ní Laoire 39). They are expected to reintegrate quickly and “feel a sense of belonging” (40-2), hence the experiences they made when living abroad are disregarded by their host culture (41). However, the reality of the return migration is very different. Christou reports that return migrants refer to “feelings of alienation and not-belonging” (qtd. in Ní Laoire 40), while also describing “disappointment associated with the return experience” (40). In connection with this phenomenon, Markowitz and Stefansson coin the term “re-diasporisation” as a new diaspora in the ‘country of origin’ (qtd. in Ní Laoire 40). This effect leads to social distance which does not only evoke a feeling of being ‘not fully adjusted’, but, as a matter of fact, leaves experiences of migration and remigration unspoken (see 43). Ultimately, I claim that this results in a lack of platform on which to construct social identities. Here lies the very core difference between identities that have been shaped by initial migration, also in the space of the diasporic imaginary, and those that are nurtured by experiences of remigration. “In fact, return migrants often do not construct their own identities around their status as migrants” (ibid.). This denial reveals a perception of migration as a linear movement, of leaving an old and entering a new ‘home’. However, Sheller assumes that “… migration can be imagined as both homecoming and home-leaving simultaneously, and not necessarily as a linear movement to or from one’s home. In other words, home is both re-made and re-membered through migration” (qtd. in Ní Laoire 46). To conclude, remigration or return migration comprises a strong sense of homecoming as the main narrative pattern to make sense of the migration experience. However, adjusting to the new old community is often accompanied by a denial of experiences in the diasporic space and of migration itself. These ideas are not only crucial for the construction of transnational identities which try to fill this dualistic space creatively but also for a diasporic culture of remembrance that transcends national and cultural borders. 2.1.3. Immigrant Literature Experiences of migration give rise to creative spaces in which individuals can relive, reflect, and revive their memories and traumata (see Kenny The American Irish 97; see Janssen 165). Immigrants’ cultural recollections and identities need to be renegotiated and reconfigured in the migratory setting as “they try to come to terms with both here and there, the receiving 9
society and the homeland” (Kivisto 40). In reference to Kivisto’s statement, Immigrant literature can be claimed as to represent one possibility for diasporic individuals and groups to reflect on their own identities and memories and to fill them with meaning. McCarthy supports this claim on a general level by stating that “[n]arratives help to locate communities historically, spatially, politically, metaphysically, mythically, [and] ethically,” (qtd. in Podsiadlik 13). Apart from this reflective notion, narratives in the form of literature can also be seen as a re-enactment of cultural memory (see Corporaal 4). In reference to the later analysis, I aim to identify a compilation of themes and recurring aspects within diasporic narratives to reveal the idea of a collective perception of migratory experiences. Moreover, this chapter serves as the foundation of further investigation of Irish Immigrant literature and its perception of migration and remigration. To begin with, in many diasporic cultures, such as Ireland, literature is a prominent way to express the realities of migratory experiences. This medium, as opposed to oral and musical traditions, serves as a possibility for the author to transfigure the personal experience as a collective and therefore on a more abstract level. Furthermore, it provides space for individual interpretations by the readership. This aspect is highly prominent in diasporic narratives and is employed to make sense of the migrant experience (see Ahmed 7), not only due to the fact that real individual experiences of migration are turned into fiction but also because some authors reproduce migratory stories that they have never experienced themselves. Stock elaborates on this matter by stating that ‘[l]ater generations have not experienced migration and have no memories of the time before it’ (Brah qtd. in Stock 27). They are the heirs to diasporic memories that are told and retold, reappropriated and reinterpreted in light of the here and now. Throughout their lives they construct their own diasporic narratives of home and belonging out of these memories, together with their own experiences, their ‘migration routes and migrant roots.’(Kuah-Pearce and Davidson qtd. in Stock 27)
Not alone does Stock reflect on the difference between physical and imagined migratory experiences and the concepts of ‘home’ and belonging but he also demonstrates the importance of literature to create and shape diasporic identities. The basis for this literary genre is the migratory individual who expresses possible traumatic experiences of movements within a diasporic setting (see Janssen 165; see Kabir 150). Kabir furthers these thoughts by stating that “[t]his awareness, together with a necessary celebration of human resilience and creativity through traumatic memories and inheritances, is, arguably, the most valuable contribution diaspora has made to literature and literary studies” (ibid.). This idea leads to the conclusion that literary themes and concepts of diasporic narratives all share a sense of resilience and trauma. Overall, these notions are continuously reproduced with reference to the concepts of home and belonging as the key dichotomy of the migratory experience. 10
Furthermore, another dichotomy of immigrant literature is the interdependence of place and placelessness, and ‘home’ and ‘away’ (see Knott 79). Immigrant literature entails a strong focus on the experience of immigration combined with a specific identity-creating place, either as the place of origin or the destination of migration. “Cultural identity is partially established through an identification with place. However, for diasporic subjects, this self-identification becomes less stable, for they become disconnected from their common ground” (Janssen 163). Concurring with the already established definition of place, the concept of home within diasporic writings can also be imagined, memorized, reproduced, or actually experienced (Janssen 163; see Jenkins 91). It can be either subtly immersed into the storyline as something strived and longed for, or form a physical setting for processing various strands of narrative within the storyline. Both perspectives of place share a common root in a migratory experience and provide access to further diasporic spaces that play an important role in the making of diasporic narratives, and serve as a platform on which multiple aspects of identities are based (see Kivisto 40). Due to this, one has to concentrate on concepts that are claimed to be identity-shaping in order to find more themes that reoccur in all diasporic literary narratives. Firstly, gender as a reference to the construction and discourse of relations between feminity and masculinity in a social context (see Lindsey 4) is an essential part of human identity (see Arapoglou 3; see Kivisto 40). Among other concepts, such as race, class, and ethnicity, gender is exposed to mechanisms of social construct (see Ebest 64). As a consequence, it underlies societal relations of power (see Kivisto 90; see Al-Ali 119-21). In reference to the literary adaptation of migratory experiences, these ideas have to be separated from their theoretical framework and be applied actively in the context of diasporic spaces. Within this setting, gender relations can refer to various spheres. Not only can they provide access to specific experiences of migratory movements, but they may also give insight into social mechanisms that constitute gender roles within the home and host society, as well as within the diasporic communities. In an act of reciprocity, diasporas “… provide contexts in which previous gender norms can be challenged” (Al-Ali 119). However, it is still tneeds to be investigated “whether they reproduce and possibly even harden existing gender ideologies and relations” (119). According to Al-Ali, these gender relations are also “at the centre of diasporic cultural constructions of social identities and collectivities where women tend to constitute their symbolic ‘border guards’” (120). Although the aspect of gender generally entails the setup of both female and male societal roles, it is almost synonymously linked to the perspective of women (see 118). In relation to their contribution to diasporic experiences, the female perspective plays a significant role “within diasporic imaginations of home, nation, 11
community and citizenship”, and moreover in reference to the “conceptualization of home” (118) and “cultural traditions and norms” (Anthias and Yuval-Davis qtd. in Al-Ali 118). In terms of literary adaptions, this is realized in depictions of gendered social roles of women in the form of mothers, daughters, widows, and servants who cope with feelings of loneliness or homesickness. Furthermore, power relations in the sense of control and distribution of resources between female and male participants of a certain diasporic community (see 120f.) are common themes in migrant literature as well. Another prominent theme addressed in literatures of migration is the issue of religion. According to Kivisto, it is closely connected to the previously addressed topic of gender as “… a part of the multiple identities”, and to the diasporic space of the host society as a mechanism of adjustment (see 40). For migratory individuals and ethnic groups religion serves as a basis for constructing and shaping identities and for keeping ethno-religious memories alive (see McLoughlin 224-5). As McCoughlin aptly points out, this is the case because “… the power of religions resides in their mythic, symbolic and ritual resources to narrate the idealized fictions and abstracted unities which seek to emphasize stability over flux and secure continuity through time and across space” (225). As stated before, migratory experiences often result in states of trauma, displacement, and dislocation. McLoughlin enters this discourse by placing religion within this ambivalence of belonging to and longing for ‘home’. As a consequence, he manages to present religion as a meaning-maker of diasporic polarities that arise at the center of the migrant identity (see 225-30). Another reason for the strong ties between religion and migration lies in the fact that religious persecution has always constituted a major factor for migratory movements. Diasporic narratives commonly represent these strong ties between religion and diasporic identity. Religion is presented as a mechanism to make meaning of scatterings, to adjust oneself to a new cultural environment, to keep cultural-religious memories alive, or plainly serves as a reason for migratory movements. In conclusion, the migratory experience itself, space as a diasporic construction, and likewise gender and religion constitute the main themes of and influences on literatures of immigration. Subsequently, I will discuss these issues within the national contexts of Ireland and America, as well as within Irish American Immigrant literature. Ultimately, I will sketch a distinct Irish perspective on Immigrant literature that will serve as basis for the analysis. 2.2. The Irish Perspective The concept of emigration is, even today, prominent in every sector of Irish cultural life and evokes direct associations with Irish identity. “Ireland has long been an emigration nation, with a focus … on the various and scattered parts of the British Empire” (O’Toole and 12
Mac Éinrí 5). Not only customary feasts or traditional media such as folk music, poetry (see Fitzgerald 32), and literature manage to create an insightful picture of the perception and commemoration of migration then and now, but, in fact, emigration is also commonly recollected in Irish popular culture (see Gray 157). Beyond that, Ireland attracts a great number of heritage tourists, predominantly from the United States who aim to trace back their genealogical ‘roots’ (see Ahmed 13; see Nash 179; see Harper and Constantine 335). This phenomenon is quite common and not only stems from a strong notion of “… nostalgia for an imagined time when place, identity, culture and ancestry coincided” (Nash 179) but also highlights the elusive importance of place for cultural identity. “Having a genealogical connection to a place and the cultural forms associated with it is a routine guarantor of the right to say ‘this is my culture’” (181). Here, Nash stresses the importance for people “to locate themselves in relation to the positive associations of ethnic distinctiveness, as well as related to their own mixed ancestries” (183). For Nash, ‘doing genealogy’ implies direct choices with regard to which ancestry matters and “which line … to follow” (183). This is coherent with the idea of Irishness being “more a thing elected for as a set of cultural practices than an inescapable way of being” (O’Toole and Mac Éinrí 14). With reference to Janssen’s idea I conclude that Irishness within the theoretical framework of ‘doing genealogy’ is a cultural identity that is chosen and, thus, less connected with ‘real and fluid memory’ (163). What Huyssen describes as “mythic memory” (qtd. in Janssen 163), transforms the idea of a diasporic culture of remembrance since it underlies personal decisions and entails a notion of nostalgia rather than reproduction of real migratory experiences. This will help to see “‘Irish identity’ in a different light, namely as an entity whose meaning changes all the time” (Podsiadlik 15). On the basis of previous elaborations, I provisionally claim that this idea of Irish identity, which is grounded on transfigured memories of migration, makes up a large part of an Irish diasporic culture of remembrance. Having previously covered the topics of migration and remigration as isolated terms, this chapter aims to reflect on the specific Irish point of view on these issues. However, this perspective cannot be merely reduced to the experience of one single group of people relating themselves to Ireland or Irish heritage. Rather, insights of people standing on either sides of the Atlantic, hence, on two sides of the migratory process contribute to create a thorough picture of the Irish migration to America and, finally, help to promote an Irish identity in constant reinvention. 2.2.1. The Irish Diaspora The history of Ireland was one of economic and political exploitation, religious persecution, starvation, economic underdevelopment, and, ultimately, exodus (see Metress 132; 13
see Coogan xiii). Closely connected to the latter, the Irish Diaspora refers to the historical mass dispersion as “…one of the most extensive movements of people in world history” (Metress 132), in which millions of Irish people turned their backs on Ireland as their place of home and identity in quest of better lives, leaving the country depopulated and culturally scattered (see Byron 5). Moreover, the term Irish Diaspora refers to a distinct Irish perspective on displacement and dislocation and was originally mentioned in the context of the ethnic revival in the United States of the 1960s and 70s (see Knott and McLoughlin 9). The aspect of home plays a particularly important role in the shaping of the Irish Diaspora, as people from Ireland share a common cultural heritage and memory that has been transported from Ireland to the Emigrants’ countries of choice (see Miller 4; see Corporaal 4). Against popular perception, the Irish Diaspora does not only entail movements to America, but, as a matter of fact, Irish immigrants have also migrated to other destinations, mostly parts of the British Empire, during the nineteenth and twentieth century. Apart from America, Great Britain, as the ruling power in Ireland, was the major country of destination (see Harper and Constantine 183; see Kenny Ireland and the British Empire 98). Alongside Britain, mainly Australia (see Campbell 3), New Zealand (see Harper and Constantine 75; see O’Toole and Mac Éinrí 6), Canada (see MacKay 13), and to some extent the Americas, the Caribbean, and Japan represented destinations for immigration (see Kenny The American Irish 8). America, however, was the most popular destination for the Irish (see Campbell vii). In fact, Irish culture is one of the four major diasporic cultures in the US (see Byron 4). Ten times more people of Irish heritage live in America than in Ireland itself (Metress 132). Irish migration and settlement to what is now the United States underwent different stages throughout its almost 500 years of history (ibid.). From the Colonial Period prior to 1815 until 1845 the main body of the 1.5 million Irish immigrants (see Kenny The American Irish 7) was constituted by male Protestants from Ulster who were then later followed by immigrants from the South who worked as shop keepers, small farmers (see Kenny Ireland and the British Empire 98; Campbell 7), and canal workers (see Campbell 20; see Clark 13). Reasons for emigration mainly arose from religious persecution, poverty, lack of domestic industrialization (see Clark 4), and political and commercial restriction at home (see Metress 133; see Kenny The American Irish 19). At home, as well as in the diaspora, these disastrous circumstances resulted in a strong antagonism towards Britain as the ruling power (see Byron 40). This fostered the striving for cultural autonomy in Ireland (see Gray 158), and also in the diasporic spaces. “This experience of extensive oppression caused the nineteenth-century diasporic Irish to consider themselves a ‘victim diaspora,’ making victimhood a key aspect of transatlantic Irish 14
identity” (Janssen 164). Furthermore, enormous population growth in combination with a lack of industrialization and urbanization not only increased rural impoverishment (see Mac Laughlin 6) but embodied Ireland’s main problem as the country’s economy was not able to absorb the growing population “into spheres other than primary agricultural production and rural labour” (Byron 38). Going further in time, these factors did not only fuel oversea emigration but, ultimately, laid the groundwork for the Great Famine, an gorta mór6. It was from 1845 to 1855 that the vastest migratory streams within the Irish Diaspora took place (see Christou and King 181; see Metress 133). “Over 4 million people from Ireland settled in the United States in the nineteenth century. More than a million arrived in just seven years, from 1847 – 1854, nearly twice as many as had emigrated to the United States during the previous half century” (Byron 18). In fact, around 1.5 million people came to America in these ten years alone and it is this period that is mostly associated with mass emigration and the Irish Diaspora (see Kenny The American Irish 7). “[F]amine emigrants become the “authentic” Irish emigrant, the traumatic origin of Irish emigration” (“Gendering the Irish Diaspora” 172). The catalyst for the Great Famine was the failure of the potato crop in September 1845 due to the fungus Phytophthora infestans that came from South America via Belgium and the Netherlands (see Harris 2; see Miller 281). According to Harris “[t]he crisis was far worse in Ireland than anywhere else the potato was grown, owing to its role as an important part of the diet for 66 percent of the population and the sole article for diet for one third of the population” (2). This strong dependence on the potato coupled with the Irish colonial socioeconomic structure formed the major reasons for mass emigrations, while also leading to around 1.1 to 1.5 million deaths during the famine years (see Miller 284; see Byron 40). Emigration was characterized by hurry (see Harper and Constantine 277), as people left hastily in overcrowded and unseaworthy “coffin ships” that were comparable to slave boats in terms of death rate and the spreading of diseases (Metress 133). The Great Famine not only shaped the social landscape of Ireland and America but also influenced the perception of Irish national identity, as well as still permeates the cultural memory of the Irish people world-wide (see MacCay 14). Byron extends its meaning to an Irish American context. The “…‘social memory’ of the Famine and other events in Ireland’s past … inform the ethnic identity of contemporary Irish-Americans” (Byron 82). In the Post-Famine period from 1855 to the 1920s emigration presented itself as an institutionalized part of Irish life. Within these almost seven decades, around 2.5 million people came to America and settled in already developed areas (see Metress 133). Reasons 6
Irish - ‘The Great Hunger‘
15
varied from deteriorating economic conditions to the strong wish to reunify with emigrated family members (ibid.). Impoverished emigrants went abroad and managed to send back money to support their families in paying for the passage to America (see 134). Miller refers to this phenomenon by saying that … emigration became a societal imperative of post-Famine Ireland: in reality less a choice than a vital necessity both to secure the livelihoods of nearly all who left and most who stayed and to ensure the relative stability of a fundamentally ‘sick’ society. (Miller 362)
Miller does not only present a distinct Irish perspective on emigration, but also depicts one of the most important driving forces behind migratory movements: pure necessity. This factor had a strong influence on the reproduction of cultural memory that traveled across the Atlantic. In Ireland itself, these catastrophic and traumatic circumstances (see Janssen 165) combined with the impossibility to create an Irish identity led to a state of non-identity (see Janssen 164) and, ultimately, to a cultural upheaval called the Gaelic Revival. In this context, Úna Ní Bhroiméil refers to this concept quite fittingly as “a quest for identity” (11) which also directly affected the diasporic realm. “For the diasporic Irish the loss of a direct link to the homeland led to a stronger effort to retain their cultural identity” (Janssen 164). This, again, strengthens the direct link between emigration and Irishness. Initiatives within the movement of the Gaelic Revival not only promoted traditional Irish core values such as the maintenance of strong family ties and Irish sports in the form of the foundation of the GAA but, above all, promoted and institutionalized the Irish language as a vehicle for a collective cultural identity – in Ireland and the Irish Diaspora (see Miller 422). From these circumstances I deduce that the phenomenon of oppression combined with the necessity to emigrate has burnt itself into the country’s mind and memory and left imprints that ultimately resulted in the creation of diasporic memories that engage actively with Irish emigration. Especially the mission’s global dimension sets Ireland apart from other diasporic cultures and encourages taking a closer look into the Irish diasporic representation of migratory movements. Although slowing down dramatically after the foundation of the Irish Free State, emigration has been present as well in the years after the Irish Independence from the 1920s to the present time. From the 1930s Britain replaced America as a favored destination for Irish emigrants (see Coogan xi; see also Connolly 51), since “[d]emand for labour in Britain was intense throughout the war years” (Connolly 51). When talking about the Irish Diaspora as a migratory phenomenon, Miller’s research equates Irish emigration with exile (see Miller 4; see Clark xvii). Expatriates, so Miller, do not migrate voluntarily (see Akenson 128). Martin Baumann elaborates on this further: 16
The term ‘exile’ is resonant with ideas of forced emigration, displacement, social and political marginalization of an individual or a group of refugees. It aligns to experiences of loneliness, foreignness, homesickness and an enduring longing to remigrate to the place of origin. (19)
In terms of the migratory movements during the 19th century, this terminology of exile is quite adequate for specifying the nature of the Irish Diaspora (see Akenson 128). A constant reproduction of foreignness (see M. Baumann 19), homesickness (see 23), victimhood (see Miller 132; see O’Toole/and Mac Éinrí 7), and remembrance of home can be found in “… their focus of identification, attention and activities [that]…clearly rests with the territory and culture of their former home” (M. Baumann 19). This notion of exile nurtured a return to Irish culture within the diasporic context. Indeed, after the trauma of the Famine, in times of the Gaelic Revival starting in the 1880s in Ireland and America, a growing number of people came to terms with their Irish ancestry and just a few years later, Irish social and cultural clubs were founded. Apart from the aforementioned processes, a reaffirmation of cultural heritage in America was triggered by the so-called ‘ethnic revival’ in the 1960s and 70s which led people to trace back their ethno-cultural roots to make sense of their diasporic identity (Metress 131). These processes not only led to a cultural intensification of transatlantic ties but also to a resurgence of interest in Irish ancestral roots which, then, eventuated in the emergence of Irish language courses, societies, diverse cultural activities, newspapers, as well as in the expansion of the GAA to America (see Barrett 8; see Nash 183). Ireland’s strong connections to its diasporic communities are also shown by the 1998 amendment of the Irish constitution. This legal text stresses the idea of a core cultural identity between the Irish state and the people in the Irish Diaspora. I believe that such an implementation reinforces a collective idea of Irish identity. Furthermore, a constant recollection of the Great Famine as a ‘figure of memory’ nurtures the Irish cultural heritage in America as a culture of remembrance. Consequently, the history of the Irish Diaspora shapes to a great extent Irish American culture today (see Metress 132). 2.2.2. The Irish in America Irish Americans, Irish-Americans 7 , American Irish (see Kenny The American Irish 2), Americanized Irish (Barrett 7), Irish as Americanizers (Barrett 11), and Irish in America, there are many terms which refer to the same concept, namely the Irish people in the United States. In connection to the aspect of Irish cultural identity, slightly different nuances in meaning become apparent that, ultimately, result in a fairly vague usage of such terminology. This circumstance reflects the fluctuation in meaning of terms such as identity and culture, Irishness and Americanism, and, finally, provides access to heterogeneous versions and sets of 7
I justify the usage of this term to demonstrate the variety of terminology referring to the same group of people.
17
identity (see Barrett 7; see Byron 169). Yet, they all share a common ground of exposure to constructions of Irish and American culture: Irish America is an amalgam of images drawn from Irish and American history and popular culture, the product of two worlds in two centuries: Irish nation-building in the old world in the nineteenth century, and American pluralism and multiculturalism in the new world in the twentieth century. (Byron 1)
Byron’s statement opens two very important perspectives that will guide my explorations in this chapter. Firstly, the history of Irish people in the United States of America has been one of complex ethnic and cultural identities and can neither be reduced to the period of mass migrations during the Great Famine nor to those that happened between the nineteenth and the twentieth century. The perspective has to be broadened in that the Irish culture in America has not only been shaping the physical, and the metaphorical space of Ireland (Stock 25) but has also formed a distinct hybrid culture that can be classed as being specifically Irish American. Secondly, although the term Irish America might evoke connotations of harmonic coexistence, acculturation (see Metress 131), and an organic immersion into the American society, “… the Irish made [in fact] no easy accommodation to the changing conditions that buffeted them both at home and in North America” (Miller 3). This circumstance leads to the perception that Irish American identities are far more complex than the variety of terms referring to them can encompass. Thus, a closer look at Irish American culture will allow me to deal with Irish emigration, as well as with cultural immersion into the pluralistic host society of America (ibid.). To begin with, the term Irish in America does not only entail a reference to the culture of Irish migrants but also refers to the multigenerational ethnic group of Americans claiming Irish heritage. According to O’Toole and Mac Éinrí, this focus is especially important, as diasporic spaces influence not only newly-arrived or first-generation immigrants but also “… affect[s] everybody, including long-settled members of the host society…” (12). In terms of the Irish in America, Akenson differentiates between immigrants and the actual ethnic community, with the latter encompassing multigenerational networks of immigrants’ offspring and descendants (see 112). This is important when dealing with the diasporic imaginary – a remembrance of a common ‘place of origin’. As Stock claims, this imaginary differs from first-generation migrants to those who were born and raised in the “diasporic setting” (24). Gray furthers this in saying that the migrants’ “… identification with Irishness is mediated by layers of memory, myth and imaginings” (162). Therefore, when dealing with migratory narratives of Irish people in America, this differentiation has to be considered. However, in concordance with Akenson’s suggestion, I will consistently refer to “the entire ethnic group” (112).
18
The history of the Irish in America is traversed by myths about the migrant experience and diasporic memories as well as by reinforced stereotypes. The latter still have a strong influence on the perception of Irish cultural identity in America (see Stock 25). Not only because the concept of an “Irish-America is extremely variable with respect to its identification with its Irishness” (Metress 136) but also due to the fact that “… there exists no body of basic demographic data on the Irish” (Akenson 118), any assumption of an absolute definition of an Irish ethnic identity is false (see Fitzgerald 47). This is not only reproduced by popular opinion but, as Akenson puts it “… there are hundreds of books that generalize about the Irish as an ethnic group…” (118). Quite contrary to that, Irish American ethnic identity has a “long and widespread existence” (Metress 132). Furthermore, Irish people were amongst the very earliest immigrants and are therefore often called the first ethnic group (see 131; see Barrett 3). The development of the Irish in America is, naturally, dependent on the waves of emigration; thereby, the historical steps in which to come to terms with the cultural discourse are in concordance with the depiction of Irish immigration. Due to the fact that before the Great Famine no ethnic information was collected and emigration records were highly incomplete, data of migrants can only be estimated based on personal narratives (see Miller 137; see Akenson 119-20). Against the most prominent narrative within popular perception that presents the Irish American people as being Catholic per se, Irish immigrants in pre-Famine times were mostly Protestant with ancestral roots in Ulster and referred to themselves as Scotch-Irish (see Kenny The American Irish 21-40; see Byron 168). However, I deduce that a stereotypical interpretation of the Irish American Catholic as the most identifiable prototype of Irish people in America (see Metress 132) leaves room for great stories and romanticized narratives. This leads to the conclusion that the literary representation of Irish Protestants still needs to be scrutinized more closely. In times of the Great Famine the number of immigrants increased enormously. It had a direct effect on both settlement patterns and the Irish diasporic community. They were formed and shaped by the sheer masses of people entering America in a steady stream of newcomers (ibid.; see O’Toole/and Mac Éinrí 6). It was already in that time that Irish people started developing a national identity in a diasporic space. “But gradually, inevitably, the lived experience of immigration and the newcomers’ standing as a minority community in their new societies operated to … forge an Irish national identity” (Campbell 20). However, from Famine times until the mid-twentieth century new Irish immigrants were often met with prejudice and exploitation (see Metress 134) and the attitude of “No Irish need apply” in combination with high rent and unsanitary living conditions was common to express an antiIrish, anti-Catholic and anti-poverty mindset (see Mulcrone 231-2; see Clark 60). 19
The post-Famine times from 1855 until the 1920s, were the most diverse in reference to economic, social, and spatial development. Technological innovations in the context of industrialization and urbanization changed the global, as well as the diasporic societies and, finally, led to new constructions of identity. Advancements in transportation supported a most elaborate business of emigration, mainly to the United States (see Manning 145; see Harper and Constantine 277). In terms of the Irish in America, these developments not only allowed for transnational identities but also triggered a concentration within the urban areas (see Miller 493; see Barrett 200). “… [T]he Irish were far more concentrated in the cities – about 90 percent in 1920 – and were certainly more visible”. This clustering is caused by a variety of factors and reveals facets of Irish influence on the American society (see Metress 134). Firstly, as opposed to pre-Famine times, farming was considered a reminder of the underdevelopment of Ireland as an agricultural nation and, therefore, work for poor people (see Miller 488; 90; see Campbell viii). Furthermore, urban areas offered more jobs for young unskilled men in quest of work who constituted the majority of immigrants in pre-Famine and Famine-times (see Mac Laughlin 15; see Kenny The American Irish 149). Secondly, the Irish gained a strong influence on the Irish American religious landscape. The Catholic Church served as a source for identity and support likewise for the Irish American ethnic group and newly-arrived immigrants (see Byron 173). Over the years, it changed from a quiet rural institution to an aggressive Irish dominated urban machinery (see Barrett 201). Moreover, it established a parochial school system which in itself triggered a transition from the Irish immigrant status towards an Irish American ethnic identity (see Miller 494). As a result, Irishness was, ultimately, replaced by Catholicism as an ethnic organizational force that laid the groundwork for the success of Irish people in America by providing network and identity (see Metress 135). The Church also triggered political reforms that were only possible because Irish American politicians used “their links to working-class communities and organizations” (Barrett 7; see O’Toole and Mac Éinrí 6). Again, this reveals the networking character and class consciousness of Irish Americans that extended to the limits of their own community (see Barrett 8). This idea leads to the last reason, i.e. that urban spaces provided the opportunity to build economic and social networks in order to develop political power (see Metress 134). It becomes apparent that a notion of “betterment” and improvement (see Daniels 28; see Miller 490), which also lies at the core of the American society, is anchored within the Irish substance as a natural strive for occupations that convey a sense of security 20
(see Metress 137). Especially for the evolving middle class, which was also called the ‘lace curtain’ class, jobs in teaching, medicine, law, and politics presented the main occupational areas of Irish people in America in post-Famine times (see Clark 60). These Irish “… did everything they could to distance themselves from the still-numerous ‘shanty Irish’” (Kenny The American Irish 149; see Diner 253). They aimed at seizing political power, either for their own sake or their community’s (see Barrett 7; see also O’Toole and Mac Éinrí 6). Apart from that, they made use of neighborhood power, extended family networks (see Metress 137), and church affinity to gain control over big cities, such as New York, Buffalo, or Philadelphia (134). The family as the most important institution for Irish people in America in urban as well as rural areas affects all spheres of life. As a moral, financial, social, and political scaffold, Irish people rely heavily on close family networks. In contrast to other ethnic groups, women, and especially mothers, have a peculiar role within the Irish family (see 137). Irish mothers rarely tend to be subordinate to men and are mostly in control of a family‘s finances (ibid.). They are inclined to be the major decision makers within the family business and set up what can be called a matriarchal Irish society which often clashed with the social order of other ethnic groups – most of the time within an urban community. Outside the societal nucleus of the family many unmarried women were employed in domestic service in urban areas (Barrett 123-28). This profession was so closely linked with an Irish ethnic female identity that these women even had a name, which became the great symbol of the American servant class: “Bridget or “Biddy” (124; see Kenny The American Irish 152). Finally, these factors stress the importance of the multiethnic city for the emergence of Irish American culture (see Barrett 7). “The United States … was born in the country but moved to the city” (Daniels 122). Taking these aspects together, they do not only point to the relevance of the urban space for the making and shaping of America but also represent the impact of Irish Immigrants and the multigenerational ethnic group of Irish Americans on emerging
Americanisms,
leaving
us
with
the
image
of
the
“Irish
…
as
Americanizers” (Barrett 11). As a reciprocal action, the Irish themselves underwent Americanization on the streets, such as “in workplaces, saloons, and union locals” (7). They went through, what Barrett calls, a “… gradual learning process by which immigrants and their families came to terms with their new environment, absorbing ideas and lessons from many sources” (10). This description of acculturation as the mastering of language, political, and governmental issues, as well as daily life allowed the Irish to deal with their urban context and was central to their everyday experience (see 3). However, most of them “… retained strong ties to Ireland and to their religious traditions” (5) by means of the American press, 21
foundations of Irish clubs and societies, and festivities such as St. Patricks Day (see 204; see Clark 56). At this point the interdependencies between belonging and longing, shaping and being shaped, as well as participation and exclusion become apparent and constitute the framework of a common notion of Irishness in the American diasporic context. William Williams stresses the necessity to deal with these dichotomies by stating that “[o]nly if they could construct an identity as both Irish and American would they thrive” (qtd. in Barrett 5). To complete these thoughts, Irish American culture was a culture of hybridity, however, not in the traditional sense of “… cultural mixture where the diasporized meets the host in the scene of migration … [and] ‘within the cultural and political circles of the dominant society’” (Papastergiadis qtd. in Hutnyk 59) but rather within a formed set of cultural traits that constitute a new culture, namely Irish America. 2.2.3. Irish Immigrant Literature The Irish have always been a nation of story tellers, poets, and literary artists (see Miller 4-5). Not only today but long since the country has been active in keeping in touch with its literarycultural roots and memories, all the while perpetuating its strong oral traditions (see Mulcrone 231). Combined, literary works of story tellers constitute ‘figures of memory’ which can provide a glimpse into the Irish perception of historical narratives and, as a consequence, also shed light on an Irish awareness of migratory movements (see O’Toole and King 1; see Miller 475-9). In reference to the diasporic space of America “Irish-American literature is one of the oldest and largest bodies of ethnic writing produced by members and descendants of a single American immigrant group” (Fanning 19). This has not only been realized within narrative strands of letter exchanges between “back home” and diasporic spaces but, most importantly, within memoirs, autobiographies, and autobiographical fiction, which are able to integrate various perspectives on an Irish American memory creatively (see Grubgeld xii): For over two hundred years American writers of Irish birth or background have been exploring what it means to be an immigrant or ethnic in America. Their work has much more to do with America than with Ireland, for it is the product not of a single culture but of a collision of disparate cultures. The result has been a uniquely American literature, one largely concerned with minority alienation and assimilation into a primarily urban New World environment. (Fanning 1)
With more than 5000 works published (see Miller 4), the field of Irish diasporic literature is very diverse. I see this reproduction of cultural memories as a constant striving of expatriates or migratory individuals to share their personal experiences of migration and to cope with new spaces of belonging. Furthermore, Irish Immigrant literature being a part of the Irish diasporic culture reinforces this strong remembrance of cultural heritage and even today nurtures both, the reality and the myth of the Irish Diaspora. These aspects, however, as previously discussed, can be subsumed under immigrant literature tout court. As a 22
consequence, I will focus on the specific characteristics that all literary pieces of Irish immigrant literature share. By doing so, I hope to isolate the nucleus of what might be a distinct Irish feature of immigrant literature. Recurring themes and elements will be elaborated on, four of which will be made the focus of a comparative analysis of Angela’s Ashes and Bessy Conway. As previously highlighted, immigrant literature does not only share the concepts of displacement, dislocation, and coping with differences within cultural spaces, but also refers to the process of migration (see Knott 79). In reference to the Irish context, these aspects are often related to the Great Famine as the perceived catalyst for Irish migration and the most recollected migratory phenomenon (see Cusack and Janssen “Death in the Family” 8). This interpretation is supported by Corporaal’s claim that the Great Famine is “[a]n example of a transnational ‘figure of memory’ which has been recollected in Irish and Irish diasporic fiction alike…” (4). Being a common theme of reflections and reproductions, the Great Famine is closely connected to the involuntariness of migratory movements and lies at the heart of Irish migration (see Harris 9; see Fanning 76). In Mulcrone’s words: Famine memories and the unresolved trauma of the immigration experience continued to resonate through Irish-American consciousness well into the twentieth century. The Famine experience remained central to the immigrants’ conception of themselves as involuntary exiles. (220)
This statement refers to both an Irish and Irish American perspective at the same time. I reason that the Great Famine as a traumatic experience not only plays a role in Irish cultural memory (Cusack and Janssen “Death in the Family” 8) but also functions as a key event in Irish American Immigrant literature that helps to make sense of diasporic movements and identities. As stated beforehand, the dichotomy between place and placelessness lies at the heart of the diasporic space. In reference to Irish Americans, Ireland represents the place of longing for and belonging to (see Eade 107; see Stock 24). In terms of Irish Immigrant literature, place occupies a major part in literary depictions. Manning refers to this importance by stating that “European settlers in the Americas, even if loyal to their European roots, developed distinctive needs and alliances that created identities centered on the lands they occupied” (140). However, opposed to Manning’s suggestion, it was not the rural areas but the cities that shaped America in its core and provided the context and shaping forces for cultural dynamics (see Daniels 122; see Eade 108). Eade concludes that “… [c]ities play a key role in the development of diasporic ties and identities across the world … This development has been most striking in rapidly globalizing cities and certain regions, such as … North America” (110). As 19th century Irish immigrants settled mainly in the urban areas, the city 23
and the Irish were entities that interacted closely. “Only in the American city did many Irish develop a coherent national identity” (Barrett 6). However, not all cities proved suitable for literary representation since the Irish left a more distinct mark in New York than in any other city (see Barrett 12). “For generations New York above all American localities was America for the Irish” (Clark 68). New York as a multiethnic city represents the entrance to America as the New World and a better future (ibid.), while at the same time it offers a physical diasporic space where individuals can reflect on the relationship between their new home, nationality, and their place of origin (see Kabir 149). Further on, the aspect of gender is a prominent theme in Irish Immigrant, as well as Irish American literature because it provides interpersonal and intrapersonal insights into the Irish diasporic culture in America. However, “[t]he single most severe limitation on our knowledge of the Irish diaspora is this: we know surprisingly little about Irish women in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries…” (Akenson qtd. in Hall and Malcom 3). Family, as the nucleus of Irish life, established the core gender roles of kinship such as mother, daughter etc. and denotes “an achievement and an important site of the gendered Irish self in migration” (Gray 167). Within this context we can find the societies’ perception of the most natural way in which women were able to participate in the national and ethnic process, namely in the “reproduction of the nation” (Yuval-Davis qtd. in Al-Ali 120). However, it was the male dominance in American society that constituted further gender identities. Female writers often represented men as providers of the family in a highly critical voice. Connected to this, a lack of responsibility, sexual abuse, and alcoholism as a result of hard work and deficiency of a social order in lower ranks of society are common topics in Irish American Immigrant literature. Kenny supports this thesis: “All-male drinking was the norm, an expression of pride in ethnicity” (201) and links hard drinking “to Irish-American masculinity” (The American Irish 231). These gender roles were also strongly influenced by the church as an identityestablishing institution (see 71) spreading “… a fundamentalist religious package based on gender complementary, tradition, conservatism and authority” (Levitt 43). Catholicism was the main religious influence on the daily lives of Irish people in America. Parishes served as networks and parochial education provided an alternative to state education for Catholic immigrants (see Barrett 58-9; 64). With the rise of a Catholic middle class and an evolving intellectual culture, religious topics,
which were primarily of Catholic nature,
found their ways from the streets and churches into periodicals, journals, and novels (see Fanning 160; see Clark 56-7).
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To conclude, a common culture of remembrance is upheld in the context of a chosen identity of Irishness. This identity becomes less connected to real memory (see Janssen 167) which leads to a mystified and mythologized depiction of Irish history and culture. Common themes of this commemorative process, which can be found within literary depictions, help to create a more detailed picture of the Immigration experience within the United States. Taking these frequent themes together, it becomes apparent that (re)migration, New York as the figure of Irish American urban life, specific Irish gender roles, and, ultimately, religion are frequently addressed topics within Irish American Immigrant literature. Thus, the following analysis of the two works will concentrate on these four concepts.
3. Literary works of analysis The previous chapters provide the necessary framework for an analysis of the works Angela’s Ashes and Bessy Conway. First, I will provide an overview of the general plot, the author, and main literary techniques, such as the usage of tenses or the implementation of the narrating I. Second, I will analyze the mentioned literary works with respect to the four relevant concepts of Irish Immigrant literature, namely (re)migration, New York City, gender, and religion. By doing so, I hope to expose how these themes recollect Irish transatlantic migration. Not only do I regard these commemorations as contributors to an Irish American diasporic identity but also as basis for a shared memory of Irish migratory experiences. 3.1. Angelas’s Ashes Angela’s Ashes, a memoir8 by Irish American author Frank McCourt was published in 1996, right in the wake of the Celtic Tiger in Ireland (see Podsiadlik 66). Depicting the period of emigration after the establishment of Ireland as an emerging nation until the late 1940s, McCourt’s memoir tells a rather modern story of migration and presents an individual perception while at the same time outlining general historic events. At its core the work is concerned with the hardships of Frank McCourt and his family in New York and in Limerick upon their return in 1935. This general plot is influenced by various “emigré visions of Ireland” (94). The narrative progression is presented in an autobiographical manner and encompasses the years from his earliest memories at the age of three to his return journey at nineteen. McCourt was born in New York City on August 19th, 1930 to Irish immigrants and was brought up in Limerick after the family returned to Ireland from New York. At the age of nineteen he returned to the United States where “he worked different jobs, eventually earning a college degree (though he never attended secondary school) and became a teacher” (ibid.). 8
I am aware of the differentiation between memoir as a reference to segments of the writer’s life and autobiography, encompassing longer passages in a chronological order. However, due to the usage of various secondary sources that do not apply this differentiation, the terms will be used interchangeably.
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Apart from his Pulitzer Prize-winning work Angela’s Ashes, he published “a sequel, ‘Tis (1999), which describes his life after he left Ireland; and Teacher Man (2005) a memoir dealing with his experiences as a teacher in New York …” (ibid.). The context into which the story line is embedded, including the Great Depression, pre-war America and Ireland, as well as “… social, economic and cultural transformations … in Ireland … affect the literature written in this period” (64). Angela’s Ashes is often considered to be the “trigger of the memoir boom in Ireland” (Reese 151) and was internationally well received, especially in the United States (92). Taking into account “… the memoir’s widespread popularity and, what follows, its potential to shape the popular notions of Ireland and the Irish, makes the text a valuable object of analysis of the range of possible approaches to identity in contemporary Irish prose” (Podsiadlik 69). Finally, its genre as a memoir and its reliance on commemorative images of Ireland, America, and migratory experiences make Angela’s Ashes well suited to illustrate the issue of diasporic identities. The overall structure of the novel can be divided into two sections: the first refers to the story of Frank McCourt as a child from the age of three to fourteen. These descriptions can be claimed as being loosely connected to the experiencing I (see 70). The cognitive limitations of Frank’s age can be seen as to be the reason for this circumstance. The second part, which covers about one third of the book, describes Frank’s development from the age of fourteen to nineteen. This section is mainly concerned with the protagonist’s journey into manhood (ibid.). This difference is further highlighted by a usage of different tenses to refer to specific situations (see 71). I believe that a shift of tenses reflects McCourt’s expression of an inner ambivalence between the wish to create distance and closeness, as well as positivity and pain towards past situations at the same time (see 73). Separate from the main plot, Angela’s Ashes covers a range of recurring themes that can be classed as being unique to Irish Immigrant literature. This can be seen in McCourt’s summary of his Irish childhood: People everywhere brag and whimper about the woes of their early years, but nothing can compare with the Irish version: the poverty; the shiftless loquacious alcoholic father; the pious defeated mother mourning by the fire, the pompous priests; bullying schoolmasters; the English and the terrible things they did to us for eight hundred years. (McCourt 1)
Setting this stereotypical account right in the beginning, McCourt’s autobiographical fiction provides a variety of accesses to the perception of displacement, migration, cultural identities, and collective memories. Apart from the diasporic settings of New York and Limerick, previously covered issues, such as gender and religion, play an enormous role in the creation of the narrative as well as in the formation of diasporic identities and, thus, will be analyzed in reference to literary techniques in the following.
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3.1.1. Aspects of (Re-)Migration As previously discussed, the aspects of migration and remigration can cause feelings of displacement, dislocation, homesickness, and cultural alienation. These issues are, subtly or distinctly, immersed into the storyline of McCourt’s memoir; either within a depiction of physical migration or as a constant longing for migrating to a better place such as America. The aspect of physical migration is addressed right at the beginning of the novel and opens the narrative structure of the text. In a similar way, McCourt closes his narrative with Frank’s return to America. I interpret this as a narrative frame that provides the author’s childhood experiences with meaning and perspective. In my opinion, only his return to America, hence, an emotional and geographical distance from past experiences in Ireland enables him to tell his sometimes painful story with wit and humor. The second sentence commences this aforementioned frame by referring to his first migratory experience. “Instead, they [my mother and father] returned to Ireland when I was four, my brother, Malachy, three, the twins, Oliver and Eugene, barely one, and my sister, Margaret, dead and gone” (McCourt 1). As Frank stated, the journey from New York to Limerick meant a return for both his parents, which, referring back to my theoretical introduction, represents a form of homecoming. In contrast, McCourt’s return migration from Limerick to his “birthplace America” (Renes 102) constitutes a countermotion. Here, we can find a contrast in reference to the nature of migration between Frank’s own life and that of his parents. It also reflects McCourt’s narrative style of playing with the reader’s expectation in foreshadowing the event of Margaret’s death. To elaborate further on the issue of migration, it is also an important topic within Frank’s narration of his ancestors’ stories and their reasons for emigration. In the case of his father, the migratory movement can be seen as forced “[b]ecause of the price on the head he had been dropped on, he had to be spirited out of Ireland via cargo ship from Galway” (McCourt 10). This depiction of Frank’s father is continued and, again, foreshadowed by the adult narrator: “After wandering and drinking in America and England he yearned for peace in his declining years. He returned to Belfast…” (10-1). In reference to this statement, the reflective nature of the mature narrator and his critical perception of past events become apparent. In contrast to the immature self, the adult narrator “… remains in control of the story” (Podsiadlik 72) and is “characterized by a clear vision and sound judgements” (74). This shift of narrators constitutes a break within genre requirements (see 70) which results in a lack of narrative reliability. “The limitations imposed by Frank’s age make him frequently unreliable” (71). At this point it becomes clear that Frank McCourt wrestles with the relationship between personal narrative and fiction and that within the context of literary studies Angela’s Ashes can neither be analyzed completely as his own autobiography, nor as 27
a sheer fictional workbut has to be seen as a hybrid form, i.e. autobiographical fiction (see Teichmüller 32). In this form the personal can be made abstract and vice versa. Although the narrative starts with the three-year-old-Frank, “… the presence of the mature narrator in the text is clearly marked at the beginning of the book” (Podsiadlik 72). “When I look back on my childhood I wonder how I survived at all” (McCourt 1). I take this decision as McCourt’s deliberate choice to reassure his readers of the authenticity of his narrative. As Podsiadlik furthers, “… the voice of the adult narrator from the first pages of the memoir belongs to a self-confident and good-humoured survivor, able to distance himself from the misery of his childhood, and to look at it with forgiveness rather than sorrow” (87). To elaborate on the aspect of migration, McCourt makes reference to his father and grandfather by linking migratory movements to alcoholism and irresponsibility. “She [my mother] never saw her father, who had run off to Australia weeks before her birth” (McCourt 11). This leads to frequent occurrence of heritage and family influence which, as already suggested, demonstrates the identity-giving function of this narrative for the author. Another description of translocation is the family’s return to Ireland initiated by Margaret’s death: “Grandma Sheehan sent money to Philomena and Delia. They bought the tickets, found a steamer trunk at the St. Vincent de Paul Society, hired a van to take us to the pier in Manhattan, put us on the ship, said Good-bye and good riddance, and went away” (McCourt 53). I understand this detached description of events which summarizes at least a couple of weeks and the short report of the passage to Ireland itself as an expression of Frank’s cognitive limitations as a child (see Podsiadlik 86). This narrative technique not only succeeds in creating distance towards this situation but, as Podsiadlik states, by Adopting the perspective of a naïve child allows the narrating I to describe even the most bleak situations in a humorous way. It is also the masterful storytelling skills of the narrator that make it possible for him to turn the traditional story of development… into a… story, in which the act of remaining alive becomes an almost heroic act of endurance, courage and intelligence. (91)
In opposition to the mature self, Podsiadlik’s description stresses the importance of the existence of a child narrator for the succession of the story. Since the narrative frame closes with the return to America, I regard this narrative choice as a way for the author to create distance to an event which, in its aftermath, was very painful. Again, this can be supported by the voice of the adult self right at the beginning of the narrative when he critically reflects on his parents’ emigration to Ireland: “My father and mother should have stayed in New York” (McCourt 9). Leaving the United States must therefore be connected toregret, pain, and personal limitation in Ireland. The contrast between Ireland and America in terms of Frank’s personal freedom is symbolized by the Statue of Liberty. “The ship pulled away from the dock. Mam said, That’s the Statue of Liberty and that’s Ellis Island where all the immigrants came in” (53). McCourt uses the mythologized cultural entities of The Statue of Liberty and 28
Ellis Island as symbols of freedom and hope. Furthermore, I interpret the usage of these cultural symbols or ‘figures of memory’ as a way to address a broad (diasporic) readership which tries to make sense of migratory experiences by drawing on a common, even mythologized, cultural memory. In reference to the frame narrative, the Statue can also be seen as a symbol of Frank’s personal freedom to which he returns after leaving Ireland: “I can pick out the Statue of Liberty, Ellis Island, the Empire State Building, the Chrysler Building, the Brooklyn Bridge” (455). Potts extends the meaning of the concept of freedom in Angela’s Ashes as “… freedom of movement in a much broader sense –freedom to express his ideas and emotions…” (289). This is coherent with McCourt’s depiction of Frank’s lack of opportunities in Ireland which is depicted in a conversation with Uncle Pa: “If you pass the exam you’ll stay in the post office nice and secure the rest of your life. You’ll marry a Brigid and have five little Catholics and grow little roses in your garden. You’ll be dead in your head before you’re thirty and dried in your ballocks the year before” (422). This opposition to individual limitation and freedom associated with the cultural contexts of Ireland and America is, once more, stressed when passengers argue with the captain about which route to take to enter America: Well, this is a free country and we’re American citizens. Is that a fact? Well you’re on an Irish ship with an Irish captain and you’ll do what he goddam tells you or swim ashore. (455)
Here, McCourt does not highlight freedom as something distinctly American but by depicting the Irish crewmember as negative and imperious he reveals the limitation of individual choices in an Irish context and stresses the benefits of entering a country of personal freedom. However, the journey and the associated recreation of Frank’s identity during the passage do not go without drawing on frequent stereotypical images of Ireland as the place of longing for Irish Americans. First of all, his decision of leaving Ireland by night reveals his sadness of going away and hints at his uncertainty if he will ever return to his family and place of origin. “It’s late in the day when the Irish Oak sails from Cork, past Kinsale and Cape Clear, and dark when lights twinkle on Mizen Head, the last of Ireland I’ll see for God knows how long” (453). This description is followed by a disclosure of Frank’s doubts about his emigration: “Surely I should have stayed, taken the post office examination, climbed in the world. I could have brought in enough money for Michael and Alphie to go to school with proper shoes and bellies well filled” (454). This leaves the readership with clichéd images of a poverty-stricken as well as underdeveloped Ireland that is juxtaposed by the highly civilized context of America. The conversation with the priest on the Irish Oak, in which the latter states that he misses Ireland and the Limerick rain and “never got over it” (ibid.) nurtures Frank’s doubts and at the same time leaves the readership with a romanticized picture of Ireland. It is 29
specifically this transitional space of the ship which gives room for the remaking of Frank’s cultural identity. This opportunity leaves him in a “… process of ‘liberating’ identity, [which causes] particular analyses [to] move from traditional notions of ‘Irishness’ to visions in which the construction of coherence is no longer secured by membership of social groups…” (Podsiadlik 65). Taking this into account, I deduce that his reflections on his migratory experience are consistent with O’Toole’s and Mac Éinrí’s idea of a “third space” (7) and the transitory notion of Irish identity, Although he leaves room for doubt about his decision, I interpret Frank’s return as homecoming in the sense of a fulfillment of a constant longing for the physical and imagined place of America. This, taken together with his parent’s return to Ireland, leaves the story “… provoked by the proposal of an Irish homecoming … against an American homecoming…” (Renes 104) and, finally, “… allows him to close the story of his childhood and youth with an agentive, distinctive accent…” (Podsiadlik 90). Ultimately, this stereotypical depiction of homecoming as a closing scene turns the return migration into a success for the protagonist. It leaves the readership with a happy ending, thus, “… reconfirm[ing] the myth of Irish immigration as a success story” (Renes 102). This aforementioned longing to return or to initially immigrate to the United States is frequently incorporated into the text and sheds light on diasporic imaginaries of migration. In contrast to the aspect of physical migration, McCourt incorporates a constant longing for America as a country of freedom and personal self-realization. Being coherent with Miller’s theory of emigration and exile as a part of Irish (diasporic) culture, this longing can be seen as an Irish cultural trait. In this process aforementioned push and pull factors come into effect, since “[t]he worse economic conditions grew, the greater their craving for rags to riches stories” (Potts 288). Not only did the country suffer from cultural deprival and political as well as economic exploitation for several centuries but in reference to the temporal context of McCourt’s narrative“… the Free States’ stifling class, religious and political divides and the economic hardships caused by the Depression and Second World War” (Renes 97) left its deep imprints. These circumstances have often been object of transfiguration within the literary and the filming sector. Podsiadlik delineates fittingly that The Ireland which is reflected in cinematographic and literary works produced in the second half of the twentieth century is often the Ireland of poverty, economic recession, social bleakness, pathologies of rural communities, domestic tyranny, sexual frustrations and conformity. (62)
This stereotypical notion of poverty, social discrimination, and economic recession is also transported in McCourts memoir. The aspect of poverty runs through the novel as a common thread and guides subsequent events and narrative plots. Its major realization lies in the 30
constant lack of food and the resulting malnutrition, one of the main reasons for the deaths of Frank’s siblings. This circumstance resembles Ireland’s long history of starvation, as I’ve already addressed in the theoretical section of this paper. Although for McCourt’s family America constitutes a place of destitution, a multiethnic network of Minnie MacAdorey, Mrs. Leibowitz, and Mr. Dimino supports the family in times of severe need (see McCourt 24-5). However, the situation grows worse in Ireland, a country which does not only suffer from economic recession but also from social and religious discrimination. This circumstance makes it difficult for Malachy to find a job. “Bosses and foremen always show him respect and say they’re ready to hire him, but when he opens his mouth and they hear the North of Ireland accent, they take a Limerickman instead” (115). He is not only confronted with discrimination resulting from his Northern Irish origin but also in reference to his assumed Protestant heritage. This can be determined from Frank’s grandmother’s comment on his father: “If your mother had married a proper decent Limerickman you wouldn’t have this standing up, North of Ireland, Presbyterian hair” (157). This introduces various perspectives on the incorporation of religious elements in the narrative which will be dealt with later. The fact that Malachy is constantly rejected throughout the novel leads to the assumption that the devastating situation of Ireland in the first half of the twentieth century evokes an “… identification with victimhood – [as a] passive acceptance of … [negative] stereotypes” (Potts 285). Potts supports this argumentation by stating that “McCourt’s text implies that the persistent association of Ireland with victimization has led to a distortion of the past…” (292). This reliance on old times is, again, displayed in the character of Frank’s father Malachy who constantly reproduces his Irish identity in the recitation of ancient Irish songs, poems, and stories such as Cuchulain (McCourt 21). These “important element[s] of cultural practices” (Podsiadlik 167) tell of Ireland’s heroic past, the oppression of the English, and brave men’s fight for freedom. However, I deduce that such victimizing perspectives lead to a neglect of present responsibilities which, inevitably, “entails fixation with the past” (Potts 292). I interpret this very fixation on an Ireland of the past as a romanticized depiction that, again, draws upon clichéd images of an Irish culture of remembrance. Eventually, this focus on the past forms a contrast to Frank’s prospective return to the United States as a highly modern nation (see Teichmüller 31). To proceed, even the physical properties of Limerick provide a platform for McCourt to express the Irish people’s longing for America. For instance, the rainy and always damp weather is turned into a vehicle to dream about emigration. This can not only be taken from the description of Limerick as “the capital city of the weak chest” (72) but also from Angela’s
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conversation with Dennis Clohessy who suffers from “[t]he cough” (207). “I’d be all right if I could live in a dry place. Angela, is America a dry place? – ‘Tis Dennis” (208). In contrast to this noxious image of Ireland, McCourt depicts America frequently as the “Land of Opportunities…” (Renes 100). Although Frank, the “… great oul’ Yankee” (McCourt 148) has a personal connection to America as his place of birth and early childhood, various scenes combine to a collective longing for America. This circumstance is implemented within Frank’s schoolmaster’s monologues about America: “There are good days when he sits at his desk and talks about America … [A]ll we have to do is ask him a question about America and that gets him so excited he might go on for the whole day” (362). The collective nature of reproducing clichéd images of America, which neglect the fact that the country itself suffered from the Great Depression and racial discrimination (see Potts 284), becomes also apparent in a different school setting. When Mr. O’Neill asks for the name of the President of the United States, all students in McCourt’s class know his name. On the other hand, they are not able to say “… who stood at the food of the cross when Our Lord was crucified” (McCourt 191). I conclude that within the context of a strict Catholic education McCourt presents a rejection of Irish Catholic morals, while at the same demonstrating the subtle process of Americanization. Furthermore, the Lyric Cinema as well as the radio (see McCourt 345) functions as instruments to reinforce an idealized picture of America. Potts states quite aptly that “… his [McCourt’s] America is a product of the celluloid images in the Hollywood movies of his childhood, which were in turn a response to conditions in depression-era and wartime America” (284). In addition, Renes supports this thought by determining that “… he had only known [America] in dire circumstances at a very early age, but its image was embellished by schoolmasters’ tales, a child’s optimism and … Hollywood movies at the local Limerick cinema” (104). The latter is illustrated in Frank’s and Michael’s return from the Lyric Cinema: “After the film we have tea and buns and we sing and dance like Cagney all the way to the Abbot’s. Michael says it must be great to be in America where people have nothing else to do but sing and dance” (McCourt 397). This is an important idea, as it not only reveals a romanticized version of Ireland, but also highlights popular images of America at that time. Apart from the collective notion of a longing for America, a personal perspective of Frank’s strong wish to emigrate becomes cleat throughout the narrative. As stated before, Frank’s desire to emigrate has to be perceived in the context of a collective Irish connection to America as its main diasporic space. It can be seen that the forces that influence a common fundamental attitude towards the United States as a country of physical, material, and emotional wealth are in line with Frank’s motives: “I know that someday I’ll be a rich 32
Yank…” (McCourt 421). This idea is also supported by his wish to emigrate in the context of the hard work he invests to save money for the passage. This section of the narrative on Irish soil is consistent with the basic idea of the American Dream in the sense of the opportunity to go “from rags to riches” (Potts 288). This attitude of material provision becomes evident in Uncle Pa’s statement which connotes a certainty of Frank’s success and return: “‘Tis the beginning for Frankie McCourt. He’ll come back in a few years with a new suit and fat on his bones like any Yank and a lovely girl with eyes like pearls hangin’ from his arm” (McCourt 453; 429). McCourt leaves room for a return, thus hinting not only at an increasing mobility in the first half of the twentieth century but also at the strong embodiment of this aspect within the Irish diasporic imaginary and within a sustained ‘ideology of return’” (Brah qtd. in Stock 24). In contrast to this idea stands Frank’s American wake (see McCourt 451). This phenomenon refers to an Ireland of the past and predicts that Frank will not return to Ireland. The phrase “the beginning of Frankie McCourt” not only connotes economic opportunities for personal betterment but also expresses the lack of capabilities of self-expression and self-invention within an Irish context. This idea matches Pott’s perception that the meaning of freedom within the story must be expanded to freedom of self-expression (see 289). This, again, leaves the readership with a devastating image of Ireland as a country of economic recession and lack of personal freedom. Renes links this thought to the aforementioned dichotomy between push and pull factors by saying that “… it is the story of Frankie’s confrontation with a crippling, nightmarish Ireland and his quest to return to his land of dreams, America, in search of wealth and material comfort” (98). I conclude that placing Frank’s hopes and dreams in a national cultural context of longing for America allows for the author to let the protagonist dwell on stereotypical imaginaries, while at the same time narrating a story of personal homecoming. By drawing on clichés and a personal narrative at the same time “… Angela’s Ashes’ homecoming is precisely materialized in America and therefore confirms the American dream” (Renes 105). Also, this can be found in McCourt’s closing of the narrative frame at the end of the novel. Frank enters New York and is overwhelmed by the sight of Manhattan at night. “I’m sure I’m in a film, that it will end and lights will come up in the Lyric Cinema” (McCourt 455). It becomes clear that “… [Frank’s] arrival in a promised land that he knows can exist only on screen…” (Potts 293) reflects the author’s awareness of the imaginary nature of his dreams about America and, again, incorporates an element of realism. Although the protagonist himself bridges the gap between a personal story of homecoming and an imagined version of the “idyllic America” of Hollywood movies (see Renes 101), he, nevertheless, leaves the readership with a transfigured image of America. I precisely take this 33
subtle, clichéd, immersion of the American national ethos and a constant relation to Ireland as the place of origin as a hint towards the author’s chosen and reproduced form of Irish American identity in which the migratory experience is equated to homecoming. 3.1.2. New York City As already mentioned, New York City, the representative of American urban life, plays an important role for the Irish American community in shaping its diasporic identity. Presented in the theoretical chapter, urban areas have provided settings for Irish immigrants to distance themselves from their agricultural past, to establish social networks, or to form economic ties in order to develop political power (see Metress 134). However, New York does not only represent American urban life and related myths and dreams but also a common place that is longed and striven for. These diasporic spaces, being of physical or imaginary nature, provide the frame, as well as the object of the narrative and play an important role in the storyline of Frank McCourt’s memoir Angela’s Ashes. To begin with, the city of New York is the setting for the whole narrative since the starting point and the ultimate climax of the McCourt’s memoir, namely Frank’s return to America as his place of birth, are in Brooklyn. Moreover, it constitutes the location of Frank’s first memories that are told through a cooperation between the narrator and an experiencing I: “I’m in a playground on Classon Avenue in Brooklyn with my brother Malachy. He’s two, I’m three. We’re on the seesaw” (McCourt 19). McCourt established the protagonist within a multicultural network of people who are connected through the bonds of neighborhood, commerce, or friendship. Characters such as Mrs. Leibowitz, Minnie MacAdorey, and Mr. Dimino from the Italian grocery store not only influence the progression of the protagonist’s development as a whole, they also create an atmosphere of support, acceptance, and kindness (49). The family, especially Angela, can rely on them in times of severe need. This is the case with Mr. Dimino, “the lovely Italian man in the grocery shop” (24) who allows Angela to buy groceries on credit and who gifts the children with food: “Gotta bag o’ fruit. I don’ give it to you I trow id out. Right?” (36); “Dem twins hungry again? He gives us bits of cheese and ham and bananas…” (49). An even greater supportive role can be attributed to Mrs. Leibowitz who provides the children with meals and who creates an atmosphere of cheer and recklessness: Mrs. Leibowitz shakes her head at Malachy and me. Oy, so thin. She says Oy so much Malachy laughs and says Oy and the Leibowitzes laugh … Mrs. Leibowitz laughs so hard her body shakes and she holds her stomach. (38-9)
I believe that the integration of humor in this specific situation, which is preceded by hunger and frustration and followed by the Margaret’s death, makes the moment more bearable for the reader. After her daughter passes away Mrs. Leibowitz lovingly takes care of Angela: 34
“Mrs. Leibowitz holds my mother in her arms … She spoons the soup into my mother’s mouth, wipes the dribble from her chin” (43). These issues support the idea of a close and reliable network of neighbors and friends in the diasporic setting and form a harsh contrast to the distant and burdened nature of family relations in Limerick. Close ties between the characters also become apparent in Frank’s wish to have Mrs. Leibowitz and Mrs. MacAdorey as his new mothers: “If I could have Mrs. Leibowitz and Minnie for mothers at the same time I’d have no end of soup and mashed potatoes” (44). This quote reveals the supportive role of Minnie MacAdorey for the family as a whole. However, an even more unique position can be ascribed to her character. Being a woman from the North of Ireland who is also married to a man from Toome, it is around her that Angela relaxes, sings songs, and exchanges stories about life in Ireland. “She tells Minnie stories about characters in Limerick and Minnie tells her about characters in Belfast and they laugh because there are funny people in Ireland, North and South” (25). These close ties between people from the North and South of Ireland accompanied by a partial disregard of cultural heritage are very peculiar as they contrast an Ireland of social and racial discrimination. This contradiction is elaborated on by the song Two Sweethearts, which is an Irish version of an American blue grass tune (see 25). I see this passage as a merge of the North and South of Ireland into one Irish American cultural setting which succeeds in overcoming previous feelings of prejudice, mistrust, and hate. These factors are consistent with Renes’ claim that “[p]rejudice did not play an important role in Brooklyn, where a vast, mixed immigrant population was equally affected by the misery of the Great Depression of the 1930s…” (99). This misery is also placed within the setting of New York City and takes various shapes. Firstly, it is best illustrated by a constant lack of food. Frank expresses hunger at quite an early stage in the narrative: “I wish I had something to eat but there’s nothing in the icebox but cabbage leaves floating in the melted ice” (McCourt 21). In order to feed his hungry brothers, Frank eventually steals bananas from the Italian grocery shop (see 35). Secondly, a shortage of bare necessities, such as clothes or kitchen utensils (see 43), leads to a precarious living situation. This becomes clear in Frank’s and Malachy’s encounter with Mrs. MacAdorey on the playground in winter: “Minnie MacAdorey says, God help these poor wee boys. They don’t have a glove between them. That makes me laugh because I know Malachy and I have four hands between us and one glove would be silly” (31). This scene also highlights McCourt’s usage of humor to distance himself from the misery of the situation. This aspect is also of great importance as it constructs a direct contrast to the realistic depiction of devastating events. “… [H]umour becomes an expression of his strength of survival, toughness and resilience in the face of adversity, and, as such, of vital importance in 35
the development of his quest for integration” (Renes 100). It is the narrator’s aforementioned limitation of perspective that creates these humorous effects (Podsiadlik 88), as well as distance to events which might still evoke painful memories for the author (see 89). In contrast, I take the repeated return of the explicit perspective of the adult narrator throughout the book as a device to create closeness and proximity to certain situations and events (see 72). Another passage stresses not only the absence of material essentials, but, above that, highlights the parents’ physical and emotional neglect caused by Margaret’s death: We get soup from Mrs. Leibowitz and mashed potatoes from Minnie MacAdorey and they show how to take care of the twins, how to wash diaper rags after they get them all shitty… If Mam stays in the bed and Dad goes out looking for a job we can do what we like all day. (McCourt 49)
Ultimately, this circumstance leads to the climax of misery in Brooklyn, leaving her parents, especially her mother, in a state of devastation (see 40). This despair leads to her cousin’s intervention, thus functioning as the trigger for the family’s return to Ireland. As can be seen, the author does not only provide purely positive images of the America of his childhood. However, when engaging closer with the nature of misery it becomes apparent that McCourt constantly ties the family’s misery in New York to Malachy’s alcohol addiction and inability to obtain work, as well as Frank’s mother’s resignation. This critique also becomes apparent in the very first sentence of the book and expresses positive feelings towards his childhood years in Brooklyn: “My father and mother should have stayed in New York where they met and married and where I was born” (9). Taking this into account, I claim that McCourt creates a positive and favorable, yet realistic image of America by placing the family into a supportive, caring, multicultural network and depicting their misery as selfinflicted. This realism is, among other factors evoked by a particular reproduction of stereotypes within the physical setting of New York City. Although McCourt creates a friendly and supporting atmosphere among the immigrants, he at the same time implements bold clichéd images of the Irish in the American diaspora. The most obvious one of these is the connotation of alcohol as “the craving” (51). Not only Mr. Dimino refers to Malachy’s problem as “the Irish thing” (36), but Angela’s cousins, the MacNamara sisters, when talking about Malach’s drinking habit state that: “The craving could get the better of him and you’d have another Malachy from the North on your hands” (51). McCourt does not restrict this problem to the individual level but places Malachy’s personal struggle in a more general perspective, as shown in a quote by the pub owner: “We don’t let people sing in here. Causes trouble. Specially the Irish” (29). This is supported by Mrs. Leibowitz’ and Minnie MacAdorey’s claim that it is “terrible, terrible, the way the Irish drink” (45). 36
Further stereotypes can be found in expressions of Mrs. Leibowitz, such as “Irish don’t eat” (38) or “Irish like ham” (43). This, again, enhances the perception of a distinct Irish culture within the American diasporic context. Taking all these aspects into consideration, it becomes apparent that stereotypes are not only used as literary devices but were rooted in the mindset of diasporic immigrant communities. In the case of the Irish, stereotypes had a strong influence on the perception of the Irish cultural identity in America. As Podsiadlik states, the narrator “… draws upon the collective memory of the Ireland of the first half of the twentieth century, incorporating into his tale a number of stereotypes” (68). This leads to a highly clichéd representation of Irish identity: In Angela’s Ashes the main tools employed in shaping the plot of the story, apart from adopting the conventions of a memoir, are the employment of ‘Irish’ stereotypes …The adult narrator skillfully chooses and overstates virtually all the clichéd images of Ireland and ‘Irish’ identity in the first decades of the twentieth century…, and attracting the reader with a promise of an engaging story about a country generally known as a land of drunkards, zealous Catholics, patriots and martyrs. (75)
I deduce that these stereotypes that are employed to represent an authentic Irish collective memory greatly contribute to the “phenomenal success [of the book], both in Ireland and on the international market” (76; 92). Further, I believe that these clichéd images succeed in drawing a romanticized image of Ireland and that McCourt’s major reason for including them lies in his aim to create an image of ‘the Irish’ in the Irish American diaspora that appeals to a greater readership. By doing so, he contributes to a common Irish American memory of past migratory experiences. Not only does the author convey an outside perspective on the Irish within this urban setting but he also presents a constant reproduction of Irish identity from an inside point of view. This can be seen when dealing with the Irish tales and songs that are implemented into the narrative, such as Frank’s story of Cuchulain. “I say it right and he tells me the story of Cuchulain…” (McCourt 21). McCourt’s reproduction of his own memories “in clichéd songs and stories” reoccures throughout the narrative (Hughes 127). The Irish American songs of displacement and homesickness, such as the first part of the song Ireland Boys Hurrah (see McCourt 26), and the nightly ritual of promising to die for Ireland are woven into the narrative strands and evoke a stereotypical picture of the Irish as a nation of storytellers and poets. It also serves to create a feeling of nostalgia and a common reference of cultural practices to commemorate past sufferings: “Up, boys, up. A nickel for everyone who promises to die for Ireland … I want them up, he says. I want them ready for the day Ireland will be free from the center to the sea” (ibid.); “We are soldiers. He tells us we must promise to die for Ireland. We will, Dad, we will” (45). Podsiadlik refers to this circumstance by stating that “[l]earning “to die for Ireland” becomes a recurring motif in the story…” (77). I interpret that by implementing stories, rhymes, and songs, McCourt makes reference to a macro level of 37
Irish commemorative culture that transcends his individual life account into the main narrative of Angela’s Ashes. Finally, Irish identity is highlighted by an obvious opposition towards American cultural traits. This can be seen in Malachy’s and Angela’s discussion if their first son Frank should have a middle name: “Sticking on middle names was an atrocious American habit …” (McCourt 17) and should, according to Malachy, be avoided. To summarize, Podsiadlik aptly states that “[w]hether in New York or Limerick, Malachy remains in love with Ireland…” (77). Not only does New York provide the setting for the narrative but, in the cultural context of Limerick, also constitutes a place that is striven for. As previously dealt with, New York City forms an imagined diasporic space that stands in sharp contrast to the city of Limerick (see Potts 284), the main setting throughout the whole story line. Throughout the narrative of the memoir, various definitions of Limerick are outlined. To start with a more general claim, Frank McCourt “… colours the protagonist’s vision of Limerick in a kind of depressing urban realism” (Renes 95). In his subsequent elaborations, Renes elaborates on this thought in saying that the narrative “… shows the other side of the mythical pastoral West: the dire slum reality of a city deeply sunk into the misery…” (97). This claim can be supported by McCourt’s description of the city. “… Limerick … is the capital city of the weak chest and the weak chest leads to the consumption” (McCourt 72). However, this negative depiction of Limerick that is nurtured by urban realism does not only form a contrast to America as an imagined place, but also provides a platform for the author “… to test and toughen up the young hero on his road to manhood/ a new home/ a better life” (Renes 103). Hence, it is a place in which the formation of cultural and personal identities takes place. The narration of these processes, again, does not happen without a clichéd opposition to other cultural spaces such as England. According to Podsiadlik, “… with the English being accused of every possible atrocity, including bringing fleas to Ireland… the narrator draws upon xenophobic attitudes towards strangers, which in his description become an inherent constituent of ‘Irishness’” (84-85). The following quote further illustrates this idea: “’Tis a pity you weren’t alive in the times when the English were evicting us and leaving us on the side of the road” (McCourt 348). I interpret that by directly referring to the Great Famine to which the author relates, he contributes to a shared Irish (diasporic) culture of remembrance. This is in accordance with Mulcrone’s perception that “[f]amine memories and the unresolved trauma of the immigration experience continued to resonate through IrishAmerican consciousness” (220).
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I conclude that the permanent reproduction of Irish national identity located within the physical setting of America represents the author’s intention to convey a nostalgic and romanticized image of an Ireland of past days. This is also enhanced by his depiction of multiculturalism in New York City as the representation of American urban life. Apart from the depiction of a heroic Ireland of tales and songs, the juxtaposition of such a multicultural network to a burdened Irish social fabric evokes a negative stereotypical picture of Ireland as the country of drunkards, anti-English, anti-Protestant, and poverty-stricken people. In opposition to Limerick, New York constitutes a diasporic imaginary for which people strive and long. Thus, I claim that these aspects contribute to popular images of a diasporic commemorative culture. 3.1.3. Gender In her work Mobile Narratives, Eleftheria Arapoglou states aptly that gender is an essential part of human identity (3). As previously elaborated on, this construct is a major theme within Immigrant literature. However, when rereading the memoir, some constructions of gender identities seem to occur more frequently than others. These motives are motherhood and masculinity in reference to labor, alcoholism, and sexuality. Podsiadlik supports this claim by stating that “… his [McCourt‘s] narrative explores the classical reproaches and claims laid against the Irish family… [in] drawing upon the clichéd images of alcoholic fathers, resigned mothers and starving children” (77). To begin with, motherhood repeatedly occurs throughout the memoir as it forms the major female role within the ideal Irish family. This leads Louise Sheridan to the assumption that “[t]he ideal Irish mother, or the ‘Irish Mammy’, was the heart of the family unit, willing to sacrifice her own dreams and desires, dreams and independence for the sake of her children, husband and nation” (165). On a general basis, these ideas cannot be interpreted as given. In fact, Sheridan points to the cultural construction of womanhood and motherhood in stating that “[t]he ideals of the Irish mother are exposed as culturally reproduced, rather than something inherent and natural to the Irish woman” (166). Relating back to the theoretical overview, the family as the nucleus of the Irish (diasporic) nation is responsible for the core gender identity of motherhood which, as already illustrated, is coherent with Yuval-Davis’ perception that the “reproduction of the nation” (qtd. in Al-Ali 120) constitutes the most natural way in which women were able to participate in the national and ethnic process within diasporic contexts. However, the role of the mother within the Irish society is not as clear-cut as these thoughts might connote, but I claim that she finds herself torn between the expectations of two different, yet intertwined systems. In the first instance she is placed as the leading figure 39
within the private context of the family. Primarily, this becomes apparent in her dominant parenting role within the domestic setting. This educative position can also be detected in her behavior towards her husband. McCourt incorporates this element at an early stage of his narrative: “He [dad] puts on his cap, shoves his hands into his trouser pockets, sighs and looks up at the ceiling. I told you before I’ll be home, he says” (McCourt 27). Depicting Malachy as the pouting husband reveals Angela’s leading instructional position and obvious dominance as the center of the family. This status is supported by her children’s respect towards her, also which is contrasted by Frank’s and Malachy’s rejection of their father: He pulls a penny from his pocket and waves it to Malachy and me. Your Friday penny, boys, he says. I want you to jump out of that bed and line up here like two soldiers and promise to die for Ireland and I’ll give the two of you the Friday Penny. Malachy sits up in the bed. I don’t want it he says. And I tell him I don’t want it, either. (137)
Angela is accepted by her children as the leading figure, an idea supported by Frank’s response to Malachy’s injury: “[m]y mother will kill me” (19). Moreover, it is she who carries the responsibility for her children: “…but your mother took him off to the hospital” (20). Furthermore, her caring nature reveals itself in her disregard for personal pride in order to provide for her family herself: There, Dad, there’s coal. Och, no, son. We won’t pick coal off the road. We’re not beggars. He tells Mam the coal yards are closed and we’ll have to drink milk and eat bread tonight, but when I tell her about the women on the street she passes Eugene to him. If you’re too grand to pick coal off the road I’ll put on my coat and go down the Dock Road. (82)
In accordance with this caring nature, McCourt stresses Angela’s kindness by letting her provide for even poorer people despite the family’s precarious living conditions: She never has money so she invites them home for tea and a bit of fried bread and if it's a bad night she'll let them sleep by the fire on a pile of rags in the corner. The bread she gives them always means less for us and if we complain she says there are always people worse off and we can surely spare a little from what we have. (343)
By contrasting her qualities of strength, drive, kindness, and responsibility to her husband’s lack of provision and pride-ridden character of emotional instability, McCourt highlights her central role within the family as a provider once again. Podsiadlik supports this idea by stating that this circumstance “… in some sense makes Angela an outstanding figure – she never gives up, and, despite a number of breakdowns, it is she who assumes the role of the breadwinner” (78). Her central role within the matriarchal family system is coherent with other female characters that fight for the preservation of Catholic moral standards, such as the MacNamara sisters. “The sisters knew what was right and they knew what was wrong and any doubts could be resolved by the One, Holy Roman, Catholic and Apostolic Church” (McCourt 14). When referring to Ireland they further this thought by saying that they “… have morals in Limerick, you know, morals” (15). The sisters can be seen as an example of female dominance within Irish as well as Irish American society not only from an ethical point of view, but also in reference to male characters. The quotation “Their husbands agreed” 40
(19), as well as Malachy’s thought that “… the MacNamara sisters [are] ready to eat him alive in Brooklyn” (17) support this idea. Angela’s vital role as a mother is also underlined by Margaret’s death. After the incident, she retracts from her role as a mother and wife, leaving her other children on their own. Frank and his brother Malachy have to assume the role of the mother in caring for their little brothers: “Most of her day Mam lies in bed with her face to the wall” (McCourt 47). This leads to physical and emotional neglect of Angela’s children and highlights her indispensable position as the leading figure of the family. Apart from this characteristic, Podsiadlik comments on her character in the context of societal restrictions by stating that “[y]et, despite this remarkable strength, the picture of Angela belongs to the traditional group of tormented and exploited mothers in independent Ireland…” (78). Inflicted by societal gender norms, these ideas are supported by Frank’s depiction of his mother’s upbringing and education. “My mother’s troubles began the night she was born…and by her ninth years her schooling was done” (McCourt 12-3). Other characters, such as Mrs. Clohessy, develop the image of “the pious mother, moaning by the fire, the one struggling with her husband’s alcoholism and incurring poverty…” (Podsiadlik 79). Exploitation and misery combined with a strong will to care for her children can be best seen in Angela’s decision to have sexual intercourse with her cousin Laman Griffin in order to ‘pay him back’ (see McCourt 367). Not only does this circumstance provide access to the implementation of sexuality in relation to gender norms within the Irish society but it also illustrates Angela’s desperate situation. The combination of such ideas leads the analysis to the second instance in which the stereotypical Irish mother can be found, namely the Irish patriarchal system of church, state, and nation that comprises a woman’s cultural public identity. It can be seen that Sheridan’s stereotypical depiction of the ‘Irish Mammy’ is, in fact, caused by religious and moralistic visions of the Irish mother whose task it is to contribute to the national process by bearing children (see McCourt 20). Such aspects are also anchored in the 1937 version of the Irish Constitution. It promises to "protect the Family", and recognizes the family as having "inalienable and imprescriptible rights, antecedent and superior to all positive law" 9. Special importance is attributed to the role of the mother, as it must be guaranteed that "economic necessity" does not force mothers "to engage in labour to the neglect of [her] duties in the home" 10 . This societal imperative for women to protect domesticity can be found in McCourt’s narrative as well. First of all, it is subtly included in the storyline by picturing Angela’s obligation to rely on her husband as the provider for the family: “Dad gets his first job in Limerick at the cement 9
Article 41.1 Article 41.2
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factory and Mam is happy. She won’t have to stand in the queue at the St. Vincent de Paul Society asking for clothes and boots for Malachy and me” (McCourt 133). Secondly, gender inequality is also plainly described by Frank himself: Women stand with their arms folded chatting. They don't sit because all they do is stay at home, take care of the children, clean the house and cook a bit and the men need the chairs. The men sit because they are worn out from walking to the Labour Exchange every morning to sign for the dole, discussing the world's pro less and wondering what to do with the rest of the day. (132)
McCourt not only demonstrates that young Frank has understood the basic structure of gender roles within his community but leads the reader to the assumption that he must have been instructed in these issues. Therefore, I conclude that within the Irish patriarchal society school plays an important role in the reproduction of constructed gender identities, not only in the Ireland of the 1940s, but within the narrative as well. “In McCourt’s memoir, the school…becomes another place of indoctrination, so that the one thing the boys are successfully taught there is discipline and respect” (Podsiadlik 84). As the term indoctrination might connote, this form of discipline and respect is formed around and based on the doctrines of the Catholic Church and faith becomes the primary source for the creation of identity. Podsiadlik transfers this thought to the level of the family in stating that “… numerous novels by Irish authors expose the weaknesses of the family system in Ireland, stressing the abuse of power by men and the discrimination of women, as well as the ‘unholy trinity’ of fathers, institutional patriarchy and Catholicism” (76-7). Angela is depicted as being constantly torn between a powerful position within the matriarchal system of the family on the one hand and the aforementioned ‘unholy trinity’ as a representation of her societal identity on the other. I believe that the title Angela’s Ashes, which seems to relate to the “ashes of the fire or the Woodbines she smokes by the fire” (Potts 285), reflects the societal disunity between power and helplessness, poverty and prosperity, and restriction and freedom. Further I deduce that these circumstances lead to the view of her as the secret protagonist of the narrative. This special position is also emphasized by Frank’s relationship to his mother at the end of the narrative. “I’ll tell Mam I’m going in a few weeks and she cries” (McCourt 450). Although this shows her affection for her son and, again, stresses her caring nature, the intensity of their connection reaches its climax within the context of the American wake (451). The song A Mother’s Love’s a Blessing enhances this idea: A mother's love is a blessing No matter where you roam. Keep her while you have her, You'll miss her when she's gone. (453)
The second part of the chorus has previously been incorporated into the narrative in reference to Angela’s birth (see 13). By linking the first part of the chorus to Frank’s farewell, the author forges a bridge between Frank’s and Angela’s life. While it was desperation and 42
restrictions imposed by gender norms that triggered Angela’s journey to America (ibid.), similar reasons later apply to Frank’s emigration. I read this particular trait of Angela’s character not only as a stereotypical expression of the mother as the central figure of Irish society but also as a vehicle to create a nostalgic and melancholic memory of an Ireland of home and family. Similar conclusions can be drawn from the aspect of masculinity. As previously stated, this aspect in reference to labor, alcoholism, and sexuality plays another major role within the topic of gender in McCourt’s memoir. To start with, this first aspect becomes obvious when considering the character of Malachy in his role as a provider for the family. His strive for economic independence is repeatedly reproduced throughout the text. In the setting of Brooklyn, Frank recounts his father’s search for labor. “Dad is out looking for a job again and sometimes he comes home with the smell of whiskey, singing all the songs about suffering Ireland” (21; 23). As previously stated, the role of the breadwinner is clearly masculine responsibility.“When Dad gets a job Mam is cheerful and she sings” (24). Therefore, Malachy’s inability to provide causes severe problems for the family. Firstly, the situation leads to a constant shortage of food which can be seen as the main reasons for malnutrition, disease, and, finally, death: “… two children dead, one in America, one in Limerick, and in danger of losing three more for the want of food and drink” (90). Frank’s statement stresses his and his mother’s awareness of this circumstance: “… food on the table is what she wants, not suffering Ireland … Mam says, They get their appetites because they’re starving half the time” (23). Secondly, Malachy’s unemployment also impacts the psychological sphere as it causes his dependency on alcohol, Angela’s desperation, and Frank’s feelings of compassion and guilt. The latter is realized in his internal reaction towards his Dad’s loss of work: “I want to get up and tell her I’ll be a man soon and I’ll get a job in the place with the big gate and I’ll come home every Friday night with money for eggs and toast and jam and she can sing again.” (30). It becomes clear that for Frank having a job not only means the ability to provide and stability, but also represents masculine identity. Renes supports this idea by stating that “[f]rom the moment of his father’s disappearance, Frankie entertains the wish to become the pillar of the family economy, taking up all sorts of menial jobs to help his family…” (99). Even at a younger age, Frank reflects on his role as the man of the house: “My heart is pounding and I want to cry but I can’t because my father isn’t here and I’m the man of the family” (McCourt 226). This quote reveals that, apart from economic stability, masculine gender identity is also dominated by emotional strength and toughness.
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To proceed, McCourt contrasts the family’s economic situation with that of the MacAdoreys: Clap hands, clap hands, Till Daddy comes home, With buns in his pocket For Maisie alone. (32)
Not only does this song reveal Mr. MacAdorey's consciousness of him being the provider of the family, but also his affection and love for his baby daughter. Malachy, however, tells his daughter that he will take her to Ireland and that he will get a job soon (see 33). This is preceded by him singing to her Irish American song The Leprechaun: “Dad is out of bed in a second … singing to her, making sounds like a mother” (31). Taking these aspects together, it becomes clear that his identity and emotions are embedded within a constant reproduction of memories of Ireland and a permanent desire to return. Podsiadlik supports and continues this idea by saying that “[i]n the narrator’s story, his father’s patriotism becomes one of his main characteristics…” (77). I deduce that patriotism is a stereotypical part of Irish masculine identity. Moreover, the phrase “like a mother” not only hints at Frank’s very distinct perception of gender roles in general but highlights exceptions in Malachy’s behavior when it comes to his daughter. The rather distant relationship between him and his family becomes clear in Frank’s wish for physical proximity: “I’m hoping he’ll put his arms around me but he goes on singing about Roddy McCorley” (McCourt 47). Furthermore, this is realized in his depiction of his parents’ interaction: “Why doesn’t he hold her and help her sleep the way he did with my little sister who died” (48). Finally, this circumstance reaches a climax in Frank’s wish to express his love for his father: “…if I were in America, I could say, I love you, Dad, the way they do in the films, but you can’t say that in Limerick for fear you might be laughed at” (262). Attributing these emotions to the author himself, this description not only places McCourt’s critique towards his parents into a context of affection but also reveals a negative attitude towards Limerick as a cultural network that does not allow for emotional or physical closeness. I perceive McCourt’s presentation of the cultural context of Limerick as a basis for Irish men to reproduce their masculine identity in keeping personal and emotional distance, thus, creating a traditional image of the masculine gender identity. Finally, a clichéd image of Irish cultural identity is created in opposition to a positive, romanticized depiction of America. I interpret that the usage of stereotypes with which diasporic individuals can identify easily as a way for McCourt to contribute to a common culture of remembrance that appeals not only to readers in the diaspora but also in Ireland itself. This insight leads to another feature of masculinity, namely the topic of alcoholism. With regard to Malachy this theme is incorporated into the narrative in various ways. First of all, it represents the primary influence on the progress of his personal story within the memoir. 44
Not only does an overdose of alcohol prevent him from leaving Angela and their unborn baby (see 16-7) and results in the loss of his job and income but it also represents a dominant influence on his personal relationships. Foremost, the impact of alcohol on the connection to his oldest son becomes apparent in Frank’s personal account. The following passage reveals his awareness of his father’s behavioral differences caused by his drinking habit: I know when dad does the bad thing. I know when he drinks the dole money and Mam is desperate and has to beg at the St. Vincent de Paul Society … In the morning we have the world to ourselves and he never tells me I should die for Ireland…At night he helps us with our exercises … I think my Dad is like the Holy Trinity with three people in him, the one in the morning with the paper, the one at night with the stories and the prayer, and then the one who does the bad thing and comes home with the smell of whiskey and wants us to die for Ireland. I feel sad over the bad thing … because the one in the morning is my real father… (260-2)
This description shows that accrediting Malachy with these different contrasting personalities allows McCourt to implement a variety of Irish stereotypes such as stories, Catholicism, and alcoholism within a single person. Teichmüller elaborates on this idea: “Das soziale Gefüge der Familie, insbesondere Franks Sicht auf seinen Vater, wird in hohem Maße von dessen Polarität in seinen Verhaltensweisen bestimmt, namentlich dem ‘bad thing’…“ (30). Yet, apart from the depiction of negative characteristics, Frank stresses his affection and respect for his father. Potts interprets these positive images with regard to McCourt’s own experiences and aptly claims that “… his father is shiftless, loquacious and alcoholic, but he is also responsible for imbuing McCourt with a love of story and a strong sense of his own personal and national identity which allow him to survive and which arguably lead him to write his own story” (285). It becomes obvious that McCourt succeeds in creating characters that do not represent shallow, clichéd pictures of ‘the Irish’, but that rather portray stereotypes finely interwoven with individual attributes. However, in the course of the narrative this positive description deteriorates and Frank’s relationship with his father becomes more and more distant. Finally, this results in what seems to be complete silence. Renes aptly states that “… violence and drink permeate Limerick society in emasculating, crippling and insolidary ways, as is ultimately shown in Malachy’s disappearance from the narrative” (99). The scholar hints at the problematic association of alcoholism with male gender identity. This development can primarily be seen in Frank’s expectations of his father’s homecoming: “He’s not coming, Mam. He doesn’t care about us. He’s just drunk over there in England” (McCourt 338). Secondly, it is realized in the children’s reaction towards Malachy’s return from England without money and a half-empty box of chocolates: “You drank the money, didn’t you? You drank the money, Dad. You drank the money, Dad. You drank the money, Dad… Dad says, Och, boys, now boys. Respect for your father” (339). It becomes clear that in contrast to Malachy’s demand for respect the obvious impudence towards their 45
father further supports the idea of the mother as the core figure of the family and, ultimately, reveals the relationship between motherhood and alcoholism. In general, the connection between male gender identity and ‘the bad thing’ can be shown by locating Malachy’s problem within a public sphere. However, one can detect a difference between the cultural contexts of America and Ireland. When Angela asks the gatekeeper in New York if she can pick up part of her husband’s wages to prevent him from spending it all on alcohol, he replies: “I’m sorry, lady, but if we did that we’d have half the wives in Brooklyn storming the place” (28). This portrayal transfers Malachy’s drinking problem from a personal to a more general level. From that I deduce that McCourt attaches alcoholism to the male sphere in general. Renes connects masculinity, labor, and alcoholism by stating that “Malachy is, of course, a hopeless failure as a father and man, partly due to a serious drinking habit which does not allow him to hold a job for long” (98). This circumstance can be seen in Frank’s account who explains that “[w]hen Dad’s job goes into the third week he does not bring home the wages” (26). This leads to the impression that the loss of Malachy’s job occurs regularly and illustrates his failure as a provider for the family. Not only is alcoholism constantly connected to male gender identity, but, beyond that, it is frequently referred to as an aspect of Irishness. This can be taken from statements such as “… the way the Irish drink” (45), “It’s the Irish have the craving” (51), or, in relation to Malachy, “Ya father? Well ya know, he’s got the problem, the Irish thing” (36) which reflect outsiders’ opinions on the Irish within the setting of New York. Podsiadlik condenses the aspects of alcoholism, patriotism, labor, and male gender identity by saying that “… Frank’s father, Malachy, is presented as a helpless patriot, a drunkard and a chronic failure in terms of his inability to provide his family with decent conditions of living” (77). Finally, this idea is applicable to the narrative as a whole, encompassing both the setting of New York and Limerick. However, in accordance with the change of setting from the United States to Ireland, McCourt’s presentation of alcoholism differs. While in New York, the family receives constant negative feedback for Malachy’s drinking problem. In contrast to this, in Limerick it appears that drinking constitutes a social imperative as a matter of heritage and obligation for men. Podsiadlik claims that “… the alcoholism of Malachy appears almost natural in the Irish context and does not demand any excessive explanation…” (86). In reference to this thought, the idea of heritage becomes obvious: “After a night of drinking porter in the pubs of Limerick he [Frank’s grandfather] staggers down the lane singing his favorite song” (McCourt 11). Told by the mature narrator, this statement connects the issues of family, ancestry, gender, and alcoholism and provides access to the issue of heritage in the narrative. The latter does not only play an important role in the course 46
of the text but also within Irish culture. In general, the element of heritage as a major issue can be found in the comparisons between Frank’s and his father’s outer appearance. “She [Angela] tells Mrs. Leibowitz down the hall, Frankie has the odd manner like his father” (23). These frequently incorporated recollections of family ancestry reproduce an Irish culture that relies on heritage and lineage. The placement of these aspects within the cultural frame of Limerick leads to the conclusion that “Angela’s Ashes clarifies that Malachy’s alcoholism is not only caused by the economic hardships of the working class … but also worsened by the religious and political divides on the Irish Free State…” (Renes 98). The aspect of alcoholism permeates the story as a frequent theme and represents an Irish cultural stereotype that helps to construct masculinity in the diaspora as well as in the setting of Limerick. Taking this idea into account, I conclude that by creating traditional pictures of Irish males as alcoholics and “… by the use of clichéd images from the collective memory of post-revolutionary Ireland…” (Podsiadlik 79), McCourt succeeds in reinforcing readers’ expectations and a stereotypical construction of Irish identities. Eventually, as part of the analysis of the concept of gender, (Irish) masculinity has to be connected to the aspect of sexuality. It becomes apparent that a closer examination of this concept is of high relevance for the construction of gender norms since McCourt’s memoir can be seen as a personal narrative of manhood. Furthermore, sexuality provides access to other aspects such as its frequent societal transfiguration, a distorted image of sexuality within a Catholic belief system, Frank’s loss of virginity, and, finally, the meaning of Frank’s return to America. Sexuality is already subtly immersed into the storyline at quite an early stage of the narrative. Included expressions, such as “The big belly slows her” (McCourt 20) or “The angel that brought Margaret and the twins comes again and brings us another brother, Michael” (125) not only hints at Angela’s frequent pregnancies but also at a concealment of realities. In Limerick, the “holiest city in Ireland” (256), a strong Catholic moral ethos permeates society at its core and strongly influences the shaping of sexual identities. Yet, Frank’s enormous guilt after masturbation and his fear to pray and to go to confession after having intercourse with Theresa Carmody (see 409) leads to the conclusion that the Church as the moral authority not only suppresses but, in fact, demonizes sexuality as a whole. “… [T]he dirty thing that sent Theresa Carmody to hell” (416). A fitting example for this is Frank’s expression “I know about the excitement and I know it’s a sin…” (367). Podsiadlik points out that Frank’s loss of his virginity to a girl who suffers from tuberculosis affects his spiritual life as well (see 81). I deduce that, within the narrative as well as in reality, Catholic beliefs lead to a distorted perception of individual sexuality and, as a consequence, to a restricted 47
development of gendered identities. By connecting this idea to masculinity, I interpret that men can use this general societal distortion as an opportunity to demonstrate their superiority and power. This is the case with Laman Griffin who uses Angela’s dependence to demand sexual intercourse: “We often fall asleep before she goes up but there are nights we hear them talking, grunting, moaning” (McCourt 367). Guilt as an expression of contorted sexuality becomes obvious in Frank’s job as a telegram boy, and in the loss of his virginity (see 409). Connected to the feelings of shame, as Renes puts it is the fact that “… his loss of virginity is linked to death and therefore crippling: the relationship cannot prosper due to Theresa’s terminal illness” (Renes 102). From Renes argumentation that “… Theresa Carmody … dies of tuberculosis in adolescence, which signals the impossibility of Frank’s integration on Irish soil” (100), I conclude that her decease signals his inability to complete this journey into manhood within an Irish context. This opens up a new perspective on Frank’s emigration as an expression of coming to terms with his gendered identity and as emphasis of his strive for personal freedom (see Potts 289). The aspect of sexuality is a vital part of Frank’s journey to America as it reflects his journey into manhood. Renes strengthens this idea by stating that “Frankie only undertakes the full passage to manhood upon his arrival in America: by then he is of mature age” (101). Having elaborated on the meaning of his sexual intercourse with Theresa Carmody beforehand, it becomes clear that “… only Frank’s arrival in America fulfils his strong wish of integration, in which the leaving behind of economic, political and religious problems aligns with his becoming a man” (100-1). The end of Frank’s journey into maturity is completed by his “sexual intercourse with an American girl” (102). In contrast to his relationship with Theresa in Limerick, this experience is marked by freedom and void of guilt and shame. “… I don’t give a fiddler’s fart if the Pope himself knocked on this door…” (McCourt 458). I interpret the Priest’s presence throughout Frank’s entire passage, even during his sexual intercourse, as an indication for a still existing influence of Irish Catholic morals. This circumstance enhances the perception of the passage as an interspace between Ireland and America in which Frank can redefine his cultural identity. Shedding light on the whole scenery, Renes condenses these previous ideas by denoting that “Frank’s entering the Hudson … matches his penetration of the female body, and, thus, his (re)integration into America is first and foremost shown as a rite of passage into manhood” (102). Again, the meaning of place and placelessness as simultaneously restricting and freeing in relation to the construction of identities becomes obvious and leads the reader to the conclusion that migration and gender are closely intertwined.
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Thus, I deduce that gender-related core themes in McCourt’s memoir such as motherhood and masculinity in reference to labor, alcoholism, and sexuality represent a stereotypical picture of Irish gender identities. Furthermore, I conclude that all these constructions reveal various perspectives on how to handle migratory experiences. To provide an outlook on an issue that still needs to be elaborated in greater depth, queer identities, apart from male and female gender roles are scarcely mentioned in the narrative. I interpret this issue as the author’s wish to reflect the influence of a strong Catholic moralistic belief system, which will be dealt with in the following. 3.1.4. Religion To connect the previous chapter that dealt with the construction of gender identities and the topic of religion, Tina O’Keeffe and Claudia Reese attach a “… strong religious influence on concepts of family and gender roles especially in the Irish context…” (3). However, religion affects a far broader spectrum of (diasporic) spaces and is “an integral element of life” in Ireland (see Podsiadlik 81). As theoretically outlined, it serves as a basis for shaping and constructing identities and keeping cultural memories alive (see McLoughlin 224-5). This strong influence on the Irish individual and society also permeates McCourt’s memoir as a common theme. When focussing on the implementation of religion within the narrative, two major possibilities can be detected: religion as an ethno-cultural dynamic that affects society as a whole and religion as a moral force that influences Frank as the protagonist. With regard to a broad societal frame, it becomes obvious that the Catholic Church as the major religious institution does not only influence the novel Angela’s Ashes but also the actual national setup of Ireland during the first half of the twentieth century. “… de Valera’s 1937 Constitution completed the fusion by recognising the Roman Catholic Church as the guardian of the faith professed by the great majority of the citizens” (Potts 290). This strong impact becomes also apparent in the construction of religious identities in the narrative. Two topics can be detected as common themes: the relationship between Catholicism and Protestantism and the Catholic Church as a place for indoctrination. To begin with, within McCourt’s memoir religious identities are mainly shaped by the antagonism between Catholicism and Protestantism. Not only associated with otherness and strangeness, Protestantism is perceived as an actual threat to the society’s well-being: “… and that entitles you to die and be a martyr in case we’re invaded by Protestants or Mahommedans or any other class of a heathen” (McCourt 232). It’s not just that McCourt stresses a collective fear of Protestantism as a danger to the Catholic faith, but by letting the teacher range it into the same category with Islam he reveals that Catholicism and Protestantism are taken as two separate, not equally accepted religions. This is stressed by Frank’s grandmother’s statement 49
after the family’s move to Limerick: “Don’t these children know anything about their religion?” (67). Again, this supports the Catholic claim for supremacy as the ‘True Church’ (236) which leads to a highly disregarding, even xenophobic attitude towards Protestantism. “… There is a suspicion you [Malachy] might have Presbyterians in your family, which would explain what you did to our cousin” (15). Here, the MacNamara sisters as stereotypical Irish Catholic characters provide access to a relevant aspect: Catholics display a strong renunciative perception of Protestantism and convey this association even in a highly individual or personal sphere. Malachy, as a Catholic man from the North, is a frequent target for discrimination which is realized in the constant referral to the Presbyterian relatives in his family, as well as to his ‘Protestant’ outer appearance. “… [A] man that doesn’t even look Catholic, him with his odd manner … Malachy has a streak of the Presbyterian in him right enough” (19). Potts elaborates on this idea by saying that “… he’s regarded as not really Irish because he’s from the North, has a northern name, and doesn’t look Catholic” (291). This, ultimately, leads to strong discrimination when Malachy looks for work. Here, Potts points to the frequently presented stereotypical inseparability of Catholicism and Irishness. This idea is also supported by Podsiadlik: “… [I]t is Irish Catholicism which turns out to be an especially fertile area in exploring clichéd ‘Irishness’ (80). I take this circumstance as a way for the author to reflect on his Irish identity that is heavily influenced by Catholic morals and to create a picture of Irishness that appeals to a great range of readers in the diaspora. At the same time, the author links Protestantism to an Anglo-American cultural context: “That’s right McCourt. Not bad for a Yank from the sinful shores of Amerikay…McCourt heavy with sin from America” (McCourt 149-50). Furthermore, the idea of a distinct Protestant appearance and look matches a plain perception of ethnicity and race, as well as a naïve understanding of the Catholic faith. Podsiadlik paraphrases this thought by stating that “[a]nother aspect of Irish Catholicism which becomes one of the main ingredients of Angela’s Ashes is the literalness and simplicity of people’s attitude to religion,” and furthers that “…in the life of an Irish Catholic there is no place for reflection or spiritual life” (81). This lack of space to question religious morals, as or to reflect on common Catholic practices is stressed in Frank’s First Holy Communion. Podsiadlik fittingly states that “[t]he exploration of these simplistic attitudes is crowned in the scene in which Frank’s terrified grandmother sends the boy to Confession, for vomiting after his First Communion” (81). This can be seen in the following quote: “Now Grandma says she has God in her backyard and what should she do” (McCourt 159). Not only does this scene provide access to a faith that is based on rules and rituals but, again, displays the
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implementation of humorous elements (Podsiadlik 87) which are presented best in Frank’s grandmother’s insistence to clarify the consequences of this instance: - He said wash him away with a little water, Grandma. - Holy water or ordinary water? - He didn’t say, Grandma. - Well, go back and ask him. (159)
I interpret McCourt’s humoristic description as a way for him to deliberately ridicule the Catholic over-dependence on rules. Since “… the grandmother’s terror at Frank’s deed is genuine [and] not feigned” (Podsiadlik 82), she fits Podsiadlik’s depiction of Irish “hyperreligious adults” (83). This, again, enhances the strong reliance on indoctrinated regulations, on the church as the instructive and identity-giving institution, as well as on a “… strict adherence to elementary issues: church-going, fasting, receiving First Communion or Confirmation” (81). The aforementioned aspects lead to the conclusion that the Catholic Church serves as a prominent means of indoctrination to establish their morals and beliefs. To conclude this thought, the antagonism between Catholicism and Protestantism permeates the whole narrative and portrays the Catholic faith as fanatic, simplistic, and pervaded by feelings of fear, insecurity, and xenophobia. Taking these aspects into consideration, I deduce that the author creates a highly negative image of Catholicism to stress his personal criticism towards this religious system. This directs the analysis to another societal sphere of religion, namely the Catholic schools as places for religious indoctrination and political drill. As I have already theoretically hinted at, in Irelandas well as in the diaspora, the parochial school system held immense power in that it provided a nation and ethnic group with fundamental, simplistic religious morals and rules on which to base personal and collective ethno-cultural identities. It is this very place that prepares Frank and his classmates with utmost rigidity for their First Holy Communion and Confirmation by forcing them to learn the catechism by heart and by sanctioning every mistake with corporal punishment: He tells us we have to know the catechism backwards, forwards and sideways. We have to know the Ten Commandments, the Seven Virtues, Divine and Moral, the Seven Sacraments, the Seven Deadly Sins. We have to know by heart all the prayers, the Hail Mary, the Our Father, the Confiteor, the Apostles’ Creed, the Act of Contrition, the Litany of the Blessed Virgin Mary. We have to know them in Irish and English and if we forget an Irish word and use English he goes into rage and goes at us with the stick. (McCourt 144)
It becomes apparent that school as a place of mere reproduction of indoctrinated content does not allow for students to reflect on the presented content. This is supported by a student’s reaction in class: “Question Quigley raises his hand again. There are looks around the room and we wonder if it’s suicide he’s after … I’m sorry I asked the question. I’ll never ask a question again” (145-6). Again, I see this passage as McCourt’s criticism towards the Catholic Church as an institution that does not allow for personal reflection. Another passage stresses 51
this aspect as well. “Never mind what’s Sanctifying Grace, Quigley. That’s none of your business. You’re here to learn the catechism and do what you’re told” (145). I take this lack of space for personal contemplation as a reason for the formation of identity: on the one hand, the religious system serves as the foundation on which the Irish society can base its identity. Yet, on the other hand, it does not allow for individuals to independently shape and reflect on these identities themselves. I further deduce that this discrepancy is responsible for Frank’s feelings of guilt and shame which appear throughout the book as minor themes (see Podsiadlik 89). In reference to the aforementioned connection between religion and sexuality, Podsiadlik confirms my interpretation of McCourt’s criticism by stating that “[o]ne of the most serious charges against religion is the sexual puritanism it [the novel] advocates” (80). This idea leads to the second major theme, i.e. religion as a moral force that influences Frank’s identity either directly or metaphorically. To start with, religion in the form of the Catholic Church has a direct impact on the course of Frank’s life. Not only does “[t]he church, for example, refuse Frank as an altar boy – in spite of his parents’ great efforts to teach him the Latin, scrub him clean, and mend and iron his clothes ” (Potts 286) but Frank is, ultimately, denied a place in the school of the Christian Brothers (see McCourt 184; 364). At this point, a personal perspective on the aforementioned issue of victimhood arises and leaves the reader with the impression that Frank “… has long felt a victim to various social institutions including the church, the state and even the charitable institution St. Vincent de Paul” (Potts 286). I interpret that, in these cases, the Catholic Church functions as both a hindrance for Frank’s development and as a societal mechanism to enforce class distinctions. Potts supports this thought: “The church also perpetuates these class distinctions through its educational system” (287). Frank is not rejected due to his lack of qualifications or recommendations but merely because of his lower social class. His mother is aware of such circumstance: “Tis a class distinction. They don't want boys from lanes on the altar” (McCourt 18). Frank’s individual case provides access to a more general issue, namely the aspect of hypocrisy. This issue has to be seen in the light of McCourt’s previously mentioned critique towards the religious system of the Catholic Church. Renes promotes this idea by stating that “Frankie explains, for instance, that people in Limerick, “the holiest place in Ireland”, go to church not because they are devout, but rather so as to find some warmth and comfort against the cold and rain of the city” (100): “…the rain drove us into the church – our refuge, our strength, our only dry place” (McCourt 10). I deduce that McCourt subtly includes the accusation of hypocrisy within such behind-the-curtain looks on religious life in Ireland. As a 52
telegram delivery boy, Frank keenly observes that "[i]f you wait for tips from priests and nuns you'd die on their doorstep" (397) and “not a bit like delivering telegrams in America where Mickey Rooney rides around in a film called The Human Comedy and people are pleasant and falling over themselves to give you a tip, inviting you in, giving you a cup of tea and a bun" (406). This passage does not only refer to the clergy’s lack of generosity while being overly pious, but, again, provides access to a romanticized imagery of America as the country of Hollywood movies and friendly people. Furthermore, the issue of hypocrisy is also stressed by certain characters such as Mr. Benson or Fintan Slattery. I believe that the unmerciful and harsh depiction of Mr. Benson establishes a contrast to his teachings of the Sanctifying Grace (see 145). This discrepancy leaves the readership with the impression that religious life is dominated by sanctimony. Also, this aspect is impersonated by the character of Fintan Slattery who displays a strong reliance on the Catholic faith to base his own identity on. “He says he wants to be a saint when he grows up, which is ridiculous because you can’t be a saint until you’re dead” (192). His overidentification with Catholicism and his ideal behavior as a son and student might evoke the picture of a ‘real’ Christian. However, this imagery is clouded when he invites Frank and Paddy for lunch without sharing his sandwich or his milk: Paddy says, That’s a lovely looking sangwidge and is there mustard on it? Fintan nods and slices the sandwich in two, Mustard seeps out. He licks it off his fingers and takes a nice mouthful of milk. He cuts the sandwich again into quarters, eights, sixteenths, takes The Little Messenger of the Sacred Heart from the pile of magazines and reads while he eats his sandwich bits and drinks his milk and Paddy and I look at him and I know Paddy is wondering what we’re doing here at all… (197)
This passage includes several instances of hypocrisy: firstly, Fintan does not share his food with his friends which not only contrasts his generous gesture to share the apple peel in class but also conradicts a major Christian principle. Secondly, Fintan deliberately tortures his guests and celebrates his superiority by slowly eating his sandwich in front of Frank and Paddy. Finally, the fact that he is reading the Catholic newspaper while not even paying attention to the boys, leads to the climax of his bigotry. I interpret that McCourt uses Mr. Benson and Fintan Slattery to reveal the two-folded nature of Irish Catholic individuals and Irish Catholic society, i.e. demeanor in contrast to emotional life and appearance in opposition to reality. This leads to the conclusion that the Church eventually hinders Frank to fully express himself on Irish soil. To proceed, the direct influence of the Catholic Church on Frank’s life becomes clear in the fact that all of his three sacraments, namely his baptism in New York, his First Holy Communion, and his Confirmation contain some sort of abnormality. In the case of his baptism, his godfather’s drunkenness eventually caused Frank to be christened by immersion like a Protestant (see 18). Furthermore, his First Holy Communion was accompanied by him 53
throwing up the Holy Bread (see 159), and during his Confirmation he fainted due to typhoid fever (see 236). From these interruptions I deduce that Frank never properly participated in a sacrament which represents his inability to fully adjust to the Catholic Church, ergo to the Irish culture. This idea is consistent with the previously addressed issue of his journey into manhood. All these three spheres, i.e. the Church, Ireland, and Frank’s gender identity share a common association with death. My perception of this aspect is coherent with Potts definition: “The fixation with the past often manifests itself … through images of death, defeat and paralysis” (292). Firstly, it is Theresa Carmody’s death that does not allow the completion of Frank’s development of his masculine identity. Secondly, with regard to Ireland and the Church, he is confronted with the possibility to die as a martyr. Through his circumstance I not only establish a close connection between these two instances but, more importantly, I also see it as a sign of Frank’s incapability to completely adjust to the Irish cultural frame. It is within this very context that McCourt, again, incorporates a humoristic element: “I want to tell them I won’t be able to die for the Faith because I’m already booked to die for Ireland” (232). Naïveté expressed in the voice of the immature narrator produces the humorous, even ridiculous effect in this situation and, once more, hints at Frank’s inability to fully adjust to his Catholic life in Ireland. In contrast to the direct influence on Frank’s life, religion also plays an important role in a metaphoric sense. This can be taken from its comparison to aspects of film, cinema, and, finally, America: “While in the opening pages of the memoir McCourt and his family have found the church to be at least a refuge from the rain, McCourt’s preferred place of worship soon becomes the movie theatre, where he spends most of his time watching American films” (Potts 286). This metaphorical realm of religion also opens new perspectives on the usage of religious language within the text. I understand this to mean that religious language is incorporated to stress a strong attachment of the Irish society to the Church and the Catholic faith. Furthermore, it plays a particular role in parenting “… we have two new babies who were brought by an angel in the middle of the night” (McCourt 22). In contrast to the usage of such language in order to cover up associations with sexuality, it also functions as a vehicle of self-assurance and comfort: “And we’ll meet your little sister in heaven, won’t we, boys?” (46). However, religious language is also used to refer to secular events, creating a very distinct atmosphere in the memoir as a whole. This can be seen in Frank’s constant referral to movie and film stars such as Fred Astaire or Ginger Rogers (see 207). He even connects the religious realm and the movies: "… in America with a nice priest like Spencer Tracy" (289). America, as a place for which Frank constantly strives, turns into an object of almost religious adoration. Potts furthers this thought by saying that, in fact, “… McCourt 54
gradually rejects the religion of Ireland in favor of the civic religion of the United States, whose influences had earlier in the book branded Frank and his brother Malachy as little savages because of their inability to recognize a priest when they first arrive” (292). As a result of the implementation of religious language, “[t]he increasingly common use of religious rhetoric to describe secular events in Irish history gradually resulted in the secularization of the sacred” (ibid.). I interpret such usage of language as McCourt’s ambition to reveal the connections as well as the discrepancies between Ireland and America, while describing the intrapersonal struggle of young and adult Frank for personal freedom. Taking the narrative technique, the implementation of humorous elements, the selective nature of the memoir as a whole, and the specific religious themes of the memoir into account, I conclude that the author heavily criticizes the Catholic Church and, by doing so, questions the common inseparability of Catholicism and Irishness. Furthermore, I perceive religion as a major platform on which to base personal and collective identities. This causes Frank to struggle with his cultural identity which finally leads him to search for fulfillment somewhere else. Finally, I read the incorporation of religious elements as revealing the transformative nature of memories that leaves the readership with highly clichéd and stereotypical images of America and Ireland in the first half of the twentieth century. To summarize, “… Angela’s Ashes re-affirm[s] romantic visions of Ireland and mythologize[s] the emigration experience into self-affirming male quests for integration…” (Renes 104). The novel is consistently influenced by the collective memory of an Ireland of old times which is deeply entwined with the historical narrative of emigration, all the while perpetuating romanticized images of America as the country of absolute felicity. I conclude that this parallel draws upon an Irish American culture of remembrance. However, it is important to note that such a commemorative culture evolves over time and may change in reference to important figures of memory such as the Great Famine. In order to determine whether there is another focus in the recollection of Irish migration to America in an earlier time period, I will now examine the work Bessy Conway by Mary Anne Sadlier. 3.2. Bessy Conway The didactic novel Bessy Conway; or, The Irish Girl in America by Mary Anne (Madden) Sadlier published in New York in 1861 under her pen name Mrs J. Sadlier, is mainly concerned with Bessy’s emigration to the United States in pre-Famine times, her struggle to live a good, virtuous Catholic life in the “great Babylons of the west” (Sadlier ii) and her return “… after a biblical seven years in the USA rescuing her famishing family with the money she saved by being virtuous and industrious while working as a domestic servant in America” (Cusack and Janssen “Famine, Home and Transatlantic Politics” 415). 55
Mary Anne Sadlier was born in 1820 in Cootehill, Co. Cavan. Shortly after the death of her mother and father in 1844, she emigrated to Montreal where she met and later married her husband, the publisher James Sadlier (see Fanning 114-5; see O’Keeffe “Passport and Prayers” 151). In 1860 the couple moved to New York City (see O’Keeffe “Home Is Where the Heart Is” 37) and after her husband’s death in 1869 she took over the publishing business and succeeded in providing for herself by “… writing over sixty literary works and by contributing to various periodicals… which concerned [themselves] with the interest of Irish Catholics…” (37; see Fanning 77). Its affiliation to the genre of romantic didactic fiction, but also the general plot and narrative techniques provide access to various perspectives on Sadlier’s literary work as a whole and its means of constructing identity. To begin with, the didactic writings of that time can be divided into three categories according to their structure and purpose. “… Catholictract fiction to exhort the immigrant to keep the faith on alien soil, immigrant-guidebook fiction to instruct the newly arrived on how to get along in America, and nationalistic-political fiction to aid the cause of freedom from British rule back in Ireland” (Fanning 75-6). Sadlier’s work Bessy Conway, targeting for its readership of newly-arrived young Irish Catholic girls who are meant to be encouraged to maintain their Catholic religious heritage on American ground, can be ranged as belonging to the first two categories. Sadlier addresses many societal taboo issues of this time, such as alcoholism or the role of women, and includes them frequently in the plot. As O’Keeffe aptly states: Her relevance today stems from the fact that she was one of the first Irish women writers to write about the realities of emigration, as well as address important social subjects of her era, such as the Famine, domestic service, and the role of the Catholic Church in people’s lives. (“Passport and Prayers” 151)
These realizations and the fact that her work promotes a vision of sustainability of Irish cultural identity in the diasporic community lead to the decision that Bessy Conway will be scrutinized in reference to the topics of migration, New York City, gender, as well as religion within a setting of Famine times. This analysis will reveal in how far this novel draws upon and contributes to a common set of cultural memories of Irish transatlantic migration. 3.2.1. Aspects of (Re-)Migration In order to contextualize her work, the publication date of 1861 must be taken into consideration. The date concurs with the diasporic aftermath of the Great Famine in the United States and, as previously seen; this traumatic event had a strong impact on the formation of an Irish (diasporic) identity (see Janssen 162). Janssen transfers this notion to a literary level by saying that “… some of these texts written by transatlantic Irish authors … show clear visions on the sustainability of cultural identity in a diasporic community” (163). This preservation of Irish cultural identity in the diasporic context is Sadlier’s major 56
motivation to write her “romantic didactic novels” (165) and Irish historical tales “… for her emigrant readers who found themselves consumed by a foreign culture and facing a frequently hostile American reception” (O’Keeffe “Passport and Prayers” 151). As theoretically addressed, migration and remigration not only provide access to the nature of translocation and feelings of displacement or homesickness, but, as Ahmed believes, also reflect a constant longing for and belonging to multiple places at the same time (see 8). This idea leads to two closely connected major themes that can be found when engaging more closely with the implementation of (re-)migration within the narrative of Bessy Conway: firstly, the aspect of physical migration, and secondly, the imaginary nature of migration that manifests itself in a longing for home. To begin with, physical migration forms the frame for the whole narrative. It is first introduced by Bessy’s initial movement from county Tipperary to New York and concludes in her return migration home. Thus, I interpret the expression “a good beginnin' makes a good endin’” (Sadlier 4) as foreshadowing the happy ending caused by Bessy’s return migration. This narrative technique of foresight can be seen in the opening of the book. By stating that “[h]appily the dark days of famine and pestilence had passed away without leaving Denis Conway any worse legacy than that of experience” (2), Sadlier not only draws on the memory of the Great Famine as a phenomenon with which the majority of her readership could identify but she also manages to turn the story of Bessy Conway already into a tale of success. This is supported by the following quote: “But how did Providence bring all this about? I hear some of my readers ask, and that is just what I am going to tell” (2). I see her reference to the Great Famine as a vehicle to appeal to the readership of her time and, by doing so, to highlight the rewarding character of the Catholic faith. In connection to Corporaal’s perception of the Great Famine as a “transnational figure of memory” (4), I further deduce that Sadlier’s reference to this cultural trauma enhances a collective commemorative culture. The author starts this narrative strand with an idealized description of Ireland as Bessy’s place of origin: “In the heart of the rich and fertile county of Tipperary, not far from the banks of the silvery Suir, and almost in the shadow of the mouldering castle of Ardfinnan….” (Sadlier 1). It is this very place, the “Isle of Beauty” that not only represents “the land of childhood’s happy days” (27) but also an Ireland which is deeply rooted in myths and sagas: …the memories that hung around those venerable relics of the past…where Danish princes ruled and the proud Plantagenets kept their court, where Strongbow wedded the reluctant daughter of McMurrough, and Cromwell left his Vandal-mark on the sacred monuments of art, and where James II took his last farewell of Ireland. (4)
In contrast to Angela’s Ashes, in which this idea is supported by repeated references to songs and poems, Sadlier evokes a romanticized and clichéd notion of an Ireland of past days by 57
drawing upon the island’s cultural history. Furthermore, she refers directly to an already established culture of remembrance in the form of cherishing relics. I deduce that not only to demonstrate that Bessy’s physical translocation reinforces a strong cultural attachment, but also to illustrate what crises of cultural identity the migratory individual has to face (see Corporaal and Cusack 346), the author deliberately promotes a positively transfigured image of her home and a farewell that “is full of emotion and fraught with sentimentality” (O’Keeffe “Home Is Where the Heart Is” 43) This crisis is furthered by a plain contrast between Ireland and America. In general, the juxtaposition of elements, characters, and plot-lines constitutes one of Sadlier’s major narrative techniques and supports her educative intentions by drawing on clichéd cultural images. In this case, she creates a positive portrayal of Ireland as “the old Christian land” (Sadlier ii). I attribute this to the need to establish the basis for feelings like homesickness and displacement, and, ultimately, to create a motivation for Bessy to return home. In reverse perspective, America as the “strange country” (2) and the passage to the New World are associated with sorrow and decease. “… [A]way and away she goes … a sad, wild chorus, in which many voices mingle…as if they had left Bessy in the churchyard clay” (3). As in Angela’s Ashes, “[t]he terminology associated with emigration in the novel is closely linked to that of a death, the belief that parents would never again see their children after they emigrated” (O’Keeffe “Home Is Where the Heart Is” 42). This idea intensifies the inevitability of emigration at that time and, as Kerby Miller suggests, Irish people often felt exiled in their decision to leave Ireland. Yet, this notion cannot be verified when dealing with the protagonist of Bessy Conway. Her emigration was of voluntary nature since it was her aim to “see the world” (Sadlier 2). Nevertheless, Sadlier stresses Bessy’s attachment to Ireland which forms the basis for the redefinition of her cultural identity. “She was thinking with a saddened heart on the many ties that bound her to the Old Land so rapidly passing from her view” (27). This quotation reveals the strong connections to her country of origin, evoking in the reader an impression of homesickness and dislocation. This is enhanced by Bessy’s doubts about leaving. “I’d never – never left home” (11). Another expression furthers this idea: … she could almost forget the thousands of miles that lay between her and “the big barn” where many a time she stripped it on the bare earthen floor. When the recollection of where she was did recur to her mind, a sigh and a tear were given to the lightsome heart and the homely joys of that Auld Lang Syne which seemed to have fallen a score of years back into the past, though Bessy’s years were but score. (94-5)
Taken together, these references provide access to the imagined nature of migration as a constant belonging to and longing for a certain place. Embedded within a permanent
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recollection of a romanticized image of Ireland, his migratory imaginary allows Sadlier to implement various transitions that provide platforms to redefine one’s cultural identity. This can be seen in the description of the passage to America that allows for the reflection on cultural identities. In reference to O’Toole’s and Mac Éinrí’s idea of a ‘third space’, the journey on the ship provides contact with various transitions and, according to Corporaal and Cusack, it not only constitutes the space “… where the cultural clashes experienced in the homeland and the pending assimilation in the New World have to be negotiated” (343) but, in fact, it “ … represent[s] complex symbols and transformative spaces, revealing the crucial role of cultural remembrance in the formation of a relocated ethnic identity” (355). Still, the passage does not only entail the voyage and, eventually, the settlement in America as mere static events, rather I deduce that they give room to transitory forces that construct and shape cultural identities. This leaves the reader with the impression that “… the voyage also has a symbolic function, featuring as a rite of passage for the characters and their sense of ethnic identity” (343). In opposition to McCourt’s memoir, Sadlier provides a detailed description of the protagonist’s initial migration. To start with, this is shown with the great storm that not only kills two members of the crew but is so fierce that it breaks the main mast: Dark masses of clouds were gathering around the setting sun, and the billows were heaving with sudden and strong commotion…darkening sky whence the sun had long since vanished …The storm beginning to rage with great violence…the sea was raging mountains high … It was a dismal chorus, raging winds, storm-tossed waves and the voice of human anguish. (Sadlier 22-3)
It is this very incident that forms a physical obstacle which has to be overcome during the passage to the New World. This idea is consistent with Corporaal‘s and Cusack’s general claim that “… the fierce storm at sea across the Atlantic is a stock feature of novels documenting the Famine exodus to the United States, functioning as a ‘wrenching rite of passage’ for the uprooted emigrants” (350). However, I will develop this assumption by interpreting this storm as a shaking of the passengers’ cultural identity which, as a consequence, has to be rebuilt and renegotiated within the dichotomy of place and placelessness. Closely connected to the event of the storm is Bessy’s seasickness. “Bessy was sick, and very sick, so much so that her kind mistress had to keep her into her berth” (Sadlier 11). I take her suffering as an act of purification, a test of her faith, and, finally, as a representation of an instability in her cultural identity. Corporaal and Cusack combine the storm and her seasickness by claiming that Bessy’s seasickness and the storm that affects the first leg of their voyage sailing past Ireland are a metaphorical reflection of the changes in Bessy’s life. More than anything else, Bessy’s agony is a test of her Catholic faith; throughout the heavy storm that breaks the ship’s mast and sets the vessel adrift just off the Irish coast, Bessy continues praying to the Virgin Mary, pleading for her intercession and protection. (351)
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Not only does this perception show that Bessy’s identity is rooted in her Catholic faith, but the passage comprises a metaphorical side as well. Again, this supports the notion of the journey as the ‘third space’ as a way to renegotiate one’s cultural identity. Furthermore, Ned’s and Ally’s wedding (see Sadlier 32) embodies the image of transition and change in a literal sense. I interpret this event as a compensation for the characters’ insecurity and “… feelings of loneliness and isolation” that is caused by this cultural inter-space (O’Keeffe “Home Is Where the Heart Is” 48). Apart from these transitions, I interpret the incorporation of Irish songs, such as The Shannon Side as illustrating that Irishness is still upheld within the dichotomy between place and placelessness, hence, within the diasporic context. This is also extensively done in the narrative of Angela’s Ashes. Corporaal and Cusack develop this idea to a transatlantic perception of Irish identity: “… Here, it is constructed by the Atlantic performance of Irishness, which, as the ship progresses, becomes transatlantic” (353). They further claim that “[i]n such scenes, the voyage by coffin ship provides a transitory space that allows emigrants to shed the troubles from the past in order to begin a new life in the diaspora. Yet, as Bessy Conway demonstrates, this transformation does not entail rejecting the Irish cultural heritage” (352). These statements support Sadlier’s ambition to promote a sustainability of Irish cultural identity in the form of Catholic faith in the diaspora. The author uses the closely connected Irish community as a major vehicle for the preservation of Catholicism in America. Sadlier draws upon such a network “… with whom [the characters] were bound to associate for some weeks at least” (Sadlier 20) on the ship already. A closer examination of the topic of Irish networking in the diaspora will be provided in the subsequent chapter. Yet, provisionally, I claim that by selectively associating with and relying on Irish people, it is possible for to transport and sustain her Catholic faith within the American diaspora. To sum up, I claim that Sadlier’s commemorative referral to the Great Famine right in the beginning of the narrative, her clichéd portrayal of Ireland as home, as well as the ship passage as a way to renegotiate cultural identity create a transatlantic nature of Irish identity that appeals to a great range of people in both Ireland and America. Apart from the initial migration, it is Bessy’s return that closes the narrative framework, attaches meaning to her diasporic experiences, turns the story into a tale of success (see Janssen 170) and turns Bessy into a “successful ‘returned yank’” and heroine of the story (see O’Keeffe “Home Is Where the Heart Is” 46). To begin with, Bessy’s return to her native land Ireland resembles Frank’s return to America in Frank McCourt’s Angela’s Ashes in that they both share the feeling of homecoming and longing for a “… space of personal attachment and identification” 60
(Stock 25). As theoretically elaborated on, homecoming was the major way to make sense of the return migration, not only for the migratory individual but also for the cultural context of the place of origin. This notion of Ireland as her homeland cannot only be found at the closing of the novel, but her remigration is already foreshadowed at the beginning of the story: “… and she went with the special condition that, in any case, she would return in the course of a few years” (Sadlier 3). A similar element can be found in Angela’s Ashes. The wish to return is not only expressed by Bessy herself, which can be taken from statements such as “… and then maybe I’d go home to them some fine day when they least expect me, and help to do for the boys and girls” (71) or “Well! Sure enough, if I ever have money enough to go home with, there’s many a thing I can do!” (121), but also by her parents: “He’ll take care of Bessy, and maybe bring her back to us some day when we’re in need of comfort. She’ll come in on the floor to us, Polly!” (120). I interpret such constant repetition as a way for Sadlier to present Bessy’s return as a happy ending; hence depicting her as the heroine of the story. Apart from the prediction of Bessy’s reunification with her family in Tipperary, Sadlier frequently incorporates images of Irish cultural memories in the narrative, such as Ned Finigan’s picture of the Castle of Ardfinnan or the song My heart’s in old Ireland (see 103). The strong cultural attachment to Ireland as home is enhanced by the frequent use of Irish phrases such as “ma colleen bawn” (6) or “the little colleen” (20). This way of referring to cultural memories is also incorporated within the narrative of Angela’s Ashes where Frank shows a constant longing to return to America, his place of birth. Primarily, I interpret the totality of – in some cases positively transfigured – references to Ireland not only as a way to juxtapose the cultural spheres of Ireland and America, one of Sadlier’s major narrative techniques, but as a reflection of Brah’s “ideology of return” (qtd. in Stock 24). This concept and the process of transfiguration, namely the drawing on an imaginary Ireland of the past, constitute a way for Bessy to make sense of her migration and to cope with feelings of trauma and displacement. From that I view her Irish diasporic identity as being artificially constructed on the basis of cultural memory. This is consistent with Corporaal‘s and Cusack’s perception that due to the fact that Bessy is taken away from the country of her origin, it is the “cultural memory … [that] form[s] the symbolic soil from which a sense of Irishness may sprout” (346). I understand this constructed form of Irish identity as an important reflection of the transnational nature of Irish cultural memory. Besides this migratory imaginary, Bessy’s actual return provides access to different representations of cultural identity. To start with, the text reveals that Bessy leaves America for Ireland due to her parents’ bleak situation as a result of the Great Famine: “… but there was no beauty in the picture, for the look of comfort and neatness that belonged to the place in former days was gone … The 61
same look of desolation was everywhere visible, but its saddest imprint was on the people” (Sadlier 153). Her family’s desperation is deepened by her sister Ellen’s disease (see 154-5), as well as the family’s eviction from their cottage (see 159), leaving them with only “the grace of God and His holy peace” (156). I deduce that Bessy’s return in the very moment of dispossession turns her into the heroine of the narrative and the liberator of the family. Furthermore, I interpret Sadlier’s recollection of the Great Famine, the transnational “figure of memory” (Corporaal 4), as a contribution to the diasporic culture of remembrance. Yet, I claim that there are more functions of Bessy’s return that need to be investigated. In reference to Sadlier’s religious ambition, I take Bessy’s homecoming as a fulfillment of anticipations such as Denis Conway’s promise to his wife that in spite of all the misery of the Famine “God is good … and He’ll never desert us…He’ll change His hand with us when He sees fit” (Sadlier 153). Not only does this circumstance reflect the family’s strong faith but also highlights the reward that results from remaining strong in one’s faith an element that reoccurs throughout the text. Furthermore, as I argue with Fanning’s words, “Bessy’s return is motivated more by Sadlier’s pessimism about American city life for Irish Catholics than by the demands of realistic fiction” (134). In reference to such perception, I take Bessy’s return as a disengagement from the negative influences of the city, making the Irish rural life even more appealing. However, as Fanning further argues, her return “… involves a double distortion” (134). Not only does the devastating situation in Ireland make her return to Ireland in “the terrible year of the Famine” unrealistic, but “the picture of a successful immigrant girl returning to Ireland to rescue her family…is formidable wishful thinking” (Fanning 134). I interpret this romanticized imagery of immigration, acculturation, and, ultimately, return movement as Sadlier’s choice to enhance the rewarding nature of Catholic faith to her readership of mostly Irish American servant girls. Finally, it is not only Sadlier’s technique of juxtaposition that allows for the creation of a romanticized image of Ireland, but it is also realized in her description of the rural Irish landscape after Bessy’s homecoming: “The green fields of Erin were covered with their spring carpet dotted over with white daisies and yellow buttercups, the pale primrose – ‘dower of sweetest memories!’ – was peeping forth on every sunny bank” (Sadlier 175). I believe that this visual depiction echoes the “… delight and satisfaction when Bessy returns from America to save the family with her saved earnings” (O’Keeffe “Home Is Where the Heart Is” 45). Moreover, this statement not only forms a contrast to the realities of the Great Famine but also constitutes a stereotypical representation of Ireland in past days. I take precisely this clichéd immersion of a durable relation to memories of Ireland as the place of origin as a hint towards an artificially constructed form of Irishness that dwells on archaic cultural memories. 62
Ultimately, I argue that the reproduction of cultural memories turns Bessy’s homecoming into a tale of success. 3.2.2. New York City Having experienced immigration themselves, authors such as Sadlier mainly wrote for an immigrant readership in the United States (see Corporaal and Cusack 245), an “… audience of traumatized refugees with whom their own experiences allowed them to identify” (Fanning 2). This introduces a particular perspective on the reading of these works. Not only can Sadlier’s writings be seen as a valuable recording of general historical contexts but, more specifically, they shed light on an Irish social history within the diasporic context of the United States (see 122). Although Fanning claims that, by now, Irish people populate the United States more evenly, “… from New York to Chicago to San Francisco, from urban ghettoes to prairie farms” (3), the paper’s theoretical foundation stresses the importance of urban areas in the social history of the Irish people in the United States. In the context of this historical narrative of the Irish in America, the city of New York plays a dominant role and constitutes a recurring setting in most of Conway’s works, such as in Willy Burke; or, The Irish Orphan in America and The Blakes and Flanagans, A Tale Illustrative of Irish Life in the United States (see Fanning 119-22). New York as a metaphorical and physical space provides the setting as well as the frame for the storyline of Sadlier’s work Bessy Conway. In reference to the first idea, namely the metaphorical perspective, I expand its scope to a representation of (Irish) American urban life in general. With regard to the physical implementation, two major ways of description can be found. For one, New York represents an entrance to America and an exit to Ireland; hence, it reflects the structural frame of the whole narrative. Also, it serves as a setting for the character’s interaction and their emerging Irish network. To start with, New York City as “the ultimate crescendo of American urban life” (Clark 49) provides the setting for most parts of the narrative. Sadlier’s New York plainly resembles contemporary social development such as mobility, social interaction, and wealth: “I’ll tell you they hardly walk at all” (Sadlier 6). By implementing realistic elements, Sadlier proves that she is aware of the social circumstances of her time. O’Keeffe supports this assumption by stating that “[s]he … continues to document life in America once the emigrants have landed” (O’Keeffe “Home Is Where the Heart Is” 49). Additionally, New York serves as the entrance to and exit from America. As previously elaborated on, a similar function can be attributed to Frank’s return to American in Angela’s Ashes. I interpret that the city not only provides a setting in which Bessy can renegotiate her diasporic experiences, but, in fact, throughout the narrative it functions as a point of 63
geographical orientation. This element is mainly implemented to realistically express the vastness of the country and to convey people’s naïveté. “… [M]yself doesn’t know where I’m going. There’s a boy of mine somewhere in America, and I’m just going to try and make him out … O-hio, I don’t know which, but I suppose it is not very far from New York” (Sadlier 5). This idea also truthfully reflects a certain nature of Irish immigrants: “… [M]any Irish peasants had no real concept of the vastness of the land or culture where their families and friends were emigrating to” (O’Keeffe “Home Is Where the Heart Is” 42). In order to counter these disappointments caused by distorted images of America, Sadlier promotes sustaining the Irish Catholic identity within an Irish diasporic community. On a general level, the network which Corporaal perceives as a “… closely-knit Irish community, living together in a particular part of New York, as a microcosmic Ireland” (12) enables Sadlier’s characters to interact and connect with other Irish people and to renegotiate feelings of alienation, displacement, as well as adjustment and contentment. As O’Keeffe states: “When referring to Ireland, Sadlier always mentions the support of the rural community … When Bessy gets to America, she misses this rigid family structure and extended community” (“Home Is Where the Heart Is” 45). However, later “… it is the presence of a strong Irish-American community that reinforces a sense of Irish culture and tradition in Bessy and encourages her to never forget her family in Ireland” (ibid.). I deduce that, in contrast to Angela’s Ashes in which Frank’s cultural identity is constantly shaped in and by his environment, it is the cultural identity of the entire Irish ethnic group that is supposed to be influencing the diasporic space of America. Hence, in Sadlier’s work the individual has to be incorporated within a broader Irish network to make sense of their diasporic identity. In Bessy’s case, her network mainly consists of alliances formed on the passage from Ireland to America. This group of Irish people serves several functions within the narrative. In general, “[t]he community plays a vital role in shaping and moulding people, and so Sadlier stresses the importance for emigrants to create and live within a specifically ‘Irish’ community abroad” (O’Keeffe “Home Is Where the Heart Is” 44). This idea is in accordance with Sadlier’s perception of the Irish community as a moral support system which encourages its members to uphold the Catholic Faith. “… Sadlier tries to remind emigrants that a strong family unit and wider ‘Irish’ community can ease geographical and emotional transition that they must undergo” (O’Keeffe “Home Is Where the Heart Is” 53). A first narrative strand in which this concept is implemented is Henry Herbert’s interaction with Bessy. This conclusion can be drawn from various quotations that refer to the passage to America during which Paul Brannigan, Ned Finigan, the Captain, and his wife, Bessy’s mistress, seek to prevent the 64
Protestant Henry Herbert from pursuing Bessy: “Let that girl alone, or you’ll be sorry” (Sadlier 10); “…let me know when moral force fails… I will try what physical force can do” (12) or “…but as sure as God’s in heaven, and that’s sure enough, I’d break every bone in his body, so I would!” (18). Later, attempts to confront Henry intensify within the setting of New York: “No, Mr. Herbert! … it is not satisfactory, and I wish you to understand that Bessy Conway, being under my protection, must not be exposed to uncharitable remarks. You know what I mean!” (40). Here, Sadlier illustrates the protective character of the Irish diasporic community, which, ultimately, finds its climax in the confrontation between Mr. Walter and Henry Herbert, after the latter has directly pursued Bessy in public (49): … if you have one particle of feeling for your father – for your mother – and desire to keep off disgrace as long as possible from your family, you will let Bessy Conway alone, for I tell you the day that I hear of your renewing your attempts to seduce her from the path of virtue – that very day will seal your father’s doom, and draw down upon him the punishment he well deserves. (85-6)
This passage does not only reflect the moral character of the Irish people in New York and provides access to the network’s transatlantic nature but it also reveals a specific Catholic view on marriage and relationships. The latter permeates the narrative not only by means of Bessy’s and Herbert’s connection, but Sadlier educates her readership by including the marriage story of Mary Murphy and Luke Mulligan. Foreseen by their Irish friends and family members who urgently seek to prevent the wedding in order to preserve the family’s honor (see 111-4), their marriage only leads to loneliness, emotional destruction, alcoholism, and, eventually, death. Again, Sadlier’s strong reliance on the principle of cause and effect becomes obvious: immoral behavior in the form of a dishonorable marriage results in alcoholism and, ultimately, poverty and death. This moral background is also employed when dealing with the character of Ned Finigan who opens “The Castle Inn” (53), a liquor store and bar. Friends, such as Paul Brannigan and Dolly Sheehan, warn him in advance by stating that “… still it’s a bad way of makin’ a livin’, an’ the money that’s made at it never wears well” (37). Nonetheless, Ned establishes his liquor business that, eventually, causes his fall (see 166). Here, Sadlier does not only stress the destructive effects of leaving the virtuous Catholic path but she also addresses the delicate topic of alcoholism and, thus, breaks with solid taboos of 19th century America. Within the interactions of her characters, Sadlier incorporates her moral belief system that is based on a strong antagonism between Catholicism and Protestantism. Catholic morals lead to reward, prosperity, and well-being and need to be upheld by an active Irish network. Protestantism and secular moral systems on the other hand are of a destructive nature as they lead to ruin and death. Closely connected to the aspect of moral support and in reference to the theoretical introduction, Sadlier depicts the Irish community as a network which serves as a platform to 65
socialize, as well as to create friendships and bonds. This can be gathered from two different quotes: “… he [Ned Finigan] frequented Paul Brannigan’s room, and often dropped in of an evening ‘to have a chat’” (36) and “Bessy had been proposing to herself for some time to go to see Mary Murphy, who had been two or three times to see her” (95). Ellen McWilliams connects all these major functions bystating that a constant reproduction of Irish rural networking “… attempted to recreate the same close networks and ties as a means of creating a support system and to some extent a moral arbiter for the newly arrived immigrant” (124). Bessy’s social network in New York consists almost entirely of Irish Catholics and is loosely held together by Father Daly. “He [Father Daly] took a lively interest in the affairs of the acquaintances he had made on board the Garrick…” (Sadlier 36). I interpret that this pervasive Catholic influence does not allow Bessy to reflect on her own cultural identity within the diasporic dichotomy between place and placelessness. Furthermore, I take the lack of space for personal contemplation as a circumstance that leads to a distorted formation of identity. On the one hand, Catholicism provides the major foundation on which the Irish diasporic society can base its identities. On the other hand, it does not allow individuals to independently shape and reflect on these identities themselves. This idea of a restrictive cultural context is coherent with the depiction of a strong Catholic influence in Ireland within the narrative of Angela’s Ashes. Still, in contrast to McCourt, Sadlier does not see the necessity for reflection as Bessy’s cultural identity is fixed and needs to be sustained in the American context. Therefore, I claim that it is not the Irish American culture but rather an Irish culture within the diasporic context which provides the basis for Sadlier’s novel. Sadlier does not only provide access to the essence of Irish networking but also succeeds in broadening the idea of a strong community on a national level in America This argument can be supported by Paul Brannigan’s referral to the President of America: … [A]s I told you before, it’s him that has the coaches and everything commodious just waitin’ for you and me. All the people call him Uncle Sam, and they go now and then to visit him where he’s sitting in state in a fine grand house at a place they call Washington. (Sadlier 6)
I deduce that the reference to the President as the ‘uncle’ of the nation who cares for his people evokes both a contrast to the former oppressive dominance of the British government in Ireland, and the idea of a closely connected domestic American community. However, regarded in the context of the ship passage, I interpret this statement rather as an expression of the characters’ expectations and hopes than as Sadlier’s actual perception of the American culture. In fact, a negative urban realism shapes her narrative (see Fanning 129) which is consistent with the depiction of Limerick in McCourt’s Angela’s Ashes. For Mary Anne Sadlier, New York is the embodiment of the “urban American jungle” (Janssen 167). Janssen develops this idea by saying that “Bessy Conway displays a clear 66
preference for the rural over the urban, for Sadlier calls American cities ‘These great Babylons of the West’ (ii) and has her protagonist return to pastoral Ireland to find real happiness” (166). I believe that Sadlier’s romanticized depiction of the rural outskirts of Manhattan support this claim. “He was surprised that Ned did not seem to feel as he did himself the exhilarating influence of the balmy air, and the sweet-smelling herbage, and the rapid flow of the East River as its waters sparkled in the pale light of the crescent moon” (103). All the while Sadlier conveys that American cities are saturated by sin and transgression. She creates a distorted image of an intact Catholic Irish rural community. “This [romanticized picture of Ireland] is in stark contrast to the city grime that Bessy encounters when she moves to America” (O’Keeffe “Home Is Where the Heart Is” 45). For Sadlier, the city is overcrowded by a constant flow of new immigrants, thus, not providing healthy living conditions. “…very few remained together. Scattered abroad over the face of the country they were lost sight of amid the surging waves of population” (Sadlier 35). Again, the metaphorical reference to a churning ocean evokes feelings of alienation and loneliness which forms a stark contrast to the positively described image of Ireland as home. I infer that Sadlier decidedly draws upon her readership’s memories of being new in America to impart her didactic aim of maintaining the Catholic faith within an Irish community. Moreover, I claim that Sadlier does not seek to preserve diasporic culture or Catholicism alone but that she promotes a complete diasporic microcosmic Ireland. I interpret that such a strong focus on the reenactment and recollection of Irish cultural (social) sets and networks in the diaspora does not allow Bessy to fully immerse herself into the American context. Since Sadlier equates Catholicism with Irishness and Protestantism with American culture, she must reject the idea of cultural hybridity. I further take this instance as a main reason for Bessy’s fairly unemotional break with the American cultural context in reference to her return migration. In contrast to Angela’s Ashes where diasporic identities were shaped by and in the diasporic space, Sadlier’s work conveys a static image of Irish culture in the diaspora, letting the readership revel deeply in transfigured memories of pre-Famine times. 3.2.3. Gender Sadlier’s role as a woman can be valued as being extraordinary for the time of her writing. O’Keeffe states that “… her emigrant novels have contributed greatly to the discourse of Irish emigration to North America in the nineteenth century” (“Passport and Prayers” 160). This influence on Irish diasporic individuals on “both sides of the Atlantic” (“Home Is Where the Heart Is” 38) makes the works by Mary Anne Sadlier, who was celebrated as “… the most prolific and influential writer of the Famine generation, and also the first important Irish-
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American female voice” (Fanning 114; see 328) worth analyzing with regard to specific perspectives on issues of gender. In particular, the story of Bessy Conway, an Irish peasant girl who becomes a heroine through her Catholic faith and hard work, inherently provides the space to focus more intensively on the aspect of gender identities. O’Keeffe fittingly states that Sadlier “… aims this novel at young Irish lower-class Catholic women who are going to America to engage in domestic work. She refers to these women in idealized words, calling them ‘simple-hearted peasant girls of Ireland’ (Sadlier iii)” (“Passport and Prayers” 152). This statement as well as the novel itself provides access to different constructions of gender identities. Primarily, I will focus on womanhood in reference to labor and domesticity. However, since Janssen advocates that Sadlier’s “… warning is directed to both Irish girls and men, as the sad story of Ned reveals” (168), the construction of male gender identities will be considered as well. To start with, womanhood in general is an important topic within the narrative of Bessy Conway. By stating that “[e]very woman has a mission” (Sadlier ii), Sadlier succeeds in creating a revolutionary idea of women as being autonomous, even adventurous “… when Bessy persisted in accepting the offer to see the world” (2). This perception breaks with the usual pattern of famine/exile narratives and characterizes Bessy as a woman in a highly revolutionary and independent context, an idea that leaves the readers with a rather modern picture of the Irish woman. Yet, the author also draws upon traditional images depicting female migrants as weak and in need of help and protection. Several passages that all refer to the ship passage reflect this perception: “… their younger daughters … come out unprotected to America…” (ii); “… an anxious crowd of the passengers, chiefly of the gentler sex” (21); “Those good old monks were about right after all. Plague on them for women” (22); “Husbands and fathers and brothers were there, some of them trying to keep up the family spirits of their female relatives” (ibid.). The last example does not only reflect the assumed anxious nature of women but, above all, it also expresses the superiority of men over women and the distinct asymmetric relationship between male and female roles at that time. Although Bessy’s wish to emigrate is mainly based on her quest for adventure, she does not have to travel alone. In fact, “[s]he travels to New York in the captain’s suite, with certain employment ahead and several friends from home making the same voyage” (Fanning 133). This idea is in concordance with Kerby Miller’s claim that “Save for runaways, Irish emigration was based on family – not individual – decisions”(qtd. in O’Keeffe “Home Is Where the Heart Is” 39). This protective nature of the Irish network is frequently included in the novel: “She’s in good hands we all know” (4); “… the little colleen, as you call her, has no lack of protection” (Sadlier 20). 68
Again, this traditional image of the women being in need of protection forms a stark contrast to the initial motivation behind Bessy’s emigration. This traditional representation of female identity does not only reflect a connection to Ireland but it entails a heavily moralistic side to it as well. Sadlier addresses this issue directly: “… whether they do honor to their country and their faith, or bring shame and reproach to both” (ii). To contribute to the general image of the female migrant, the author draws upon another element as well, i.e. the aspect of education: “It was no trifle of a job for Bessy Conway to write such a letter as she wished to send home. She could write a tolerably good hand, but her grammar was not equal to her calligraphy, save and except what orthography had been drummed into her head by old Master Lenihan, late principal of Ardfinnan school…” (79). This circumstance concurs with the fact that “… popular literacy [in Ireland] increased” (Miller 96; see 128). Technologically unskilled, these people, as stated by McCaffrey “could read and write and express themselves clearly in English” when arriving in America (79). I claim that, womanhood is described by Sadlier as a fine line between modernity and tradition. Moreover, I conclude that this opposition between the advanced depiction and the traditional imagery of diasporic female identity reflects Sadlier’s choice to represent the migratory experience while preserving Irish Catholic core values. However, in contrast to this modern depiction of women as rather adventurous and self-reliant, womanhood with regard to labor develops a realistic and customary picture of the Irish female migrant during the times of the Great Famine. It is within this context that, according to O’Keeffe, “Bessy reflects a particular type of female emigrant who emigrated to America in mid-nineteenth-century Ireland” (“Home Is Where the Heart Is” 40). This theme reoccurs throughout the narrative of Bessy Conway This is already illustrated in the preface by Sadlier herself, where she dedicates her work to “… Irish Girls in America – especially [to] that numerous class whose lot it is to hire themselves out for work, the true and never-failing path to success, and happiness in the next” (Sadlier i). This quotation leads to the highly important aspect of womanhood in reference to labor. Sadlier’s novel reflects the socio-historic realities of that time, i.e. that the main body of servant girls in America was comprised of Irish female migrants. “Her comrade-girls, as she called them, welcomed her kindly, and cheered her heart with the assurance that they were all Irish and ever so glad to see her” (35). Her depiction resembles Dennis Clark’s claim that “… most of the women … were engaged in service occupations” (57). This aspect refers to the gendered image of the Irish ‘Bridget’. I claim that Bessy, being a responsible and strongly pious girl, is a stereotype of the Irish servant girl. O’Keeffe supports my thought by stating that “Sadlier depicts the ideal Irish emigrant woman as sensible, religious, and hardworking. 69
She believes that emigrant women have a certain amount of agency and can determine their fate in their host country” (O’Keeffe “Passport and Prayers” 153). Bessy is conscientious and hard-working since she willingly embraces domestic duties she is not hired for: "But don't you know it's a charity, even, to wash the poor old man's clothes? He has no one to do it for him, and he couldn't very well afford to be paying out for it” (Sadlier 118). Furthermore, her humble and eager disposition turns her into the female servant role model: “Bessy saw and heard all this, and she laid it up in her heart as a useful lesson” (44). As O’Keeffe hints at, emigrant women are partially autonomous and can make decisions independently: “I guess Bessy makes a better use of her money than putting it on her back in silk and satin” (95). Here, we can see that Bessy makes the right choice, as she “… can [finally] save her family from the perils of hunger and eviction through the abundant savings she brings from New York” (Corporaal 9). Hence, her continuous acceptance of Catholic morals is indispensable for providing the novel with a happy ending. To proceed, her behavior as a domestic servant stands in contrast to the other girls she works with. They are not only mean to Bessy, but also unreliable in their domestic work: “I've seen them go out in rich silk dresses and every thing on them in first-rate style, and to see them about their work they'd be more like scarecrows than any thing else – so dirty that you'd hate to see them around the house” (Sadlier 101). Moreover, the fellow servant girl Sally even refuses her mistress’ order and lies about going out: “… my brother has come after me and go I must. Come along, Jim! I guess mother will be most frozen waiting for us” (42). Eventually, this leads to her dismissal (see 43). Here again, Sadlier’s technique of juxtaposing characters is employed and serves her didactic mission that good deeds and hard work, as well as maintaining the Catholic faith will be rewarded in the end. The latter aspect introduces the religious perspective on labor in connection with female gender roles. Sadlier’s work not only stresses the rewards of hard work but also embeds it within a religious context. “Here, Sadlier is cleverly linking religion to the successful completion of household chores, thereby providing job satisfaction and spiritual welfare simultaneously” (O’Keeffe “Passport and Prayers” 154). Furthermore, she stresses that it is each individual emigrant’s duty to sustain their Catholic faith “while noting how quickly people forget their obligation to their faith once they are removed from the home country” (ibid.). Probably the best example for the association of labor and religion is Bessy’s conversation with the servant girl Onny, “the best and kindest and most considerate of fellowservants, the most faithful and efficient of ‘help’” (Sadlier 119). They talk about the feeling of contentment that arises from working hard: “… I always feel as if I was serving God when I'm serving them. He sets over me for the time; so I do their work as well as ever I can, and, do 70
you know, Bessy! I never got a dozen hard words since I've been at service" (ibid.). The importance of the Catholic faith within the context of domestic labor concurs with Sadlier’s major didactic aim to instruct girls to rely on their faith in their everyday duties. Another element of female gender identity is the aspect of domesticity. It is coherent with “… the Irish-American version of the general nineteenth-century cult of domesticity…” (Fanning 159). In relation to the theoretical overview, the family as the nucleus of the Irish (diasporic) nation is responsible for the construction of core gender identities. However, as O’Keeffe fittingly states, “… Bessy originated from a ‘simple family household’… in rural Ireland, which consisted of a married couple with children, but she loses this status when she emigrates alone to America! (“Home Is Where the Heart Is” 43). This loss of family membership does not only imply a necessity for the female migrant to renegotiate her gendered identity as daughter, wife, or sister, but, as I claim, leads to the destruction of the Irish core family. “… [W]hen you transport the traditional Irish family cell abroad it becomes distorted or, worse still, destroyed by emigration” (O’Keeffe “Home Is Where the Heart Is” 36). In Bessy Conway, though, women’s roles mainly consist of courtship and marriage. This theme reoccurs throughout the story as a minor theme and, once again, reflects Sadlier’s opposition between Catholicism and Protestantism. Bessy fears her parents’ reaction to Master Henry’s attempts of pursuit (see Sadlier 8-9): “For the love of Heaven, go away, or I'm ruined entirely” (49). The characterization of Herbert as seductive, even devilish, portrays Bessy in the role of the victim. This victimization of women is also frequently implemented in other narrative strands and corresponds with the victim role of Irish emigrants at that time. For instance, the already addressed network of Irish people in New York tries to protect Bessy from immoral courtship: “…It is not satisfactory, and I wish you to understand that Bessy Conway, being under my protection, must not be exposed to uncharitable remarks. You know what I mean!” (40). I conclude that the permanent denial of maturity in any form strengthens the idea of Bessy as the victim who only seems to be able to make decisions in the domestic sphere. This notion of victimhood is especially present in the plot line of Ned’s and Ally’s marriage: “It is within this family structure of Ned and Ally Finigan that Sadlier addresses issues of alcoholism and domestic violence” (O’Keeffe “Home Is Where the Heart Is” 50). This can be interpreted from statements such as the following: “Ned raised his foot and gave poor Ally a kick that sent her far enough out of his way, and in he marched with the air of a conqueror, followed by the two worthy associates” (Sadlier 128); “‘Pooh! pooh! can't you screw her out a bit? Coax her a little, and oil her occasionally.’ He pointed significantly to his glass” (131). As O’Keeffe explains: “Ned is furious with her and resorts to physical violence 71
to try to regain his manhood” (“Home Is Where the Heart Is” 45). I take these realistically depicted instances of violence as a reflection of Sadlier’s aim to instruct her readership to maintain Catholicism also with regard to marriage and courtship. O’Keeffe supports my claim: “… Sadlier … was not afraid to challenge the official rhetoric of an idealized family structure and expose the darker elements working within” (“Home Is Where the Heart Is” 36). She elaborates that Sadlier “… broaches uncomfortable subjects … with a determination to educate her readers” (ibid.). I claim that this element of realism, to which her readers could relate, runs through the general plot as a common thread (see O’Keeffe “Passport and
Prayers” 153). Also, the aspect of masculinity as well as related concepts, such as violence and alcoholism, create a disturbingly realistic picture of marriage, family life, and the relationship between male and female gender roles. Sadlier constructs several male gender identities that oppose the depiction of women in the novel. First of all, male characters function as physical protectors, a circumstance that is often accompanied by violence as a manifestation of manhood. This idea can be taken from the following example: “… Ned Finigan laid hold of Herbert, and taking him across his arms as one would a little child he mounted the companion-ladder and placed him astride on the railing which marked the boundary of the quarter-deck, Herbert the while kicking and plunging as vainly in his grasp as though it were a vice that held him” (Sadlier 28). I interpret this action as the foreshadowing of aggression and domestic violence at a later stage of the novel. Also, I take violence as an expression of physical and emotional superiority of male characters over women and other men. The following quotes support this idea: “Woman! be silent!" he said with a look and gesture so wild that it frightened Bridget resolute as she was” (139); "If he's wise he won't, you miserable wretch! for I'd kick any man that asked me such a question” (141). Secondly, Sadlier depicts men as responsible for maintaining Catholic morals in general and, more specifically, in reference to courtship. As already elaborated on in the previous chapter, this can be seen when looking at Mr. Walter and Paul Brannigan who seek to protect Bessy against Henry Herbert’s immoral courtship (see 85-6). Thirdly, the author attaches masculinity to the role of the man as the provider; a role which many male characters in the narrative, as well as in reality, cannot and could not fulfill properly due to the influence of alcohol and violence. As in Angela’s Ashes, alcoholism in connection with male gender identities is a common theme. However, in contrast to McCourt’s work, where the topic is rather subtly addressed through the eyes of a child narrator, Sadlier makes direct references to the abuse of alcohol as “[t]he curse of sin” (38). This idea is supported by O’Keeffe: “The pub and indeed 72
alcohol is seen by Sadlier as the root for all evil…” (“Home Is Where the Heart Is” 49). Yet, Sadlier expands on this aspect by highlighting the disastrous consequences for family life and marriage: “… the money he throws down on your counter has the curse of a heart-broken wife on it, an' that a whole family may be shiverin' with cold an' perishin' with hunger while that beast of a man is gettin' drunk…” (40). The aspect of alcoholism in combination with the lack of responsibility is also addressed through the pious and morally blameless character of Paul Brannigan: "‘Still you can find some for Ned Finigan,’ said Paul with a caustic smile. ‘But that's no business of mine’” (62). This plain and straightforward critique illustrates Sadlier’s aim to break with common taboo topics of her time in order to instruct her readership about how to live a good Catholic life in the diaspora: “O’Keeffe credits her writing with tackling what would be considered taboo subjects in the nineteenth century such as alcoholism and sexual abuse as Sadlier exposes them as threats to the family cell both at home and abroad” (O’Keeffe and Reese 3). As depicted previously, Sadlier draws upon the repertoire of traditional Irish gender identities which are heavily influenced by a Catholic moral codex. Thus, I deduce that genderrelated core elements in Sadlier’s work Bessy Conway, such as womanhood in reference to labor and domesticity, and masculinity are features of a static perception of identities in the diaspora, as well as of a permanent reproduction of Irish Catholic core values. Since religion is the major theme of the narrative, I will elaborate on this concept in the next chapter. 3.2.4. Religion In order to expand on the thesis of this paper, I will now connect the aspect of religion and Sadlier’s novel Bessy Conway. In general, religion permeates the whole narrative and reoccurs throughout all of the different plots (see Janssen 166). However, two main aspects of this topic can be found: Religion is closely connected with reward, since those characters who maintain their Catholic faith will find peace and happiness in the end. Also, religion, as in Angela’s Ashes as well, is incorporated within the antagonism between Catholicism and Protestantism as a main motif throughout the whole novel. Generally, religion has a strong impact on migratory individuals as it provides a platform on which to base (diasporic) identities This idea is in accordance with Sadlier’s overall ambition and as O’Keeffe fittingly states, it is “her intention to promote and reinforce the role of the Catholic Church in people’s lives both in Ireland and North America” (159). By stating that “… letters written by diasporic Irish writers [are] concerned with showing the Irish how to live a virtuous, Catholic, and Irish life, when abroad” (162), Janssen demonstrates that Sadlier’s work corresponds with the general concerns of literary works of that time. This can be supported by one of Sadlier’s own statements: “I have written many books and translated 73
many more on a great variety of subjects, nearly all of which, I thank God now with all my heart, were more or less religious, at least in their tendency” (qtd. in O’Keeffe “Passport and Prayers” 159). As her novels are well received by people in the diaspora and Ireland itself, it can be assumed that “… she is also educating the people who are left behind about real life in America” (O’Keeffe “Home Is Where the Heart Is” 42). The same general goals apply to her best-read and most successful didactic novel Bessy Conway (see Fanning 114), “… a guidebook for young Irish women on how to live a good Catholic life while residing in “sinful” Protestant America” (Janssen 163). “[B]e a good Catholic/ Irish no matter how far away from Ireland you are, and you will live happily ever after” (166). This quotation by Lindsay Janssen expresses the core of religious narratives within the story of Bessy Conway and corresponds to Sadlier’s perception that Catholic morals, rituals, and beliefs need to be transported, and sustained within the diaspora “… as they will help … [the emigrants] in their endeavors to settle in their host country” (O’Keeffe “Passport and Prayers” 152). One example of how Sadlier implemented this idea within the novel is Paul Brannigan’s display of a pro-Catholic pamphlet when he “… laid down on his entrance a well-known copy of Cobbett’s Reformation” (37). I take this work, which refers to an assumed better condition of the English people before the reformation, as a strong proclamation for Catholicism on Anglo-American soil. Sadlier’s work is decidedly religious, supported by pious language and instruction. It is concerned with several moral deficiencies that dominate the Irish immigrant community in America at the time of writing. Sadlier’s intention can be found right in the beginning of her work, because the “… preface sets up the novel almost like a Catholic instruction booklet” (O’Keeffe “Passport and Prayers” 152), thus, reflecting “… the complacent, creaking didacticism of Mary Anne Sadlier…” (Fanning 189) that the author is often associated with. Her intentions to educate people, who she assumes are “desperately in need of guidance” (75), are emphasized from the start: The object of the book is plain enough; so plain, indeed, that there is no possibility of any one’s mistaking it for a better or a worse… I have written this book from a sincere and heartfelt desire to benefit these young countrywomen of mine, by showing them how to win respect and inspire confidence on the part of their employers, and at the same time, to avoid the snares and pitfalls which have been the ruin of so many of their own class. (Sadlier i-ii)
This plain presentation not only reflects the author’s didactic intentions but also entails a heavily moralistic notion that relates to Sadlier’s own strong religious beliefs (see Janssen 163). I interpret Bessy’s and, later on, Mrs. Delaney’s attempts to persuade the other servant girls to attend Mass, even the High Mass (see 63), as Sadlier’s way to morally instruct her readership: “‘But my goodness! why didn't you get up and go to six o'clock Mass?’ said Bessy in utter amazement; ‘you'd have been back at seven, and have plenty of 74
time to do your work’” (Sadlier 46). As elaborated on in the previous chapter, this quotation provides access to the aspect of labor and the compatibility of religious and domestic duties. In general, the preservation of the Catholic faith traverses the whole narrative. Still, for Sadlier, maintaining the Catholic faith concurs with preserving one’s Irish identity. According to Janssen, “[m]any of them [not-so-exemplary Irish characters] succumb to the temptations of American society, stray from the faith and thus from Irishness…” (166). According to Corporaal, Bessy Conway’s personal story …illustrates the tendency of Irish Americans to stick to their own indigenous ethnic group in diasporic circumstances as a way to cement the ties with the homeland. This tendency is also reflected in Bessy Conway, in which Bessy expresses her indignance about fellow servant girls who lose their Irishness by falling in ‘with Protestants and Jews and everything that way.’” (Sadlier 174 qtd. in 13)
As previously mentioned, Irish identity is embedded within a romanticized imaginary of a highly religious and pious Ireland, “which bound them in safety to the old Christian land, where virtue and religion are the basis of society” (Sadlier ii). I understand this correspondence between Catholicism and Irishness as a simplistic, hence, stereotypical depiction of Ireland that draws upon transfigured memories of migratory individuals during the time of the Great Famine. In reference to the theoretical introduction, these memories and experiences have to be seen in the context of an evolving Irish diasporic culture. Thus, I conclude that in contrast to Angela’s Ashes, which simultaneously draws upon and contributes to an already established collective commemorative culture, Bessy Conway’s associations with a transfigured Ireland in the light of a developing diasporic culture mainly helped to establish an Irish diasporic culture of remembrance. Furthermore, for Sadlier, preserving Catholicism in America is inextricably linked to an abstinence from materialism. This has a religious side to it as well, as the author states in her preface that “young daughters … come out unprotected to America in search of imaginary goods…” (ii; emphasis in orig.). Sadlier’s disapproval is also implemented within Paul’s and Dolly’s attempt to prevent Ned from opening his liquor business: -’I was thinkin' of the liquor business. They tell me there's nothing like it here for makin' money, if a man has only enough to start it…’ - ‘…I told you before that money made by sellin' liquor never wears well and sure that's no wonder, anyhow’ - ‘An' why wouldn't it wear well?’ demanded Ned, a little ruffled or so at Paul's utter indifference to his new-blown honors, ‘why wouldn't it wear as well as any other?’ -‘Because there's a curse on it –.‘ (37-8)
Catholicism guides the characters in their daily lives and personal relationships, which can be perceived when examining the ship passage. Paul demands Henry Herbert to stay away from Bessy which leads the Captain’s “…wife, who overheard all that passed … [to have] a high opinion of … [him] ever since” (Sadlier 19). Further on, the strong influence of religious affiliation on the construction of personality is highlighted in the following examples: “… I didn’t come here to ask you who the fellow is, but what he is” (18; emphasis in orig.); “… a 75
Protestant … yet a very good girl” (36). These passages reveal that Sadlier does not refrain from her disapproval of Protestantism. She depicts Catholic characters as having a positive standing within the Irish (diasporic) society. Moreover, Sadlier stresses the rewarding nature of the Catholic faith which will, eventually, lead the characters to happiness. In order to be rewarded in the end, people’s faith must be tested: “God is never cruel, but He sometimes sends us in His great mercy, very happy afflictions just to try our faith and to withdraw our hearts from the things of this world” (Sadlier 33-4). This is coherent with Corporaal‘s and Cusack’s perception that “[b]y remaining true to her faith, Bessy improves her own situation, which ultimately enables her to return to Ireland and save her family from destitution” (354). When focussing on the implementation of religious elements, it becomes clear that the rewarding nature of religious affiliation can have short-term, medium-term, and long-term effects. The first of these outcomes can be seen in the storm during the ship passage. Although the storm is “… beginning to rage with great violence … Bessy Conway knelt in a corner saying her beads aloud and with great favor…” (Sadlier 22). I claim that Sadlier uses these events to emphasize the rewarding nature of practicing the Catholic faith and Irish ancestry in times of great need. Corporaal and Cusack support my thought by saying that By contrast, Bessy’s success in America is largely due to her adherence to a culture and religion that are identified as Irish in the novel. Bessy’s faith is tested repeatedly, and just as she survives the storm by praying incessantly, she overcomes all American hurdles by remaining steadfast in her faith and is rewarded for her perseverance. (354)
After Bessy’s fervent prayers, the weather changed immediately (see Sadlier 25). This sudden turn of events evokes the impression of a miracle and the author succeeds in depicting Bessy’s prayers and the end of the storm in a cause and effect relationship. Again, this stresses the rewarding nature of the Catholic faith and is also highlighted by a retrospective quote: “I knew it – didn’t I tell you, ma’am, that God and the Blessed Virgin would befriend us?” (ibid.). Apart from this short-term effect, the aspect of reward is apparent in a medium time-frame as well. Bessy loses her job due to her affiliation with the Catholic faith (see 123). This incident is consistent with O’Keeffe’s claim: “One of the most significant problems that faced Catholic domestic workers was the temptation to be lured away from their faith by their Protestant employers” (“Passport and Prayers” 155). I understand this incident as a way of testing Bessy’s faith, while at the same time creating a clichéd narrative that corresponds to the literary expectations of that time: “… novelists romanticize Ireland through various dialogues and plot lines and, …‘[l]ike many American sentimental novels, these IrishAmerican novels often feature a child as the hero. The child is usually faithful to his or her religion and refuses to convert’” (Eagan qtd. in O’Keeffe “Passport and Prayers” 156). 76
Bessy’s perseverance will be rewarded later for she does not only discover that she can share her faith with her new mistress Mrs. Delaney, who is “of her own religion” (Sadlier 126) and who is equally concerned with the salvation of the fellow servant girls (see 125), but, finally, she is reunited with her Catholic friend and servant girl Onny (see 126). Another example of the reward within a medium time frame includes a heavily moralistic side. It is not only the Catholic faith per se that will be beneficial in the end but also an associated decent Christian moral behavior can be rewarded in the end. This aspect can be inferred from the interaction between Bessy and Fanny, another Catholic servant girl: “Fanny always enunciated her words most distinctly, bringing out every syllable with marked emphasis. Everything she said, therefore, was spoken in a decided and somewhat dictatorial tone that was anything but agreeable to the ear, and did not at all comport with the Christian humility so constantly professed by Fanny” (117). Not only does Sadlier use this character to highlight the problem of hypocrisy or “empty piety” and “spiritual pride” (118), which, as seen in the previous quotation, leads Fanny to break with the biblical understanding of humility, the core of the Christian faith, but allows for her to present Bessy in the light of moral purity and knowledge about the rewarding nature of small charitable deeds: “… I think one will have their reward for doing it, as they would for any other act of charity, if they only do it with good will” (ibid.). This idea is in accordance with O’Keeffe’s view that “… an element of rewarding religion in turn for good behavior and selfless acts…” (“Passport and Prayers” 160) is incorporated in the narrative. For Bessy, gratification is found through Fanny’s dismissal on the one side, and Onny’s recruitment on the other. The latter is able to combine the aspects of labor and faith, as well as the discrepancy between short and longtime reward by saying that “I haven’t the larnin’ you see, like some to know all about religion and everything that way, but I always feel as if I was serving God, when serving them” (Sadlier 119). Here, Sadlier stresses the importance of a (biblical) coherence in word and deed. This is in line with the sermon “Faith without works is dead” (69), which focuses on present tasks and duties that allow for reward in the end. Fanning aptly concludes that it is “… the combination of Catholicism and honest labor … that provides the happy ending” (119). Apart from Fanny, fellow servant girls, such as Sally or Bridget highlight the rewarding nature of preserving the Catholic faith in word and deed: “Bridget the Irish cook is representative of a hardworking, decent woman, but she has lost touch with her faith and with the rituals she used to willingly fulfill in Ireland” (O’Keeffe “Passport and Prayers” 154). This is also realized in Bessy’s attempt to instruct Sally about attending Mass: "‘Well, but, Sally,’ said Bessy kindly and soothingly, ‘between ourselves, now isn't it a great sin, ay! and a great shame to be so careless about hearing Mass on Sunday, when you know the obligation that's 77
on you?’” (Sadlier 49). I interpret the term ‘obligation’ as a reference to the aspect of eternal salvation. However, as revealed later in the novel, Sally has to bear the consequences of her immoral behavior and unfaithfulness in the poverty of a violence-ridden marriage (see 133). Sadlier depicts Sally’s behavior in the domestic and religious sphere and her later misery as a cause and effect relationship. Again, this idea supports the promised reward of living a morally blameless Catholic life: So that is the end … of all Sally's dancing and visiting and dressing up, and lying and scheming! – how often I have seen her mimicking others, even those she was bound to respect – what a sight she is now herself! – she wouldn't bear a word, or let any one say she did wrong, but she'd fly at them like a wasp – now she has to put up with everything and ask her bit from door to door, in misery and dirt and rags, with her drunken brute of a husband watching to take what she begs for herself and her children! (ibid.)
Violence and misery, finally, lead to Sally’s death. “She died in a state of delirium, without priest or sacrament” (135). This event results in Sally’s exclusion from salvation, hence, eternal life in heaven as a long-term reward. This aspect of long-term reward is a highly important feature, as it is not only realized in Bessy’s return to Ireland but, as previously seen, entails the concept of eternal life as the highest spiritual reward possible. Her remigration presents a reward for both her and her family: “… still it so happened that relief always came at the right time, justifying the word that was always on the old man’s lips: ‘God is a good provider.’ Surely Denis found Him so, and his cheerful and patient reliance on Divine Providence was well rewarded” (Sadlier 2). This quotation reveals Sadlier’s main didactic technique to present the Catholic faith in its core as a provider for long-term happiness. Furthermore, the aspect of long-time reward also includes a spiritual side, as it can express itself as a grant for eternal life in heaven. The reference to eternity as the highest form of spiritual happiness reoccurs through the entire narrative: “’Not in this world’, said Father Daly … ’but in heaven you’ll see him, I hope, for all eternity’” (35); “She found the old woman all alone and saying her beads, while her plaintive moans and the tears that streamed profusely from her eyes showed that Philip's eternal weal was the object of her supplication” (47); “Bridget and Ally were loud in their threats, predicting for Herbert all sorts of woes temporal and eternal” (144). This issue becomes also visible in Paul Brannigan’s mission to educate the street boys on the Catholic faith (see 64-5): “No, no, it was not for pleasure that Paul was there, but from a purer and higher motive that warmed his heart and tingled on his veins, and lifted him altogether beyond his own comfort or convenience” (63). Doing a selfless act of charity, Paul soon discovers about the reward of his deed for his spiritual welfare: “… as the preacher proceeded to enumerate the works which are most available for salvation, Paul’s heart swelled with joy as his ears drank in the glorious promise: ‘They who instruct the ignorant shall shine as the stars in heaven’” (69). I interpret this expression not 78
only as a reference towards the reward of eternal life but also as a reflection of Sadlier’s major motivation to write her didactic novels. Finally, the aspect of salvation culminates in Henry Herbert’s conversion: Before I left New York I was received into the Church by our old friend, Father Daly … I shall never forget the expression…as he blessed me and told me to persevere even to the end in the path on which I had now entered… let us only pursue the straight and narrow way that leads through the wilderness of this life to the golden gates of heaven, and we shall all meet around the throne of Him who is, and was, and has been – the Lamb for sinners slain! There I hope to see you again, my dear son in Christ! and rejoice with you and all I love on earth throughout the endless ages of eternity. (182)
Here, Henry’s transition, as well as the other character’s perseverance in constantly proclaiming the Catholic faith as truth. Eventually, this perspective turns the narrative of Bessy Conway not alone into a happy ending in terms of the reunification of family and friends, but also, into a tale of spiritual success. Yet, the reward for preserving the Catholic faith is also connected to a negative aspect. While strong faith in combination with hard work will be remunerated in the end, Protestantism, immoral behavior, or apostasy, as previously seen, will lead to poverty, destruction, or even death. This thought gives rise to a different aspect, namely Sadlier’s technique of juxtaposing Catholicism and Protestantism to adhere to her didactic target. O’Keeffe supports this idea: “In her novels, Sadlier presents Catholicism as being representative of ‘home’ culture; whereas, Protestantism is presented as a ‘foreign’ concept which is something to be avoided and discouraged” (“Home Is Where the Heart Is” 35). This dichotomy does not only equal the representation within Angela’s Ashes but is also consistent with the narrative decision to contrast elements, characters and narrative strands in a plain opposition of good and bad, positive and negative, reward and loss, or, as in this case, Catholic and Protestant. Fanning condenses this thought by stating that “[t]he opposition of … divergent careers is the first example of the obvious but effective Sadlier technique of presenting contrasting characters to point her moral” (119). O’Keeffe supports this claim: “Indeed, some of Sadlier’s novels contain scenarios where the whole plot is concerned with comparing the lives of those who engage in Catholicism and those who choose to ignore it” (O’Keeffe “Passport and Prayers” 158). Probably the most striking character who serves contrastive purposes is the figure of the Protestant Henry Herbert. It is within his continuous interaction with Bessy that Sadlier emphasizes a Catholic moral code of marriage and courtship: “I’ll never marry a man at home or abroad that is not pleasin’ to my parents” (Sadlier 9); “… don’t – don’t talk so – it is not right for me to hear you!” (28). These two quotes show that the involvement with Protestant is a break with moral codes and presents a danger for one’s own Catholic faith. The aspect of moral flawlessness can be derived from Mrs. Walter’s reaction to Bessy’s conversation with Henry: “… her confidence in Bessy was terribly shaken” (15). The second issue is realized 79
through the depiction of Herbert as the epitome of the devil which is frequently reiterated. The following examples stress this notion. “… [F]or it is as hard for you to keep from your devilment as it is for me [Paul] to keep from slooping” (16; emphasis in orig.); “… it’s not safe for him to be in her way, for, give the devil his due” (17); “Henry Herbert looking as dark as possible” (39); “Even the one glance she had dared to take at his face showed a laughing devil in his sheer” (50-1); “Oh, dear Lord! what the devil can make men do!” (152). He is even made responsible for the storm: “For they think it was you brought the storm to us” (24; emphasize in orig.). These references leave the readership with the impression that as a result of Henry’s Protestant faith the devil permeates his whole being. However, in the end, Herbert converts to Catholicism, as he “… recognized the truth, and … heart and soul bowed down before the majesty of religion” (182). Consequently, his outer appearance changes as well: “The soul that beamed on her through those clear hazel eyes was all that she could desire” (184). The juxtaposition of characters and narrative strands might give the impression of a simple structure of the novel. Yet, I claim that the setup of Sadlier’s novel is not as plain as this suggestion might lead to believe. In fact, multiple plot-lines reflect Sadlier’s aim to reach society as a whole and not only “one specific individual” (O’Keeffe “Home Is Where the Heart Is” 43). In order to do so, the opaque constructions of characters and their careers and struggles are aimed to be received by a broad readership and to create a romanticized notion of Ireland. A simplistic approach to the setup of characters leads to the transfiguration of actual facts. Contrasting this, Sadlier’s implementation of realistic elements allows the readers to imagine the events more vividly and reflect social historic circumstances of her time. First of all, I interpret this instance as the author’s deliberate choice to present the consequences of apostasy as dramatically as possible. By exposing a dark and realistic side of Irish migrant life in nineteen-century America, she highlights the importance of a strong reliance on the Catholic faith (see O’Keeffe “Home Is Where the Heart Is” 36). Secondly, motivated by her strong attachment to her Irish Catholic heritage and her educative mission to truthfully depict Irish diasporic life, Sadlier aims at breaking with persistent stereotypes such as the aforementioned anti-Irish and anti-Catholic attitude in those days. In contrast to the previously addressed memoir Angela’s Ashes, which includes a rather stereotypical depiction of Irishness, “Sadlier had to overcome these emerging stereotypes: it was her job to try and present Irish emigrants as decent, honest, moral, and trustworthy in her novels” (O’Keeffe “Passport and Prayers” 158). However, I argue that it is her didactic mission that still dictates the incorporation of plain stereotypes which leads the narrative to revel in a romantic representation of an Ireland of past days. 80
To conclude this analysis with Cusack and Janssen’s words, Sadlier’s novel Bessy Conway “… primarily explore[s] the intersections between Irish culture and religion – generally Catholic – and strategies for their survival in diaspora. As such, they remain firmly rooted in a monolithic and nostalgic adherence to Irish tradition” (“Famine, Home, and Transatlantic Politics” 404). I claim that Sadlier’s novel draws upon a collective set of Irish Catholic cultural practices that needs to be continued within the diasporic realm of America. Being set within the context of the Great Famine, thus, concurring with the rise of a distinct Irish (diasporic) national culture, I argue that Bessy Conway contributed to the establishment of an Irish diasporic literary culture of remembrance.
4. Conclusion With all aspects considered, I will now close this study by examining the results in the context of the guiding question mentioned at the onset of my paper. Due to the great importance of cultural memory to shape and construct individual and collective (cultural) identities, particularly within the diasporic context, and because of the strong impact of literature as a cultural vehicle, it was my aim to explore how prominent concepts of Irish American Immigrant literature commemorate Irish transatlantic migration in the course of time. Furthermore, I sought to reveal in how far these recollections of migratory experiences contribute to an idea of a distinct Irish cultural memory within the American diaspora. In the first part of this paper, I laid the theoretical groundwork for the analysis. Initially, I elaborated on the concepts of migration, remigration, and immigrant literature and, secondly, shed light on the specific Irish perspective of these issues, i.e. the Irish Diaspora, the Irish people in America, and Irish immigrant literature. On the basis of this examination, I was able to expose four major concepts of Irish American Immigrant literature: (re-)migration, the City of New York, gender, and religion. In order to illuminate various facets of the commemoration of migratory movements, I subsequently reviewed these ideas within the analysis of McCourt’s memoir Angela’s Ashes and the didactic novel Bessy Conway; Or, the Irish Girl in America by Mary Anne Sadlier. Overall, the examination exposed that the literary pieces differ in respect to their thematic orientation, as well as their formal construction. Moreover, it provides evidence that the aforementioned concepts within the two works of Irish American Immigrant literature recollect Irish transatlantic migration in several ways. In Angelas Ashes and in Bessy Conway, the aspect of (re-)migration is implemented as both the physical translocation of migratory individuals and as a constant longing for the place of home. The latter highlights the diasporic nature of the migratory movements within the novels. By deeply reveling in romanticized cultural memories, the works share a stereotypical 81
representation of an Ireland of past days and convey the impression of an artificially constructed form of Irishness. Within the aspect of remigration a countermovement of the two protagonists, Frank and Bessy, can be detected. Yet, both returns to America and Ireland share the meaning of homecoming, which provides the tales with a happy ending. This circumstance fuels the reliance on diasporic cultural memories of ‘home’. New York City as one of the settings within the two narratives represents a platform for the reproduction of Irish national identity. Although both works share this circumstance, Sadlier, in contrast to McCourt, does not seek to merge Irish and diasporic culture. While in Angela’s Ashes identities were shaped by and within the diasporic spaces of America and Ireland, Bessy Conway rather promotes a microcosmic Ireland in the diaspora which rejects any form of cultural hybridity and conveys a static image of Irish culture in the United States. To put it in Janssen’s words, the “… process of mnemonic mythification is at work – Irishness could supposedly travel and even cross spatial and temporal borders” (165). This only allows the readers to deeply revel in transfigured memories of an Ireland of pre-Famine times. Both Angela’s Ashes and Bessy Conway draw upon the stereotypical Irish gender identities of their times. All these constructions reveal various perspectives on how to handle migratory experiences. Whereas Frank’s emigration can be seen as an expression of him coming to terms with his gendered identity and as an emphasis of his strive for freedom (see Potts 289), Sadlier’s reference to a traditional Catholic set of Irish gender roles features the aforementioned static perception of identities in the diaspora and the permanent reproduction of Irish Catholic core values. McCourt constantly merges American culture and Irishness and criticizes the connection between Catholicism and Irish identity. In contrast, Sadlier objects to cultural hybridity, thus, an Irish American diasporic culture, by equating Catholicism with Irishness and Protestantism with American culture. In both novels, however, the incorporation of religious elements reveals the transfigured nature of memories that leaves the readership with highly clichéd and stereotypical images of America and Ireland during the times of the Great Famine and in the first half of the twentieth century. It becomes apparent that the various aspects of migration within the two works of analysis reinforce nostalgic images of Irish identity and share the strong attachments to Ireland as the country of origin, the interdependencies between diasporic identity and the setting of Irish America, and their contribution to a common, though sometimes artificially reproduced, transatlantic memory of Irish migratory movements. Both novels also reveal that memories of Irish transatlantic migration stretch across more than a century and a half and are still being reproduced through the medium of literature. 82
Thus, I conclude that these recollections of migratory experiences, in fact, draw upon and contribute to a distinct Irish culture of remembrance in the American context. As Corporaal aptly furthers, this circumstance “suggests a transnational and even multidirectional nature of remembrance that may induce scholars in various fields to shift their conceptual boundaries of home, recollection and identity” (17). Along these lines, a picture of an Irish diasporic culture of remembrance that goes beyond 'figures of memory', beyond the physical places of Ireland and America, and beyond popular images of migration has yet to be drawn.
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5. Works Cited Primary Sources McCourt, Frank. Angela’s Ashes. New York: Touchstone. 1996. Print. Sadlier, Mary Anne Madden. Bessy Conway; or, The Irish Girl in America. New York: D. & J. Sadlier & Co. 1861. Print. Secondary Sources Ahmed, Sara et.al. Uprootings - Regroundings: Questions of Home and Migration. Eds. Sara Ahmed et.al. Oxford: Berg, 2003. Print. Al-Ali, Nadje. “Diasporas and Gender”. In: Diasporas – Concepts, Intersections, Identities. Eds. Kim Knott and Seán McLoughlin. London: Zed Books, 2010. Print. Alexander, Claire. “Diasporas, Race and Difference”. In: Diasporas – Concepts, Intersections, Identities. Eds. Kim Knott and Seán McLoughlin. London: Zed Books, 2010. 112. Print. Barrett, James R. The Irish Way: Becoming American in the Multiethnic City. New York: Penguin Group, 2013. Print. Baumann, Martin. “Exile”. In: Diasporas – Concepts, Intersections, Identities. Eds. Kim Knott and Seán McLoughlin. London: Zed Books, 2010. 24-28. Print. Bielenberg, Andy. The Irish Diaspora. London: Longman, 2000. Print. Brah, A. Cartographies of Diaspora: Contesting Identities. London: Routledge, 1996. 180+194. Print. Byron, Reginald. Irish America. Oxford Studies in Social and Cultural Anthropology, Oxford, 1999. Print. Campbell, Malcom. Ireland’s New Worlds: Immigrants, Politics, and Society in the United States and Australia 1815-1922. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2008. Print. Christou, Anastasia and Russell King. “Movements between ‘white’ Europe and America: Greek Migration to the United States”. In: Diasporas – Concepts, Intersections, Identities. Eds. Kim Knott and Seán McLoughlin. London: Zed Books, 2010, 181-7. Print. Clark, Dennis. Hibernia America. The Irish and Regional Cultures. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. 1986. Print. Connolly, Tracey. “Emigration from Ireland to Britain During the Second World War”. In: The Irish Diaspora. Ed. Andy Bielenberg. London: Longman, 2000. Print. Coogan, Tim Pat. Wherever Green Is Worn: The Story of the Irish Diaspora. 2000. Print.
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Corporaal, Marguérite and Christopher Cusack. “Rites of Passage: The Coffin Ship as a Site of Immigrants' Identity Formation in Irish and Irish American Fiction, 1855–85”. In: Atlantic Studies: Global Currents Vol. 8, Nr. 3, 2011. 343-59. Web. 18 February 2015. Corporaal, Marguérite. “A Land of Milk and Honey? The Representation of Migration and Diaspora in Literary Memories of the Great Famine, 1860-1885”. In: Memoir, Memory and Migration in Irish Culture. The Irish Review. Vol. 44. Eds. Jason King and Tina O’Toole. Cork: CUP, 2012. 4-20. Print. Cusack, Christopher and Lindsay Janssen. “Death in the Family: Reimagining the Irish Family in Famine Fiction, 1871-1912”. In: New Voices, Inherited Lines: Literary and Cultural Representations of the Irish Family. Eds. Yvonne O’Keeffe and Claudia Reese. Bern: Peter Lang, 2013. Print. Cusack, Christopher and Lindsay Janssen. “Famine, Home, and Transatlantic Politics in Two Late Nineteenth-Century Irish-American Novels”. In: Transatlantic Studies Vol. 11, No. 3, 2014. 403–18. Print. Daniels, Roger. Coming to America: A History if Immigration and Ethnicity in American Life. 2nd Ed. New York: Harper Collins, 2002. Print. Diner, Hasia. “Changes between Women and Men in the Irish American Family”. In: Major Problems in American Immigration and Ethnic History: Documents and Essays. Ed. Jon Gjerde. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1998. 253. Print. Eade, John. “Diasporas and Cities”. In: Diasporas – Concepts, Intersections, Identities. Eds. Kim Knott and Seán McLoughlin. London: Zed Books, 2010. Print. Ebest, Sally Barr. (2012). Irish American Women: Forgotten First-Wave Feminists. In: Journal of Feminist Scholarship 3, 2012. 64. Web. 16 March 2015. Fitzgerald, Patrick. “‘Come back, Paddy Reilly’: Aspects of Irish Migration, 1600-1845”. In: Emigrant Homecomings. Ed. Marjory Harper. Manchester: MUP, 2005. Print. Gilroy, P.. “Diaspora and the Detours of Identity”. In: Identity and Difference. London: Sage, 1997. 328. Print. Gjerde, Jon. Major Problems in American Immigration and Ethnic History: Documents and Essays. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1998. Print. Gray, Breda. “Gendering the Irish Diaspora”. In: Women’s Studies International Forum. Vol. 23:2, 2000. 172. Print. ---. “Global Modernities and the Gendered Epic of the ‘Irish Empire’”. In: Uprootings/Regroundings. Questions of Home and Migration. Eds. Sara Ahmed et. Al. Oxford: Berg, 2003. 157-79. Print. 85
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