Whether the lesson is based on practical or theoretical learning, brainstorming is
a good way of .... dholak, a tabla, a harmonium, a sitar and a flute. I tried each of ...
Elementary Science
Unit 1:
Using brainstorming to elicit prior knowledge: sound and musical instruments
Introduction................................................................................................................... 1 Learning outcomes...................................................................................................... 2 1 What is brainstorming? ........................................................................................... 3 2 Classroom rules for brainstorming ........................................................................ 4 The role of the teacher ................................................................................. 5 The purposes of brainstorming ..................................................................... 6 3 Using brainstorming to explore the topic of sound ............................................. 6 4 Brainstorming about musical instruments ............................................................ 9 5 Variations on brainstorming ................................................................................. 11 6 Summary ................................................................................................................. 13 7 Resources ............................................................................................................... 13 Resource 1: A short primer on sound ......................................................... 13 Resource 2: Traditional musical instruments of India ................................. 16 Resource 3: Lesson plan template ............................................................. 17 8 Related units ........................................................................................................... 18 References ................................................................................................................. 19 Acknowledgements ................................................................................................... 21
Except for third-party materials and otherwise stated, the content of this unit is made available under a Creative Commons Attribution licence: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/.
Introduction All your students will have some prior knowledge of the topics that you teach, but the nature and extent of this knowledge will vary from one individual to another. Whether the lesson is based on practical or theoretical learning, brainstorming is a good way of helping learners to start to think about a topic. It can be an effective way to assess what students know at the beginning and end of a programme of study. Brainstorming can identify what students know as individuals, and can reveal the wealth of knowledge shared between members of a class. It can also help to identify any scientific misconceptions that students may have. This information is helpful because it can inform your planning, enabling you to pitch your teaching at the right level for the class in general, while differentiating tasks in response to the needs of individual students.
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Learning outcomes After studying this unit, you should be able to: • • •
use brainstorming as a tool to find out what your students know so that you can plan your lessons to meet their needs identify ways in which brainstorming can be used for continuous and comprehensive evaluation (CCE) plan opportunities for students to use brainstorming as a tool for recording their ideas.
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1 What is brainstorming? What does brainstorming mean? Have you come across this term before in connection with classroom teaching? Consider the following questions, and make some notes of your thoughts.
Pause for thought • •
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What do you understand by the term ‘brainstorming’? How would you define it in one sentence or paragraph? Have you used brainstorming in your elementary science teaching? If so, in relation to what topics or tasks? Did you do this as a whole-class or small-group activity? What kinds of prompts did you use to start the brainstorm? List as many benefits as you can think of in using brainstorming as a teaching and learning technique. What, if any, do you consider to be the difficulties of using brainstorming in your classroom? Note these down too.
Brainstorming is a group or whole-class technique for generating free-flowing ideas about a topic. It promotes creative thinking, encourages interaction, pools knowledge, and reveals to the teacher what students already know. To set up a good brainstorming session, it is essential to identify a suitable prompt that the group is likely to respond to. This could be an image, picture, word, question, statement, problem, news item or event. Some students may initially be reluctant to speak out in a group setting, but brainstorming should be a relaxed, positive activity that encourages all students of all abilities to participate and express their ideas, while listening to and respecting the contributions of others. There are no right or wrong answers during a brainstorming session and all students should feel safe about contributing whatever comes to mind. Their ideas may be shared verbally, or captured on paper or on the board. These ideas can take the form of words, statements, questions or even drawings. Large classes can be split into smaller groups. The groups themselves should be as varied as possible in terms of gender and ability. Groups of students should ideally be provided with a large sheet of paper and some pens or pencils. Coloured pens or pencils are useful if they are available. Ask each group to choose a representative to record their ideas, varying the person each time. The ideas of the group need to be recorded as the session progresses so that everyone knows what has been said and can add further suggestions. It’s also good practice to set a time limit for the brainstorming session.
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Activity 1: Teacher modelling of the brainstorming technique Your students may not be familiar with brainstorming and may need your support in learning this technique. You may wish to model the use of brainstorming over several elementary science lessons. Begin by asking your students to answer a simple question relating to the topic they are studying, such as ‘Where do sounds come from?’ • • • •
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Write the question in the centre of the board and draw a circle around it. Ask the students to discuss the question in pairs for two minutes. Ask each pair to feed back their ideas and note these on the board. The ideas may be simply listed, or linked to the question using lines in the form of a mind map (see TDU 6, Using mind maps as a teaching, learning and assessment tool: water and the water cycle). Organise the ideas by grouping them and making connections between them, where appropriate.
Repeat this task with reference to another science topic until your students are comfortable with contributing their ideas and seeing them being recorded on the board.
2 Classroom rules for brainstorming After modelling how to use brainstorming to your class on several separate occasions, you can then ask your students to brainstorm a set of rules for undertaking this kind of group activity.
Pause for thought What kind of rules would you hope they would suggest? Write them down. Here are some possibilities. You and your students may have thought of others. • • • • •
Take turns to contribute. Look at the person who is talking and listen to what they are saying. Value everyone’s ideas, even if you don’t necessarily agree with them. Everyone’s ideas should be recorded. Stop when the time is up.
Write down the set of rules you have agreed on a large piece of paper and display it on the wall.
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The role of the teacher As a teacher, your role is to facilitate the brainstorming activity. First, you will need to identify a suitable prompt. Next, you will need to decide whether the brainstorming will take the form of a whole-class or small-group activity. You may also wish to remind the students of the agreed rules at the start. You should then encourage discussion and involvement – which may be voluntary, or gently prompted. It may be necessary to guide the students as they share their ideas. If it is a whole-group activity, you will need to decide whether to record your students’ contributions on the board or not. With a small-group activity, it will be necessary for the ideas to be noted down in order for students to be able to report back to the rest of the class. In this case, you may wish to allocate the role of recording ideas and managing the turn-taking to a particular student. Either than student or another can then share a given number of the ideas with the rest of the class after the time is up. At the end of the activity, you should do the following: • • •
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Praise your students for their contributions. Organise their ideas systematically, summarising the key points and identifying any themes or patterns. Ask them what they found useful in the brainstorming activity. What did they learn that they did not know or think of before? What do they want to find out as a result of a brainstorming session? Identify areas to follow up with your students in subsequent lessons.
Figure 1 shows the ideas generated by a group of students on the topic of sound.
Figure 1 Brainstorming on the topic of sound 5
Description In the centre of the figure are the words ‘Sound’ and ‘Perspective’, with the drawing of a music icon. These are surrounded by a series of words connected with arrows pointing outwards. Starting from the top left and going clockwise, these words are: ‘building’, ‘electricity’, ‘door’, ‘bell’, ‘water’, ‘animal can’, ‘cloth’, ‘echo’, ‘floor[,] ground’ and ‘weather’.
The purposes of brainstorming The main purposes of brainstorming are: • • • • • • •
identifying what your students know about a topic establishing any scientific misconceptions they may have drawing together the students’ shared knowledge creating opportunities for students of all ability levels to generate and record their ideas and questions about a particular topic organising scientific concepts and ideas developing the students’ listening skills developing acceptance and respect for individual ideas and differences.
3 Using brainstorming to explore the topic of sound Case Study 1: Mrs Sharma asks her students to brainstorm about the sounds they hear Mrs Sharma is a science teacher in an elementary school that is preparing for its annual function. Sitting in her classroom, she could hear dance practice in preparation for the event: instrumental music accompanied by the sound of ghungroos (ankle bells) made by dancing feet. She was about to start teaching about sound and decided to use brainstorming to find out what her students already knew about the topic. Read her account of how she went about this. As I became aware of the music in the other room, I realised that it might offer a useful and interesting way for me to teach the topic of sound in my class. I tried to identify the sound made by each instrument. It was not easy. I later visited the music room to have a closer look at the instruments. There was a dholak, a tabla, a harmonium, a sitar and a flute. I tried each of them. Also lying on the table was a pair of ghungroos. I asked the music teacher to play each instrument separately and I recorded the sound of each instrument on my mobile phone. I later made recordings of sounds made by coins, marbles, stones and local birds.
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I played the recordings in class and asked the students to listen to and try to identify the source of each sound. This tuned them into the idea of identifying sounds and differentiating between them. They enjoyed guessing the sounds and everyone got involved. I then asked my students to work in groups and brainstorm the kinds of sounds they hear daily. I suggested that they considered the nature of the sound and the source of that sound. I gave them examples to start with: a squeaking door hinge and a chugging truck engine. I asked each group to share their list with the whole class and we generated a long list of sounds that they knew about. I noticed how they listened attentively to one another’s ideas. The way that the less able students got involved and were valued by their peers was particularly satisfying. I kept the students’ lists for another lesson when I thought I might ask them to classify the sounds by their type or by how they are produced.
Pause for thought • • •
What did you particularly like about Mrs Sharma’s brainstorming session? Is there anything you might have done differently? How might you draw on and extend this introductory activity?
Activity 2: Using brainstorming in your class to teach the topic of sound Before planning your session on using brainstorming, revisit the preceding sections of this unit and take a look at Resource 1 (on sound), which may be helpful. The references section also provides links to some useful resources. Now make your plan. Resource 3 provides a lesson plan template that you can use to support your planning in both this activity and subsequent activities. Examples of completed lesson plans can be found in TDU 5, Using questions to extend students’ understanding of forces, and TDU 3, Using explanations as a teaching strategy: life processes. Consider the following questions: • •
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Why are you using brainstorming in this lesson? What is the exact focus of the brainstorming activity? Is it general or specific? Do you want the students to brainstorm all the ideas they get when they hear or see the word ‘sound’? Or do you want them to respond to a particular scientific question such as ‘How is sound produced?’ How will you introduce your students to the strategy of brainstorming and explain what they need to do? Are you going to do the brainstorm as a whole-class activity with you acting as facilitator? Or will the students be working in groups with 7
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one representative recording their contributions while you go round the classroom and help groups if necessary? How are you going to collect the ideas from the brainstorming session? You may simply gather them verbally or decide to record them on the board. You can write them on the board yourself or vary this by asking a student to do this instead. If you wish to draw on the information in a subsequent lesson, you may wish to copy it out or re-organise it on a piece of paper. How will you plan future lessons to address any misconceptions that your students have? Will you keep their contributions as evidence to see how their understanding of the topic has changed over time?
Discussion Here are some tips to ensure a successful brainstorming session: • • • • • •
Ensure that the brainstorm prompt is clear, while inviting many possible ideas. Use every response, no matter how irrelevant or intelligent. Record the students’ ideas in the form of key words, questions and drawings. Gently ask your students to clarify what they mean, if necessary. Do not be drawn into discussions as you go along. Try to save the discussions until the end. Summarise what has been said at the end, picking out patterns or linking ideas together.
Remember that brainstorming is a technique that you and your students will develop and improve over time. It is important to manage your students’ enthusiasm or reticence. You must be clear with your students about what is required, and be disciplined about gathering ideas first and discussing them afterwards. Otherwise you will lose the ‘rapid fire’ flow of ideas that is an essential part of brainstorming.
Pause for thought At the end of the activity, take a moment to reflect on the following: • • • • •
What went particularly well and why? What did not go as you expected? Why? How could you improve this next time? How far did the brainstorming help you to find out what concepts your students already understand and what they find problematic? From what you have found out about what your students already know, what is the next aspect of the topic of sound that you might teach? How might you use brainstorming in another lesson about sound?
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4 Brainstorming about musical instruments Activity 3: Brainstorming about the sounds made by Indian musical instruments The music of India is one of the oldest unbroken musical traditions in the world. Music has always been an important part of Indian life. Musical instruments, classical or local, are played in many Indian events. Now watch the video below. If you are unable to watch the video, it shows a teacher brainstorming by using some instruments and other objects that make sound in order to gain her students’ interest and enable them to understand how sound is produced by each instrument. You may also find it useful to read the video’s transcript. Please note that the video will be available in early 2014. As you look and listen, note how the teacher manages the brainstorming session and consider the kinds of questions she asks of her students. How does she draw together their ideas about how sounds are made? Note down which of the strategies and tactics she uses that you would like to use yourself. How does her brainstorming compare to what you did with your class in Activity 2? Did you learn any new techniques? Notice how the students on the video participate in the session, and think about how your students will respond to working in this way. Hopefully they will be stimulated into sharing their ideas and will enjoy talking about sound. Resource 2 provides brief descriptions of some traditional Indian musical instruments, and the references section provides links to some useful online resources. Now try Activity 4.
Activity 4: Using brainstorming to assess your students’ understanding of sound Before conducting this activity, you could display a chart or poster of Indian musical instruments or bring in a sample of some instruments that you have been able to borrow. Perhaps your students or other colleagues can lend some instruments too. Organise your students into small groups of four to eight. Do not hand out any paper at this stage. Allow the students to attempt to play the instruments, carefully. Then ask them to discuss the sounds that they hear, produced by the instruments. 9
Walk around the class listening to your students’ ideas. Prompt them if they need help, using questions such as ‘What happens when the air is blown down the tube?’, ‘What happens when the strings are held down?’ or ‘What needs to happen for sound to be produced?’ Stop the class and give each group a piece of paper. Choose a student from each group to manage the group and another to record the ideas, reminding the others to take turns and listen to one another. Ask each group to consider the following questions: • • •
How does sound reach our ears? How do we hear sound? Where do you think the sound goes when it reaches our ears?
Allow time for your students to answer each question within their group and to record their ideas. Finally, summarise the students’ ideas as a whole class and collect in their work. Use the work the students have produced to help you plan your next lessons. What do your students need to learn next? What are their misconceptions? Do they really understand how sound is heard? How will you teach them what they need to know? Keep the answers until the end of your teaching unit on sound. After you have completed the teaching unit on sound, repeat the brainstorming activity by asking your students the same questions: • • •
How does sound reach our ears? How do we hear sound? Where do you think the sound goes when it reaches our ears?
Pause for thought • • •
How have your students’ ideas changed from the beginning of the unit to the end? What does this tell you about their learning? Can you say how your students’ understanding has progressed? What does this tell you about your teaching? What, if anything, will you change the next time you teach this topic?
Continuous and comprehensive evaluation (CCE)
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Description CCE logo Brainstorming provides opportunities for you to: • • •
assess your students’ learning at any stage during a programme of study assess your students’ knowledge at the beginning of a unit and compare what is learnt with that at the end evaluate the impact of your teaching for the purpose of future planning.
By keeping the records of your students’ brainstorming sessions, you will be able to see the progress that they make over a particular period of time.
5 Variations on brainstorming Brainstorming methods can be changed and adapted to meet the needs of your class. As you become more confident with using brainstorming you may want to vary the ways you use it. Here are some variations on brainstorming that you can incorporate into your lessons: •
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Brainstorming: In addition to using brainstorming with the whole class, in small groups and in pairs, it can also be done or individually, with the results then shared with a partner or the class as a whole. Brain writing: Each group is provided with a sheet of paper. After they have written one idea, they swap their sheet with another group. This is continued until the papers have passed around the class. This method allows students to build on other students’ ideas. Pie storm: A circular piece of paper is divided into four or six sectors. Students brainstorm their ideas into these ready-made subsections. This method allows you to indicate to the students how to organise their thoughts into different categories. Sticky notes: Each student or group of students writes one idea, question or thought on a small piece of paper or sticky note (such as a Post-it note). These small pieces of paper are then stuck on the wall or board. The teacher can move the pieces of paper around to organise the ideas into particular themes, eliminating any repetition. Brain wave: Groups of students discuss a question or scientific concept. A representative from each group stands up and quickly presents one idea from their group. As they sit down, the next group’s representative stands to quickly present their idea – which must be different what to what went before. This is repeated until the class runs out of, or starts repeating, ideas.
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Pause for thought A key skill in elementary science is being able to plan and implement simple experiments. Think about how students could use brainstorming to plan an experiment that investigates how far sound can travel. Make a note of the subheadings that students could use to help organise their experiment. What kinds of ideas might they have when planning an investigation to find out how far sound can travel? Now look at Figure 2. It shows you how a group of Class V students used brainstorming to plan an experiment. They recorded their findings and added a conclusion on the back of the brainstorm to conclude their investigation.
Figure 2 Investigation plan produced by Class V students. Description This hand-drawn and handwritten drawing consists of a number of cloud-like panels, most of them containing lists. The panels are linked by one-directional arrows. In the middle is the central question: How far can sound travel? The other panels consider: What will we do? Equipment needed. Fair test. Independent variable. Measurements to be made. Problems.
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Pause for thought What have you learnt by working through this unit? List the ways you will try to use brainstorming in planning your future elementary science lessons.
6 Summary Brainstorming is a technique in which a class or group records all the information they already know about a topic in order to pool their knowledge, develop new ideas and identify questions and issues to be addressed. It also provides you, as the teacher, with helpful information to determine how to respond to your students’ learning needs, so that you can plan your lessons accordingly. To lead a successful brainstorming session, you need to: • • • • •
define the purpose of the activity organise students into groups where necessary encourage all the students to participate select a method of recording the information from the brainstorming session analyse the information recorded to identify categories or themes and, if appropriate, decide on areas requiring further attention.
7 Resources Resource 1: A short primer on sound How is sound produced? When a particle or a body moves to and fro from its mean position, it is said to vibrate. Sound is produced whenever an object vibrates. Thus sound is a vibration capable of being heard. The object could be a string on a guitar, a flat surface such as a drum skin, the diaphragm in a loudspeaker or even the vocal cords.
Characteristics of sound Sound travels in the form of waves. There are four main parts to a sound wave: wavelength, period, amplitude, and frequency. •
Wavelength and period: The wavelength is the horizontal distance between any two successive equivalent points on the wave. That means that the wavelength is the horizontal length of one cycle of the wave. The period of a wave is the time required for one complete cycle of the wave to pass by a point, so the period is the amount of time it takes for a wave to travel a distance of one wavelength. 13
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Amplitude: The amplitude of a sound is represented by the height of the wave. When there is a loud sound, the wave is high and the amplitude is large. Conversely, a smaller amplitude represents a softer sound. A decibel is a scientific unit that measures the intensity of sounds. The softest sound that a human can hear is the zero point. When the sound is twice as loud, the decibel level goes up by six. Humans speak normally at 60 decibels. Frequency: Every cycle of sound has one condensation (a region of increased pressure) and one rarefaction (a region where air pressure is slightly less than normal). The frequency of a sound wave is measured in hertz. Hertz (Hz) indicate the number of cycles per second that pass a given location. If a speaker’s diaphragm is vibrating back and forth at a frequency of 900 Hz, then 900 condensations are generated every second, each followed by a rarefaction, forming a sound wave whose frequency is 900 Hz.
Sound needs a medium to travel Sound transfers energy away from the vibrating object and it needs something to travel through. As a sound wave propagates, the molecules themselves do not move from one point to another; they only vibrate about its mean position. It is the effect that propagates and reaches our ears. Sound cannot travel through a vacuum – in space, no one can hear you scream!
Speed of sound Sound travels at different speeds through different substances. In general, the denser the substance, the faster sound travels through it. Sound travels at 5100 m/s (metres per second) through steel, 1480 m/s through water and 330 m/s through air. This is much slower than the speed of light, which travels nearly a million times faster through the air than sound does. This is why you hear the thunder clap some seconds after you see lightning in a thunderstorm, and why the sound of someone hammering some distance away appears to be much louder than that of the same hammer blows when heard nearby.
Echoes Sound can reflect from the surface of an object. This is called an echo. Hard surfaces reflect sound better than soft surfaces.
Loudness The loudness of a sound depends upon the size of the vibrations. Big vibrations transfer more energy than small vibrations, so they are louder.
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Pitch A sound can range from a high to a low pitch (high to low note). The pitch of a sound depends on how fast the original object is vibrating. If there are lots of vibrations per second, the frequency is high and the sound has a high pitch. If there are few vibrations per second, the frequency is low and the sound has a low pitch. Table R1.1 summarises some features of sound waves and vibrations. Table R1.1 Some features of sound waves and vibrations. Size of the vibrations
Number of vibrations in each second
Small
Big
Low
High
Sounds like
Quiet
Loud
Low-pitched
High-pitched
Example
Whispering Shouting Man talking
Child talking
Sound produced by humans In humans, sound is produced by the voice box, or larynx, which is at the upper end of the windpipe. Two vocal cords are stretched across the larynx in such a way that it leaves a narrow slit between them for the passage of air. When the lungs force air through the slit, the vocal cords vibrate, producing sound. Muscles attached to the vocal cords can make the cords tight or loose. When the vocal cords are tight and thin, the type or quality of voice is different from that when they are loose and thick. The vocal cords in men are about 20 mm long. In women they are about 5 mm shorter. Children have very short vocal cords. This is the reason why the voices of men, women and children are different.
Hearing We hear because sound waves enter the ear and cause the eardrum to vibrate. Three small bones in the inner ear carry these vibrations to the cochlea (pronounced ‘kok-lee-a’). The cochlea contains tiny hairs that send messages to the brain when they vibrate.
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Resource 2: Traditional musical instruments of India India has a vast range of traditional musical instruments, which are played in different ways.
Percussion instruments Percussion instruments require a person to strike or beat the instrument surface in order to generate vibrations, which then produce the desired sound note. Hands, sticks, or other similar objects may be used to strike the instrument surface. A characteristic feature of percussion instruments is that the type of sound produced varies depending on the spot that is struck on its surface. Tabla is a set of two drums. The tabla (or dayan) is a cylindrical, wooden drum made of black wood, which is played with the right hand. The bayan (or duggi) is made of metal, wood or ceramic, with a slightly conical and bowl shape, and is played with the left hand. There is a black spot on both the drums near the centre of the head. Known as siyahi, this black raised area is usually made of rice, glue, graphite and iron fillings. The siyahi is essential to the sound of the tabla. The sound is generated by beating the uppermost surface of the drums with the hands.
Wind instruments Wind instruments require a person to blow into the instrument in order to produce the desired sound. They work on the principle of sound waves, frequencies, harmonics, resonance and acoustics. When you blow into the instrument, the pitch of the sound note produced varies depending on the length of the internal air column in which the sound waves vibrate. The shorter the air column, the higher the pitch of the note produced – and vice versa. The bansuri is a transverse flute made from a single hollow shaft of bamboo with six or seven finger holes. As with other wind instruments, the sound of a bansuri is generated from resonance of the air column inside it. The length of this column is varied by closing, or leaving open, a varying number of holes.
String instruments String instruments work on the basis of sound wave vibrations that are created with the help of strings. The pitch of the note produced depends on the length of the air column, as well as the type and thickness of the string involved. The sitar is a plucked stringed instrument used mainly in Hindustani music, or classical Indian and Pakistani music. 16
Reed instruments A harmonium is a small keyboard instrument consisting of a series of reed pipes that sound when air is allowed to pass through them by means of a valve that opens when a key is depressed. The reed is made from cane, willow, brass or steel, and is enclosed in a rigid frame. The pitch of the framed free reed is fixed.
Resource 3: Lesson plan template This blank lesson plan template can be used when planning and preparing lessons for this and all other elementary science units.
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8 Related units •
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TDU 5, Using questions to extend students’ understanding of forces: We use forces in everyday actions like opening or closing a door, placing a book on a table, or drawing a bucket of water from a well. Each of the actions can be categorised as a ‘push’ or a ‘pull’, or both. The students brainstorm what actions from their daily lives fall into which category (e.g. riding a bike, getting dressed, hanging clothes out to dry). You could also ask different groups to focus on examples of actions that fit one of these categories: ‘push’, ‘pull’ or both. TDU 8, Exploring shadows and night and day using the outside environment: Set up a brainstorming session to explore how shadows are formed. Ask your students: ‘What do you need to form a shadow?’ Brainstorm their ideas and write them down for future reference. Next, either tell them how shadows are formed or plan some simple experiments and investigations that they can do to find this out for themselves. Go back to the brainstorm after you have discussed with the students what they found out during their investigations and compare this to the information generated in their first brainstorming session. Alternatively, they could add what they have learnt to their brainstorm record (e.g. that they need a ‘solid object’ or a ‘source of light’) but put it in a different-coloured chalk or pen to show that they learnt it after the experiments.
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References BodhaguruLearning [YouTube user] (2012) ‘Science – sound – characteristics of sound – English’ (online), YouTube, 18 August. Available from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_uhQyHdl22E (accessed 3 September 2013). College of Education, San Diego University, USA (undated) ‘Brainstorming’ (online). Available from: http://edweb.sdsu.edu/triton/guides/Brainstorming.html (accessed 3 September 2013). Earl Haig Physics [YouTube user] (2012) ‘Properties of sound waves lesson – loudness, pitch and quality’ (online), YouTube, 8 December. Available from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mevjV5pcITc (accessed 3 September 2013). FindSounds (undated) ‘Search the web for sounds’, specialised web search engine, http://www.findsounds.com/ (accessed 3 September 2013). George Mauro [YouTube user] (2012) ‘Techniques for brainstorming’ (online), YouTube, 17 December. Available from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dcy7qIcISzE (accessed 3 September 2013). KidslearningVideo [YouTube user] (2013) ‘Musical instruments sounds – kids learning video’ (online), YouTube, 20 January. Available from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=17V-bP1XEao (accessed 3 September 2013). The Physics Classroom (undated) ‘Sound waves and music – chapter outline’ (online). Available from: http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/sound/ (accessed 3 September 2013). Saskatoon Public Schools, Instructional Strategies Online (undated) ‘What is brainstorming?’ (online), http://olc.spsd.sk.ca/de/pd/instr/strats/brainstorming/ (accessed 3 September 2013). Sci Fox [YouTube user] (2013) ‘Basic properties of sound – propagation of sound’ (online), YouTube, 6 April. Available from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9AlfexlGxr8 (accessed 3 September 2013). Shivnarine Parsram [YouTube user] (2006) ‘Indian musical’ (online), YouTube, 3 May. Available from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vc7SOadaIt4 (accessed 3 September 2013). Sumanglam Sales Corporation, India (2011) ‘Indian musical instruments’, http://www.indianmusicalinstruments.net/ (accessed 3 September 2013). 19
sunny88mittal [YouTube user] (2008) ‘Indian classical music instruments’, YouTube, 2 December. Available from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EOxD77LDUQY (accessed 3 September 2013). Teaching at UNSW (2012) ‘Brainstorming’ (online), The University of New South Wales, Australia, http://teaching.unsw.edu.au/brainstorming (accessed 3 September 2013). transpro65 [YouTube user] (2010) ‘3 pc sitar, tabla, and harmonium performance’ (online), YouTube, 5 September. Available from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wEpntLCyiBMhe (accessed 3 September 2013).
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Acknowledgements The content of this teacher development unit was developed collaboratively and incrementally by the following educators and academics from India and The Open University (UK) who discussed various drafts, including the feedback from Indian and UK critical readers: Jane Devereux, Kavita Grover and Christine James. Except for third-party materials and otherwise stated, the content of this unit is made available under a Creative Commons Attribution licence: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/. The material acknowledged below is Proprietary, used under licence and not subject to any Creative Commons licensing. Grateful acknowledgement is made to the following: CCE logo: http://www.cbse.nic.in/ Clipart: with permission from Microsoft. Every effort has been made to contact copyright owners. If any have been inadvertently overlooked, the publishers will be pleased to make the necessary arrangements at the first opportunity.
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