Sound Ways of Knowing: Music in the Interdisciplinary

Sound Ways of Knowing

Music

in the

Interdisciplinary

Curriculum

JANET

R.

BARRETT

CLAIRE W. MCCOY KARI

K.

VEBLEN

Sound Ways of Knowing ideas for teachers

who want

contains fresh,

new

to reinvigorate their

teaching by connecting music with other areas of the curriculum in valid and imaginative ways.

Through

lessons that feature music along with

the study of history, cultures, and the other

Sound Ways ofKnowing shows how music ists,

classroom teachers, and other

arts,

special-

arts specialists

can collaborate to plan rich and multifaceted experiences for elementary and secondary students. Barrett,

McCoy, and Veblen translate contemporary

theories about interdisciplinary curriculum into practice while addressing current controversies in

the curriculum. They demonstrate

how the power

of music can enhance students’ understanding of expression, history,

how

and

culture,

and conversely can

the study of those wider contexts

enhance their understanding of music. Moving

from discussions of general principles applications in curriculum

to their

and lesson planning,

Sound Ways ofKnowing begins with an examination of the role of music in personal and communal experience and proceeds to a theoretical overview

of curriculum design and issues of integrity in interdisciplinary work.

The

authors then intro-

duce the “facets model,” a planning tool for exploring works of art in depth, which serves as

the organizing model for the remainder of the

book. Subsequent chapters demonstrate

its

in generating detailed teaching material

use

from

germinal ideas. In the process, fully scripted lesson plans are provided for sample classroom the units devoted to study of the Renaissance,

American

Civil

War, and the music and culture

of Mexico. Sound Ways of Knowing

is

generously

rounded out with scenarios depicting

real-life

classroom situations and with field-tested exercises

and

activities for the teacher.


Digitized by the Internet Archive in

2017 with funding from

University of

Illinois

Urbana-Champaign

https://archive.org/details/soundwaysofknowiOOjane

Sound Ways of Knowing Music in the Interdisciplinary Curriculum

Ianet R. Barrett

Claire W.

McCoy

Kari K. Veblen

Schirmer Books

An Imprint of Simon & Schuster Macmillan New York Prentice Hall International

London

Mexico City

New Delhi

Singapore

Sydney

Toronto

Copyright

©

1997 by Janet R.

All rights reserved.

No

Barrett, Claire

part of this

W. McCoy,

and Kari K. Veblen

book may be reproduced or transmitted

in

any form or by any

means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage

and

retrieval system,

without permission in writing from the Publisher.

Schirmer Books

An

Imprint of Simon 8c Schuster Macmillan

1633 Broadway

New York, New York

10019

Library of Congress Catalog Number: 97-19813 Printed in the United States of America Printing

number

123456789

10

Copyright notices and permissions for reproduced material appear on pages 327-28. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Barrett, Janet R.

Sound ways of knowing music :

p.

in the interdisciplinary curriculum / Janet R. Barrett,

cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 0-02-864530-8 1. I.

(alk.

paper)

—

School music

McCoy,

Claire

W.

Instruction and study. 2. Interdisciplinary approach in education. II.

Veblen, Kari K.

III. Title.

MT10.B3 1997 780’.71’2

—dc21

97-19813

CIP

MN This paper meets the requirements of ANIS/NISO Z39.48-1992 (Permanence of Paper).

To

myfamily Mark, Alex, and Paige, ,

with gratitudefor their love and

encouragement.

JRB To Celia and David, with thanksfor their patient and loving support.

CWM To the memory ofJames Robert McKinty, who loved music and knowland with appreciation to Brian Stuart Yandellfor his encourage-

edge,

ment and support.

KKV

7

Table of Contents

PREFACE

ix

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Our

xiii

chapter

i

Music

chapter

2

Music and the

chapter

3

Integrity in the Interdisciplinary Curriculum

in

Lives

i

Interdisciplinary Curriculum

Know a Work of Art

chapter 4

Getting to

chapter

5

Exploring Relationships

chapter

6

Perceptions, Patterns, and Processes

chapter

7

among

chapter

the Arts

85

109

8

Music

in

Context

9

Music

as

an Expression of History:

10

69

Planning Interdisciplinary Arts Experiences

135

The Renaissance chapter

35

49

for Students

chapter

9

Music

as

157

an Expression of History:

The American

Civil

War

195

chapter

11

Music and Culture

243

chapter

12

Music

271

chapter

13

Music and the Curricular Imagination

as

an Expression of Culture: Mexico

NOTES PERMISSIONS

315

323

AND CREDITS

32

NAME INDEX

329

SUBJECT INDEX

334

vii

Preface

c

ound Ways of Knowing: Music

presents a vision for teaching and learning in

music

is

which the potent power of

integrated throughout the curriculum.

ture the study

of music along with

in

Curriculum

the Interdisciplinary

Through

history, cultures,

lessons that fea-

and the other

arts,

Sound Ways ofKnowing shows how music specialists, classroom teachers, and other arts specialists collaborate to plan rich and multifaceted learna

ing experiences for elementary and secondary students.

Sound Ways ofKnowing

The most

is

music brings us to a

fuller

which we

is

Music

live.

nized as music individual as in

a

word

play

obvious meaning, of course,

and

is

a

on the double meaning of sound. the musical one.

is

a reflection of the expressive impulse; sound orga-

window to thought and

society.

We propose that

understanding of ourselves and the world in

Sound also connotes

feeling, history

and

strength, validity,

jozWjudgment or sound reasoning. In this

culture, the

and substance,

sense, we place

music

at the

fundamental center of school programs, to be addressed by teachers and students as a curricular imperative for a comprehensive education.

In most schools, specialists provide instruction in the discipline of

music based on a well-defined, sequential curriculum. Such instruction essential to students’

development of music concepts and

skills.

is

But, as

the sub tide of this book, Music in the Interdisciplinary Curriculum, implies, there are also sound connections to be disciplines within the curriculum.

with

artistic expression, history,

made between music and

Because music

and

is

other

inextricably linked

culture, other disciplines

within the

—such —may be the most

curriculum that are also concerned with these broad concepts language, areas

art,

dance, theater, and social studies

as

logical

with which to forge interdisciplinary connections. In

book we

this

focus on ways that the study of music can enhance students’ understand-

ing of

artistic expression, history,

and

how

culture, and, conversely,

the

study of artistic expression, history, and culture can enhance understanding of music.

While other connections

are possible

rhythmic concepts to mathematics, for example of artistic expression,

history,

teachers and students to

—

—we

the relationship of feel that

the study

and culture afford the greatest potential

make meaningful,

IX

organic connections.

for


This book was written for anyone

who might

participate in

making

these connections for students, including music specialists, other arts spe-

and classroom teachers (both preservice and in-service); arts and principals. The ideas and matein this book have been field-tested in several college courses and in-

cialists,

supervisors; curriculum coordinators; rials

service workshops.

Interactive Exercises Exercises and activities appear throughout the text to help you engage

with and make sense of the ideas exercises

and

and practices

we

present.

activities are critical to the

Your responses to these

development of your own ideas

for interdisciplinary teaching. Exercises encourage

apply the central ideas introduced in the chapters to your

you

to

own experience.

Classroom Focus Throughout the book you teachers,

music

specialists,

will hear the voices

of teachers: preservice

other arts specialists, and classroom teachers.

Often, these voices are those of real people, but sometimes they reflect

composites of teachers with

how

whom we

have worked. You will consider

how they grow and how they influence the intellectu-

ideas for interdisciplinary teaching are born,

evolve as a result of collaboration, and

and social climate of a school. You will see illustrations of the complementary roles that music specialists and classroom teachers play in planning and teaching interdisciplinary lessons. Scenarios use classroom sital

uations to introduce, connect, or illustrate discussions of important concepts

and

issues in the chapter.

Relationships between Theory and Practice Some of the chapters in this book provide an overview of general

princi-

ples that serve as a foundation for developing interdisciplinary curricula, especially as they relate to artistic expression, history,

and

culture.

Lesson

plans in Chapter 7 explore connections between music and poetry, ature, art,

liter-

and movement. Three chapters provide in-depth examinations

of interdisciplinary approaches to specific topics, including the study of the Renaissance (Chapter 9), the American Civil War (Chapter 10), and the music and culture of Mexico (Chapter 12). Fully scripted lesson plans are included in these chapters as models for

classroom use.

One

such lesson features a side-by-side commentary on

the rationale for each step of the lesson plan, and another contrasts a basic

version of a lesson with a version that

is

enhanced by more

careful atten-

tion to cultural authenticity. Sections within the lesson plans tided

Enhancing the Understanding of Context provide

descriptions of his-

\

Preface

torical

background and

xi

cultural practices for teachers’ reference; informa-

tion in these sections can also be provided to students as appropriate to their level

of comprehension. Please note that while the term “lesson”

may

imply to some an educational experience limited to a single block of time, our lessons sometimes extend over a period of days or weeks.

Although the lessons in this book can be taught as presented, we them primarily as models and illustrations of interdisciplinary

include

planning. Because there are idea could follow

many

paths that the pursuit of a particular

—more than can be explored within a

—we

single lesson

also include ideas for extending the lessons that can serve as springboards

your

for

own planning and development. Most of the lesson plans we premany

sent are designed for elementary and middle school students, but

could also be adapted for use with high school students.

Other

features include Strategies,

which provide guidelines and tech-

niques for you to consider as you implement lessons or curricular projects

own

of your invite

design. Sections titled Controversy in the

you to consider provocative

issues in the selection

Curriculum

of content that

require the exercise of professional judgment.

Organization If you read this

book from

start to finish,

you

will

move from

discussions

of general principles to their applications in interdisciplinary planning. This approach might be most appropriate

if you already

have some expe-

rience with designing curricula or interdisciplinary lessons. If not,

you may find

it

some of the

helpful to read

you have

application chapters

first

to provide a context for the discussion of those general principles.

The

first

chapter,

“Music in Our Lives,” encourages you

communal

the role of music in personal and

to

examine

experience, inviting your

and reflections in the form of a personal essay. The second chap“Music and the Interdisciplinary Curriculum,” provides a more theoretical overview of the principles and practices of curriculum design, a

reactions ter,

discussion that raised in

is

extended to issues of integrity in interdisciplinary work

Chapter

3.

Chapter

4,

“Getting to

describes the processes of learning

new works

Know

a

Work

of Art,”

before starting to design

curriculum based on those works. Chapters 5 and 6 establish a foundation for interdisciplinary experiences in the arts ilarities

and

and differences between and among

literature.

depth,

is

The facets

music, theater, dance,

model a planning tool for exploring artworks in

introduced in these chapters and serves as the organizing struc-

ture for the remainder

The

by emphasizing the sim-

art,

lessons in

of the book.

Chapter 7 show

expand germinal ideas into

fully

how you might use

the facets model to

developed experiences. Chapters 8 and


xii

1 1 raise issues

and possibilities for exploring music’s role in historical and which take curricular shape in Chapters 9, 10, and 12

cultural studies,

through the study of the Renaissance, the American Civil War, and Mexico. These comprehensive chapters feature scenarios, discussions of instructional issues,

and detailed lesson plans

for interdisciplinary experi-

ences. Finally, the last chapter portrays the creative intellectual engage-

ment of teachers

as they exercise curricular imagination.

Acknowledgments

W

e

wish to thank many indivi-

uals

who

contributed to this

book and supported our work during its development and production. Colleagues who consulted with us and freely contributed their expertise include Daniel Garcia Blanco, Karen Bradley, David J. Elliott, Paul Haack, James Hainlen, Lawrence Kaptain, William and Susan Kephart, Dane Kusic, Jesse and Sandra Lilligren, Scott Lowery, Ronald McCurdy, Fernando Meza, Pam Paulsen, Nancy Rasmussen, Roger Revell, Josh Ryan, Daniel Sheehy, Tom Solomon, David Tovey, and Brian Yandell.

We

are grateful to those

who

led us to helpful resources, including

George Ferencz, Ramona Holmes, Geraldine Laudati, James McKinty, Brian Miller, Steven Sundell, and Ellen Zwilich. We would also like to acknowledge Lawrence Aynesmith, Steven Dast, Jon Lahann, Mitch Rosenfelt, Scott Ruffing, Erin Stapleton-Corcoran, and Diane Walder,

who

assisted in the production of materials

used in the book.

For their useful and insightful reviews of the manuscript,

thank

Mary Hookey,

Nipissing University; Jan McCrary,

University; Janice Smith,

Des Moines Public

we wish Ohio

Asa Adams Elementary School; Judy

to

State

Svengalis,

Schools; and Ellen McCullough-Brabson, University

of New Mexico.

We

are especially grateful to students in our undergraduate

uate courses,

whose enthusiasm

for interdisciplinary

and grad-

work and thought-

provoking questions have influenced and inspired our thinking. Special thanks to those students

who

have granted permission to use or describe

examples throughout the book: Kara Brown, Joanna Cortright, Beth Herrendeen,

class projects or journal entries as

Alt, Jeff Behling, Brett

Ruzica Jovanovic, Peter Kahl, Ellen Luchsinger, Kristin Martin, Jenine

Meunier, Carla Morena, and Donald Pochmara.

We

express our appreciation to our photographer, Sandra Norstrom,

and the teachers and children their classrooms to us:

at three schools

Tom Ryan

who

graciously opened

of Purdy Elementary School in Fort

West White

Atkinson, Wis. (Rick Brietze, principal); Jane LeFevre of Milton Elementary, Milton, Wis. (Carol Meland, principal); and Marilyn

xiii


XIV

and Vicki Samolyk of Elm Creative Arts School, Milwaukee, Wis. (Darrel Jacobs, principal). Thanks also to Shawn Kolles and Daniel Sheehy for photographs used in Chapter 12. We extend our appreciation to Dean Karen Boubel of the College of Arts and Communication at the University of Wisconsin-Whitewater for well-timed research support for Janet Barrett in the

We

are grateful to

our

editor, Jill Lectka,

expertise, and also to Andrew Andrew Ambraziejus, managing

skill

and

and

to

Reference, for guiding the manuscript to

fall

semester of 1995.

of Schirmer Books, for her

Libby, production supervisor, editor of its final

Macmillan Library

form.

—

chapter

1 \*

Music in Our Lives

Imagine that a friend who

taking a film

is

\

class,

you agree. are

needs a willing subjectfor a

your only chance for stardom, Yourfriend asks you to assemble artifacts that will document who you

biographical documentary. Thinking that this

and the

have shaped your

experiences that

is

life.

In preparation for thefilm-

you gather scrapbooks ofphotographs and clippings, diaries, personal correspondence, diplomas, yearbooks, home movies and videos, treasured objects, and ing,

souvenirs.

Yourfriend comes

to

your

house, video

camera in hand, and spends

tell your life story.

several hoursfilming as you

When you go to preview thefilm, you're curious and a bit apprehensive about way the film will portray your life. As the film rolls, you realize that the it has nothing to music yourfiend has chosen for the soundtrack is all wrong

the

—

do with you.

An

important aspect ofyour identity, your music,

«t in a pattern that

is all

missing.

ike your fingerprints, your signa-

J ture, and your voice, your choices

i of music and the ways you

is

relate to

music are plural and interconnected

yours, an ‘idioculture’ or idiosyncratic culture in

sound” (Crafts, Cavicchi, 8c Keil, 1993, p. 2). The Greek word idios means own.” Your own musical world, or “idioculture,” is like no one else’s.

“one’s

Music

is

life, although you may not be conand breadth of your musical experience. Most of us reflect on the array of music in our lives and the way

a constant presence in your

scious of the depth rarely take time to

our interactions with music shape our identity.

You may be wondering what cal

world has to do with the

a discussion of your

role

riculum, the subject of this book.

own

personal musi-

of music in the interdisciplinary cur-

Have you thought about how your own

of interests and experiences, can become a source of ideas for planning educational experiences for students? Have you considered that within a school community there are students and teachers whose musical worlds intersect in some way through shared interests in a particular style of music, performer, or composer? There may be unique components of those musical worlds as well,

music background, with

as individuals

its

hold special

diversity

interests,

knowledge, or expertise in a particu-

l


2

lar type

of music. These

interests, in all their richness,

may be

the start-

ing points for planning imaginative lessons that link music with the study

of culture,

what

history,

and expression. Sometimes individuals undervalue

their musical worlds have to offer to the classroom.

toward recognizing the extent of your musical world, -with

we

for connecting with the curriculum,

As

a first step

implications

its

suggest you take time to engage

in the following exercise.

Examining Personal Musical Experience

The Circles Exercise, Part 1 The purpose of this exercise

is

to think about your personal musical

experiences and their impact in your

draw

circles to

show

different pools

your “music

al history:

circles”

to the

list.

Label each

down the

circle

On an unlined sheet of paper,

feel free to

you may wish

to

may

add additional categories

with the category

tides or short descriptions of the

category. Because

your person-

activity in

diagram. The categories listed below

be helpful to get you started, but

jot

life.

of musical

title;

inside each circle,

music that

fits

within the

some of these circles may be related in time or place, make them appear close together or overlapping on

your diagram. Others

may stand

alone as singular events.

—songs you remember being sung

~ Early memories

you

as a child

~ Songs you can sing or pieces you can play entirely from

memory

to

~ Songs you recall singing in school ~ Musical works you have performed

~ Recordings you would not want to

live

without

~ Your least favorite music examples ~ Music you have heard or performed in the past 24 hours ~

Music you have taught

(or love to teach) to others

~ Music that puzzles, intrigues, or challenges you ~

Hidden

pleasures

—what

others might be surprised to

know

about your tastes

When

you have completed drawing and labeling your

circles,

con-

template what they reveal about your music interests and involvement.

In what ways do these

circles reflect the influences

you were born, places you’ve

lived,

and

of the time and place

significant people in your life?

Music

in

Our Lives

3

Making Sense of Musical Experience Three

sets

of circles representing the music idiocultures of three preservice

how music backgrounds

teachers are provided to illustrate

foundation for curriculum planning. In her

can serve

circles (Figure 1.1),

as a

Kara, a

preservice elementary teacher, recalls the influence of her family, school

experience, and travel, and describes her current involvement with music. Another preservice elementary/middle school teacher, Brett, represents his personal history by drawing arrows to show the path of his music development and changes in taste from the songs his parents sang to him to his

rediscovery of Native

(Figure 1.2).

Don,

American music,

a part

of his cultural heritage

a preservice music teacher (Figure 1.3), spends a great

deal of time performing music as well as listening to

it.

Because music

is

both a personal source of satisfaction and the focus of his professional Don’s

career,

What do that music

circles

show

may play

ones

in

of family and religious

They may

the intensity of his involvement with music.

these circles reveal?

also reveal

life

They

suggest

—

some of the various

rituals, as a cultural expression, as a life’s

how one

with music through

interacts

performing, and valuing musical works.

The

circles

breadth and variety of one’s musical repertoire

and

roll,

roles

for relaxation, for recreation, as a part

—

work.

listening,

can also show the

children’s songs, rock

folk music of particular cultures, “classical” compositions, jazz,

country music, reggae, music of the Renaissance, and Broadway tunes.

Figure Earliest

Kara’s

Memories

Circles "Streets of Laredo";

"If

Musical Experiences in School

You

Want to Get to Heaven" (songs

my dad used to me before

sing to I

Musical Places I've Been

Played the clarinet in fifth grade band: "Hot Cross ^Buns";sang in the seventhy

went to bed)

Musical Experiences Outside of School

Branson, Missouri, the country music capital of the world; New York City to see Phantom of the Opera

v

grade

choir: "Puttin'

the

Songs Sang I

in

Took piano lessons from second to fifth grade 1

Experiences with Music

Fire";

Broadway songs from Annie I

love to

listen

^CDs,

to

dance to music,

my collection

listen

to music

radio, listen to

Snowman"

of

on the I

music

re;

laxation tapes, sing in

church

Kindergarten

Kindergarten teacher played holiday songs on the piano: "Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer" and "Frosty the

Other

didn't like to practice);

"Chariots of

on J

Ritz"

1.1

Music

4

Figure 1.2 Brett's

Circles

Music


— Music

Our Lives

in

5

Figure 1.3 Don’s Music Least Favorite

Recordings Would Not Want to Live Without

Circles

I

My Hidden

Pleasure

Any bad remakes ) Sound track to the movie 'Round Midnight; Arvo Part, Summa; The Artist formerly

Known

Music from the Renaissance,

Michael Praetorius

as Prince, Sign-o-the-Times;

The Soul Cages; Mozart, Requiem; Daniel Lentz, O-KE-WA; Any Motown

Sting,

Musical Works

record

and Where I've Performed Them "Night

in Tunisia"

— —

Detroit;

"Sudden Sam" Detroit; "Angel

I

I

Switzerland;,

"1812 Overture"

Music Have Heard in the Past 24 Hours

Songs Can Sing From Memory Bob

Eyes"—

New Orleans

Marley, "Jamming"; \

Georg

Philipp

Telemann, Sonata in A Minor for gamba and continuo;"My Funny

Gustav Mahler, Totenfeier; Aretha Franklin, Greatest Hits; Pearl Jam; Jean Sibelius, Symphony No. 3 in C, Op. 52; Bob Marley and the Wailers,

"Jamming";John Coltrane, "A Love Supreme"

Valentine"; Sting,

"Englishman

The

Even the

least favorite styles

Police,

in

New York",

"Roxanne"

and types of music

are

an indication of

strongly held preferences and personal opinions. Kara’s early musical experiences

into her

may be an important source of insight students. She may remember the

work with elementary-aged

impact of her early musical experiences

as she

encourages the children in

own music interests. The breadth of Brett’s and participation in music may be expressed in many ways, as his tastes in contemporary popular music may intersect with the

her classroom to develop their interest eclectic

musical interests of his students. His wide-ranging involvement with the

musics of many cultures, manifested in a listening repertoire that ranges from music of the Incas to the East Indian sitar, and his performance of Native American flute and drum music, may enable him to relate to students of diverse backgrounds. Brett may serve as a model of openness to many types of music expression for students whose music worlds are more limited than his. Don’s intense engagement in music, which prompted him to become a music specialist, will be invaluable as he prepares to teach students of varied ages and levels of skill, and possibly even those with interest in music as a career. Don also enjoys listening to music of diverse styles and eras, spanning from 500 years ago to the present. The

backgrounds, interests, and professional goals of Kara, Brett, and prepare

them

to bring music into students’ lives in different

mentary ways.

Don

and comple-


6

As we have explored this idea of music idiocultures with students in classes, we have been intrigued and informed by what we have discovered. Our students’ ethnic and cultural heritages Serbian, Hmong,

our

— —have generated

Norwegian, Jamaican, Polish, Native American in music traditions

new to

cles revealed special areas

interest

us and to their classmates. Other students’ cir-

of expertise, such

as the

music of the Civil War,

the blues, and minimalism, which became the basis for creative lesson

We’ve also learned from students who have shared music examples drawn from extensive CD collections, performed a repertoire of folk dances from family traditions, or acquired an assortment of unusual plans.

instruments while traveling.

Examining the Musical Experience of Others

The

Circles Exercise, Part 2

If you could look at the circles of experience that students in elementary,

middle, or high school might draw, what would you learn about

their idiocultures?

Try the

individual students.

circles exercise

What do

with an entire

class or

with

their circles reveal about the breadth

depth of their musical involvement? Compare your

circles

with

and

theirs.

Are there any commonalities? What realms of experience and types of music are different than your own? We know that personal interest plays an important role in learning. How could you use your understanding of students’ musical worlds to make learning more meaningful for

them?

As you conduct

this exercise,

you may change your expectations about

Young children are generally open to a range of musical styles and genres. As children approach adolescence, however, their tastes become more narrow and homogeneous (LeBlanc, Sims, Siivola, Obert, 1996; May, 1985). But are those tastes really as homogeneous as adults perceive them to be? Adolescents’ preferences tend to be lumped into the global category “popular music,” as if the entire age the preferences of students.

&

group shared a music monoculture.

When

adults have asked adolescents

to sketch their music circles, they have often to

which adolescents can detect

been amazed

subtle nuances

among

at the

degree

substyles within

popular music. After adolescence, music preferences may begin to broaden with age and experience. When Julie, a music teacher in her 30s, compared her music circles with those of her students, she became more aware of how her preferences had changed over time: “As I get older, my musical interests and tastes move farther from Pop and Rock, and closer to music from

Music

in

other cultures as well as folk music.

Our Lives

As

7

a music teacher, your role

is

to pro-

vide musical experiences for your students that lay a good foundation for their ‘tapestry

of experience.’”

In this chapter, you have been encouraged to examine your music

The insights you what you consider to be “good” music, (b) the pool of musics from which you may be inclined to draw examples for the classroom, and (c) the modes in which you feel comfortable interacting with music. When you compared the music circles of students with your own, did you find more intersections or contrasts? The intersections among your sets of circles can point to comfort zones from which you can launch into explorations of less familiar music. At first, the contrasts between your sets of circles may appear too great to find that background, preferences, and formative experiences. gain from this exercise

comfortable

common

may

reveal (a)

ground.

The

contrasts, however,

may

provide an

opportunity to explore the diversity of music knowledge and are present in

on which you can build

interests

skills

that

any classroom. They can point to student expertise and to enrich the learning environment.

In Chapter 2, our attention turns from music in our personal lives to music in the curriculum. We address how music is an essential compo-

nent of school experience and discuss the roles of classroom teachers and

music

specialists in

providing meaningful and imaginative musical expe-

riences for students.

References Crafts, S. D., Cavicchi, D., 8e Keil, C. (1993).

Wesleyan University LeBlanc, A., Sims,

W.

My music.

Hanover, N.H.:

M.

Music

Press.

L., Siivola, C., 8c Obert,

(1996).

style

preferences of different age Mstcntrs. Journal ofResearch in Music

Education 44:49-59.

May,

W.

V. (1985). Musical style preferences

and

aural discrimination of

primary grade school children. Journal of Research Education 33:7-22.

in

Music

*\

chapter 2

j*

Music and the Interdisciplinary Curriculum

V

isualize a scene set in the days

Roman

the

two-wheeled

individuals standing in small horse-drawn,

the race of their

heard,

which

lives.

carts,

poised for

Just before the race begins, a stirring fanfare

signals the horses

and

riders to

zon with determination and courage. Each

of

Empire, conjuring up

is

run toward the distant horidriver directs the horses

and

guides the cart through the smoothest parts of the terrain, leaving impressions of the chariot’s wheels in the ney.

The word

for the vehicle

on which the chariot runs

is

you

ground

are

to

mark

imagining

the path of the jour-

is curricle,

and the course

{Compact Edition of the 1271). Curriculum, the word we use

called the curriculum

Oxford English Dictionary, 1971,

p.

so frequendy in education to describe the scope and sequence of study,

is

quite literally a path or course of action.

For purposes of

illustration,

we

could suppose that the terrain repre-

sents the totality of human experience

forms of that experience: nomic,

cultural,

and

and the chariots represent various

social, political, scientific/technological,

aesthetic. Or, to parallel the

addressed as school subjects and disciplines,

we

way

eco-

those forms are

could imagine the chari-

ots as music, art, dance, literature, theater, history, science, mathematics,

language, physical education, or geography. Since we’re already taking liberties

with

this scene, let’s turn

our attention to the drivers.

teers in these vehicles feel a strong obligation to find the

expeditious routes to follow. are well acquainted

one another

with the

in parallel

They have terrain.

motion;

Transform the imagery in

at

traveled this

way

Sometimes chariots

The

most

chario-

direct

and

before, so they

travel alongside

other times, the paths intersect.

this visualization to set the stage for

what

is

come. Suspend the breakneck pace of the drivers and watch them pull back on the reins. Change the tempo and character of your imagined scene from a competitive race to a more relaxed and observant journey. At to

this

calmer pace, the drivers begin to notice interesting features of the ter-

rain that

were previously blurred and vague. In time, the drivers

start to


io

entertain

notions of traveling toward different inviting vistas, even

though the paths rest stop, after a

are less well traveled

welcomed

and

need of clearing. At a and some water for the

are in

stretch of the legs

and agree embark together on an exploration toward new destinations. The curriculum is both the terrain and the journey combined, or, in educational terms, a blend of content (knowledge and understanding) and process (teaching and learning). Further, the curriculum takes on meaning because it is designed for and takes place in particular settings (the school context and community). Teachers, charged with the responsibility to make informed decisions about content and process, articulate horses, several drivers discuss the possibilities of alternate paths to

goals and chart courses of action in the

The path of the

curriculum

horizon, however.

A

is

form of educational experiences.

not a straight- and- narrow race toward the

curricular course

of action may be adjusted and

redesigned as teachers encourage and accommodate student interests. Particular features of the educational setting cies

—

also influence the curriculum

constraints for action. at

when

schedules, resources, poli-

Of particular interest to this

which teachers decide

especially

—

by offering both opportunities and

to set out in

they consider

new and

how music and

chapter are the points interesting directions,

other subject areas can be

brought together in meaningful ways. In this chapter,

we

address central questions and issues related to cur-

riculum work of teachers and the role of music in interdisciplinary study.

These ~

central questions include:

What

is

curriculum

work and what views of knowledge

are

expressed in teachers’ curricular beliefs and practices?

~

What

is

meant by

a disciplinary or interdisciplinary focus

toward

the curriculum?

~

Why should music be considered an integral part of the general curriculum?

~

Why should disciplines in addition to music be featured as integral components of the music curriculum?

~

How

do current

curricular practices reflect various orientations

toward music in the curriculum? ~

What

are the characteristics

of teachers’ work

exemplary interdisciplinary curricula?

when

they create


11

The Questions of Curriculum The term

curriculum, is

many ways and

used in

contexts by participants in

the educational process. Although the chariot metaphor begins to address

“What is curriculum?” we might also productively “Where is the curriculum?” or “Where does the curriculum reside?” From the following list of possible locations, which description most the defining question

ask

closely

~

matches your typical or customary view of the curriculum?

The

goals

ciations,

and standards written and endorsed by professional asso-

teams of teachers, or policy-making agencies such as

state

departments of instruction or accrediting bodies ~

The

manuals, outlines, handbooks, teacher editions, student text-

books, and curriculum guides that organize the scope (what

is

to be

included) and sequence (the progression or order) of crucial ideas, concepts, and topics

~

The

lesson plans (written

and enacted) that teachers design

as they

prepare and direct educational experiences

~

The

experiences of students in classrooms as they

with

activities, materials, ideas, influential adults,

to acquire skills

~

The

come

into contact

and peers

in order

and understanding

expectations for learning held by parents, administrators, and

members of the school community ~

The

tangible forms of evidence that point to the strengths of a

school program, such as the accomplishments and performance of graduates, test scores, and public recognition for the

work of

stu-

dents and teachers ~

The

overall plan

of studies including

all

of the courses, course con-

and events that mark a student’s progression from elementary to middle to high school, often followed by college and university programs tent, activities,

~

The

lasting,

experience class,

The

long-term

—what we

effects

and enduring impressions of school

take with us long after the immediate course,

or lesson ends

curriculum can be represented in

many forms

—through

actions in

classrooms, documents, articulated beliefs, intentions, and memories.

Many voices

enter into the conversation about curriculum as they discuss

what schools should teach and what students should know and be

able to


12

do in order to grow and thrive as individuals and as members of a larger community. You may have noticed that hardly a day passes without some public debate in newspaper reports, journal articles, features, and interviews in broadcast media over the nature and purposes of the curriculum.

The

—

study of curriculum

ues, goals, participants,

its

of the educational process

(who often function

—

captivates the attention of critics

as well as teachers, administrators,

as critics, too). Critics point

many of us have begun

assumptions that

them

principles, content, processes, products, val-

and dilemmas

and parents

out the beliefs and

to take for granted

into question. If we take the criticism seriously,

questions, brush the dust from our assumptions,

by

calling

we wresde with

and engage

lum inquiry. At the heart of these

representations, conversations,

elegant and simple idea:

The

the

in curricu-

and debates

is

an

curriculum becomes real through the work

and students do in pursuit of understanding, defined by Gardner and Boix-Mansilla as “the capacity to use current knowledge, concepts, and skills to illuminate new problems or unanticipated issues” (Gardner 8c Boix-Mansilla, 1994, p. 200). Teachers have primary stewardship over the nature and character of this work; their intellectual and personal energies are directed toward the creation and sustenance of vibrant and compelling environments for learning. Curriculum documents and standards developed by others are useful as general outlines teachers

or descriptions of possible choices, helping to shape our broad concep-

—

and purposes with greater clarity. But teachers aware of their own and talents and of how these attributes complement the create plans for learning to suit interests, needs, and talents of students tions

interests, needs,

—

com“The construction of

the particular characteristics of school communities. Sizer (1985) pares curriculum

making

to the

work of an

the subject matter of any curriculum

prefab carpentry. school.

The

Master plans

pieces have to

fit

ate

most students well”

from

their

the conditions peculiar to each

and the nation that standardize be inefficient: no one set of procedures can

(p.

115).

Teachers design, invent, implement, in never-ending cycles

a task of cabinet making, not of

for cities, states,

instruction are certain to

serve

is

artisan:

of action and

assess,

and

reflection.

critique the curriculum

To do

so,

they must oper-

own conceptions of what curriculum work entails and what

the curriculum

is.

An

individual teacher’s view of the curriculum

is

con-

bound and dependent upon that persons values, past experiand theories of “how the world works.” This explains why you

textually

ences,

might hear such diverse and almost contradictory views of curriculum talking with teachers. Epistemology, a branch of philosophy concerned with the nature, forms, and limitations of human knowledge,

when


i3

addresses general metaphors and systems of thought. For example, contrast a

view of knowledge

as fixed

and

(what

static

we know about

a sub-

been discovered and sequentially arranged; the primary task of the learner is to acquire that clearly defined structure of knowl-

ject has already

edge) with a view of knowledge as dynamic and fluid (what

about a subject learners have to

edge from their

is

we know

constantly being defined, expanded, and redefined;

make sense of this rich but ill-defined universe of knowlown perspectives). In the first view, the learner’s mind is

a container to be filled with information; in the second, the learner actively builds a

system of

new understanding

using available information.

These views influence the way we think about knowledge in art forms and the way we design educational experience with artworks (Parsons 8c 1

Blocker, 1993).

Kliebard (1989) reminds us that for the products and processes of cur-

riculum planning and evaluation to be valid,

we must

critically

examine

our assumptions and beliefs about the nature of educational experience.

This

will help us to clarify our personal theories

of knowledge and to

acknowledge the way those theories are revealed in daily classroom practice.

Curriculum inquiry challenges us to make informed choices about

goals for our classrooms while exercising our critical

The time we spend asking questions about ular initiative may be more important to

and

creative powers.

the purposes of a

new

curric-

the final outcomes than the

nuts-and-bolts tasks of writing objectives, lesson plans, and long-range sequences. Kliebard identifies four primary areas for curriculum inquiry:

“why certain things should be taught, who should get what knowledge, what rules should govern teaching school subjects, and how the components

of the curriculum should be interrelated.”

He

continues:

“Curriculum development requires sophistication, judgment, and gence and only secondarily technical

The components of

intelli-

skill” (p. 5).

the curriculum and their relationships

addressed in the next section of this chapter. But

first, let’s

of a typical school setting to see what a classroom can

tell

are

take a tour

us about the

curriculum.

Take a Tour It

can be

.

.

.

difficult to find

an elementary or middle school that

empty by 5:00 or 5:30 because many

day’s activities after the school buses depart

ings end.

But

free to take

let’s

assume that we can find

an uninterrupted

through the colorful spaces.

stroll

is

teachers prepare for the next

and committee meetwhere we are

a school

through classrooms and wander


i4

In a cheerful, well-organized fifth-grade classroom,

we

start

the ubiquitous schedule written on a white marker board, the

contemporary counterpart of the day

entire

schedule a

is

is

chalkboard. Here, the

classic

partitioned into smaller chunks of time.

not the same every day,

day of the week

when some

we

find

with

more

Although the

we have stumbled upon

subjects, the “specials,” are

grouped

together to allow classroom teachers a block of joint planning time

with other teachers in their grade-level teams.

Opening

8:15-8:30

Reading

8:30-9:45

Recess

9:45-10:00

Math

10:00-11:15

Circle

11:15-11:30

Lunch

11:30-12:00

Recess

12:00-12:15

Specials:

Music RE.

12:15-12:45

Art

1:15-2:15

Library

2:15-2:45

12:45-1:15

2:45-3:00

Journals

We

know

this particular schedule doesn’t reflect the entire pro-

gram because we “Social Studies,”

find folders in student cubicles

and “Health” along with the

marked “Science,”

subjects fisted for this

particular day. Letters neatly stacked beside the cubicles are ready to

send

home

to parents, with checklists of school subjects to discuss

upcoming parent-teacher conferences. the hall and easy to spot from the telltale staff-and-treble-clef banner across the door. Since no one is around, you succumb to temptation, pick up a pair of mallets, and improvise on the xylophone for a minute. The music teachers week-

with the teacher

at the

The music room

ly schedule

is

down

posted near the desk at the back of the room, with the

is

names of 9 or 10 teachers per day written to the parade like

4D

this:

—

of 30-minute

5C

—Hutton;

you notice

of different grade

—

in the grid to correspond

This afternoon’s schedule looked

—

—

levels

Stein;

Kolarik.

and photographs from the

program. Rows and rows of smiling singers show

of front teeth.

—

3A Naughton; 3B Ehly; Under a border of composers’ samples of listening maps created by students 5B

Clark; Kindergarten

portraits,

classes.

full

last all-school

or partial sets


Finally,

notices of

above

you peek upcoming

into the

photocopier to

the

workroom/lounge where

teachers’

and workshops

in-service sessions

catch

*5

the

attention

are posted

of teachers:

“Connecting the Curriculum through Whole Language,” “Assessing the Integrated Curriculum,” and “Arts across the Curriculum.”

Disciplinary and Interdisciplinary Curricula Can you recall an instance from your own school experience when

sever-

seemed unrelated suddenly fell into place, forming a larger pattern that you had never considered before? Do you remember how it felt to make such a satisfying connection? Do you recall what circumstances led up to the new understanding? This natural sense-making tendency to connect, relate, associate, and join features of experience is a al

ideas that

The

hallmark of a capable learner.

cultivation of this

sense-making ten-

dency is one of the primary occupations of teachers. In the broadest sense, such connections constitute the fundamental rationale for interdisciplinary study in schools.

Few would fondly recall

way

a school

argue against such connections. Teachers celebrate and

moments when is

the “lightbulb goes on.” But

organized or the

these connections

more or

way

the curriculum

is

how

does the

structured

make

In the scenario above, the school’s

less likely?

organization seems to partition school subjects by time of day or week,

would be easy to assume that form powerful connections that cross disciplinary boundaries. But that assumption does not necessarily hold true if teachers keep these questions in mind as they

location within the building,

these partitions

make

it

and

design educational programs: relationships

teacher. It

difficult for students to

How

can schools emphasize meaningful

among forms of knowledge?

How can

students be encour-

aged to see the big picture and address interdependent, complex problems? Perkins (1992) suggests that

if

these connections are not explicidy

addressed by the curriculum, teachers should not assume that they will

spontaneously occur in the thinking of students. “Knowledge,” he cautions, “does

“The

not pop up reliably”

intellectual

world

is full

(p. 49).

of disciplines, subdisciplines, and

plinary combinations simply because there are so things,”

Hope reminds

us (1994,

schools, disciplines often

(Some of these

p.

many ways

disci-

to look at

and middle form of school subjects.

39). In elementary

come packaged

in the

subjects, like the “social studies,” are already labeled in

interdisciplinary fashion.)

Each

discipline or school subject has

its

an

own

central concepts, vocabulary, treasured examples, key figures, traditions,

problems, and forms of experience. These conventional categories are


i6

impose order on the world and on the school day, as well. But these disciplines and categories of knowledge can also cloud our perceptions by separating what could be related. Most elementary and some middle-school teachers identify strongly

useful to help us

with their chosen teacher”

whose

jects) or as

affiliation as

curriculum specialists (such as music,

cation, or theater teachers

from that of the

different

curriculum generalists (the “classroom

professional preparation features a broad range of subart,

generalists).

and

specialists attend to the potential

and cohere. For

must share

teachers

quite

we argue that stuwhen both generalists

In this book,

dents’ educational experiences are strengthened

to connect

dance, physical edu-

whose teacher education program looks

of disciplines within the curriculum

interdisciplinary understanding to flourish,

a collective responsibility for

and commitment

to

integrated forms of study.

Creative curriculum design requires effort, creativity, insight, and

The rewards must be worth the hefty personal and professional demands of time and energy for teachers. In the next two sections, we will argue for the benefits of such work from the perspective of both classroom teachers and music specialists. desire.

Examining Musical Connections

As is

the day’s schedule

in

Educational Practice

on the marker board

in

“Take a Tour” suggests,

it

common for school subjects to be taught separately in their allotblocks of time. We know from our own school experience, though,

quite

ted

that this compartmentalized schedule doesn’t prevent savvy teachers

from bringing school subjects together

in creative

and informative ways.

Think about your own educational history to identify examples when musical subjects have been addressed in other classes or when music classes have been enriched by attention to other subjects. You

may also be room

able to cite examples

practice

ple, recalled

from your own teaching or the

class-

One

exam-

of teachers you have observed.

how

his

high school English

teacher, for

literature teacher

had played

musical examples from the Elizabethan period that could have been incidental music for Shakespeare’s plays.

how the

Another teacher described

study of the music of Spain had enriched her foreign language

by emphasizing cultural traditions. In a choir setting, an expert on Old English literature and language was invited to the rehearsal to explain and authenticate the pronunciation of a choral text. Another director sent students to the library to find interpretations of Dylan Thomas’s poem, “Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night,” a text classes

they were preparing to perform.


*7

In what ways has interdisciplinary study been a part of your school experience?

What was the impact of this study on your interests and What examples of meaningful connections have you

understanding?

noticed in your classroom observations and conversations with other teachers?

Music in the General Classroom Music

is

just too powerful to

be confined to a certain space in the school,

block of time in the day, or particular teacher alone. Classroom teachers

who weave music dents to

tal rationale for

music

is

throughout the school day open opportunities for stu-

make connections this:

A

In the

first

is

is

activities to include

incomplete without

central to personal and shared experience.

chapter of this book,

of music in students’

exercise.

many forms of experience. The fundamen-

comprehensive general curriculum

music, because music

role

to

broadening the scope of topics and

Their responses

students’ surroundings

lives

we encouraged you

by asking students

testify to the

to investigate the

to complete the circles

ubiquitous presence of music in

and the ways personal identity and experience

are

marked, deepened, and remembered through music. Students use music as a

frame of reference to organize their personal

histories.

As

teachers

Figure 2.1

A Class of Second Graders Playing the Singing

Game

Charlie

over the Ocean.

Photo by Sandra Norstrom.


i8

seek ways to honor diverse backgrounds and to acknowledge individual differences, they activities.

may

ask students to describe their musical interests and

This act moves conversation from the general to the

and from the impersonal to the personal. performers, songs, or compositions or

involvement,

we

discover

new

When we stories

tell

specific,

reveal our favorite

about past musical

avenues for discussion and exploration.

Insight into students’ musical lives

is

not limited to verbal responses

Young children often become engrossed in classroom and may spontaneously break out in song or rhythmic chants

alone, however. activities

and charming extensions of their

that are natural

Through

interest

and enthusiasm.

these personal expressions, teachers and students

common ground

Traditions, rituals, ceremonies, celebrations,

communal

experience,

which

find a

and customs

are part

of

enriched by the inclusion of music.

is

Noteworthy events and achievements tragedies are

may

for interpersonal understanding.

commemorated with

are set apart

with fanfares; losses or

appropriate tributes.

When a commu-

and learners makes music together, social bonds and affilstrengthened. Performing in groups is especially satisfying

nity of teachers iations are

because individual efforts contribute to the success of the whole ensemble.

Teachers have observed the power of music making to knit a collec-

tion of individuals into a close community.

Another compelling reason to

its

for including

music in classrooms

relates

potential for cultivating perception. In our daily lives, music

everywhere and readily accessible, but random environmental exposure

is is

and depth of musical committed to educate the mind, body,

insufficient to educate students in the richness

experience. Because schools are eye,

hand,

ear,

and

develop students’

abilities to

among forms of experience.

In a world

feeling, teachers seek to

perceive and discriminate keenly

bombarded with sound, students must learn to listen with focused attention and intelligence. The sheer quantity and variety of images and sensations in modern life make it imperative for teachers to help students make sense of the jumble and learn to sort and sift among the choices.

When

classroom teachers use musical examples alongside narrative

accounts, folktales, poetry, paintings, sculpture, videotapes, films, and

CD-ROM

programs, they provide multiple paths of introduction to

important ideas and valuable opportunities to exercise perceptual

The

arts in general

have long been heralded

as a

skills.

domain where

cre-

and personal interpretation is respected (as in the popular exhortation “there’s no one right answer”). When assignments or projects are open-ended, such as ones that encourage students to write songs or to choose representative musical works to perform or describe, creative expression and interpretation flourish. Musical understanding, ativity flourishes


however, requires a balance of both creative and learn important lessons of evaluation lyze

and

reflect

upon

and

critical

thought. Students

aesthetic criticism as they ana-

their creative output.

A fuzzy attitude toward musi-

cal products (“anything goes”) upsets this balance bilities for

*9

improvement. Whenever musical

by downplaying possi-

activities are

incorporated in

the curriculum, therefore, teachers must account for the ways students

form standards of judgment and develop foundations of competence with the materials and tools of the discipline. Interdisciplinary study demands attention to the quality of the relationships among the areas we seek to connect, a matter of integrity we will address in subsequent chapters. Teachers often raise valid concerns about

the purposes of interdisciplinary experiences; cautionary voices help us refine

our beliefs and

when

it

ment

or

clarify practices.

appears that a discipline

window dressing to

a “perversion. servant”

(p.

. .

and

its

377).

other areas of study.

Schwab (1978) speaks of

A related criticism, reminiscent of this chapter’s opening

concomitant

recreational vehicle

is

launched by May (1993): “Typically, one sub-

activities

(RV)

turn out to be nothing

for the other, to

interesting excursion for students.”

misconceptions can occur”

(p.

rewards of engagement in the

make

more than

a

the other a palatable or

She warns, “Serious

distortions

and

185). Arts educators are particularly sensi-

because the

tive to these distortions

arts are

Many educators are jusdy concerned

corrupted or trivialized as an attach-

[which consists of] degrading subject matter to the role of

description of the curricle, ject

is

arts

full

range of extrinsic and intrinsic

seems stereotyped and diminished

if the

included solely for their entertainment or utilitarian value. These

cautions and concerns reinforce the need for interdisciplinary projects

informed by the knowledge, wisdom, and professional expertise brought to the curriculum by both generalists and specialists.

The Interdisciplinarity of Music Education Out of necessity and

passion, music educators are very protective of one

of their most precious resource, instructional time in the curriculum.

Leonhard (1991) conducted a national survey of arts education in American public schools and found that school schedules devote only one hour per week on average to music instruction at the elementary level. By the end of the first full week of school, the classroom teacher may have nearly as

much

contact with a student than the music teacher will have

over the course of a typical 32-week year.

At

the middle school level, only

28.6 percent of small middle schools (fewer than 500 students) and 30.8 percent of large middle schools (more than 500 students) require music classes,

although

tives. It is

many

schools offer band, orchestra, or chorus as elec-

not hard to see

why the wise use of instructional time

is

of great


20

urgency and importance to music teachers. For that reason alone,

many

music educators are understandably cautious about interdisciplinary

weighing their justification carefully in light of the ambitious goals and scope of the music curriculum. How likely is it, then, for the music specialist to incorporate the study of other disciplines into the music curriculum? We believe it is very likely, if practice is based on this premise: A truly comprehensive music program plans,

is

already interdisciplinary in nature because musical understanding draws

upon manyforms ofknowing and understanding. Strong programs in music education draw from varied sources of insight and information to

enhance the musical understanding of students.

When

this

enrichment

brings about breadth and depth in the performance, analysis, and creation

of music, while

at the

same time illuminating the

social, historical,

aesthetic dimensions of music making, the music

Hope

earns the label comprehensive.

hensive nature

is

lectual functions

true of study in

of

and the

and

justifiably

(1994) argues that this compre-

of the

arts,

suggesting that “the intel-

and philosophy [come] together subject matters, and purposes of dance, music,

art, science, history,

with the knowledge, theatre,

all

program

skills,

visual arts” (p. 40). In the following paragraphs,

we

describe these interdisciplinary dimensions of music education.

When

students perform, create, and respond to music, understanding

style. Teachers can emphasize the oriand genesis of a work, the conditions of its creation, and how those characteristic features of time and place influence the performance of the work. A technically accurate realization of pitches and rhythms can fail to is

enhanced through attention to

gins

move and

us if these crucial

stylistic

stylistically accurate

elements are ignored. Through authentic

performances of music, students are led to won-

der about the individuals or groups

who

expressed ideas in sound. This

natural curiosity establishes a purpose for finding out

more about the

people behind the music, and lures us to “travel” to other settings, peri-

and regions. Often when teachers and students find out more about the origins of a work, they attend to those impulses that moved composers and musicians to create in the first place. The impetus for creation might reside in ods,

an intriguing

text, a

tempting commission, a technological advance in

sound production, the desire to

virtuosic abilities

commemorate an

of particular performers, the

event, the challenge to portray a story, or the

urge to represent a feeling or idea. Each story of creation becomes an

opportunity to delve into other disciplines and forms of ence. Discoveries about the birth

and pedigree of

back into our music making and strengthen

it.

human

a musical

experi-

work

fold


Just as music reflects the social world,

it is

2,1

also firmly situated in the

and techniques that rely on the recognition, control, and manipulation of sound. Music educators teach students how to differentiate among sounds with perception and refinephysical world. Musicians develop skills

accuracy and precision, how to organize, and blend sounds in satisfying arrangements. The roots of this sensitivity to sound are fascinating, indeed. From infancy, children learn

ment,

how to produce them with

balance,

to recognize the distinctive qualities of timbre in their parents’ voices.

Soon, children gleefully discover the satisfaction of making varied sounds,

which

adults hear in their early vocalizations

to control the production

of that sound

is

and baby babble. Learning

a prerequisite to tuneful singing

in later years. Children also respond to intriguing

sounds in their envi-

ronment and learn the joys of making sounds themselves by banging on pot lids, dropping car keys, and playing with other delightfully noisy objects. Later, students learn to discriminate among and label hundreds of timbres produced by instruments and voices and develop finely tuned abilities to recognize certain performers or instruments by their distinctive sound qualities. The science of sound, acoustics, and the expressive creation and organization of sound, music, are closely related. Figure 2.2

Third Graders Playing a

Singing Game.

Photo by Sandra Norstrom.


22

Music

is

also physical as

thetic feeling.

From

it

relates to the body, to

movement and

kines-

the early Greeks onward, music frequently has been

touted as a means to enhanced physical well-being through control of the

and

breath, muscles, skeletal system, tongue,

larynx.

The

underlying beat

in a musical composition parallels the rhythmic regularity of the heart-

As

beat and respiration.

develop fine motor

movement

expressive

children grow, they

and increase

skills,

become more coordinated, Through

their breath capacity.

and playing, students use

to music, singing,

their

bodies to learn about music, internalize rhythm, and relate sound and gesture.

Even musical

activities

we

usually think of as developing “natu-

singing, are complex, coordinated systems of aural perception,

rally,” like

physical production of sound, and cognitive engagement.

Music

is

a

form of cognition, involving processes of thinking

and with sound. Composition, improvisation, performance, resentation, reflection tal skills

are

and

—

all

of these musical

activities

in

sound

analysis, rep-

depend upon men-

strategies that are particular to the discipline.

When students

engaged in music making, they perceive patterns and structures in the

music, compare

new sounds with

previously heard melodies, rhythms,

and harmonies, and respond with new creations, interpretations, and realizations. Amazingly, this system of complex mental activity works so fluidly and dynamically that we see, on the outside, what appears to be effortless performance. Because of the complexity and immediacy of musical thought, cognitive psychologists have turned to music as a fascinating subject for study and examination. Music educators especially wel-

comed

the inclusion of musical intelligence in the

list

of multiple

intelli-

Howard Gardner in his now-famous book, Frames of Mind (1985). As new findings in cognitive science enlarge our understanding of the way the mind works, we may eventually form a clearer gences described by

picture of the role music plays in cognitive development.

music

Finally,

tions, traditions,

is

an expressive

and

art,

with repertoires of works, conven-

common practices

as well as

opments, revolutions, and innovations.

We

groundbreaking devel-

examine the purposes and

processes of artistic creation through our study of musicians and their

works.

We

also study the expressive kinship

Ballet, musical theater, films,

and opera

text, gesture,

The

intersections

ground

for

Even though these

interdisciplinary aspects of music suggest multiple

associations with other subjects, not

adopt

this

art forms.

and narrative in original and and interactions of art forms curriculum inquiry and development.

they draw upon sound, images, provocative combinations. are fertile

of music to other

are inherently interdisciplinary as

emphasis in their teaching.

for the interdisciplinary nature

all

music educators are quick to

Some

caution that overenthusiasm

and benefits of music, when coupled with


?3

Figure 2.3

A Second Grader Performing “Ode to Joy”

Using

Graphic Representation. Photo

by Sandra

Norstrom.

the limitations of resources and shifting school policies toward the

arts,

could weaken the position of music in the schools. These cautionary voices are

worth heeding.

One argument

contends that the

arts are a special

standing with forms of representation, perceptual

province of under-

skills, abilities

to pro-

duce works, and evaluative capacities that take years to develop. Within the limitations of time and resources, proponents of this position argue,

would be wiser to concentrate on building their own competence and the competence of students in a primary art form. As programs or curricula broaden from this specialized base of experience, the fear of superficiality sets in. What if programs are so general and intermittent

teachers

that students develop only a cursory acquaintance with art forms? if students’

corrected?

misconceptions about the

arts are

Smith (1995) warns that “when the

arts are

channeled into the

mainstream and made part and parcel of everything,

becomes dangerously diffused”

(p. 24).

As

What

strengthened rather than

arts

education

the arts successfully permeate

the entire curriculum, arts educators begin to worry that integrated pro-

grams may be seen

as a

replacement or substitute for comprehensive

arts


24

curricula.

ment,

we

To

counter these fears of superficiality, diffusion, and replace-

believe that arts specialists should have primary responsibility

for developing regular

and sequential programs of instruction. This

to suggest that the arts are the exclusive province

General classroom teachers and that

complement both the

arts

arts specialists

is

not

of specialists, though.

can collaborate on projects

programs and other

areas

of the curricu-

lum, strengthening the overall educational experience for students.

broad focus on

“arts across the curriculum,”

A

however, must not compro-

mise the depth of “arts within the curriculum.” Figure 2.4

A Music Teacher and an Art Teacher Engaged in Collaborative

Planning. Photo

by Sandra Norstrom.

Multiple Perspectives on Music in the Curriculum we are introduced to four different teams of teachers who are engaged in curriculum planning around a conference In the following section,

table in the

media center of their

schools, listening in

on

their conversa-

when the question of the use of music comes up in Some of these teachers are classroom teachers; others are

tions just at a point

the discussion.

music tant,

specialists.

Their particular

roles

and

identities are not as

however, as what the conversations are meant to

ous ways music

is

illustrate:

impor-

the vari-

incorporated into the educational program. See

if you

can identify the perspectives of the teachers in each team after you read each scenario.


25

Team A planning for science, math, social studies, lan-

just

seems that

after

guage

arts, health,

and everything

"It

finish

I

used up

else, that I've

of the day,"

all

Ann

moaned. "So, to incorporate music somewhere,! have started to collect recordsomething to do with the topics and themes of other

ings of songs that have lessons. Every

now and then,

of cassettes and

we don't sing graders

"I

I

use one of the songs

theme

to introduce the

as often as

we could, but

to perk up.

really

It

I

I've

found

notice that each time

doesn't take

my collection

in

of the day, for example.

all

that

much

know

I

we do, my third

time, but at least

some music in the day." know what you mean, "said Alicia. do the same thing. I've found that cerchildren in my class who may be having difficulties in other subjects, like

there

tain

seem

CDs

is

"I

math or they

singing

whenever we

reading, join in with confidence

feel better

about themselves when they

such a good group

is

activity.

remember facts about math, science, or

Some

sing together.

feel like part

I

think

of the group, and

of the songs even help

them

social studies, too."

Team B "Do your kindergarten students seem since

we

switched to

this

new

all-day,

really frazzled

by the end of the day

everyday kindergarten plan?" Bridget

asked Ben. "My class hasn't settled into a productive schedule yet.""Absolutely,"

"Sometimes they get so wound up by the middle of the afternoon,

he

replied.

it's

hard to get anything accomplished. But

to be working.

It

seemed

to

I've finally hit

me that my class needed

on an idea that seems

an outlet

for their ener-

gy and creativity, so I've incorporated 'Expression Time' every day around :30 or so. The children find places at the tables or on the floor with big sheets of 1

newsprint and crayons or markers, and

play soothing, classical music

I

background. The kids spend about 15 minutes drawing to show

music makes them

feel.

As watch them, can just see them I

I

you should see some of their

colorful drawings!

settle

We hang them

up

in

the

how

the

down. And all

over the

room." "What happens next?" asked Bridget. "Do you talk about the drawings

"We could, but don't want the children to think there is only way to show their ideas," replied Ben. "Each drawing is so special and

or the music?"

one

right

unique that

I

I'm just

pleased the children have an outlet for their

Since the class always seems so after Expression

Time,

I

much more focused and

usually take the opportunity to introduce a

or social studies lesson while their minds are

still

creativity.

ready to concentrate

new math

fresh."

Team C After

"We

some really

pleasant chitchat, Chris called the small group of teachers to order.

outdid ourselves

comments from

parents

last fall at Parents'

who enjoyed

Night, didn't

watching

we? had so many I

their children perform.

By the


26

way,

I

have the parrot

still

my room and

in

I'd

be glad to donate him to anoth-

er classroom for a while.”

two

"Sorry,

and

gerbils

hamster are enough

a

about the program, though. Review when they brought they

agree

"I

September.

their children to school this

be expecting another grand gala

will

for me," Carla said.

even had parents mention our Rainforest

I've

this year.

And

think

I

I

I've hit

think

upon

just the right angle," she said with a twinkle.

was thinking about the opening of the new Community Senior

"I

and

I

came up

"What

we

if

Center,

with the idea, 'Generations of Entertainment,"' Carla continued.

sang songs of different decades, worked on a big time

line

of

events during those decades, found costumes to wear for different songs, and

and guests from the senior center as

invited grandparents

well as the parents

to see the children perform?"

Charles interjected, "You know,

have the whole school singing "I

we

could even ask for

some audience

songs or dances of various periods. Wouldn't

ticipation in the

the

at

think an intergenerational program

besides, Let's

any way that

can't think of

I

be

par-

terrific

to

same time with the audience?" would

feel like a

wonderful celebra-

and a way to bring the whole community together,"

tion

it

this

theme would

"And

said Chris.

involve classroom pets.

get started."

Team D "Japan.

Hmmmm

carefully

about

.

tion. "This invitation

Japan." Darlene, David,

.

.

this,"

Darlene

said,

of the exhibit/Water,

the fact that

it

ticipate unless

is

Air, Fire, Earth,'

almost too good to be

we

silent. "Let's

Museum Outreach Program

the

can

really figure

goals for social studies, literature,

think

art,

is

for

true.

the

intriguing.The

certainly has lots of potential,

coincides with a performance of the

the Civic Center

fell

from the educational director of the Art Center

sixth graders to participate in

theme

and Diane

reviewing the main points of the conversa-

and

Kodo drum ensemble

at

But don't want to agree to parI

out a way to weave our middle school

and music with these

special events in a

Remember how we felt about the African mask exhibit? It was wonderful, but didn't seem to align with our curriculum in the way we meaningful way.

it

had hoped

might.

it

How will

this

approach lead students to

a

deeper under-

standing of Japanese culture and tradition?" "I

think

we need to start

"For instance,

I

by asking some essential questions, "offered Diane.

would want students to answer the question 'How do Japanese

people express ideas about nature through poetry,

'What are David see

cultural traditions said,

how this

"I

think

we

and

should

project works with

art,

and music?' and

also

characteristics of Japan?"' pull

out our original goals for the year and

what we've already planned. In my case,

I'll

be

ready by that time to focus on tone color by teaching a unit on orchestral


instruments. But

might open

I

have some recordings of koto and shakuhachi music, so

study of Japanese instruments. Perhaps

by showing

how the

recordings of the

performance. the culture? "I'll

do

Diane.

“I

I

instruments are

I

orchestral instruments to our

in

could

tie into

made from

the elemental

natural materials.

drumming ensemble, we can prepare

wonder

think

I

I

up to include instruments of the world. We can extend what

it

know about sound production

students

27

I

if

for

If

I

theme

can find

the Civic Center

the drumming has a particular significance within

have some background reading and listening to do!"

a library search of artworks

remember seeing

was browsing through

it

and

literature to

see what

I

find," said

when

a terrific video series in the library catalog

last

week.The first connection that pops out

at

I

me is

something to do with representations of nature, but have to get deeper than I

that. What

makes

a

Japanese

need to think about the resentative works

and

er resources before

wood

direct

print so particularly

ways students

also in creating their

will

Japanese? especially I

be involved

in

studying rep-

own. Let's take a few days to gath-

we come together for our

next planning session."

For interdisciplinary curriculum work to be meaningful, teachers must address questions of purpose, balance, and relationship

nary areas. There

is

no question that

all

among

discipli-

of the teachers in these scenes

included music in the design of classroom experiences, but they used

music to different degrees, for different reasons, and, most

likely, to

ing ends. Certainly, music can be used as an effective strategy for

vary-

mem-

orizing facts, an especially pleasurable form of group activity, an oudet for creative ideas, or a focal point for

community

functions, as admirable or desirable as they

gatherings.

may

These useful

be, are inadequate to

serve as primary reasons for the inclusion of music in the curriculum. In

the absence of a stronger rationale, teachers could be led to a false sense

of accomplishment, assuming that music

is

being taught or learned when

might be more accurate to say that music is being used. What is the distinction? A comprehensive program attends to the quality of students’ it

experiences with music by addressing the ways students learn to perform, describe,

and

to study; the

create music; the use of carefully chosen musical examples

development of perception; and the cultivation of expressive

responses to music.

From 1987

to 1990, the National

Endowment

for the Arts

and the

U.S. Department of Education sponsored an ethnographic study of the

way

the arts are taught in elementary schools (Stake, Bresler,

1991).

The

study described

how

art,

& Mabry,

music, dance, and theater are

addressed in the schools by classroom teachers, arts specialists, and in-residence programs.

From

this investigation

artist-

of regular, ongoing prac-


28

Bresler (1995) identified four styles of arts integration in the

tice,

elementary curriculum: (d) coequal, cognitive.

want

subservient; (b)

(a)

As you

affective;

to refer to the conversations

and you may

social;

(c)

read the description of each

style,

from the teams of teachers

as described

above, which were written to illustrate these views and perspectives.

In the subservient style, the arts are used primarily in the service of other subjects to enliven lessons and to aid memory, but are not necessarily

taught as subjects in and of themselves. In other words,

arts,

such as singing songs with topical

lyrics,

activities in the

or coloring, cutting, and

pasting pictures related to chosen themes, are seen as sufficient ways to address teaching music or

art.

The arts are used to “spice” other subjects Wanda May’s analogy, they act as “recre-

(Bresler, 1995, p. 33), or, to use

ational vehicles.” The primary reasons cited for including musical activities in this style

were to save time by superimposing musical

activities

on

top of other subjects of study and to improve students’ self-esteem by allowing for other forms of classroom experience besides words and bers.

Ann

and

Alicia, the teachers in

num-

Team A, deserve commendation for

incorporating recordings and songs in the flow of the day, but from this limited excerpt of conversation,

we might wonder what

musical under-

standings are being addressed or cultivated.

Teachers

who

exemplify the affective style see music as a

change the overall ties as a

mood

change of pace or break in the

background to other

way

to

or tone of the classroom, using musical activi-

activities,

day.

Music may be played

as a

such as working on math problems or

completing seat-work assignments. Another attribute of

this

style

involves the use of music to invite creative, individual response. This practice provides

blocks of time or opportunities for students to respond to

recorded music by drawing pictures, engaging in movement, or describing

how

the music makes

them

feel.

Open-ended responses by the

chil-

dren provide outlets for individual ideas and reactions. Bresler suggests that teachers

who

incorporate musical activities in this

way do

so to com-

plement the structured and highly organized “regular” curriculum by including opportunities for students to respond in a

free,

unstructured

manner. However, they stop short of asking the kinds of questions or of

drawing attention to tic

detail that

would lead

perception and technique. In the example

enrich “Expression

Time” by

to the

development of artis-

ofTeam

B, then,

Ben might

directing attention to particular features of

the music and asking children to describe

how

their drawings reflect

those features.

The fabric

social integration style emphasizes the role of music in the social

of schooling. Music

among

is

seen as an integral

way to build community and community mem-

students, teachers, administrators, parents,


bers. Chris, Carla,

and Charles exemplify

this style as

29

they describe the

goal of the intergenerational program as a vehicle for bringing the children

and the community

together. School ceremonies, rituals, and traditions and values of school communities and also shape culturAlbrecht, 1988). Again, music is al expectations and norms (Barresi viewed as complementary to the overall curriculum as a means to entertain and to build cohesion. These social functions of music are very imporreflect the beliefs

&

tant but cannot stand alone as a foundation for musical learning.

Figure 2.5

A Third Grader Spinning a Dreidel While Classmates Dance the Hora. Photo

by Sandra

Norstrom.


3o

The tion

coequal, cognitive integration style emphasizes “active percep-

and

critical reflection

(Bresler, 1995, p. 34).

on the technical and formal

qualities”

of music

In this approach, teachers draw students’ attention

to the aesthetic content

of works, leading them to identify characteristic

and refining the quality of perception. This style was commonly found among the teachers in Bresler’s study; those teach-

features of the music least

ers

who

arts or

exhibited these practices either had extensive backgrounds in the

worked

in close consultation

plementary range of

skills,

with other teachers to provide a com-

interests,

and

abilities.

In the scenario,

Darlene, David, and Diane consider the overarching goals of their pro-

grams, the selection of representative, engaging works, the degree to

which

disciplines

and works

are related,

and the kinds of experiences and

involvement that will lead students to deeper understanding of Japanese culture. In planning, they inventory their

additional study and research.

Time,

own knowledge and engage

effort, professional

in

judgment, and

collaboration are key ingredients to the success of such ambitious and

worthy

initiatives.

Teachers and Exemplary Interdisciplinary Curricula Bresler’s study

of practice shows the range of meaning possible in the

phrase “integrating the styles as

arts into the curriculum.”

By

describing the four

they are found in schools, she portrays a range of beliefs and gra-

dations of depth in school programs that profess to teach music.

We can

form opinions about the quality of these programs by identifying the function that music serves in each classroom setting. the process of clarifying educational purposes

is

We can also see how

crucial to the design

of

an interdisciplinary curriculum.

work

comes from identifying characteristic and strong programs. From observation of such programs and reflection on the qualities of the Insight for curriculum

patterns in the

teachers teachers

most

also

inclusive, rigorous, inventive,

who design them, we have generated a list of characteristics of who create exemplary interdisciplinary curricula. As you read the

following characteristics, turn your thinking from the current status of

what is, what could be.

schools,

to the possibilities

and potential

for

growth and change,

~ Curiosity and an intellectual disposition to seek connections.

Teachers

who

are

for, listen for, and think about relaand coherent meaning act as models

prone to look

tionships, patterns, influences,

of intellectual curiosity for students.


3i

~ Attention to reciprocal and complementary relationships between Insights

from

ature, for

and among disciplines.

— —strengthen understanding

social studies, art, dance, or liter-

related disciplines

example

teachers carefully consider

how

in music. In turn,

experiences in music enhance or

strengthen understanding in the related disciplines. This synergistic affinity dissolves confining borders

up

between subject

fresh possibilities for investigation

and opens

areas

and experience.

~ Sensitivity to a balance of time and emphasis. Factors of quantity and quality of time are crucial. Teachers note the

frequency and duration of student engagement in a discipline and the portion of the day or

week devoted

They

to such work.

also

address the degree to which students attend to significant works, processes,

and products

not used as versa.

window

in the

complementary

disciplines.

Music

is

dressing for social studies, for example, or vice

Because representing the essential nature of disciplinary

knowledge

is

a weighty responsibility for those

whose primary

training has been in another area, teachers often turn to quality

resources or seek collaborative input.

~

Depth of understanding. Interdisciplinary experiences go

beyond shallow exposure

to deeper

forms of understanding, which includes knowing in more than one way. In particular, teachers design educative experiences that allow

many

students to study a work, theme, topic, or problem from spectives. In the arts, these perspectives

may be

per-

addressed by study-

ing a work’s structure and content, origin and context of creation,

and capacity In Chapter 3,

for expressive

we

meaning.

will turn our attention to matters

of quality

when

designing curriculum around music and other subjects. For educationally

sound programs, teachers must consider the

essential elements

experience, the strength of connections between

and broad goals and aims evaluate, create validity

and

for the curriculum.

critique curriculum, they

of educational ideas and

initiatives.

and among

As

must

of musical

disciplines,

teachers imagine and test the

soundness and


3s

References and Albrecht, G. (1988). School culture. In G. Olson (ed.), in on music teaching: The context book. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Barresi, A.,

Looking

Bresler, L. (1995).

The

subservient, co-equal, affective,

gration styles and their implications for the Policy

Review 96

(5):

edition of the Oxford English dictionary. Clarendon.

D.

J.

(1995). Music matters:

New York:

A new philosophy

Oxford University

(1971).

Oxford:

of music education.

Press.

Gardner, H. (1985). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple New York: Basic Books. Gardner, H.,

social inte-

Arts Education

31-37.

Compact

Elliott,

and

arts.

intelligences.

& Boix-Mansilla, V. (1994). Teaching for understanding in

the disciplines

—and

beyond. Teachers College Record 96

(2):

198-218.

Hope,

(1994).

S.

Making

Perspectives on

disciplinary connections. In B.

O. Boston

(ed.),

implementation: Arts education standards for

America’s students (pp. 38-46). Reston, Va.:

Music Educators

National Conference. Kliebard,

H. M.

(1989). Problems of definition in curriculum. Journal of (1): 1—5.

Curriculum and Supervision 5

Leonhard, C. (1991). The status ofarts education in American public schools. Urbana, 111.: Council for Research in Music Education.

May, W. T. (1993). Why al.

teachers cannot respond to Leonhard’s propos-

Bulletin of the Council for Research in

Music Education 117:

167-191. Parsons,

M. J., &, Blocker, H. G.

(1993). Aesthetics

and education. Urbana:

University of Illinois Press. Perkins,

D. N. (1992). Smart minds.

Schwab,

J. J.

essays.

New York:

schools:

From

training memories to educating

Free Press.

(1978). Science, curriculum,

and

liberal education: Selected

Chicago: University of Chicago Press.


Sizer, T. R. (1985). school.

Horaces compromise: The dilemma of the American high

Boston:

Houghton

Mifflin.

Smith, R. A. (1995). The limits and costs of integration in Arts Education Policy Review 96

(5):

Stake, R., Bresler, L., 8c Mabry, L. (1991). Custom in elementary schools.

Education.

Urbana,

111.:

arts education.

21-25.

and cherishing: The arts

Council for Research in Music

33

chapter 3

\*


At

the

end of the first day of the August

teacher in-service meetings at

Four

Nina Farraj, a music specialist, feltfrustrated. During the day, herprincipal had shown a series ofvideotapes on interdisciplinary teaching and how it had been implemented in a variety of schools. In the videotaped programs, music was mentioned only superficially or was poorly portrayed. The featured musical examples consisted mostly ofnursery songs to which new words had been added, and music teachers were never shown as members of curricuWinds

School,

lum planning change the

“I

role

teams.

The cumulative

of music

effect

of these examples seemed

to short-

across the curriculum.

Driving home, Nina mulled over the concept of interdisciplinary teaching. can see how there would be some real advantages to that approach, ” she

thought,

“but

I must convince my

colleagues that music can be incorporated in

a meaningful way that doesn't compromise music

H

itself.”

ow do

teachers integrate the

curriculum

well?

Ackerman

(1989) recommends that teachers consider validity within a discipline, validity for the disciplines,

and

validity

beyond the

disciplines

when

eval-

uating the intellectual and practical sense of interdisciplinary curricular

programs.

To judge

a

program

reasoned. This soundness

curriculum planning.

is

it is sound or well and interdisciplinary cast Ackerman’s basic

as valid suggests that

crucial to disciplinary

We have chosen, however, to

notion of validity in a slightly different way, by referring instead to the integrity of curriculum. Integrity connotes sound and valid ideas as well,

but also suggests the

“state

(Flexner, 1987, p. 990).

Curriculum plans, then, whether involving just

of being whole,

entire,

one discipline or more than one, must be evaluated wholes. Integrity within the discipline occurs

undiminished”

as full

when

and coherent

teachers plan and

conduct instruction in a manner that upholds standards of quality in a

Curriculum work in two or more content areas makes sense when teachers attend to natural and organic connections to preserve integrity between or among disciplines. Integrity beyond the particular field of study.

35


36

disciplines

is

addressed

when teachers consider the broad goals and purway the attainment of these goals contributes

poses of schooling and the to the students’ general

development and quality of life.

Integrity within the Discipline of Music

One

of the most important

essential in understanding

to the

roles

of the teacher

any topic, subject

metaphor of curriculum

as a

is

what

to identify

is

To return Chapter 2, we might

area, or discipline.

path discussed in

ask what assumptions or principles guide teachers as they navigate

through the territory of all that

possible to explore, ultimately selecting

is

the most important routes for exploration. If educational experiences in a discipline are to have integrity

and meaning

be asking the essential question,

What

for students,

are the

we must

always

fundamental components

and forms of experience in the discipline? Although it sounds redundant, teaching or learning music is dependent upon engagement in music. This means that active music making is the highest priority for both teachers and students, as opposed to learning about music through other, less immediate means such as reading about it in books, playing computer games with musical symbols, or listening to someone else discuss

how

gained from these secondary sources, music.

This mission of working

in,

they

make

certainly,

music. Insight can be

but

to

know

music

to

is

do

around, and within real music encom-

passes three intertwining branches of content: (a) musical examples or

music

literature, (b) the

elements and structure of music, and

(c)

the

processes of music making.

Examples/Literature as the Content of Music. Music

is

a

body of

works, although the number of works and range of styles are ever expanding.

These works may be centuries old or the immediate product of a They may be easily recognized by many people

improvisation.

“warhorses” of the literature) or

may be known to

be organized in familiar and predictable ways or ceptions and expectations.

or

may

staying

They may remain

dissipate the second the last pitch

power or

a relative few.

class

(the

They may

may challenge our permemory for decades

in our

is

sounded. Whatever their

influence, musical examples are not just vehicles through

which teachers teach about music; they are music. Bamberger (1991) reflects on the all-too-common dinner party conversation

when

individuals claim that they “don’t

about music” even

hum

when

number of

at all

tunes,

or whistle parts of them, and possess a rather extensive collection of

musical recordings. This paradox cal

know anything

they can recall a substantial

knowledge and the

common

may reflect

people’s beliefs about musi-

assumption that only certain kinds of

knowledge “count” toward musicality (being able

to sing or play fluently,


for example).

An

individual’s personal repertoire

is

37

one valid form of

musical knowledge.

What body of works will we

choose for the classroom? Criteria for the

choice of musical examples often include the appropriateness of the

example for the students; the inclusion of a wide

and

styles

menu of types,

of music; and the quality of the musical example

genres,

itself.

Appropriateness for the students includes a judgment of the example’s possible appeal. In the teacher’s professional opinion, will this music

engage the interest of students?

The answer

to this question often

depends upon particular classroom settings and the knowledge the teacher has of the students’ preferences and past reactions to musical

works. If the work

is

a song, the text

must be considered.

Is

the subject

matter of the text appropriate and interesting for students? School policies

and community expectations should

also

be considered when choos-

ing literature, as teachers strive to exercise cultural sensitivity in the selection of works to study

and perform. The length of the musical example

is

often a prime factor, as teachers select shorter or longer pieces based on their

knowledge of the students’ attention, endurance, and

plexity of the musical to

example

is

perform the work, teachers analyze

demands of the ities

skill.

The com-

also important. If students will

how

be asked

the technical and expressive

piece provide a challenge suited to the skills and capabil-

of the student. This can

vary,

though, with the type of interactions

may listen to a recording of a beyond their performing abilities but not beyond their skills of comprehension and response. The realm of possible musical works spans the globe and extends children have with the music. Students

work, for example, that

is

through centuries of human experience. Access to is

expanding

as

this

musical panorama

technology makes the preservation and transmission of

works commonplace. To be knowledgeable about music, students need to be familiar with a wide variety of musical sentative

works from various

styles

historical eras

and genres, such

and diverse

as repre-

cultural traditions.

Teachers make informed judgments about the quality of the music they select for the curriculum. Within the plethora of possibilities and the limited constraints of time, there are works that deserve our attention

works that

are too trivial, objectionable, or

mundane

and

to consider.

A

framework for judging the quality of artwork, including music, is provided by Reimer (1991): (a) craftsmanship, the “expertness by which the materials of art are molded into expressiveness”; (b) sensitivity, “the depth and quantity of feeling captured in the dynamic form of the work”; (c) imagination, which refers to the “vividness of an art object and

mance”; and (d) authenticity, the “genuineness of the

with his materials in which the control by the

artist

artist’s

its

perfor-

interaction

includes a giving

way


38

to the ters

demands of the

we

texts

material” (pp. 332-336).

will refer to authenticity in terms

Although

in later chap-

of the cultural origins and con-

of a work, Reimer’s use of the term suggests the presence of the ideas within the work as echoes of the artist’s distinctive personal

artist’s

signature within a

medium. Teachers continually define and

redefine per-

sonal and professional standards of quality as they note the lasting appeal

and endurance of works, student engagement and

interest,

and richness

of content that invites new interpretation.

Elements and Structure as the Content of Music. Music sound.

and

When we

perform, create, or listen to music,

regularities in the

—

sound

aural (heard) features that

comprehensible and meaningful to patterns can be heard and felt

of organization, and in so characteristic that

us.

on many

Music

organized

is

notice patterns

make

the music

interests us because these

many schemes Sometimes the patterns are

different levels, in

infinite combinations.

we can

we

identify a particular composer’s style, or the

work’s affiliation with a particular region or group of musicians. The a performer or sizing,

composer works with these

structures of sound

way

by empha-

minimizing, repeating, changing, or highlighting nuances within

the patterns

is

a reflection of the musician’s craft or fluency.

We refer to these patterns and structures as the elements of music, and we

them by categories of rhythm, melody, harmony, form, tone and texture (see Table 6.3 for a useful review of these elements). We use these categories to draw attention to particular features of a musical label

color,

many examples of these elements as they are we form concepts of music. These mental structures allow us to make sense of new works because we have built a good general sense or concept of how melodies go, how beats might be grouped into meters, how harmonies pull the music toward or example. After encountering

embodied

in varied types of works,

away from important tonal centers, or any other relationships of sound. Verbal labels and terms for these features expedite our conversations about music with other individuals.

The

teaching of music has integrity

when

teachers give attention to

these elements so students can form music concepts. Instruction often focuses

on musical examples

that highlight these elements,

which helps

students acquire a vocabulary of representative patterns and structures,

along with labels for identification. For example, teachers might begin by presenting a song in section to set

it

ABA

form, with very distinct differences in the

apart from the

B

A section. Later, students might attend to

the phrases within a section, labeling smaller groupings of musical ideas as

more subde differences in a phrase might lead to scheme of same, similar, or different, with a correspondof labels, a, a', or b. Perceptions become more acute as we learn to

same or

different. Or,

a categorization

ing set


39

attend to simultaneous layers of musical events while, at the same time,

we

notice additional musical details and nuances.

Fluency with these elemental building blocks includes our

ability to

recognize and label what we hear, but also extends to what we can do with

we work within the grammar or syntax of a musical style. How when we improvise in a blues style or play a Sousa march? How does rhythm work when singing a spiritual, or a work song, or other songs in an oral tradition? How does rhythm work when we play music

as

does rhythm work

an accompaniment to an African story song or tap repeated patterns on a

drum styles

These elements of rhythm, melody, harcan be found in many at the same time particular when they are

for a Renaissance dance?

mony, form, and so on

are universal in that they

of music, but they are

used in the “language” or syntax of a musical

style.

Figure 3.1 Fifth Graders

Performing with their Teacher in

an Ensemble. Photo by Sandra Norstrom.

Processes as the Content of Music. Musicians demonstrate an incredible

range of musical actions and

and

offer a diversified

competence and also create

new

interpreting

skill

To encourage such fluency in many options for music making

activities.

the music classroom, teachers provide

approach to musical development. Students gain

in performing

by learning

to sing or play. Students

musical ideas through improvisation, composition, and

and arranging the compositions of others. Producing sound


40

is

central to musicianship. Teachers strive to develop students’ sensitivity

to the relationships, qualities,

and subdeties

As

in sound.

students notice

how a work is organized, how characteristic elements can be heard in the music, and how these elements are used expressively, they show how acutely they perceive sound.

New

works

are learned

and created

as stu-

dents observe and imitate the music making of others, using the

hand, and voice to learn “by

how

to represent

sound

ear.”

To

develop music

in various forms,

literacy,

ear,

students learn

which includes reading and

writing using both graphic and conventional symbols for music. Finally, learners think about their musical experiences as they direct their efforts,

monitor what they have learned and what yet needs to be mastered, evaluate music and their performances of it, and consider

perform, create, analyze, or represent

fit

within the

how the works they

stylistic

contexts they

seek to understand. This realm of activity encourages deliberate reflection

upon sound. Comprehensive music programs with

all

resent,

of these processes. Students

and

reflect

who

give students experiences

learn to produce, perceive, rep-

upon sound become well rounded and accomplished

musicians.

Production, perception, representation, and reflection broadly encompass the fundamental processes of music. Consider

how

these four broad

processes are incorporated into the nine content standards for music in

1994 National

the

Standards

Arts

for

Education

(Table

3.1)

(Consortium of National Arts Education Associations, 1994). Table

3.1

Content

1

.

2.

Standards in

Singing, alone

and with

others, a varied repertoire of

music

Performing on instruments, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music

3.

Improvising melodies, variations, and accompaniments

4.

Composing and arranging music

5.

Reading and notating music

6.

Listening to, analyzing,

7.

Evaluating music and music performances

Music

8.

within specified guidelines

and describing music

Understanding relationships between music, the other

arts,

and

disciplines out-

side the arts 9.

Understanding music

in relation

to history and culture

Students engage in these forms of musical activity to acquire

develop technique, heighten perceptual tions, evaluate progress

abilities,

make novel

skill,

contribu-

toward goals, and most importantly, begin to

define their competence and identity as musical individuals.

Through

thoughtfully selected and arranged experiences in the classroom, students acquire the

skills

and dispositions

to

move toward independent musi-


The

cianship.

4

comes from mastering new challenges new musical ventures. Note that standards

satisfaction that

encourages students to take on

8 and 9 also refer to the music’s relationship with other disciplines, as necessary understanding for informed musicianship.

In summary, educational experiences in music have integrity when students and teachers are engaged in processes of producing, perceiving, rep-

and

on sound, while attending

to the elements

of

sound that make musical works expressive and give them significance

in

resenting,

our

lives.

reflecting

Whether

the classroom

is

inhabited by five-year-olds or college

students, the impact of the experience will

teachers

make from

depend upon the choices

the infinite varieties of musical works, elements, and

forms of musical engagement. Figure 3.2

A Third Grader Locates the

Ghana on

World Map

Before the Class Sings a Songfrom

Ghana. Photo by

Sandra Norstrom.


42

Later in the year, Nina Farrajfound herself sitting beside her colleagues in thefront ofthe

room during parent-teacher night. Her principal had organized

some of the innovative and collaboAs Nina listened to her colleagues, she was pleased to hear them describe how they had incorporated music in thoughtful, expressive ways into their study of literature, dance, art, and social studies. this

meeting

so the teachers could describe

rative projects they

had

designed.

Nina's zeal in communicating the essential components of instruction in music

had paid off, but

in turn, she

had also learned more about

the essence of teach-

ing other subjects in the curriculum. The teachers at Four Winds had spent

many

hours ofplanning

result, their ideas

When

it

and preparation to coordinate lively, and powerful.

their efforts,

and as a

were inventive,

was Nina's turn

to talk

about the changes in the music program

brought about by the interdisciplinary initiative, she began by describing this year

had been full of new

how

discoveries as she consulted historical and cultur-

al sources to enhance her understanding ofthe origins ofmusical works. She told the parents

how

the students

had

suggested placing a time line around the

perimeter ofthe music room as a record of the different works they had studied.

She

also displayed the large

cal traditions

of other

world map that helped the children

cultures.

Nina

also described

how

she

locate the

musi-

had learned much

from her colleagues in art and literature as they found meaningful connections among works of art and explored those connections with students.

Integrity between

and among Disciplines

In the previous chapter,

we

stated that teachers

purpose, balance, and relationship ricula.

Whether

a teacher

is

when

must address

issues

of

designing interdisciplinary cur-

planning innovative lessons individually or

working collaboratively within a team, great new ideas are accompanied by a flurry of important questions: Why are we doing this? What is the significance of these ideas? What forms of experience and classroom activities are most useful in gaining new understanding? Why put these particular ideas or works together? Are we giving equal time and emphato each area we’ve incorporated into the curriculum? For each

sis

plan or idea

we add

to the curriculum,

new

what will be replaced or eliminat-

Do we have the resources and materials we need? How will we realknow what the students learn through their participation in these lessons? What do we know about this topic already? What do the stued?

ly

dents know? Will they be interested in these ideas and find them useful? These questions are important to the issue of integrity between and

among

An

disciplines.

English logician

circles to represent the

objects or ideas.

named John Venn used

interlocking, overlapping

degree of relationship between and

among

sets

of

We can borrow this graphic organizer from mathematics


to test the validity

43

of ideas between and among disciplines. Representing

the relationship between ideas with circles

is

nothing

new

in interdisci-

plinary work; in fact, various diagrams, webs, and graphics are used in dif-

models of curriculum planning (Fogarty, 1991; Jacobs, 1989; Venn diagrams are a simple yet powerful tool to test the

ferent

Kovalik, 1992).

strength of connections and related ideas.

To begin, consider that music can be taught as a discrete subject, apart from other areas of the curriculum. If students happen to make a connection between music and another area, it comes as a result of their own process of discovery rather than any intentional act on the part of the teacher or school to stress the relationship.

Figure 3.3

Music and Another Subject

One cal

very

theme

common framework

for interdisciplinary

work

uses a topi-

as the integrative area (oceans, transportation, animals, the cir-

cus, etc.):

Figure 3.4

Music and Theme or Topic

In

many of the

topical units that

we have examined,

it

appears that

model only through the texts of songs chosen to relate to the theme. If you can “animate” the two circles above, move them together and overlap them only slightly to show the degree of their true relationship. In this instance, we might imagine the two circles with a very small shared area because only the words of the song relate to music

is

related to the general

the topical theme:

Figure 3.5

Music and Theme with Minimal Overlap


44

To move beyond

this rather superficial

“words about X” context,

choose two subject areas with a truly complementary overlap of content, such as music and social studies. lives

of people in the Civil War

When

era,

students are learning about the

music

may be used as

a

means

to

show

the depth of feeling and intensity of emotion. Here, the two areas are

drawn together with almost

a

magnetic

pull, since

studying the music of

the Civil War illuminates that time in history, and understanding the cir-

cumstances of the Civil

War

helps us to understand and perform the

music of that time with greater

sensitivity.

Figure 3.6

Music of the Civil

War and

History of the Civil

War

Finally, it is certainly possible to design interdisciplinary curriculum

units in

which more than two

subject areas are related in reciprocal,

plementary fashion. Art forms that are such as

ballet, are

com-

intrinsically multidisciplinary,

prime candidates for three- or four-ring Venn dia-

grams. To understand a

ballet,

students might study the music, the chore-

ography, and the visual elements of costume and set design. Each area integral to the holistic form, so the circles

move

is

together and overlap in

close proximity.

Figure 3.7 Music, Dance,

and

Visual

Elements

Venn diagrams can be

useful tools to evaluate the intersections of con-

tent found in single lessons, entire units, or year-long curricular programs.

We have found this strategy helpful in the early exploratory phases of idea generation, as well as later stages of review and evaluation. reflect

on curriculum

projects to evaluate

what should be modified ships

is

why

As

teachers

they worked so well or

in the future, the strength

of content relation-

assessed. In collaborative efforts, this exercise encourages teach-

ers to forge a

consensus about the purposes of the plan. Sketching out


45

these circles and thinking about the ways they overlap clarifies the nature

and extent of mutually complementary relationships between and among disciplines.

After severalyears ofteaching at Four Winds School, Nina decided to return summers to complete a graduate degree in music education. She

to school in the

found

the

whirlwind of classes,

worthwhile.

Her

readings,

about the Big Picture of education. reflected

and papers to be stimulating and had prepared her well to think

interdisciplinary experiences

Nina felt a

on the ways that her classroom

practices,

sense

of satisfaction as she beliefs about the

her strong

power of music, and important educational theories aligned. In courses on the foundations of education and curriculum development, Nina thought about the relationship ofher carefully designed music program to the interdisciplinary focus of her school. She confirmed her belief that music

and skills in ways that match their learnand personal styles. She thought ahead to her students' years middle school, high school, and college, and hoped that they would continue show enthusiasm for learning music and seek out new experiences in the

allows children to acquire knowledge

ing characteristics in to

future, whatever their professional goals might be.

Integrity beyond the Disciplines The philosopher John Dewey conceived of education

as

growth, a process

of “continual reorganizing, reconstructing, and transforming” (1944, p. 50). He called upon educators to examine the needs and capacities of students in order to plan curriculae that are “flexible enough to permit free play for individuality of experience and yet firm

enough

to give direction

towards continuous development of power” (Dewey, 1938,

p. 58).

For stu-

dents to realize their intellectual and personal power fully through educative experience, teachers

must contemplate the overarching purposes of

education and the curricular decisions and actions that lead to the attain-

ment of those

purposes.

We

might

ask:

How

does an interdisciplinary

emphasis in curriculum move students closer to the realization of their potential as individuals?

How

might the

cultivation of this potential

eventually lead to important advances in knowledge and the amelioration

of social problems? effects

How does a teacher ever really know the long-lasting

and ultimate outcomes of classroom experience?

Earlier in the chapter,

we

suggested that integrity beyond the disci-

plines involves consideration of the broad goals ing, as well as the

way

and purposes of school-

the attainment of these goals contributes to the

development and quality of life. Educational thought and discourse revolve around complicated issues and essential questions embedded in these two interrelated areas. Many educational theorists students’ general

have contemplated these aims of education, publishing arguments and


46

frameworks against which teachers can

assess beliefs and practices. This and practice is mutual, however, because educational theories often arise from practice in the first place. These important ideas and questions can stimulate lively conversations about the curriculum. Goodlad (1984) grouped the purposes of schooling into four

relationship of theory

Table 3.2

categories: (a)

academic goals;

cultural goals;

and

A.

The Purposes

Intellectual B.

Table

and

3.2).

Academic Goals Mastery of basic

of Schooling (Goodlad)

(b) vocational goals; (c) social, civic,

(d) personal goals (see

skills

and fundamental processes

development

Vocational Goals

Career education C.

Social, Civic,

and

Cultural Goals

Interpersonal understandings Citizenship participation

Enculturation

Moral and ethical character D.

Personal Goals

Emotional and physical well-being Creativity

and aesthetic expression

Self-realization

How

do these worthy

goals,

which we often view

culmination

as the

of experience from kindergarten through college, play out in the everyday reality

of lessons and classes? Interdisciplinary study

may be

crucial to the

attainment of these large purposes by dissolving boundaries between subjects

and allowing teachers and students

to

work together on

large,

com-

plex problems and issues.

Another view of the mission of schooling

especially relates to the arts

in the overall experience of schools. Eisner (1991) proposes six aims of

schooling that hold profound implications for school plinary curriculum development.

He

life

and

interdisci-

suggests that these ideas are the

and worthwhile lessons we could teach, including (a) the idea is sometimes difficult, often exciting, and occasionally fun,” (b) learning “how to formulate [our] own problems and

most

valid

that “the exploration of ideas

how

to design the tactics

and

strategies to solve

them,”

(c)

encouraging

the “development in the young of multiple forms of literacy,” (d) “teach-

ing the young the importance of wonder,” that they are part of a caring community,”

(e)

and

“helping children realize

(f)

“teaching children that

they have a unique and important personal signature” (pp. 13-16).


47

Eisners aims inspire us to provide students with imaginative and

and

expressive experiences in music, art, theater, dance,

literature.

To

design these experiences with creativity and insight, teachers need to consider

how

which

is

they

come

know new works

to

the subject of Chapter

4.

fully

and comprehensively,

may

Personal insights

lead to peda-

gogical insight in preparing to teach those works to students.

References Ackerman, D. B. (1989).

Intellectual

and

practical criteria for successful

curriculum integration. In H. H. Jacobs curriculum: Design

and implementation

Va.: Association for Supervision

(ed.), Interdisciplinary

(pp. 25—37). Alexandria,

and Curriculum Development.

Bamberger, J. (1991). The mind behind the musical ear: How children develop musical

intelligence.

Cambridge: Harvard University

Press.

Consortium of National Arts Education Associations. (1994). National standards for arts education: What every young American should

know and be

able to do in the arts. Reston, Va.:

Music Educators

National Conference.

Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education.

New York:

Dewey, J. (1944). Democracy and education: An ofeducation. E.

Eisner,

W.

New York:

(1991).

Collier.

introduction to the philosophy

Free Press. (Originally published 1916.)

What

really

counts in schools. Educational

Leadership (February): 10-17. Flexner, S. B. (ed.). (1987). The

language (2nd ed.).

Random House

New York: Random

Fogarty, R. (1991). The mindful school: Palatine,

Goodlad,J. Jacobs,

I.

H. H.

111.:

(1984).

How

dictionary of the English

House.

to integrate the curricula.

Skylight.

A place called school. New York: McGraw-Hill.

(ed.). (1989). Interdisciplinary curriculum:

mentation.

Design and imple-

Alexandria, Va.: Association for Supervision and

Curriculum Development. Kovalik,

S. J.

(1992). Integrated thematic instruction. Village of Oak Creek,

Ariz.:

Books

for Educators.

Reimer, B. (1991). Criteria for quality in music. In R. A. Smith 8c A.

Simpson

(eds.), Aesthetics

of Illinois Press.

and arts

education.

Urbana: University

—

chapter 4

*\

]*

Getting to Know a Work of Art

Sometimes Running

Sometimes running and

to yes nothing

too fast to look

where and at what I stand and there are trees sunning themselves long a

brook going and jays

and jewelry

in all leafages

because

I

pause

John Ciardi

n his poem, “Sometimes Running,” John Ciardi (1962) reminds us that if we don’t take time to examine the world around us and the world within us, we will miss the opportunities for awe and wonder that life can offer. The arts music, painting, sculpture, poetry, dance, and theater

I

—

can be powerful antidotes to our sound-byte culture.

Thomas Moore,

asserts that “we’ll feel

ing.”

The

arts are

of contemplation

fast-paced, quick-fix,

book Care of the Soul (1992), empty if everything we do slides past without stick-

important because they arrest attention and “invite

us into contemplation

we

stress-filled,

in his

—

a rare

commodity in modern life. In

art intensifies the presence

of the world”

that

(p.

286).

are participating in the arts as creator, performer, or perceiver,

able “to see

quencies, to

more

.

.

.

moment

When we

are

more on normally unheard frebecome conscious of what daily routines, habits and conventions in our experience, to hear

have obscured” (Greene, 1995,

p. 379).

To

achieve this heightened aware-

ness,

one must make a commitment of time and

who

painted spectacular canvas-filling flowers, said,

49

effort.

Georgia O’Keeffe,

—

“Still

in a

way


5°

—

nobody

sees a flower

—

really

—we haven’t time—and

so small

it is

to

see takes time, like to have a friend takes time” (cited in Hecht, 1995, p. 4).

Just as O’Keeffe took the time to observe every minute detail of the

flowers she painted, sents to us.

we viewers must

So while the

arts

they cannot automatically offer their only casually.

become

To

actively

take the time to “see”

can serve

derive full value

as a catalyst for

full benefits if

from the

arts,

they are encountered

we must be

willing to

engaged with them over time.

human

Art, as a refinement and intensification of our

(Dewey, 1934), is a magnifying glass for the be used to bring cloudy images into focus. sunlight with

what she pre-

contemplation,

enough

intensity that

soul. It

experience

A magnifying glass can

can also be used to focus

can burn a hole in paper. The

it

artist,

through visual images, melodies, physical gestures, or poetic language, not only helps us clarify our thoughts about distill

and intensify the

feelings

life

experiences, but also helps us

of joy, sorrow, wonder, or amusement

associate with those experiences. Consider, for example,

serves to

more

add meaning to an experience or to intensify

We

impact.

sing

festive.

“Happy Birthday”

to

make

its

Quiet, reflective music adds solemnity to a funeral. Film

relax in a flood

of relief as the violins

level,

soar, assuring us

or allow us to

of a happy ending.

intense responses to the arts often provoke a desire to convey our

newly discovered insights to others. Our verbal attempts to do er,

emotional

a birthday celebration even

soundtracks pique our anticipation, raise our anxiety

Our

we

some ways music

so,

howev-

lack the forms of representation in sound, space, and time that are the

qualitative

dimensions of artistic experience. Words seem

when compared with

the fluid,

lively,

like straitjackets

and simultaneous elements of a folk

dance, jazz quartet, opera chorus, or grand finale in the musical theater.

as

Still, we are compelled to attempt to represent our experience in words, much to ourselves as to others. For ourselves, we seek to articulate our

understanding and to observe our processes of engagement in the hope that future encounters with artworks will be as intense, enjoyable, and

profound. In our roles as teachers, friends, or family members,

we

most vibrant responses so that others might seek similar opportunities for artistic experience. Leonard Bernstein (1959), as gifted describe our

as

anyone in pointing the way to musical experience through words,

resigned himself to “joining the long line of well-meaning but generally

doomed folk who have tried to explain the unique phenomenon of human reaction to organized sound” (p. 11). He summarized the necessity

and

inevitability

of the challenge:

Ultimately one must simply accept the loving fact that people enjoy listening to organized sound ( certain organized sounds,

Getting to Know

a

Work

of Art

51

anyway); that this enjoyment can take the form of all kinds of responses from animal excitement to spiritual exaltation; and that people

exalted

who

can organize sounds so

responses

are

commonly

as to

called

evoke the most

geniuses.

These

axioms can neither be denied nor explained. But, in the great tradition of

man burrowing

mind, hitting

his

ing a pinpoint of light, there’s

through the darkness with

head on cave

no stopping

we can

walls,

at least try to explain; in fact,

us. (p. 11)

Attending a concert, dance, or play

own

his

and sometimes perceiv-

is

an opportunity to observe our

process of engagement with works of art. In the next scenario,

com-

pare this description of engagement with arts performances you have attended. Several months ago you purchased ticketsfor a performance of Shakespeare's Twelfth Night by an acclaimed acting company. You have anticipated this ,

performance for weeks (whenever you've had a tiny crevice of time to think about your cultural agenda in the midst ofyour hectic schedule). Now, on the evening ofperformance, yourfrustration mounts as unsolicitedphone calls cause

a chain reaction of delays, compounded by heavy traffic and packed parking ramps. As the usher escorts you to your seat and hands you the playbill, you consider speed-reading the synopsis, just so you'll be better prepared to understand

the roster ofplayers

and enjoy

a copy of the play from the

this comedy. “Perhaps

library,

I should have

checked out

"you think with a twinge of regret, just as

the hall lights dim. "Ifmusic be thefood oflove, play on.

you that you

didn't

"The opening line only serves to remind

have time for dinner

after work.

For the first 10 minutes,

you struggle to calibrate your ear to the rhythms and vocabulary ofthis rich linguistic feast. "Maybe I'm just too frazzledfor Shakespeare ton ight, "you think still working diligently to catch the flow of the story and the of the characters. "I'll go alongfor the ride, but they'll have to lug me along with them. "Then, the miraculous happens as the preoccupations ofthe

with resignation, relationships

dayfade and you find yourself caught up in Shakespeare's web of words. In the crazy mix-up ofidentities, you is

want to call out to warn

Olivia that her beloved

not Cesario, but Viola in disguise. You sense that

it

is

inevitable that

Malvolio willfall right into the trap of vanity set for him by Sir Toby Belch and his drunken cohorts. You listen with rapt attention as Feste, the jester, addresses the centralflaws

andfeatures of the human condition. By the end of and thankful that even though your life

the play, youfeel uplifted, transformed, is

complicated andfast moving, the problems you need to solve arefar less messy

than the tangled webs of deceit

and dirty

tricks portrayed in this

comic

tale.


5?

The Individual and the Artwork The

preceding scenario depicts the power of artwork to engage and move

an individual, not just in the sense of deep emotional response, but also in the sense of the individual’s relationship to the

work of art. To

discuss

metaphor of location, in which distance or position signifies engagement and understanding, will be used. At the beginning of the play, this person was fully “outside” the play, caught up in the vicisthis relationship, the

situdes of modern life that contributed to the sense of distance from deep comprehension of meaning or personal response to the work. If you can imagine yourself as the playgoer in this scenario, we might say at the outset that

you

are as

removed

as possible

from Twelfth Night.

Figure 4.1

Removed "from

“

the

Work

You look on

the

be preserved or studied, but

this

This distance brings detachment and

work

as

an important cultural

artifact to

objectification.

preservation or study exists apart from your rich, subjective inner

may examine process. Or,

that frill

life.

You

the work, but you aren’t led to examine yourself in the

it is

certainly possible,

you have little interest or idle amusement.

in the

when you

work

at

all,

are in the

“removed”

viewing

as

it

state,

an extraneous

In contrast, search your personal experience to recreate the sense of

—engaged

being fully within a work

response, or dialogue with the a time

work

in

comprehension, personal

or the impulses of its creator. Recall

when your senses were heightened and your perceptions were

while performing, listening

to, creating, evaluating,

clear

viewing, or examining

poem, sculpture, dance, or other work. The distracting barriyou at arm’s distance were removed, and the dimensions of the experience were expanded. For a time, you were transported to the center of the artistic experience. When the encounter with the work a song, play,

ers that held

ended, you may have felt a sense of returning to the world of reality. Although we may not be able to articulate how we arrived at this “place,” we remember the vitality, the sense of personalization, heightened awareness, and enhanced meaning.

Getting to Know

a

Work

of Art

53

Figure 4.2 "Within” the Work

The cipline

business of philosophy, psychology, sociology, and the hybrid dis-

of education

in the arts

is

and the location of “within” and

from one

to the other.

to describe both the “removed” position also to address

Since location

is

how an

individual moves

our current metaphor,

we

are

going

to call this notion the idea of transport.

You

Figure 4.3 Transportfrom

“Removed" to "Within the Work

Transport

ment sion,

to

is

concerned with an individuals progression from detach-

engagement, from

superficial acquaintance to

from transitory encounter

encounter the

arts in

deep comprehen-

to long-lasting ownership.

When students

classroom settings, teachers have opportunities to

observe and reflect upon the degrees of engagement, comprehension, and

among

ownership

students.

We

removed, confused, or disaffected;

sense occasions

we

when

students

also feel the exhilaration

are

of con-

nectedness.

Figure 4.4

Engagement with

and Comprehension

Comprehension

As we

orchestrate educational experiences for the classroom,

direct our reflective effort to

allow or even propel insights

may

we can

pay attention to the forces or conditions that

movement from “without”

to “within.” In turn, our

strengthen the quality of students’ encounters with music,

theater, art, dance,

and

literature.

of the Work


54

Examining Personal Experience

The Transport Exercise One way to gain insight care

and deliberation

Through

this

into teaching

to the quality

and learning

of your

own

is

to attend

with

personal experience.

examination of your thoughts and responses, you

may

find parallels to important puzzles of curriculum design and instructional strategy. Play with the notion

musical passing.

work

that you don’t

know

of transport by choosing a

well but have been attracted to in

(You could either choose a recording

to study or a musical

example to perform.) Set a limited period of time haps

—

to chart your

own

—

a

weekend, per-

progress from “removed” to “within.”

Use

your strategic thinking and available resources to move yourself from superficial acquaintance

Make

with the work to

fuller,

note of your path and the moves you

deeper understanding.

make toward understand-

ing in an attempt to monitor your own responses to the process. When you think you’ve arrived in the center of understanding the work (as centered as possible in this short

window of

time),

you learn about the means of transport you used

conveys the best sense of the journey, draw a

illustration

process.

Engage

~ ~

in this experiment before

You may find

this chapter.

about the

summarize what

to get “within.” If an

map of your

you read the remainder of

the following questions helpful in thinking

task:

How do you define “within” and “without” in your own terms? How do you know when you reach a point where you are able to think and feel “within” the music?

~

Can you

fall

out of that center place? Does the depth of experi-

ence endure or fade? ~

What

Why?

about the rate of transport? Sometimes

we

“get it”

imme-

Sometimes works grow on us. Does it make any difference whether you get “within” at a snail-like 35 miles per hour or diately.

a speedy 65?

~

What port?

helps you to understand the music?

How do you eliminate distractions

What

blocks trans-

along the way?

Stages of a Relationship with a Musical Work are, no doubt, as many paths from “without” to “within”

There

are combinations

as there

of individuals and musical works. Teachers probably

cannot predict or prescribe or understand a work, or

how quickly students will be ready to perform

when

they will

come

to

“own” it. Generalizations

Getting to Know

new work

know

of Art

55

work

are tricky because each indi-

to the pool of

works already known (what

about the process of getting to vidual relates the

Work

a

a

The depth and

cognitive psychologists called schematic knowledge).

width of this known pool vary among individuals, of course. Personal histories act as lenses, filters, or mirrors for

For the purpose of

any individual

work

1

(see

illustration,

may go through

Table

new

experience.

however, entertain the possibility that

various stages of a relationship with a

4.1), just as friendship or courtship

progression from

initial

may go through

idea of stages implies that everyone passes through each stage in the

sequence, an itinerary that artistic

certainly too rigid

is

and

ment with

same

linear for describing

experience or personal relationships, a general

in the quality

a

introductions to deep intimacy. Although the

map

of experience might illuminate varying

of the changes

levels

of engage-

a work. For this description of a deepening relationship,

assume that the individual

first

hears a recording or live performance of a

musical composition.

Stage 0

Description of Stage

No

Table 4.1

relationship. You have no contact with nor interest

work. You have never heard care to hear 1

it

it,

or you have heard

or association.You recognize the

2

and do not

Interaction with

a Musical Work In

public or private settings,

you have heard the work and recognize

in

Stages of

the

again.

Personal, incidental relationship.

it

it

in

it,

either

by sound, title,

work whenever you encounter

your everyday experience.

Personal, intentional relationship.

out the work so that you can hear

on the

radio, or

it

In

private settings,

more

perhaps you make note of the

purchase a recording of melody, singing

some

it.

You

you seek

often. You listen for

find yourself

title

it

so you can

humming the

of the words, or tapping the rhythm as

you bond with the work. The important element of personal choice this

3

is

exercised at this level;you take the initiative to select

work over

others.

Public relationship. You

enjoyment of or

commit to

leagues, or students about

it.

recording or play the work for

You make your preferences 4a

a public declaration of

your

work by telling your friends, colPerhaps you endorse a particular

interest in the

them

to see

how they

respond.

public.

Performing relationship. You expend the effort to learn the work so that you can play it or sing it without the recording or that is, you memorize it. You also bring your own interscore

—

pretive ideas to the performance.

continues


56

Table

4.1

Stage

Description of Stage Pedagogical relationship. You know the work so well you

4b

Stages of Interaction with

decide to teach

a Musical Work

with understanding or be able to perform

(continued)

you

will

teach

it

to others so they

and how you

it

will

will

be able to it.

listen to

it

You determine how

enhance the students' learn-

ing by providing information about the sociocultural context of

the work. You engage it

origins

and

in

research about the

work

to understand

structure.

Long-lasting personal and professional relationship. You

5

come back to the work time and time again

for further levels of

understanding and enjoyment. The work takes personal repertoire of

leagues

may

known

associate this

favorite song''or"l

— work with you

performed

its

place

in

your

works. Students, friends, or col-

this

"This

is

Michael's

work with Ms. Howard

in

high school."

Certain themes that run through this progression suggest principles to consider when constructing curriculum in music: repetition, choice, iden-

elements/structure, performance, critique/evaluation,

context,

tity,

creative response,

and

resources.

A

common theme

is

opportunity to become familiar with a work by hearing

Multiple encounters are often necessary, for just

repetition, the it

many

as the creator

times.

of a work

may persevere at the task of bringing a work of art to fruition, perceivers may need patience and time to cultivate a relationship with a work. Some individuals experience sudden, immediate, first

and profound insights on

hearing of a composition; for others, meaning

is

a

revealed in layers as

work again and again. The speed of revework as well as the perceptual skills and prior knowledge of the listener. Through repeated encounters, we incorporate the images, sounds, and patterns from the work into our “interior” until we sense that we know the work. Like the nearly obsesthe listener comes back to the

lation

may depend on

sive process

features of the

of playing a new recording over and

“within” the music

when we

over,

we know we

are

hear the sound of the next selection in the

between tracks of the compact disc. Choice implies a level of personal commitment. When we seek out a particular work and select it over other possible works, we have already silences

made

tentative

piqued by the

connections with the work. Attraction and interest,

tide,

composer, or familiarity with similar works, lead us to

take the initiative to hear the

work again and

again. In classrooms,

it is

typical practice for teachers to select the musical material to study or per-

form, so this desire for another encounter with the piece must be kindled by some other means (planning the introduction of the piece to pique

Getting to Know

a

Work

of

Art

57

students’ curiosity, for example). If listening stations are available, stu-

dents can

make

own

their

decision to hear works again and again, or to

something new. Identity

select

is

another theme. We respond to the work

composer, or as a teacher imagining

as a listener, performer, or

how

our

would respond. We can direct our attention toward the work in different ways depending upon the personal or professional hat we are wearing at the time. The context of a work is important in situating the example in a time or place and in addressing its power in the lives of individuals and groups. Through heightened perception of elements, we notice how the work is constructed, or focus on the constituent parts that make up the whole. We may approach the work from various perspectives of personal experistudents

ence, or stances of performer, critic, or creator. Resources are also

important.

We

can turn to liner notes, commentaries, analyses, scores,

other recordings, other musicians and teachers, or biographies to assist

our interpretation or process of understanding.

may be a nechow we become the point where we decide to bring

Studying our responses to and engagement with a work essary prerequisite to teaching that work. If

enamored or intrigued with a work to it

into the classroom,

relationship with

it

we

notice

we may be able to communicate we introduce it to students.

the intensity of our

as

A Teacher’s Path from "Outside” to "Inside” in Preparation for Curriculum Development teachers, we have observed classroom experiences

As

particularly innovative

thoughtful teacher.

that struck us as

and engaging, bearing the imprint of

a creative,

We have also read impressive, carefully designed, and

thoroughly researched lesson plans, which have inspired us to explore

new

ideas in our classrooms. It

is

not as

common, however,

to be able to

eavesdrop on the birth of the ideas that lead to these experiences and plans. ities

How are little sparks of ideas fanned by teachers into the vivid real-

of classroom practice?

of a teacher

who

is

What goes on

behind the scenes in the mind

casting about for ideas in preparation for classroom

experiences?

In the following excerpt from the journal of an experienced teacher, Joanna describes her process for understanding a work of interest, the Concerto Grosso 1985 by Ellen Taaffe Zwilich. Joannas entries describe her encounters with Zwilich’s

how

work as

a series of phases.

As we

read,

we

notice

she remains open to the possibilities for imaginative curriculum

design that stem from her

own

curiosity

and engagement

as a learner.


58

Joanna’s Journal Phase one:

I listen

to the

music a couple of times while reading the

sparse notes with the recording.

I

know I do

ture without trying to understand

things. I can hear the

sounds

Handel

this to get the big pic-

any components.

I

notice a few

influence. I think Zwilich’s music

like a scribble.

Phase two: Another the notes. First,

day. I

have some more information

now from

read that Zwilich was commissioned by the

I

Washington Handel Society for a piece commemorating Handels 300th birthday. I found out that Zwilich played the violin and loved the sonata she quotes in the music. Armed with a little more information,

want

I listen

to see if

the music.

again, but

my ears

They can

teaching hat on.

and the new.

I’ll

still

am

not ready to follow the score.

can hear the juxtaposition of old and

—very

easily. I

now

new

have the hook to hang

I

in

my

have the students listen for and compare the old

I like

how

Zwilich’s music flows into Handel’s

and

back again. Phase three: if I

I listen

three times with the score in front of me to see

can come up with a plan of the piece.

It’s

pretty simple

and one

that fifth graders can discover. After an introduction of long tones,

the Zwilich sound takes

off.

Soon

theme, taking us back 300 years. return.

The two

able to hear this,

eras flow

and

it

a violin breaks in with Handel’s

The

late-twentieth-century sounds

—

back and forth

sounds neat.

I

yes, the kids will really

be

know that what I’m doing here when I try to hear the piece as

putting on my “kid ears,” which is my students would, figuring out what catches my attention first. Phase four: After letting the piece jell in my brain, I listen once just to enjoy it. This is the place where I know I am inside the music because my brain is full of the fun it will be to introduce this music to the kids. Then I start to sketch out my curriculum. My own path is

from “outside” the work Figure 4.5 Joanna’s Path

from Outside Within

to

to “within” looks like this:

Getting to Know

We

Work

a

of Art

59

can identify Joanna’s process of bonding with the work through

repetition, her pedagogical stance as she considers

respond and “get

it,”

how

the students will

and her intentional use of resources

to

expand her

knowledge of the composer’s creative intent. She finds the process of preparation and discovery to be enjoyable, and hopes students will experience the

same pleasure

in learning as they

form

a

new relationship with

Zwilich’s composition.

In the lesson plan below, students are encouraged to describe their process of coming to ers

know a new work. As

they reveal their ideas, teach-

can look for signs of transport from outside to inside.

Lesson Plan Honoring the Past through Quotation Rationale

Musical style arises from using complex blends of sound Style involves relationships in sound,

in

characteristic ways.

sometimes obvious, sometimes

subtle, that

lead us to recognize the influence of a particular time, place, composer, or related

group of musicians. We recognize and categorize

in

that "language." Style

is

perhaps one of the most

difficult

style in

sound. Juxtaposing two different styles of music

often far easier to sense

it is

period found

Fifth

is

a distinctive

an especially useful

differences. In this lesson, students are

the form of quoted musical material from the Baroque

style in

embedded

in

a twentieth-century

work by

Ellen Taaffe Zwilich.

through Eighth

Students

~

stylistic

concepts to describe

when we encounter

although

asked to identify

Objectives

by perceiving the musical

verbally,

strategy to help students hear

Suggested Grade Level

styles

grammars of the composers and performers who make music

vocabularies and

will

identify contrasts in

~ discuss ways ~ show the

in

Baroque and twentieth-century style through

listening.

which quotations can pay tribute to voices from the

stylistic

changes

in

past.

the Zwilich Concerto Grosso 1985 through

movement.

~ create

a musical

~ compose ~

reflect

map to show the

contrasting ideas

in

a concerto grosso.

a musical "conversation" with another student in class.

on the process of becoming acquainted with

a

new

musical work.

,


6o

Materials

~ A sample of quotations students ~ Recordings: Zwilich,

E.T.

(1

are likely to recognize

989), Concerto Grosso 1985,

Mehta with the New York Philharmonic, on York:

Op.

1

New World No.

,

3,

on Sonatas ~ Paper

for

Records; Handel, G. R

(1

994),

Sonata

performed by R.Terakado, C. Rousset, for violin

and basso continuo

student responses, two

paper and markers

for musical

file

conducted by Zubin

Ellen Taaffe Zwilich [CD], in

D

major,

H. Suzuki,

[CD], Japan:

and

K.

New

HWV371 Uemura,

Denon

cards per student, large sheets of

maps, streamers

~ Classroom instruments or instruments the students bring to

class for

the

composition exercise

Introducing

the lesson

1 )

Begin by reading a sample of familiar quotations that students are recognize. Encourage students to identify the person quoted,

if

likely

to

possible.

(Suggestions include the "I Have a Dream" speech of Martin Luther King

Jr.,

Kennedy's inaugural speech "Ask not what your country can do for

John

F.

you,"

and any recognizable phrases from

munity.) Note

how

individuals in your school

com-

quotation marks set apart the quoted material. Draw

attention to "quotes within the quote." (King used phrases from the

Declaration of Independence; Kennedy's speech

John Greenleaf Whittier's funeral ple's

oration.)

was

said to

be based on

Why do people quote other peo-

words? (Because the person quoted has said profound and inspiring

things or has said

them

in

elegant ways; perhaps the people quoting

might wish to pay tribute to the

life

are familiar with important ideas,

of the person quoted or to

show they

etc.)

Developing the lesson

2)

Composers can quote musical

ideas, too. In the

hear, the composer, Ellen Taaffe Zwilich,

musical ideas of another composer. Listen the with the entire piece. Play the entire

Concerto Grosso 1985, which

first

lasts for

we are about to own ideas with the

composition

has woven her first

time to familiarize yourself

movement, "Maestoso, "of Zwilich's

2 minutes, 41 seconds. Ask students

to write a short sentence describing their responses to the piece first

3)

on the

hearing.

Ask students to decorate one

file

card with the label "new" and another

we listen a second time, see ifyou can recognize when Zwilich is composing in the twentieth-century, "new" style, and when she is quoting the ideas of another composer. Hold up your cards to show what your hear during with

"old." As

the piece. Play the entire

was

different

movement .Jot down what you heard this time that

from your first hearing. Just as quotation marks set up an expec-

tation for the reader that someone else's ideas are being cited, before the violins

Getting to Know

a

Work

of Art

61

Figure 4.6 Ellen Taajfe Zwilich. Photo

by Andrew Sacks.

play the quoted theme, another instrument plays a musical quotation

4)

What is

composition.

first

occurrence of the Handel theme.)

it?

mark in

(Answer: The harpsichord arpeggio before the

this

When we don't have differences in words to help us figure out who is speaking, how do we recognize a musical quote? In this case, Zwilich, a contemporary composer using contemporary musical

ideas,

is

quoting from George Frideric

Handel, a composer from the Baroque period 300 years ago. Zwilich even bor-

rows the

title

Concerto Grosso, which describes a Baroque form

—a small group of instruments

idea of contrast (the Latin

built

on the

pitted against the large

word concertare means "to contend with"or"to

fight").

group

She shows

new "voice," too, by adding 985 to the title. Why might Zwilich chose to quote Handel? (The liner notes from the Zwilich

that her composition includes a

recording [Rich,

1

calls this

1

composition "a friendly handshake across the centuries"

989].) Establish

the context for the composition by reading

this

from the score of the Concerto Grosso 1985 (Preston, 1 985): In

New

1984 the Washington Friends of Handel commissioned

York composer Ellen Taaffe Zwilich to write a work

in

com-

memoration of the three-hundredth anniversary of Handel's birth.Ms.Zwilich almost immediately thought to base her

own

note


62

work on that composer's D-major

Violin Sonata.

many years ago/' she said. "And opening theme of the first movement

the work

I

"I

performed

especially love the

—the

striking

head

motive and the beauty of the generative tension between the

theme and the elegant she

says,

George

is

cited in Preston,

The

resulting composition,

1

I

My

is

both inspired by his spirit." (Zwilich,

concerto

985, p.4)

As we

listen to this

ideas

change what you hear? Write down what happens as you

that you 6)

line."

hope, imbued with

Handel.

Frideric

Handel's sonata, and,

5)

bass

a "twentieth-century response to the spirit of

piece for the third time, does this knowledge about Zwilich's

Divide the students into ers to

two groups, distributing

fluidly

from Concerto Grosso 1985 by Ellen Taajfe Zwilich. Copyright © 1985 by Mobart Music.

Example

4.2

Zwilich’s Quote

from

the First

Movement of the Sonata in

D

Majorfor

Violin

by Handel. Copyright © 1985 by Mobart Music.

different-colored stream-

during the Handelian passages and another

group to show the angular"chase" of Zwilich's

Example 4.1 Theme

now

each group. Realize the "Maestoso" through movement by asking

one group to move

Zwilich’s

listen,

know some of the reasons Zwilich quotes Handel.

ideas.

Getting to Know

7)

Invite

a

Work

students to create a

of Art

63

map of this dialogue between two

musical styles

by choosing one color of marker for Zwilich's themes and another for Handel

draw as much detail as you can to show what you new to mapping, you may direct them to think about the upward and downward contours, distance between sounds or intervals, or musical thoughts or phrases.) Students may need several hearings before their maps are finished. (You may wish to play the recording once for the students to draw the Zwilich,then again to add the Handel.) On another time quotes. As hear.

Figure 4.7

Sample No.

1:

(If

we listen

again,

students are

Musical Map of Concerto

might help another

Grosso 1985

another student and see ifyou can follow the other's work.

through, label the instruments

you hear or add any phrases

listener to follow

to

your

your diagram. Exchange your

map that map with


64

How does this process of mapping help you to focus on the contrasting styles?

Figure 4.8

Do

Sample No. 2: Musical Map of Concerto

8)

they look as different as they sound? Write again.

At the premiere performance of Concerto Grosso 1985, the original Handel sonata (HWV371, Op.

Grosso 1985

No.

1,

Zwilich. Let's listen to the

3, first

two pieces

in

movement) was played before the that order to see

how the order of per-

formance influences our ability to hear the quotes in the Zwilich. How does strengthen the contrast between the Baroque style of Handel eth-century voice of Zwilich? er," even

and

this

the twenti-

How does Zwilich keep the composition "togeth-

with the quoted material? Write or discuss.

Closing

the lesson

9)

Invite

each student to compose a short piece using available classroom

way

that

musical ideas or style characteristics. (This activity

may

instruments, instruments students bring to class, or voices, will

show their own

be extended over several

class periods.)

to blend their compositions so they nizable shifts

between one

Then

make

person's style

a

pair students

in

a

and ask them

new, longer one with recog-

and the other person's

Perform these musical conversations. Can other class

members

tell

style.

when

the identity of the composer changes? As a variation, students could also

compose cal

a short piece to alternate with

work. Whose musical ideas

will you

quotes from some known musi-

honor in

this

manner?

Getting to Know

Assessment

~ Can students occur

in

the

Work

a

of Art

65

identify contrasts in style

first

by showing where the quotations

few hearings of the piece?

~ Do the students move expressively to

reflect

changes

in style, articulation,

dynamics, and contour?

~

Collect the musical

maps and study them

to determine

how

students are

able to represent multiple aspects of the composition, for example, melodic

~

contour and

interval, timbre,

and phrases.

How articulately do students describe differences in

perception

when they

hear the original Handel before the Zwilich?

~ Do students cal

reveal characteristic compositional personalities in their musi-

conversations?

~ What do students conclude about the process of becoming acquainted with a

new work, especially one

in

the twentieth-century style?

Extending the lesson

~ Find other examples of the old juxtaposed with the new. Can you other instances of paying tribute through quotation

dance, and theater?

"move" the reader,

How do

listener, or

~ Read more about

Zwilich's

changes

in

in

music,

art,

the creator's use of the

find

poetry,

medium

viewer across decades or centuries? processes of composition, as described

in

"Conversations with American Composers: Ellen Taaffe Zwilich" (Grimes, 1 986).

~

Identify other musical

compositions that are based on quoted material,

such as Copland, Lincoln Portrait ("Camptown Races");

Symphony and

Fourth of July; and

Ives,

Second

Schuman, New England

Triptych

("Chester").

~ On other occasions,

movements

in

listen

to the entire Zwilich work, which consists of five

arch form (the

second and fourth are

first

movement and the

paired, the third

is

last

are paired, the

the center of the arch). Listen to a

concerto grosso by Handel after listening to Zwilich's Concerto Grosso 1985.


66

STRATEGIES

Guiding Listening Music listening experiences

most the

successful

when

the classroom are

in

the music

listener's attention

is

is

directed

engaging and

in

some way to

The only thing that students should while the music talking

is

playing

is

listen

to

the music. Avoid

about the music while

is

it

being

the important features of the music. Here are

played. Written or pictorial guides allow the

some

students' listening to be guided without cre-

tips for

planning listening experiences:

~ Keep listening experiences

brief.

the classroom, students tend to

to

listen

popular songs that rarely exceed three minutes

in

length.

ating an overload of aural information.

Outside of

Use

spans have been trained to that length of

to follow the descriptions as they Listening activities

it is

start

a goal to increase students'

wise to

students

with brief compositions or musically

they are

it

is

meaningful excerpts from longer works.

~ Provide opportunities Music

for

exists in time:

gone. Because

repeated

We

hear

it,

we can't create a we need to hear

frame" of music,

that musical events can

that

include

then

opportunities to respond, limit the

number

it's

If

more

If

is

activities

students have been asked to answer ques-

about what they have heard, provide an

tions

opportunity for them to

listen

again to

com-

pare their answers with your answers. Marking

papers for the correct answer

several times.

a composition

designing

of responses students have to make.

"freezeit

more we listen to a complex piece of music, the more we grow to like it. Make friends with the music; listen

song before

go by very quickly, so

when

complexity. Generally, the

it

listen.

may be designed so that have to make decisions about what hearing in the music. Remember

listening.

than once to be able peel away the layers of

to

out

Printed listening guides allow the students

time. While

capacity for extended listening,

~

listening guides or activities to point

the important features of a composition.

a sense, their attention

In

learning value

if

will

have no

the students do not have an

opportunity to associate the proper respons-

based on a song, sing the

listening to the composition.

es

and

labels with the

sounds they

hear.

References Bernstein, L. (1959). The joy of music. Ciardi, J. (1962). In fact.

Dewey, J. (1934). Art as Elliott,

D.

J.

Greene,

M.

experience.

New York:

(1995). Music matters.

New York:

New York: Simon

New Brunswick, N.J.:

& Schuster.

Rutgers University Press.

G.

P.

Putnam’s Sons.

A new philosophy of music education.

Oxford University

Press.

(1995). Art and imagination: Reclaiming the sense of possi-

bility.

Phi Delta Kappan 76

(5):

378—382.

Grimes, E. (1986). Conversations with American composers: Ellen Taaffe Zwilich. Music Educators Journal 72 (6): 61-65.

Getting to Know

Hall,

G.

E.,

Loucks,

S.

E, Rutherford,

a

Work

W.

Levels of use of the innovation:

L.,

of Art

8c Newlove, B.

D

W.

(1975).

A framework for analyzing inno-

vation adoption. Journal of Teacher Education 26

Handel, G.

67

(1):

52-56.

HWV371,

Op. 1, No. 3, performed by R. Terakado, C. Rousset, H. Suzuki, and K. Uemura. On Sonatasfor violin and basso continuo [CD]. Japan: Denon. F.

(1994). Sonata in

Hecht, A. (1995).

On

major,

the laws of poetic art.

Princeton:

Princeton

University Press.

Moore, T. (1992). Care of the soul.

New York:

HarperCollins.

Preston, K. K. (1985). Notes for Concerto Grosso 1985 (Ellen Taaffe Zwilich). Hillsdale, N.Y.:

Mobart Music.

Rich, A. (1989). Liner notes for Mehta, Zubin (conductor) 8c

Philharmonic, Concerto Grosso 1985.

[CD].

New York: New World

On

Records.

Zwilich, E. T. (1989). Concerto Grosso 1985.

[CD].

Conducted by Zubin

New York Philharmonic. On Ellen New York: New World Records.

Mehta and

the

New York

Ellen Taaffe Zwilich

Taaffe Zwilich

*{

chapter 5

\*

Exploring Relationships AMONG THE ARTS

np Jing, literature, sculpture, dance, sion.

They

and

he various manifestations of the arts,

among them

theater, reside in the

allow us to express in a powerful, concentrated

emotions, and events about which

we humans

music, paint-

world of expres-

way

care

the ideas,

most

deeply.

Musicians, painters, poets, sculptors, dancers, and playwrights have celebrated, interpreted,

and preserved the great

and personas of human

civilization.

historic

They have

and mythic events

addressed the profound

human themes of love, worship, relationships with death. Whether we are experiencing someone else’s

nature, conflict, artistic

and

expression or

creating our own, the arts help us explore the connection between our

outer and inner

lives.

In this chapter and the next, differences

we

will

between and among the

be examining commonalities and

arts.

We, the

music educators, so our discussions of other

art

authors of this book, are

forms will often be cast in

relationship to music. Visual artists, poets, dancers, or playwrights

probably bring different perspectives and emphases to the topics address. You, the reader,

of these

art forms.

may have

would

we

will

in-depth experience with one or more

As you encounter

the ideas presented in this chapter,

think about examples from the art forms with which you are most famil-

you could add as illustrations of the ideas. There are many examples of how people working within one art form have been profoundly influenced by other art forms. Sometimes the influence is revealed by the metaphors they use to describe their own art. Sharon Olds’s description of poetry as “singing the language without melody” (Gross, May 19, 1995/June 29, 1988) is one such example. Wassily Kandinsky used music as a metaphor for his painting: “Color is iar that

the keyboard, the eyes are the harmonies, the soul strings.

The

artist is

the

hand

is

the piano with

many

that plays, touching one key or another, to

cause vibrations in the soul” (cited in Cole, 1993, p. 53).

69


7°

Sometimes

specific

works

inspire

Modest Mussorgsky composed

new

Pictures at

creations in other art forms.

an Exhibition

after seeing

an

exhibition of paintings and sketches by his friend, Victor

Hartmann. William Carlos Williams’s poem “The Dance” was inspired by Brueghel’s painting The Kermess. Collaborative projects such as ballets, films, and musicals integrate the

work of writers, choreographers, composers, and

designers. Consider the

energy in the Ballet Russe’s production of Pulcinella

collective artistic

with music written by Igor Stravinsky and production design by Picasso; the combined efforts of composer

Aaron Copland and dancer/choreog-

Graham that resulted in Appalachian Spring; and the collaboration between Wynton Marsalis and choreographer Garth Fagan in the contemporary ballet Griot New York. The music of John Williams rapher Martha

has played an integral role in films directed by Steven Spielberg such as

and Raiders of realm of musical theater abounds in collaborative teams

Close Encounters of the Third Kind, Schindlers List,

the Lost Ark.

The

of composers and

lyricists such as Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein, George and Ira Gershwin, and Leonard Bernstein and Stephen Sondheim. Making connections between and among the arts can be exciting and revelatory; it seems like a very natural thing to do in the classroom. Each

student in a

class,

ual proclivities file

of

because of differences in previous experiences, individ-

and

interests, or school instruction,

familiarity, understanding,

has an individual pro-

and comfort with various

art forms.

Relating two or more art forms provides students the opportunity to learn

—

by analogy and metaphor to learn something new by relating it to something they already know. Access to quality experiences with the arts strengthens students’ capacity to see or hear beyond the surface so that

may deepen their understanding of the arts and how they work The teacher who wishes to design curriculum to lead students on their own paths of discovery must understand what kinds of classroom connections between and among the arts promote understanding and insight 1

they

.

and what kinds of connections first

step

similar.

is

to

are shallow

become aware of the ways

In this chapter

we

and misleading.

art

An important

forms are distinct

will explore those areas

as well as

of similarity and

dif-

model to assist teachers in discovering meaningful intersections between and among the arts. Josh wrinkled his nose andforehead in concentration. With great intensity,

ference and propose a

he studied a painting of a

woman

in

a brightly colored robe sleeping on desert

instrument nearby. He was trying to what that painting had in common with the lively music pouringfrom the CD player. Finally, he raised his hand and shared his conclusion: “ The paint-

sand with a see

lion,

a jug, and a

lute-like

,

Exploring Relationships among the Arts

71

Figure 5.1

Henri Rousseau.

The

Sleeping

Gypsy. 1897. Oil on canvas

51"x6'7" (129.5

cm x 200. 7 cm).

ing has an instrument in

and you have to have instruments to play music. ” She was disappointed because her students just expected connection that both the painting and the it,

Josh’s teacher looked crestfallen.

didn’t seem to

make

music had something

The

the to

do with night.

intention of Josh’s teacher was to design a learning experience

leading toward one of the music achievement standards from the

National Standardsfor Arts Education: “Compare in two or more the characteristic materials of each art (that stimuli in visual arts,

movement

in dance,

is,

arts

sound in music,

human

how

visual

interrelationships in

theater) can be used to transform similar events, scenes, emotions, or

ideas into

works of

art”

(Consortium of National Arts Education

She had chosen Henri Rousseau’s The and Eine Kleine Nachtmusik (A Little Night Music) by Mozart as examples from two different art forms that relate to the theme of “night.” Unfortunately, she did not consider that these two works-, while related by title, are not closely related in mood, style, or structure. Rousseau’s painting evokes hushed tension, while Mozart’s lively music is more suggestive of celebration. Because Eine Kleine Nachtmusik and The Sleeping Gypsy have little in common beyond the nominal theme of night, it is understandable that Josh could not easily draw meaningful parallels between them.

Associations,

Sleeping Gypsy

1994,

p.

45).


T2

'

How Do the Arts Differ? Perhaps before

do well arts is

how the

5.1, physical

the

we look for commonalities among the arts, we would how the arts differ. One basic difference among the

to explore

left.

dimensions of time and space come into

dimensions of time and space are

For each of the

art

forms

listed in

play.

In Table

column on the top row, consider which listed in the

physical dimensions are integral to the experience of the art form, then

mark the

may

appropriate cells in the chart to indicate the relationship.

also find

it

You

useful to imagine yourself as the viewer, listener, per-

former, creator, or critic to examine your ideas from different perspectives.

The

first cell,

time and music, has already been marked for you.

After you have completed this exercise, compare your responses with

You may

others.

but

also,

find that the exercise leads to clearer understanding

perhaps, to additional questions as you consider certain types

of works that seem to be special Table

cases.

5.1

Physical Properties of the Arts

Music Exists in

time

Exists in

two-

Poetry

Dance

Painting

Sculpture

dimensional

space Exists in three-

dimensional

space

What

did you discover as you completed this exercise? Here are some

emerged when others have thought about these properties. Music and dance are temporal experiences: They have a beginning, a continuation, and an ending. In live performances, they are here and ideas that have

gone.

One

will not

can study a music score or dance notation, but the experience

be the same as the performance. Kinetic sculpture (sculpture that

is much like music and dance in that it unfolds and changes over Although painting and nonkinetic sculpture do not change perceptibly over time, the element of time is involved as the viewer scans different portions of a canvas or examines a sculpture from all sides.

moves) time.

Poetry, in

its

spoken form,

in two-dimensional space.

exists in time; in its written

There

are

some

form,

aspects of poetry that

it

exists

must be

heard or imagined in the “mind’s ear” to be appreciated, such as the

1


73

rhythm and the sounds of words; some aspects of poetry must be seen

to

be appreciated, such as visual rhyme and the placement of the lines on the page.

Most

painting can be characterized as existing in two-dimensional

space, but this characterization

is

not without exception: Heavily textured

add depth. Threemost usually associated with sculpture and dance. Because of this characteristic, sculpture and dance are best experienced firsthand; photographs and videos do not allow us to have the paintings take

on a

third dimension, as layers of paint

dimensionality, however,

is

experience of three-dimensional space necessary to understand these art

forms

fully.

Each mode of artistic expression ferent way. Sight

is

employed

dance, and in the reading of poetry.

times

we

involves the senses in a slightly dif-

in the perception

of painting, sculpture, and

We hear music and poetry, and some-

hear the rhythms of the body in dance. Even some sculptures

The tactile sense is important in appreciating when we cannot actually touch the works, we 2 can imagine how they would feel. The kinesthetic “sense,” that is, the vital experience of rhythmic movement in one’s own body, comes into play when a dancer dances, a musician plays, a painter paints, an actor are

meant

to

be heard.

sculpture and weaving; even

or a sculptor sculpts. Their movements, and the results of their movements, may also evoke a sympathetic kinesthetic response from the viewer. This is the phenomenon James Laughlin describes in this line from his poem “Martha Graham”: “music moves moving from her into acts,

us” (Laughlin, 1988, p. 17). Visual art can arouse a similar response:

body of the viewer reproduces the tensions of swinging and

“The

rising

and

bending so that he himself matches internally the actions he sees being performed outside” (Arnheim, 1989, p. 26). The rhythms of poetry can also

evoke a kinesthetic response from the listener or reader.

Because

art

forms

differ in their physical properties

engage the senses, each

art

form provides

own

its

and the way they lens on experi-

own unique

on what it can “say” to us. As an works on the subject of swans: The Ugly Duckling by Hans Christian Anderson; a painting of a swan; and a comence.

Each

also has its

limitations

illustration, consider three

position for cello and harp,

Camille Saint-Saens.

“The Swan,” from Carnival of the Animals by

What

aspects of “swanness” can be expressed

by

each? If we had never seen a swan before, Anderson’s descriptions would

own idea of what a we can observe a swan’s

allow us to piece together in our imaginations our

swan looks

like

appearance and

and how its

it

moves. In a painting,

environment.

The

painter,

by choice of color and line it swims in

can also communicate something of a swan’s peaceful grace as


74

a lake.

As we

listen to the

ment

is

we cannot

composition by Saint-Saens,

anything about what a swan looks

like,

but

its

graceful, flowing

suggested by the cellos gently undulating melody. If

learn

move-

we

listen

accompaniment, we can hear patterns of cascading tones that might suggest shimmering water. carefully to the harp

Common Terms but Different Phenomena When the arts are described, identical words are sometimes used to characterize very different

phenomena. This

may trick us among the arts

practice

ing invalid conclusions about commonalities

take into account the different characteristics of the

1991).

Rhythm

is

a

term that

is

into

mak-

unless

we

media (Thomas,

used in characterizing music, poetry,

dance, painting, and sculpture. In music and poetry, rhythm

is

an aural

phenomenon that exists in time; in painting and sculpture it is a visual phenomenon that exists in space. In dance, rhythm can be perceived visually and, sometimes, aurally. Color is another example of a word that refers to different

phenomena. In painting, color refers

to

pigment or hue.

In music, however, the term color can be used in reference to the charac-

Terms/Different

sound of instruments or perhaps the harmonic characteristics of So while it may appear at first glance that terms such as rhythm and color may point to meaningful relationships between and among the arts, in reality, they may not. Other terms that

Phenomena

pose similar problems are

teristic

certain chords or intervals.

Table 5.2

Common

Rhythm

Table 5.2.

Music

Poetry

Dance

patterns pro-

sense of move-

organization of

regular occurrence

duced by group-

ment created by

movement

of similar visual

patterns

ings of tones of

patterns of strong

varying duration

and weak elements

and

in

stress

in

Visual Art

in

time

elements

the flow of

sound and

Texture

listed in

silence

speech

pattern of sound

the elements of

visual or tactile sur-

created by

poetry such as

face characteristics

melodic

imagery, rhythm,

lines, a

succession of chords, or a

com-

bination thereof

meter, alliteration, etc.,

that cannot

be paraphrased (continues)


75

Table 5.2 (continued)

Line

Music

Poetry

Dance

Visual Art

rhythmic succes-

a unit in the rhyth-

movement that

outline or contour;

sion of tones; the

mic structure of

connects two

the defining bor-

contour of a vocal

poetry that

points to take the

der between areas

or instrumental

formed by the

body through

grouping together

space; the shape

part

and

hori-

its

zontal motion

of a

is

number

of the

of a dancer's

body

smallest units of the

rhythm

(syllables,

stress groups, metrical feet)

Gesture

movement

movement

of a

of the

the

artist's

brush

musical line that

body

suggests a physi-

the body for com-

marks on the work

munication of

that might provide

cal action

or parts of

strokes or other

qualities, ideas, or

insight into the

emotions

artist's

way

of

working Color

Consonance

mood, or

figures of speech;

qualities,

vividness or variety

emotion evoked

instruments or

of emotional

by movement

voices

effects of

(tone color) characteristic

sound of

language

combination of

repetition of similar

musical tones

or identical conso-

as satisfying

felt

and

hue or pigment

nants or words

whose main vowels

restful

differ

Composition

the act of creating music; the

work

thus created

the organization of

the organization of

movements

visual

into a

components

form or structure

to form a unified

with a sense of

whole

wholeness

Movement

a division of an

rhythmic flow of

interactions of

representation of

extended compo-

words

energy and space

motion

sition

such as a

symphony, sonata, or concerto; the

forward motion of

music through time

through the med-

ium of the body

Sound Ways

76

of

Knowing

we begin a discussion of how to integrate the arts most fruitone additional caution should be raised. Music, like each of the other arts, is a unique discipline that must be taught through a rigorous, Before

fully,

structured curriculum to be grasped

forms,

has

it

its

own

fully.

materials, processes,

Like each of the other

and

structure.

art

Learning to use

sound, paint, words, clay, gestures, and movement in expressive, artistic ways are very different ventures. So while interdisciplinary instruction can be tremendously valuable, it must be based on strong sequential programs of instruction in the individual art forms.

Making Connections How can we as educators go about exploring connections among the arts and then use that knowledge to provide meaningful experiences for our students? Generalizing across art forms is complex and difficult because the arts press out against boundaries, which results in frequent exceptions to

any

ment.

generality.

What

is

Then we

risk

misunderstanding rather than enlighten-

a thoughtful teacher to do?

David Best (1995) contends,

Cooperative, interdisciplinary ventures can be highly successful.

But

their educational value always

possibilities

That

is, it

depends upon the particular

of greater understanding implicit \n particular cases.

depends upon the enrichment of understanding for

students that

is

inherent in particular

cases,

together from different disciplines offers really

where working fruitful,

imagi-

native educational enlightenment, (p. 88)

If greater understanding a full exploration

a

poem, or other

comes from the study of particular

many dimensions of a

of the

artistic

expression

is

cases,

then

painting, a piece of music,

an important place to

start in

any

interarts curriculum planning.

Sometimes, thinking in terms of models kindles our imaginations and provides structure for our explorations.

One

day,

we, the authors of this

book, were idly playing with some plastic geometric toys while brainstorming. as a

One of those

model

toys, a

polyhedron, inspired the concept of facets

for developing a fuller understanding

ing to possible intersections

among

the

of a work and for point-

arts.

The Facets Model for Exploring Connections Consider the sparkling diamond, ruby, and emerald: These gems are cut with

many facets

so that

the other facets reflect that

we

it

when

the light enters the top facets of the stone,

back to the

value so highly in gems.

eye.

The

This reflection causes the sparkle

value

we

assign to these precious


stones

and

is

evident in the

way we

them

The

arts, too, are

of love and affection,

gems with many facets. Their facets provide manifold

for us to peer into

ed back to

us.

works of art so that understanding can be

Indeed, the multifaceted nature of art forms

—

our experience of them so rich

it is

from an exploration of these

between or among the

arts

what makes them

facets that revelations

When

Why and for whom was it created?

~

What does it sound or look like? What kind of structure or form does it have? What is its subject? What is being expressed? What techniques did its creator use to help us

~ ~

“sparkle” for us. It

about relationships

Who created it?

~

~

reflect-

what makes

facets of any particby answering these questions:

~

~

is

may emerge. Some of the

ular artistic expression can be revealed

~

as tokens

in their price.

ways

is

use

77

and where was

it

created?

understand what

is

being expressed?

Who created

it?

Figure 5.2 Facets of an Artistic

Work


?8

Let’s apply the facets model to a well-known composition, “Variations on Simple Gifts” from Appalachian Spring by Aaron Copland. Imagine three people a music teacher, a fourth-grade classroom teacher, and a composer sitting around a table. The music teacher has featured “Variations” in past lessons. The classroom teacher has heard the composition before but was not particularly familiar with it. The composer has studied the composition in great depth and has performed it many times

—

—

an orchestra. Together they

as a bass player in

listen to a recording

of the

music, watch a film of the ballet, read the liner notes to the recording, and generate a

list

model. Here ~

It

~

The

~

It

~

It

~

It is

is

of ideas in response to the questions posed in the their

facets

list:

was written Graham.

for a ballet

choreographed and danced by Martha

story of the ballet concerns preparations for a pioneer wedding.

was written by Copland, who wanted uniquely American. was completed and

first

to write

music that was

performed in 1944.

based on the Shaker tune “Simple Gifts.”

major mode and duple meter.

~

It is in

~

The

~

The music

~

It

~

The accompaniment

texture

is

is

primarily linear and contrapuntal.

in the

form of theme and

variations.

begins simply then gets more active and complex, like a sunrise

before an active day.

interval

~

The

of a

fifth,

to the tune in the opening section features the

which evokes

~ Watching the ballet distracts ~ Watching the ballet enhances ~

The

Upon

associations with country fiddling.

pauses in the music are relaxing.

tune

is

used in a television commercial to

examination of this

“Variations”

fall

my attention from my listening.

list,

the various

listening.

sell cars.

facets

identified

to the properties

of the work

which the work was

created,

experience of the work.

From

itself, (b)

and

facets that relate to the context in

(c) facets

that relate to an individual’s

these facets emerge

new insights about how

on Simple Gifts” from Appalachian Spring might 3 springboard for interarts explorations. Here are some ideas:

“Variations

for

into three interdependent categories: (a) facets that relate

serve as a


~

The

piece

is

in the

form of theme and

and variations technique used

variations.

79

How is the theme

in other art forms?

~ Copland wrote the music in collaboration with Martha Graham.

How

does composing music for

movement

influence a composers

choices?

~ Does the choice of the tune “Simple Gifts” have any symbolic

meaning when considered

in light

of the story of the

ballet?

What

symbols of the pioneer myth can be found in the choreography and stage set of the ballet?

Applying the Facets Model to Music

Now use

the facets

model

yourself.

Choose

a piece

of music, perhaps

the same piece you explored in the “transport” exercise in Chapter 4,

and

see

answer.

how many of the questions posed in the facets model you can Some of the questions will require you to consult reference

materials such as the liner notes of recordings, music textbooks,

biographies, music dictionaries,

and encyclopedias. Other questions

can be answered only as a result of careful listening and reflection on your

part.

Does

investigating the questions posed

help you understand the piece more fully? gest links

and intersections with other

art

Do

by the

facets

facets

model

of the piece sug-

forms, either with particular

works or through general concepts?

Exploring the Intersection of Facets As we have

seen in the discussion of “Variations on Simple Gifts” from

Appalachian Spring, the facets model can be very helpful in exploring the multiple dimensions inherent in any

work of art.

It

can also be helpful in

pointing toward potential relationships between and

among

the

arts.

These relationships can occur on several planes. Singing a song about rain and then reading a poem about rain demonstrates a simple intersection of facets on the topical plane. When you compare the balanced, symmetrical form of the architecture of the Cathedral at Reims or the U.S. Capitol with the ABA form of a Mozart minuet, you are exploring intersections of facets on the structural plane. Additional planes of intersection may be the context of history (such as studying the political messages conveyed by paintings of the American Revolution or by various versions of “Yankee Doodle”) or culture (such as studying the relationship between the geography of Andean countries and the kinds of instruments and

weavings made there).


8o

Discovering relationships, even

when

they appear to be confined to

only one plane of intersection, can open possibilities for expanding

knowledge and understanding. Even more exciting and present themselves

beyond those that

As an

when we

are

rich possibilities

look for additional planes of intersection

most obvious

illustration, consider the

at first glance.

poem

“I

Am

Growing

a Glorious

Garden” by Jack Prelutsky (1990, pp. 12-13). I Am Growing a Glorious Garden I

am

growing

a glorious garden,

resplendent with trumpets and

flutes,

am pruning euphonium bushes I am watering piccolo shoots, my tubas and tambourines flourish,

I

surrounded by saxophone reeds,

am planting trombones and pianos and sowing sweet sousaphone seeds. I

I

have cymbals galore in

staid

my garden,

oboes in orderly rows,

and violas where the glockenspiel grows, there are gongs and guitars in abundance, there are violins high on the vine, and an arbor of harps by the bower where the cellos and clarinets twine. there are flowering fifes

in the glade

My bassoons are beginning to blossom, my zithers and mandolins bloom, my castanets happily chatter, my kettledrums merrily boom, as

the banjos that branch by the bugles play counterpoint with a kazoo,

come

visit

and hear

it

my glorious

garden

play music for you.

Jack Prelutsky It is

obvious that one of the facets of this

poem

is its

topic of musical

instruments. Is the author really planting instruments in his garden?

course not:

The

instruments in the garden are metaphorical.

Of

Why is this

Exploring Relationships among the Art

metaphor so pleasing? One reason

that music

is

prized for their life-enhancing qualities.

important

and

life

8l

and flowers

They both

are

both

are often present at

events such as graduations, courtships, weddings, funerals,

civic occasions.

know no one would

Why

is

this

metaphor so amusing? Although we power of

really plant instruments in a garden, the

the author’s imagination and description allows us to envision the

improbable garden of “staid oboes in orderly rows” and bassoons “beginning to blossom.”

This connection between gardens and instruments can be explored further.

Often gardeners artfully “orchestrate” their flower beds to create mix of colors, shapes, and sizes of flowers. They choose

a harmonious

flowers not only for their individual beauty but also for the

dinate with other flowers in the garden. particular presence

and power: Some

ularly striking so that only a

few

are

flowers, like hollyhocks, are partic-

needed in a garden, whereas other

flowers, such as tulips, create a better effect

This process of planning a garden

is

way they coorits own

Each variety of flower has

when

planted in abundance.

similar to the process a

composer

undertakes in orchestrating a composition. In a symphony orchestra, the strings are often the

predominant

while the wind and percussion

“color,”

instruments provide striking aural contrasts. Although a single trumpet

many string instruments, a single violin would get lost many trumpets were playing. Just as red roses, orchids, and chrysanthe-

can be heard over if

mums

can each convey a different message from the sender to the receiv-

so can the

er,

composer convey

particular

moods

or messages to the

lis-

may

up

tener through careful orchestration. Certain instruments specific images,

such as the horn with

its

conjure

hunting and pastoral associa-

composer wants to create an exotic atmosphere, the melody might be given to the oboe instead of the flute.

tions. If a

When ers

trying to find just the right

not only what the word means,

word

for a

how many

poem, the poet considit has, and its

syllables

potential for rhyme, but also other aspects of

its

sound. In

“I

Am

Growing

a Glorious Garden,” Prelutsky takes great care in selecting

words

how they sound, using the poetic devices of assonance (the rep-

etition

for

of vowels sounds with varying consonant sounds) and alliteration

(two or more words begin with the same sound). Assonance

is

featured in

the lines “an arbor of harps by the bower” and “there are violins high on the vine.” Alliteration

is

found

in the lines

“My bassoons

blossom” and “sowing sweet sousaphone seeds.” particular

words

for their

sound

qualities

is

are beginning to

The way

similar to the

a poet chooses

way

a

compos-

er chooses particular instruments for their timbre, or tone color.


8?

There

is

yet another important facet of “I

Garden” that

poem

intersects

itself is constructed.

scheme

Am

Growing

The

first line

of the

ofxxxxxxxxxx, which is analogous to

poem

rhyme scheme

are part of the architecture

vide the structure that holds the

poem

how

the

has an accent

musical meter in three,

with two unaccented beats preceding the accented beat. the

a Glorious

with music. That facet has to do with

The meter and

of the poem; they help pro-

together.

Celebrates the musical aspects of poetry

So, as

we can

see in this example,

what at first seemed a Glorious

a single facet

Garden” and music

—

by digging beneath the surface of

of intersection between “I

—

that

is,

Am Growing

the subject of musical instru-

ments we can discover even richer and more satisfying relationships. The more planes of intersection shared by two art works, the more power each has to illuminate the other. In Chapter 6 we will explore in greater depth those facets that in

Chapter 7 we

will

relate to the qualities inherent in a

show how

work itself, and

explorations of those facets can lead to

lessons that help children discover relationships

among

the

arts.


83

References Arnheim, R. (1989). Thoughts on art education. Los Angeles: Getty Center for Education in the Arts. Best,

D. (1995). The dangers of generic arts: Philosophical confusions and political expediency. Journal of Aesthetic Education 29 (2): 79-91.

Cole, A. (1993). Color.

New York:

Dorling Kindersley.

Consortium of National Arts Education Associations. (1994). National standards for arts education: What every young American should

know and be

able to do in the arts. Reston, Va.:

Music Educators

National Conference. Gross, T.

(May

19, 1995).

Philadelphia:

Haack,

P.

A. (1970).

Radio interview with Sharon Olds. Fresh Air.

WHYY.

(Originally aired June 29, 1988.)

A study involving the visual arts in the development

of musical concepts. Journal of Research 195-204.

in

Music Education 32:

Laughlin, J. (1988). Martha Graham. In L. Morrison

New York:

(ed.),

Rhythm

road.

Lothrop, Lee 8c Shepard.

Prelutsky, J. (1990). Something big has been here.

New York:

Greenwillow.

Thomas,

and theory

in

T. (1991). Interart analogy: Practice

the

arts.

Journal ofAesthetic Education 25

(2):

17-36.

comparing

chapter 6

j*


Celia

McCarthy attended an unusual concert

High

at Big Rapids

School at

the invitation of her former student Jason. First a string quartet played a ,

fugue while four other students danced the interplay of the instrumental lines as the fugue subject passed from instrument to instrument. Then a trumpet

and variations while a had constructed to demonstrate theme and variations was disAt the end of the concert, Jason read a poem he had written about the

player performed a composition in theform ofa theme collage she

played.

high schoolfootball teams learning ballet.

poem was

He explained that the scenario in his

inspired by the humorous nature of his double bass

solo,

which he

then performed.

By watching and listening to their understanding

the

of the music

expression , Celia found that her

ways

the students demonstrated aspects of

in conjunction

own

with other modes of artistic

experience of the music

was

heightened.

She was fascinated by the discovery of the many ways the arts parallel each other. “Music, poetry, and art already play an important role in my classroom, ” she mused.

How could I design experiences that would help my students under-

"

stand how the arts

relate to each other

?”

I work

in

n Chapter proposed

5,

the facets model was

as a

way

to

examine a

depth and to explore productive intersections between

other works or forms of

art.

works of art (music, dance,

The

it and model encourages us to look at literary arts, and theater) from dif-

facets

visual art,

and to consider the aesthetic qualities inherent in the works, the context of their creation, and our reactions to them (see ferent points of view

Figure 6.1).

In this chapter,

we

will discuss in greater

to the aesthetic qualities inherent in the

resented by the following questions:

~ ~

What is What is

its

subject?

being expressed?

85

depth those facets that

work

itself.

These

relate

facets are rep-


86

Who created

Figure 6.1

it?

Facets ofArtistic

Expression with

Emphasis on Structural and

Expressive Facets

~ ~ ~

What does it sound or look like? What kind of structure or form does it have? What techniques did its creator use to help us

understand what

is

being expressed?

The

answers to these questions can be a starting place for discovering

analogous relationships between and

among the

arts

and identifying ways

that the various art forms share artistic principles or processes.

Applying the Facets Model to Other Art Forms In Chapter

5,

you were encouraged

to apply the facets

example of your choice. Prelutsky’s poem

cal

Glorious Garden” showed

how

“I

model to a musiGrowing a

Am

the facets model could be applied to

poetry as well. In this chapter, the concepts and terms used to refer to

analogous relationships in the arts will have more meaning and clarity if you also select

and examine

a

work from another

art form,

such as a

painting, sculpture, play, or dance, for possible comparisons with music.

Surround yourself with interesting examples to consider, and compare your perceptions of artistic elements with others,

What

Is

readily apparent.

ten to a

possible.

the Subject and What Is Being Expressed?

For some artworks, the answer to the question

seem

when

poem

What is

the subject?

may

When we see a rose portrayed in a painting or lis-

or song about a rose,

we

will

answer the question by say-


ing,

“The

subject

ish copies

is

a rose.” Artistic representations, however, are not slav-

of an actual rose or simply exact descriptions of a

representations give us insights that actual things ‘aboutness,’

1993,

8?

which of course

actual things

do not

.

.

do

rose. “Artistic

They have an

not.

& Blocker,

(Parsons

.”

When we consider this “aboutness,” a new level of thinking

p. 84).

about the subject

what on the

may reveal itself. As we begin to look deeper, beyond may present itself as the subject, we may find alter-

surface

native subjects as possibilities. “Paintings are not about concrete objects so

much

as

about what can be thought or

They

inwardly.

felt

and must be apprehended

express aspects of experience, states of mind, meanings,

emotions; subjective things.

.

.

.

Often,

we

call

them

feelings; often, ideas

or points of view” (Parsons, 1987, p. 70).

What

is

a subject

the subject of music that doesn’t have any lyrics? Sometimes

is

implied through the use of a “program,” that

description that accompanies the work. referred to as

program music.

Music of

this type

is,

a title or

is

therefore

When one listens to the first movement of

one may hear suggestions of and thunderstorms. Someone listening to the music without knowledge of its tide, however, might not interpret the music in the same way at all. The tide predisposes us to hear the Vivaldi’s concerto for three violins, Spring

,

twittering birds, flowing streams,

extramusical associations in the music. ballet.

With

prior

A similar phenomenon

interactions of the dancers will be seen to

tell

a story, but without that

knowledge, and without clues provided by costumes and

of the

ballet

exists in

knowledge of the story of Swan Lake, the actions and

may be

less

sets,

the subject

apparent.

Sometimes the subject of an art work is more abstract: The elements art form and their manipulation become the subject. The subject of a symphony by Mozart, for example, is the elements of melody, rhythm, and harmony and their development within a particular form. Music of this type is referred to as absolute music. Some examples of program music and absolute music are listed in Table 6.1. Notice that the tides of the program music examples suggest a scene or story whereas the tides of the absolute music examples refer to the musical form or genre. of the

I

Program Music Vivaldi,

The Four Seasons

Absolute Music Bach, Prelude and

Table 6.1 Fugue

Symphony

in

D Minor

Beethoven, Pastoral Symphony

Mozart,

Debussy, La Mer [The Sea]

Brahms, Quintet for Clarinet and Strings

No. 41

inC

Examples of Program and Absolute Music

Mussorgsky, Night on Bald Mountain

Stravinsky, Octet

Saint-Saens, Carnival of the Animals

Zwilich, Concerto Grosso

1

985


88

Analogs to absolute music well.

The

are

found in

all

of the other

movement

subject matter of a dance can be “pure”

a story or theme.

The

texture, line, form,

art

forms

as

unrelated to

subject for a sculpture can be the relationships of

and space rather than a recognizable

object.

There

are

even some analogous examples in poetry, such as poems by Gertrude Stein in

which the sounds of words, rather than

primary

interest.

their

meanings, are of

What Does the Work Sound or Look Like? In Chapter 4

we

discussed the process of

moving from “without”

to

“within” a work. Part of this process includes developing a deeper per-

sonal understanding of the work, then finding ways to share that under-

standing with others. This involves learning to see what there

is

to see

and hear what there is to hear, and learning how to verbalize those perceptions. Each art form has a specialized vocabulary that helps us communicate about that art form. There is a mutual relationship between our ability to use this

vocabulary with care and precision and our

abilities to

perceive with greater clarity and depth.

Imagine you are looking

what you paintings

at a painting

and

are

being asked to describe

You probably would respond first with a description of the subject. With further prompting, you might comment on the

see.

colors that are used or the types of lines or shapes that are

the painting.

You might

also begin to notice

how

prominent in

the different

compo-

nents of the painting are grouped. Continued examination would yield

new discoveries that were not apparent in the initial viewing and description. The same is true in all of the arts. The outlines in Table 6.2 suggest some of the

basic elements that can be perceived in music, dance, visual

The elements in the dance list were derived from the chart and concepts for dance formulated by Adshead, Briginshaw, Hodgens, and Huxley (1982); the elements for visual arts were derived from a similar chart formulated by Ralph A. Smith (1989). Let’s look at the elements of music in greater detail. As you examine Table 6.3, see if you call to mind music that illustrates the characteristics of the elements that are described. Could you provide similar elaborations on the elements of dance, poetry, and visual art listed in Table 6.2? If you need more information to be able to do that, the resource list at the end of this chapter will point you toward books that will help you and your students become more familiar with how artists, dancers, choreographers, and poets use these elements in their work. art,

of

and

skills

poetry.


89

Music

Table 6.2 Elements of

rhythm

melody contour

beat

Music, Poetry,

interval

tempo

Dance, and

register

meter

range

duration

melodic sequence

accent

Visual Art

— melodic rhythm

tone color

articulation

vocal tone colors

staccato/legato

instrumental tone colors

attack/sustain/decay

harmony

dynamics static

dynamic

chords

levels

changing dynamic

tonality

levels

Poetry sounds of the words

rhythm

rhyme

accents

alliteration

meter

assonance

line

length

consonance figures of

onomatopoeia

speech

simile

metaphor

Dance movement

dancers

spatial

numbers and gender

elements

shape

role

—

lead, subsidiary

size

pattern/line

visual setting

set

direction location in

light

performance space

costumes and props

dynamic elements tension/force

speed/tempo duration

rhythm clusters of

movements

aural

elements

sounds

spoken word music

continues


9°

Visual Art

Table 6.2 Elements of

shape

complexes

size

line

elements)

(clusters of

Music, Poetry,

Dance, and

line area

Visual Art, position

boundary

continued

broken

line

line

color quality

hue

depth

lightness/darkness

movement

saturation

Table 6.3

A Listeners

MELODY— relationships of pitch Contour— upward, downward, same

RHYTHM— relationships of time Beat— a

steady underlying pulse

Compendium of I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

Musical Elements Interval

— stepwise, skipwise movement (con-

Tempo — the

steady and slow

junct, disjunct)

Register

—

steady and fast relative

highness or lowness of lllllllllllllllllllllllllllll

pitches

Range— the distance from the highest pitch to the lowest pitch

in

a

getting slower (ritardando)

melody III

range

Scale or Tonal Set

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

getting faster (accelerando) I

and

speed of the beat

—the number of pitches

their relationships to other pitches in

tonal set (major, minor, pentatonic,

modal

the

I

Meter— how you

I

I

I

I

I

III

I

beats are grouped into sets as

feel strong

and weak beats

scales)

Sets of 2s I

I

I

Sets of 3s I

I

I

— Duple Meter I

I

Triple

I

I

I

—

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

Meter I

I

I

Other groupings

Duration: Melodic short

Melodic Sequence— patterns

in

the melody

Rhythm — sounds that are

and long to match the melody or words

of a song

repeated at various pitch levels

The

Accent

farm-er

in

the

dell—

— rhythmic pulses that are stressed

p

f


91

TONE COLOR—

HARMONY— "vertical" pitches

the quality of sounds

Chords

Vocal Timbres solo or

(major, minor, diminished,

ensemble

soprano,

alto, tenor,

harmonic rhythm

bass

"Key" Feeling

Instrumental Timbres by

augmented)

harmonic progressions

classifications:

piano, trumpet, violin, snare

— Tonality

feeling of a key or tonal center (tonal)

specific instruments (flute, guitar,

drum) 1

by families of the orchestra

woodwind,

\ 1/ /f\

(string,

brass, percussion)

by Sachs-von Hornbostel system: aerophones: vibrating column of air

1

chordophones: vibrating stretched

no

strings

feeling of key (atonal)

membranophones: stretched membranes idiophones: unstretched vibrating

y/

substances electrophones: electronically

generated sounds

DYNAMICS

—volume or intensity

Dynamic Levels—pp

mp (medium

shifting

(very soft);

soft);mf(medium

(soft);

ARTICULATION Legato— smoothly connected one

loud);

key feelings (modulation)

path from

pitch to the next

(loud); ff (very loud)

Changing Dynamic Levels

—crescendo

Staccato— pitches detached from each other

(gradually getting louder); decrescendo

Attack/Sustain/Decay

(gradually getting softer)

As you examined noticed that

the elements of the various art forms, you

some terminology in the music

again in the poetry, visual the arts similar 5,

art,

and dance

may have

section of Table 6.2 appeared

sections.

Shared terminology in

common. Sometimes the use of the same terms points to phenomena across the arts, but as was demonstrated in Chapter is

quite

the terms can sometimes represent very different phenomena.

Even though

differences in

parallels across art forms,

interarts

analogies.

The

media make

many

it

impossible to draw direct

elements can be understood by

way of

properties related to the broad category of


92

Most

rhythm

are a logical starting place.

a sense

of steady pulse that serves

Some of those

aspects of rhythm.

than others.

The

beats of the music to

grouped in

(also called a waltz) are

which they

threes. In a waltz, or

piece of music in triple meter, a stronger beat

is

any other

followed by two weaker

We may perceive the first beat as being stronger because it is loud-

beats.

er than the other beats, because

oom-pah-pah

mony

higher or lower than the other beats

it is

bass of a waltz, for example), and/or because the har-

changes. Poetry, too, has meter. In poetry, metrical “feet” are orga-

nized around accented dactylic meter: ical

more

pulses are stressed or accented

A couple dancing a waltz performs a regular

repeating pattern of three steps.

(the

poems have

When we discover a pattern of stressed and unstressed beats,

we become aware of meter. dance

music, dances, and

as the reference point for all other

xx

x.

Poetry’s equivalent of the waltz

syllables.

Poems written

in dactylic

is

meter often evoke a phys-

response of swinging or swaying. It was no accident that Robert

Louis Stevenson chose that meter for his

would you

Tempo

like to is

poem “The

Swing”:

“How

go up in a swing?”

the term used to indicate the speed of the beat in music and

movement in dance. In music, the tempo for performance metronome marking showing the number of beats be performed in a minute (mm = 120), or it may be indicated

the speed of

may be

indicated by a

that are to

more generally by words

(often in Italian) that designate a range of tem-

pos from slow (adagio) to very also

fast (presto).

Poems,

like

music and dance,

have a range of tempos. These tempos, however, are implied, rather

than specified. Speak these excerpts of poetry aloud:

Wheels on the track, / way / They begin the attack

Clickety-clack /

This

is

the

Slowly the tide creeps up the sand Slowly the shadows cross the land

Did you

1

/

2

more slowly than you read the

first?

Seeing the word “slowly” probably influenced your choice of tempo.

Now

read the second excerpt

try this experiment: quickly.

when

What

Read the

first

excerpt slowly and the second excerpt

happens? Does your tongue become impossibly tangled

reading the second excerpt?

The

poet used a combination of vowel

and consonant sounds that must be spoken slowly to be enunciated. Thus, through his use of phonetic sounds, he established a tempo that enhances the literal meaning of the words. When we speak the excerpts from “Song of the Train” and “Slowly,” the ways we use our mouth, tongue, and teeth to articulate are very different. In “Song of the Train,” the articulators create consonant sounds of c, k, and t.

These sounds have

a crisp, explosive, detached quality. In “Slowly,”

liquid sounds are created

word

ences in

music that

by the

s,

sh,

l,

and

more

w consonants. These differ-

articulation are analogous to the articulation

may be

of tones in

characterized as staccato and legato.

Let’s explore further the musician’s

quality of sound. to

n,

The

convey a particular

and the

poet’s use

of the sensuous

musician selects instrumental or vocal tone colors

mood

or feeling.

The

poet, too,

is

concerned with

the quality of sound and uses devices that emphasize the interest and

meaning inherent (words with

of words. These devices include rhyme

in the sounds

final syllables that

have the same or similar vowel and con-

sonant sounds), alliteration (repeated

initial

consonant sounds), asso-

nance (repeated vowel sounds), consonance (repetition of similar or identical consonants or words whose main vowels differ), and onomatopoeia (word sounds that are similar to the actual sounds they represent). Can you find examples of each of these four devices in the lines from “Song of the Train”? Here are some instances you may have identified: (a) rhyme {clack, track attack), (b) alliteration (dickety-dack), (c) assonance (ch'ckety, this, begin), and (d) onomatopoeia (clickety-clack). These devices, along with meter, suggest the sound and movement of the train. If you wanted to imitate the percussive articulation of the words of this poem in music, what kinds of instruments would you use? How would those instruments be played? Percussion instruments would be an obvious choice. A violin would also be a possibility if it were played with the wood instead of the hair of the bow (col legno) or if it were plucked with the fingers (pizzicato). Now contrast how the violin might play to imitate the words of “Slowly. ’’The player would slowly draw the hairs of ,

the

bow

across the strings to play smooth, legato phrases.

In music, dance, and visual art

Making

a connection

sculpture

The

we speak of shape and direction

lines in

music and

tempting, but also fraught with

is

refer to a “rising”

pitch.

between

difficulties.

melodic line or a bass voice that sinks

spatial connotations

in lines.

and

lines in painting

Musicians

down

may

for a “low”

of these words are simply a convention,

though. Pitches that are “high” differ from “low” pitches in that they have

more sound

cycles per second. It

would be more

true to their physical

properties to say that “higher” pitches have a greater frequency of cycles

per second. But even the terminology that properties of tones

makes reference

is

to “high”

used to refer to the acoustic

and “low” frequencies. So,

appears that even when speaking in acoustical terms reference to high

and

we cannot escape

it

the

low.

Musicians and music educators regularly draw on the association of pitch level with high and low. Imagine watching the great operatic tenor

Luciano Pavarotti ending an

aria

on

a high note.

What would he be doing


94

with his arms? flourish.

He would

probably raise them as he ends the aria with a

Now imagine that his

arms be?

We

would probably

ends on a low note.

aria

find

Sometimes composers use pitch

incongruous

it

Where would

if

his

he raised them.

direction to create the effect of “tone

painting.” In the Christmas carol “Joy to the World,” for example,

Handel

symbolizes the descent of Jesus to earth by beginning the song with a

descending

scale.

The

musical line would be represented in notation by

eight notes descending from a high position

on the

staff to a

low one. That

graphic representation of high to low might be echoed physically by a teacher coaching a group of singers line

who

traces the descending

melodic

with her hand to remind them of the melodic contour of the phrase.

What Kind of Structure or Form Does the Work Have?

A fragment of melody may be beautiful, a gesture graceful, or a metaphor evocative, but these bits of raw material

manipulated and combined with other

do not become

bits in a

art until

they are

meaningful way to create

a coherent, expressive whole. In music, the concepts that are related to

how

musical elements are combined to create the coherent, expressive

whole of a composition Texture in music

is

are texture

and form. (See Table

manifested in the

way

6.4)

that musical fines are per-

formed either alone or in simultaneous combination with other musical fines.

The

commonly used to describe the basic musical monophony, homophony, and polyphony. When a single

terms that are

textures are

singer or a group of singers performs the melody of “Row, Row, Row Your Boat,” for example, a monophonic texture is created. If a pianist were to accompany the singing of the melody with chords, that texture would be described as homophonic. If one singer began singing “The Farmer in the Dell” while another sang “Row, Row, Row Your Boat,” the result would be a polyphonic texture. If one singer began singing “Row, Row, Row Your Boat,” then another began the same song four beats later, a special variety of polyphonic texture, known as a round, results. If the pianist were to add chordal accompaniment to the performance of the round, a hybrid of polyphonic and homophonic texture, or mixed texture,

would be created. In composing “Farandole” from

made

L'Arlesienne Suite No. 2, Georges Bizet

use of all of these types of textures. Listen to the “Farandole” while

following the descriptions in the listening chart in Table 6.5. notice that Bizet saved the

most complex

You

will

texture for the climax of the

composition.

Analogs to polyphony in music can be found in dance and poetry. The two or more dancers through time can reflect the relationship of polyphonic musical fines; music and dance share the same

relationship of


FORM— design or organization in music

TEXTURE— simultaneous combination of musical lines Monophonic

texture

—single melody

95

line

Table 6.4

Same/different

Only one section

—

Homophonic texture melody with chordal accompaniment

Verse-refrain

Call

and response

Repeated ideas Introduction/interlude/coda

Polyphonic texture

—two or more

melodies performed simultaneously

Form of entire

sections: AB, ABA,

Form of phrases within

AABA

sections: ab, aba,

aaba

Mixed texture

Sectional forms

—two or more melodies

with chordal accompaniment

Theme and

variations (AA'A"A"')

Minuet and

trio

Rondo

ABACADA)

(e.g.,

(ABA)

Sonata-allegro (exposition,

development, recapitulation)

labels for these relationships.

One example

of such a relationship

osti-

is

nato, where an individual or a group performs a repeating pattern in

movement

or sound that underlies the ongoing

the other performers. Another

is

movements or sounds of

canon, in which everyone performs the

same movements or melody, but each performer or group of performers begins at a different time. essence of polyphony ple, a

is

The

characteristic

rare in poetry, but

it

of simultaneity that can be found.

If,

for

is

the

exam-

poet wants you to consider two different points of view simultane-

ously, those points

of view might be expressed in two

parallel

poems

placed side by side. Paul Fleischman (1988, 1989) has written two books

of poems for two voices, some of which are nearly canonic.

poem

is

“Whirligig Beedes,” which

ed in Chapter

7.

is

One

such

the focus of a lesson plan present-

Texture

and

Form

Music

in

96


Table 6.5

Farandole from L'Arlesienne Georges Bizet (1838-1875)

Listening Chart

for Texture in

Music

1

:00

3

Theme A; minor mode Homophonic

'(

'< 1 ' 1 ' 1 2

4

1

.28

' '

Theme A; minor mode Monophonic

texture

texture

1 1

1 1 1

1

5

1:38

Theme B; transformed minor mode

6

1:44

Theme

to

Theme A; minor mode

:17

Polyphonic texture; canon

minor

A;

mode

monphonic texture, becomes homophonic

3

:34

Theme

B;

1:54

8

2:1

One ilarity

their

and

and difference

work.

The

Theme

B;

minor

mode

Theme A in major mode and Theme B in major mode comMixed texture

2:46

of the overarching principles in similarity

in

bined with harmony

texture

9

between

6

mode

major

Homophonic

7

Begins

difference. Artists

is

form

is

the interplay

a tightrope

between sim-

artistic

walk

to achieve cohesiveness

process of variation

Coda

and maintain

one way

artists

interest in

negotiate that

and difference exist theme or idea remain constant

tightrope. In the process of variation, similarity

simultaneously as

some elements of

while other elements undergo change. a basic series

of movements

can be varied by making It

it

—

a

A dancer, for example, can perform

a theme, if you will.

That movement theme

larger, smaller, higher, lower, stronger,

weaker.

can be inverted (high becomes low, forward becomes backward) or per-

in retrograde (reverse order). Parts of the movement series can be subdy changed or ornamented. Through all of the variations, however, the relationship to the original theme should be discernible.

formed


Artists also a series

employ the

principle of variation in their work.

of variations on an object or abstract pattern

is

97

Sometimes

presented within

the context of a single work. Sometimes variations are achieved through a series of

works in which the presentation of a single subject

is

varied

across works. Study the photographs of the series of bronze reliefs, Back

Back II, Back III, Back IV by Henri Matisse (Figure 6.2). What is the theme of these reliefs? How is that theme varied? You’ll notice that the theme, a woman’s back, becomes increasingly abstract.

I,

Figure 6.2

Henri Matisse.

Back Back ca.

I,

Back II, Back IV.

III,

1959-1960.

Bronze

relief.


98

In music, composers achieve variation by ornamenting a melody; presenting

it

in a different

and meter; setting tions.

The more

it

mode; inverting

familiar the listener

changing its tempo, rhythm, and using alternate harmoniza-

it;

in different textures; is

with the original theme, the

greater the possibility for delight in tracking the

manipulates the theme.

Many of the

ways the composer

compositions listed in Table 6.6 use

which makes them theme and variations.

familiar songs as the basis for variation,

appropriate for

1

Table 6.6

Music

in the

initial

experiences with

Composer

Composition

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

Variations

on "Ah, vous

dirai-je,

Maman"

(same tune as "Twinkle, Twinkle,

Form of Theme and Variations

Aaron Copland

Variations

Suitablefor

on "Simple

especially

Little Star")

Gifts" from

Appalachian Spring*

Young Listeners

*

A

on America

Charles Ives

Variations

Morton Gould

American Salute*

Benjamin

Young

Britten

plan that features American Salute can be found

Person's

Guide to the Orchestra

on "Simple

lesson plan that features Copland's Variations

in

Chapter

Gifts"

1

is

included

in

Chapter

7;

a lesson

0.

Like theme and variation, the compositional device of motive consists

of a core idea that undergoes successive transformation.

A line or shape,

gesture, or brief musical idea can constitute a motive that

is

repeated and

developed to create larger structures. In Seurat’s Sunday Afternoon on the Island ofLa Grande Jatte, for example, the arc

out the painting.

is

used as a motive through-

We see the arc repeated in the shape of umbrellas, dogs’

women’s bustles, a monkey’s arched back, the crook of a cane, hats and heads, sails, and a bit of a cloud. In music, undoubtedly the most famous use of motive is the initial four notes of Beethoven’s Symphony No. 5 in C minor. The melodic shape and rhythm pattern of those four notes provided Beethoven with enough raw musical material to sustain an entire movement. The motive is presented in various guises: at higher and lower pitch levels, inverted, augmented (twice as slow), with altered pitches, and with pitches added or subtracted. Another way that similarity and difference come into play in artistic form is in the repetition of ideas and the juxtaposition of those ideas with contrasting ideas. Repetition and contrast can occur on both small-scale or large-scale levels. In poetry, for example, repetition and contrast occur on tails,

a small scale

when

final

vowel and consonant sounds

are repeated to create

rhymes. Those rhymes are contrasted with other lines of the ate

rhyme schemes

poem

that contribute to the larger architecture of the

to cre-

poem.

”


work of

That balance may be achieved through the equilibrium of

exact or

similar elements in

ments

in

symmetry, or through the use of unequal parts or

asymmetry. The most

ABA

characterized by

common

many phrases Let’s

that

examine

combine

how

may consist of only

a

few phrases

the elements of repetition and contrast, form, and

The

of the song follow an aabbaa rhyme scheme (see Table 6.7)

a

Twinkle, twinkle,

a

How wonder what you

b

Up above

b

Like a

a

Twinkle, twinkle,

a

How wonder what you

last

two is

diamond

lines

in

the

"Twinkle, Twinkle

sky.

Little Star

little star,

of the

also true

song’s musical

Rhyme Scheme of

are.

the world so high,

I

This

Table 6.7

little star,

I

The lines.

is

to create a larger section.

balance operate in the simple song “Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star.” lyrics

ele-

type of symmetrical balance

identical or similar parts frame a

form whereby

contrasting part. In music, the sections

or

99

Repetition and contrast contribute to the sense of balance in a art.

,

are.

lyrics are a literal repetition

of the

first

two

of the phrase structure of the song; therefore, the

form would be labeled

ABA (see Example 6.1). Example

6.1

Phrase Structure

of “ Twinkle Twinkle, Star”

If we examine the song’s structure ferent

scheme of

repetition

on a smaller scale, we notice a difand contrast (see Example 6.2). In the first

phrase of the song, the two subphrases are contrasting (a and b), but in the second phrase, the subphrases are identical (c and the

first full

c).

The

return of

phrase provides a sense of symmetry and completion to the

song. We also can find interplay between repetition and contrast in the rhythm and melody of the song. Within each subphrase we see the same

L ittle

,


lOO

rhythm pattern of short and long sounds (six eighth notes and a quarter note). The repetition of the rhythm pattern throughout the entire song provides unity while the contrasting melodic phrases provide variety.

subde balance between repetition and contrast larger scales in “Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star” this simple

Example

song

is

regarded as a

at

is

The

both the smaller and

one of the reasons that

classic.

6.2

Subphrase Structure of

Twin

-

twin

kle,

-

kle,

lit

-

tie

How

star.

I

won

-

der

what

you

are.

mond

in

the

sky.

der

what

you

are.

“Twinkle,

Twinkle, Little Star”

Up

a

Twin

-

-

kle

bove

twin

-

the

world

kle,

lit

-

so

high,

Like

a

dia

tie

star.

How

I

won

-

-

Because of its temporal nature, music makes more use of repetition than

do the

visual

and

literary arts.

We can go back and reread a line of poetry

or scan a painting again to reinforce our understanding and

memory of it.

But the sounds of music vibrate in the air, then dissipate. In live performances we can’t call them back to listen to them again. That is why composers rely on repetition to familiarize us with the main musical ideas. The next time you are listening to popular music on the radio, try this experiment. When you hear a new song, listen for how many times the refrain of a song is repeated. By the end of the song, can you sing the refrain along with the recording? The refrain you are singing is often referred to as the “hook.” By repeating the hook many times throughout the song, the composer “hooks” you into familiarity with the song, thus promoting quicker understanding, and,

it is

hoped, enjoyment of the song.

What Techniques Did the Creator Use to Help Us Understand What Is Being Expressed? Every day we express our

feelings

and emotions by uttering sounds and facial expressions and using ges-

words, adopting particular postures and tures.

Sounds, words, postures, gestures, and

raw materials

for artistic expression.

expressive elements are used in daily arts?

One difference

is

What

life

facial expressions are also

way

those

from the way they are used

in the

differentiates the

that the artist has an aesthetic intention:

He or she

Perceptions, Patterns, and Processe

is

make

deliberately setting about to

In the process of making

art.

privately held ideas, emotions,

artist’s

lOl

and

feelings

become

art,

the

public expres-

form or medium, such Another difference is that artists

sions created within the constraints of a particular as a song, sonnet, watercolor, or ballet.

Only within become art. John

use or create rules to provide structure for their expression. the context of these aesthetic rules does expression

Ciardi,

the

discussing

necessary

discipline

“Communication of feeling

a skill

is

—

a

create

to

way of doing.

said,

art,

It involves pain; it

involves difficulty. Robert Frost spoke of ‘the pleasure of taking pains.’

That

is

An

the aesthetic joy” (Ciardi, 1989, p. 13).

artist starts

with an idea or emotion, and in the process of working

it

out within a particular medium, the idea or emotion becomes clarified;

it

takes

on a form that can be

better understood

The work

the viewer, reader, or listener.

beyond the

artist’s

addresses this

its

artist as

own

phenomenon

fife

in the context

of painting, but his ideas can

arts as well:

itself as it

appears in actual paintings deter-

mines the expressiveness, regardless of whether the intended precisely what artist

well as by

expressive

original intentions or motivations. Parsons (1987)

be applied to the other

The medium

by the

acquires

it

expresses.

artist

This means that the

can express things that she was not aware

of,

things that

have to do, for example, with her character or with that of the times, (p. 110)

If we, as viewers, readers,

expressed in a artists

and

wish to understand what

listeners,

work of art, we must

start to

pay closer attention to

manipulate their media. Just as the process of creation

is

is

how

charac-

by a willingness on the part of the artist to invest hours, days, or years in molding and manipulating raw materials into an expressive work terized

of

art,

we

too must be willing to go beyond casual encounters with the

works and invest our time and

One

effort to

understand their meaning.

strategy devised to help learners “read” a

work of art

is

known

aesthetic scanning (Dobbs, 1992). This strategy was designed by

as

Harry

S. Broudy and W. Dwaine Greer to apply to the study of visual art, but many of its components can be applied to other art forms as well. In this

approach, an artwork

is

examined

for

its (a)

sensory properties

shapes, colors, textures), (b) formal properties

(e.g.,

(e.g., fines,

relationship of indi-

theme and variation, balance), and equipment, and ways of working), and (d) expressive properties (e.g., mood language, dynamic language, and idea language). Sensory and formal properties in this model correspond to the components of the facets model discussed earfi-

vidual elements to the whole, use of (c)

technical properties (e.g., media, tools


102

by the questions What does it look form and structure? Engaging in reflection on the technical properties of a work is equally appropriate for music as it is for art. Just as an artist selects his or her medium, masters its techniques, works within its limitations, and sometimes invents new techniques to er in this chapter that are represented like?

and

What

is its

transcend those limitations, so too do composers and performers.

When

someone composes music, the expressive possibilities of the medium or media whether the voice, electronic sounds, string instruments, brass, woodwinds, or percussion as well as the technical limitations of those media, have to be considered. The composer must understand the ranges of voices and instruments as well as the various techniques used by performers, such as bowings and articulations. The component of aesthetic scanning that concerns expressive proper-

—

—

ties is easily

applied across

all

forms of artistic expression. When we think

about the expressive properties of a work,

mood

that

work

we

often think

first

evokes. Beginning attempts at characterizing

about the

mood

are

on happy and sad. While it is true that many poems, paintings, musical works, and dances do express happiness or sadness, the mood palette of the arts is much more subtle and varied. Kate often limited to variations

Hevner (1936) has compiled

mood palette of music

a set of adjectives that can be applied to the

(see Figure 6.3).

You may find

helpful as a starting point for refining the vocabulary

mood or moods evoked by music. The way an artist uses color, a composer

this set

of adjectives

you use to describe

the

uses tone colors, or a writer

uses words with particular sound qualities contributes to the

mood

of

dynamic language of the work also contributes to our perception of mood. Dynamic language refers to elements such as tension, relaxation, energy, and conflict. All works of art incorporate elements of tension and relaxation, but the balance of those elements may be skewed in such a way as to create a prevailing atmosphere of tension or relaxation. If you listen to the opening section of Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun by Debussy, then listen to the “Harbingers of Spring” section of The Rite of Spring by Stravinsky, a distinct contrast in dynamic language will be apparent. Tempo, rhythm, accents, and harmonic tension are used in distinctly different ways to their creations.

The

character of the

achieve the character of languid sensuality in the case of Prelude to the

Afternoon ofa Faun and brutal, primal energy in “Harbingers of Spring.” The idea language of a work also contributes to its potential expressiveness. Idea language includes symbols, social concepts

psychological or political values.

of a work, created.

To be

we must know something

and

values,

and

able to interpret the idea language

about the context in which

it

was

We come closer to understanding the meaning of the work when


io3

bright cheerful

happy agitated

dramatic

joyous merry

delicate fanciful

exciting

graceful

exhilarated

humorous

passionate

light

restless

playful

sensational

quaint

soaring

sprightly

triumphant

whimsical

calm

emphatic

leisurely

exalting

lyrical

majestic

quiet

martial

serene soothing

ponderous robust vigorous

tranquil

awe-inspiring

dreamy

dignified lofty

sacred serious

sober

solemn spiritual

dark depressing doleful frustrated

gloomy heavy melancholy mournful

longing plaintive

pleading sentimental tender yearning

sad tragic

we understand the meaning inherent in symbols or allusions used by an artist. The 1812 Overture, for example, can be enjoyed simply for the way

Hevner Adjective

Tchaikovsky combines the elements of music to create

Circle (adapted)

If one

is

stirring

themes.

commemorates the defeat of Russia by symbolically waging a battle between the

aware, however, that Tchaikovsky

Napoleon in Russians and the French through the incorporation of their respective national anthems into the overture, the work will be understood in a very different way.

Figure 6.3


104

Learning More about the Arts In this chapter,

we

have discussed

how an

exploration of facets of the arts

that relate to formal properties can be a starting place for discoveries

about perceptions, patterns, and processes that cut across

art forms.

Such

multifaceted examinations of the arts enhance, rather than detract from,

our enjoyment of them. According to Umberto Eco (1989), “The form of the work of art gains its aesthetic validity precisely in proportion to the

number of different stood.

These give

impairing

it

perspectives from a wealth

which

it

can be viewed and under-

of different resonances and echoes without

original essence” (p. 3).

its

The more you know about

the various forms of art, the more readily you can see connections between and among them. To help you and your students expand your understanding of music, visual art, dance, and poetry, we provide a bibliography that includes books written for young readers as well as books written for adults. In Chapter 7 we will discuss how to plan educational experiences that will lead students to discover rela-

and the other

tionships between music

arts.

References Adshead, J., Briginshaw, V. A., Hodgens, R, 8c Huxley, chart

of

skills

Education 16

and concepts

(3):

for

M.

R. (1982).

A

dance. Journal of Aesthetic

51-61.

Blishen, E. (ed.). (1984). Oxford book ofpoetry for children.

New

York:

Peter Bedrick. Ciardi,

J.

(1989). Ciardi himself: Fifteen essays in the reading, writing,

and

teaching ofpoetry. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press.

Cole,

J.

(Ed.). (1984).

new Davidson,

M.

S.

M.

Garden

City, N.Y.:

Doubleday.

C., Ferguson, N., Staton, B., 8c Staton,

and you. Dobbs,

A new treasury of childrens poetry: Oldfavorites and

discoveries.

M.

(1990). Music

New York: Macmillan.

(1992). The

DBAE

based art education.

Handbook:

An

overview of discipline-

Los Angeles: The Getty Center

for

Education in the Arts. Eco, U. (1989). The open work (Anna Cancogni,

Harvard University

Press.

trans.).

Cambridge:

Fleischman,

P.

(1988). Joyful noise: Poems for two voices.

New

York:

New

York:

Harper 6c Row. Fleischman,

P.

(1989). I

Am

Phoenix: Poems for two

voices.

Harper 6c Row. Hevner, K. (1936). Experimental studies of the elements of expression in music. American Journal ofPsychology 48: 245-286.

M.

Parsons,

(1987).

How we

understand

art:

A

account of aesthetic experience. Cambridge:

cognitive developmental

Cambridge University

Press.

H. G. (1993).

Parsons, M., 6c Blocker,

Aesthetics

and education. Urbana:

University of Illinois Press.

Smith, R. A. (1989). The sense of art: York: Routledge.

A study in aesthetic education. New

Additional Resources for Learning about the Arts

MUSIC Beethoven, J., Bohn, D., Campbell,

P. S.,

Culp, C., Davidson, J., Eisman,

M. E., March, Moore, M., Nadon-Gabrion, C., Palmer, M., Ravosa, C., Reilly, M. L., Schmid, W., Scott-Kassner, C., Sinor, The music connection. J., Stauffer, S., 6c Thomas, J. (1995). Hayes, C., Hilley, M., Hoffman,

L., Glover, S. L.,

H.,

McCloud,

Morristown,

Bond,

J.,

Davidson,

B.,

N.J.: Silver

M.

Burdett Ginn.

C., Goetze,

(1995). Share the music.

Copland, A. (1988). What to

M., Lawrence, V. P, 6c Snyder,

listen for in music.

New York: McGraw-Hill.

Dallin, L. (1986). Listeners guide to musical understanding.

Iowa:

Wm.

S.

New York: Macmillan/McGraw-Hill.

Dubuque,

C. Brown.

Fowler, C. (1994). Music! Its role

and importance

in our lives.

New York:

Glencoe. Kernfeld, B. D. (1995).

What to listenfor in jazz.

New Haven, Conn.: Yale

University Press.

Spence, K. (1994). The young people's book of music. Brookfield, Conn.: Millbrook.

Weiss, R. (1991). Music and expression. Dubuque, Iowa:

Wm.

C. Brown.


io6

VISUAL ART

New York:

The art ofsculpture. (1993).

G.

Blizzard,

Come

(1990).

S.

Charlottesville, Va.:

Scholastic.

with me: Enjoying art with

children.

Thomasson-Grant.

New York:

Cole, A. (1993). Color.

Cumming, R.

look

Dorling Kindersley.

New

(1979). Just look...:A book about paintings.

York:

Charles Scribners Sons.

Davidson, R. (1993). Take a

look:

An

introduction to the experience of art.

New York: Viking. Horwitz, E. L. (1976).

A

garden of sculpture. Washington, D.C.:

child's

Washington Books. Isaacson,

P.

M.

(1993).

world of art.

A short walk around the pyramids & through the

New York:

Knopf.

Pekarik, A. (1992). Painting behind the scenes.

New York: Hyperion Books

for Children.

Vyverberg, H. (1988). The living tradition: Art, music, and ideas in the

San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Western world.

Yenawine,

P.

Colors.

New

York:

The Museum of Modern

(1991b). Lines.

New

York:


New

York:


(1991a).

Art/Delacourt.

Yenawine,

P.

Art/Delacourt.

Yenawine,

P.

(1991c). Shapes.

Art/Delacourt.

Yenawine,

P.

(1995).

Key

art terms for beginners.

New

York: Harry N.

Abrams.

DANCE Au,

S.

(1988). Ballet

and modern

dance.

London: Thames and Hudson.

Hayes, E. (1993). Dance composition andproduction (2nd N.J.:

Kerner,

M.

Princeton

ed.).

Pennington,

Book Company.

(1990). Barefoot to Balanchine: How to watch dance.

New York:

Doubleday.

Minton,

S.

C. (1986). Choreography:

Champaign,

111.:

Human

A basic approach using improvisation.

Kinetics.


107

POETRY Ciardi,

J.,

& Williams,

Houghton Dacey,

P.,

M.

(1975).

How

does a

poem mean? Boston:

Mifflin.

&c Jauss, D.

American poetry

(eds.).

(1986). Strong measures: Contemporary

in traditionalforms.

Jones, R. T. (1986). Studying poetry:

An

New York:

introduction.

Harper

& Row.

London: Edward

Arnold. Strauss, P. (1993). Talking poetry:

Cape Town, South

A guide for students,

Africa:

David

Philip.

teachers

and poets.

chapter 7

\*

Planning Interdisciplinary Arts Experiences for Students

and 6 we presenthelp you deepen your understanding as you encounter particular works of music, art, poetry, or other arts. We hope that through your exploration of these

I

works’ facets, some

new

n Chapters

4, 5,

ed ideas and

activities to

insights about relationships

emerged. Perhaps you are beginning to think about

among the arts have how the facets of a

piece of music can lead you to other areas of the curriculum.

have begun to make some connections, the question of

make

their

own

how

Now that you

time to turn our attention to

it is

to design educational experiences to help students

connections.

we

In Chapter 6

discussed facets of the arts that relate to perceptions,

and processes. We did so in a way that we hope is meaningful to you, an adult reader. Because you are an adult, we have made certain patterns,

assumptions related to your ability to grasp these ideas.

One

that

is

you

have reached a stage of intellectual development in which you can deal

with abstract concepts. Another ence,

you

is

that,

because of your

emotions. Yet another

is

that

you have

and

own

experi-

wide range of

a vast storehouse

of knowledge

about the world including a perspective that transcends your time and space.

life

talk about a

are able to understand, relate to,

own place

in

We also assume that you have had some experience with

the arts as producer or performer and that you have seen and heard at least

some of the works of art and music

able to obtain recordings

to

which we have

referred or are

and reproductions of the works from a

library or

other source.

Now

think about the students you are or will be teaching.

we hold

Do

the

you also hold true for your students? If you are teaching young children, most likely not. If you are teaching students at assumptions

for

the middle school or high school level, apply,

some may

not.

Through

some of the assumptions may

careful observation

of children’s responses

and researchers have described general characteristics of the developmental path from birth through adolescence. These generto the arts, teachers

109

no


alizations help teachers tailor instructional experiences to the student,

accounting for areas of cognitive, physical, emotional, growth. Perceptive teachers will also be

development, particularly as experiences in music,

draw on multiple forms of understanding and Children’s development in the arts tifaceted nature

them.

of the

arts

is

social,

and

affective

alert to individual variations in art,

dance, or theater

skill.

a complex issue because of the mul-

themselves and because of our interactions with

One can come to the arts as (a)

a producer or performer, whereby

one whereby one stands outside the work observing the components of the work and the way they interact is

“in the middle”

of the work;

(b) a perceiver,

whereby one is even further removed from the work considering issues such as function or context (Wolf, 1989). Each of these artistic activities is mutually enhancing, but the to create meaning; or (c) a reflective inquirer,

relative influence

and importance of each may

Most of children’s

shift as

one matures.

interactions with the arts are in the realm of pro-

duction/performance and perception. Young children tend to be concerned with the aspects of art that have relevance to their gravitate

toward favorite

colors, or songs,

favorite things or activities (Parsons, 1987). qualities

own worlds and

poems, or paintings about

They respond

to the sensory

of arts experiences. Young children often react physically to the

rhythmic qualities of music and poetry; children perceive differences in loud and soft and use them for expressive purposes in their

own

perfor-

mance; they distinguish differences in tone color and begin to associate tone colors with particular instruments.

With children’s increasing maturity also comes a “developmental shift from an absorption with their own individual work to an appreciation of tradition and the social aspects of their work” (Davidson Scripp, 1989, p. 72). As children become able to consider a work of art from another’s

&

point of view, they become better able to

ence to reflect on what a composer or

move beyond

personal prefer-

communicating,

artist is

why

a

and how those choices affect the expressiveness of the work. Continued instruction and maturity deep-

composer or

artist

made

particular choices,

ens the capacity for these reflections; this capacity continues to develop into

and throughout adulthood.

Designing Interarts Experiences for Children

When

designing arts experiences in the classroom, one must remember

that direct experience with the arts

is

of utmost importance. For children

to understand the arts conceptually, they

must sing songs,

in patterned designs

—view artwork

in a variety

listen to

music

—both

freely

of media and

styles,

representing a variety of styles and time periods,

move

and and

Planning

I

nterdisciplinary Arts Experiences for Students

read and listen to vivid poetry. ate

new “worlds”

The

for the children

teacher provides experiences that cre-

and enlarges

beyond that which they encounter day vincingly,

it is

vital that

to day.

their scope

To

of experience

create this

world con-

the recordings and reproductions used be of the

highest quality possible. If part of your plan includes opportunities for students to perform or

make

had the prior experiences necessary to be able Untutored exploration of the raw materials of the arts may result in some happy and fortuitous discoveries. To sustain interest and develop skill, however, teachers need to sequence and create,

to

sure they have

do so with

structure

the

skill

and

success.

educational experience with care.

How will students How will expe-

progress from obvious choices to artistic sophistication? riences be arranged to

draw on

while at the same time making tools

knowledge and

skill

possible for students to acquire

new

already- acquired it

and enhanced understanding?

How will students’ reflections on the

processes of performance and creation be encouraged to help

them

acquire the discipline and rigor necessary for excellent work?

Thoughtful, sensitive planning brings

ground of a

all

of these factors into the fore-

teacher’s attention in the design

of interarts experiences. In

the next portion of this chapter, descriptions of four instructional strategies that incorporate music, children’s literature, will

be presented. Ideas for the

first

movement, and visual

art

strategy are provided in skeletal form.

The

lesson plan for the second strategy is accompanied by parallel commentary that explains the rationale behind the instructional choices made

in the lesson. Fully scripted lesson plans are provided for the third

and

fourth strategies. These complete plans include a rationale for each les-

and ideas for extending the lesson These plans will demonstrate appli-

son, objectives, assessment strategies, to

make

additional curricular links.

cations of the facets

model

to planning interarts experiences.

— Sound Ways of Knowing

11?

Lesson

I

Exploring the Qualities of Sound

in

Poetry and Instruments

The poem "Jump or Jiggle" by Evelyn Beyer (Arbuthnot &

Root,

young

its

children because of

its

appealing subject matter,

colorful use of words. Alliteration

(horses clop,

(worms wiggle, snakes

bugs jiggle) abound

in this

poem. These

1

968)

slide)

enjoyed by

and

its

and onomatopoeia

characteristics easily lend

themselves to an exploration of the musical potential inherent following lesson would be appropriate for students

is

distinct meter,

in first

in

the poem. The

or second grade.

Jump or Jiggle Frogs jump

hump

Caterpillars

Worms

wiggle

Bugs jiggle Rabbits

hop

Horses clop

Snakes

slide

Sea gulls glide

Mice creep

Deer leap Puppies bounce Kittens

pounce

Lions stalk

But— walk!

I

Evelyn Beyer

1)

Read the

poem

using vocal inflections that highlight the alliteration and

onomatopoeia. 2)

Pat

hands on thighs then clap hands together to create

tern.

Perform the pattern as the

poem

is

coincides with the metrical rhythm of the 3)

Experiment with ways to the animals' movements.

move that

a

two-beat pat-

read so that the pat-clap pattern

reflect

poem. the descriptions and sounds of

— n3

Planning Interdisciplinary Akts Experiences for Student

Experiment with ways to play instruments to

4)

tions,

Speak

5)

a line of the

poem, then

the qualities, descrip-

rhythm to

fit

lesson, the

in

play the instrument sounds for the animal

word rhythms

described, either imitating the

In this

reflect

and sounds of the animals' movements.

or creating an appropriate

the two-beat time frame.

term instruments can be interpreted very broadly to mean any

object producing a sound that can be used

in

a musical way. Everyday objects

found around the classroom can be used as instruments. Have you ever considered a coat zipper as an instrument?

How

down and tapped on

If

upside

together with dried maraca.

Some

rice,

a desk?

beans, or

about

two

a plastic drinking glass turned

plastic drinking glasses are

lentils inside,

taped

you can imitate the sound of

a

types of plastic drinking glasses have ridges that can be scraped

by a pencil to mimic the sound of a guiro. In

one classroom equipped with

instruments, the

a

wide assortment of

poem was "orchestrated" in

traditional

classroom

this fashion:

Jump or Jiggle Frogs

two wood

jump

Caterpillars

hump

blocks with different pitches

short scrapes back and forth

Worms wiggle

tambourine, shaken

Bugs jiggle

maracas

Rabbits

hop

rhythm

temple blocks

Snakes

sand blocks

Sea gulls glide

slide whistle

Mice creep

fingertips fluttering

Deer leap

large

hand drum

Puppies bounce

drum drum

struck with a hard mallet

Kittens

pounce

timpani

But—

foot stamps

walk!

Evelyn Beyer

on hand drum

struck with a soft mallet

Lions stalk

I

a guiro

sticks

Horses clop slide

on

roll

:

n4


Lesson

II

Musical Improvisation and Children's Literature Musical improvisation

is

A

also the focus of this lesson.

children's book,

Maestro Plays (Martin, 1 994), provides the impetus for improvisation.

In

the maestro plays loudly, slowly, swingingly,sweepingly, and so on; children create the music they imagine the maestro Billy,"

A

playing.

is

which features movement improvisation, serves as

The

the book,

singing game,

will

"Billy,

a prelude to musical

improvisation.

Example

7.1

“Billy, Billy

”

Here’s

Here’s

the

the

Verse

2:

we

way

way

Bil

we

Strutting

Verse

3:

Bil

Step back

ly, Bil

-

ly,

-

Bil

ly,

-

Bil

-

All

ly.

-

ly,

Bil

-

ly,

Bil

night

-

ly,

Bil

-

ly.

long!

Sally, Sally, Sally

down

the

night long!

alley, All

Here comes another one, Just

the other one,

like

Here comes another one, All night long!

Formation Action

Players, in

two

lines,

facing partners

players "twist" with partners.

Verse

1

All

Verse

2:

Players take four steps backward.

movement while moving Verse

3:

cise

—

"Billy, Billy" (in

movement exer-

two

partners across from

player improvises a line.

moving

to

end of

line.

The Thinking behind the Flow:

The Flow of the Experience: Begin with a creative

Head

end of opposite

Improviser's partner imitates action while

opposite

1)

to

lines

with

one another)

Young

children learn by doing

and acting out

movement game has move together) and

their understanding.This

structure

freedom

(in (in

verse

1

all

verses 2 and 3 partners improvise

movements). Children move

in

rhythmic character of the song.

response to the

— Planning Interdisciplinary Arts Experiences for Students

The Thinking behind the Flow:

The Flow of the Experience: 2)

Read The Maestro Martin

the

Jr. (1

994).

Plays

Draw

by

Descriptive questions

Bill

do you

attention to

Transition: "But there isn't story,

What

we must

the Maestro's music sounds

Build musical vocabulary

happening here?

and verbal

sounds that accompany the

ability.

bold

lively text

and

illustrations.

like?"

Observation of a model. Children practice their

by echoing

melodic and rhythmic patterns using Orff instruments set

—What do you see? What is

This encourages students to imagine the

any music

so

make our own. Can you imagine what

3)

notice?

build perception

illustrations.

with the Maestro's

115

up with

a limited

skills

at imitating the

visual,

model using

gestural,

and auditory cues. Labels give

a

name

set of pitches.Teacher plays, children

to the elements that are formed into concepts

echo. Use familiar labels to describe

(internal

mental structures).

sound or ask children to describe the high/low, fast/slow, soft/loud possibilities.

4)

Develop musical question-and-answer conversations. The teacher

may

short question phrase, which

is

Moving from

imitation to invention. Children

play a

perceive the content of the question, and

an-

spond with

re-

a musically sensible answer.

swered, but not exactly imitated by the class.

As the children catch on, encour-

age "paired conversations" between students.

5)

Display adverbs from The Maestro Plays that have

been printed on cards and

sequenced Develop

in

6)

imaginative ones, too. The

order of appearance.

a whole-class response to

"proudly, loudly" and "slowly,

oh

Invite pairs of players to select

Drawing attention to adverbs and

ly."

one of

work cooperatively and negotiate

lesson. Pairs

Allow for time to explore,

lem

and practice

in pairs.

about

Allowing for choice helps to personalize the

their ideas.This

ideas,

or "all togeth-

the length of the improvisations.

improvisation with speech and music.

on

tuff/

er" section will help to set expectations

the adverb cards to develop into an

settle

their -ly

forms. Martin has used typical adverbs and

solving.

is

an example of musical prob-

Sound Ways

116

The Flow of the Experience: 7)

Perform the entire book. play the

encore.

tutti

of

Knowing

The Thinking behind the Flow: If

desired,

sections again as an

The

entire

the book,

performance restores the whole of

now enhanced

interpretation.

with the musical

n7

lanning Interdisciplinary Arts Experiences for Students

STRATEGIES Objectives, Learning Activities, If

in

and Assessment

you were to implement the preceding lessons your classroom, what would the students be

How would you know

learning?

learned

they had

if

Although the students' and teacher's

it?

been described, no educational

activities have

objectives have been stated, nor have assess-

ment

helpful in think-

ing about the multiple dimensions of lesson plan-

to go. If we trip

up

all,

we need

embark on

to

know where we want

a long journey,

into shorter legs.

we break the

Sometimes, unforeseen

circumstances cause us to modify our plans. So

it is

with teaching. We must have a clear idea of what

know

students should of instruction

—that

is,

or be able to

do

as a result

well-articulated objectives.

down into shortA time frame for the accom-

Long-term objectives are broken er-term objectives.

plishment of those objectives

is

estimated, but

on students' progress. The next question of our travel metaphor

is

often modified based

walk, or ride a bicycle, train, or bus. in

terms of

We

we choose

tions

may

activities;

skills

from

among many

to be learned.These interac-

include participating

in

skill,

improvising and creating music, listening with understanding, making judgments about music,

and understanding music's arts as well as

teacher-led

then practicing indepen-

engaging

independent research to answer questions. We

of learning that

other instructional

materials to help students achieve the objectives.

question of our travel metaphor

is,

How do we know when we've arrived? we know precisely where is we want to go, is usually If

it

easy to ascertain

it

if,

when, and where we've

arrived. Unfortunately, in

we

don't

terms of

taking place. For example,

is

if

dents are given guidelines for a composition

compositions should be assessed

those guidelines.

If

in

stu-

task,

terms of

the learning outcome states

that students will synchronize

body movement

with the beat of the music, the teacher can assess

performances

in

a

group

our journey of learning

encounter large signs that read,

setting. Traditional

pen-

cil-and-paper assessments can be used to assess factual

knowledge; interviews and journals work

well for assessing

more

subjective areas of learn-

ing such as aesthetic understanding. There are

many excellent resources you can about additional assessment resources

are

Now

consult to learn

strategies. Two

J.

that

we

(1

have completed our whirlwind activities,

you formulate learning objectives strategies could

and II

I

assess-

again.Can

the lessons?

for

you use to assess student

understanding and achievement? to see

by

992).

ment, go back and read Lessons and

like

and A

Stiggins (1994)

Guide to Alternative Assessment

tour of objectives, learning

What

such

Classroom

Student-Centered

Herman, Aschbacher, and Winters

choose songs, books, videos, computer programs,

final

in

achievement should be congruent with the type

Practical

The

to promote

is

what students should know and be able to do as a result of instruction, not what the teacher will do. The method one chooses to assess student

Assessment by Richard

small groups; or

recordings, diagrams, and

cultural context.

be written

learning, objectives should

problems or puzzles in

and

Because the purpose of teaching

dently; solving self-selected or teacher-designed in

relationship to the other

historical

its

noting the degree of competence of individuals'

We use maps and

observing the teacher or another stu-

dent modeling a

music.

moving to music,

achievement by systematically observing and

alternatives for guiding children's interactions with

the concepts or

interact with

relate to singing,

conve-

guidebooks to help us make our decisions. In planning instruction

may

weigh the

cost, efficiency,

nience, and personal preference.

Objectives

their is,

How are we going to get there? When traveling we have many alternatives: We may fly, drive, sail, alternatives

Objectives for music learning reflect the array of

ways we experience and

performing on an instrument, interpreting notation,

strategies been specified. The metaphor of a journey is

ning. First of

"Welcome to New Understanding," so we have to set up our own methods for assessing our progress on the journey.

If

you would

models of outcomes and assessments,

examine the

last

two

lesson plans in this chapter

or lesson plans presented elsewhere

in this

book.


118

Lesson

III

Bach and the Beetles Rationale

When

I

first

read the

poem

struck by the similarities

"Whirligig Beetles"

between

struction of a Bach invention. principles of difficulty

In

its

by Paul Fleischman

(1988),

I

was

construction and the contrapuntal con-

these works, found the potential for exploring I

form shared by two different

art forms. Listeners

sometimes have

understanding the nature of contrapuntal music because they are

unused to

listening to

two melodic

lines simultaneously. The

poem

serves as a

vehicle for students to explore the nature of counterpoint, which they then can

apply to music.

The musical elements of counterpoint and "Whirligig Beetles," can also in

be found

in

triple meter,

the facets of these two works can be readily seen

shown

in

Figure

so prominent

in

Bach's Invention No. 10 in G. Similarities in this

combined model

7.1.

Figure 7.1

Paul Fleischman

Facets of

IS. Bach

“ Whirligig

Beetles"

and

Invention No.

10

in

G

Compound triple meter suggests circular,

tumbling movement Interplay

Delight nature's

in

one of

phenomena

.

between voices

Kinetic energy

Relationship of two

musical lines

The

activities in this lesson plan are

designed to guide students

coveries for themselves about the parallels

Grade Level

Fourth through Eighth

in

making

between these two works.

dis-

n9

Planning Interdisciplinary Arts Experiences for Students

Objectives

Students

~

will

and respond

identify

and

~ recognize the ~ perform Materials

~

physically to the metrical feeling of three in

music

poetry.

a

music and poetry.

imitative contrapuntal use of voices in

poem

for

two

voices with expression.

"Whirligig Beetles" by Paul Fleischman (see Figure 7.2)

~ Recording: Bach, inventions

recordings

~ Copies

BWV

J. S.

(1985), Two-part inventions

780-810

may be

BWV 772a-786; three-part New York: London (other

substituted)

for students of

G by Johann

[CD], A. Schiff, pianist,

the

measures of Two-Part Invention No. 10

first six

Sebastian Bach (see Example 7.2)

~ Hand drums

% %

The same goes

for turning,

revolving and curving,

The crows but

wc

fly directly,

prefer spirals,

arcs, ovals,

and loops.

^C/ Whirligig Beetles

revolving and curving,

gyrating and twirling.

gyrating and twirling.

“As the whirligig swims”

The crows

arcs, ovals,

“As the whirligig swims”

the

swimming

wc’rc

in circles.

black backs by the hundred,

!

Wc’rc whirligig beetles wc’rc

swimming

in circles,

backtracking

backtracking

indirect

indirect

serpentine

tortuous

as if we

twisty,

as if wc were

mad

mad

Wc

on

a

merry-go-round,

merry-go-round.

never get dizzy

from whirling and weaving

Wc

and wheeling and

from whirling and weaving

swirling.

never get dizzy

circular

roundabout

We’re spinning and swerving a

traveling by

circular

We’re spinning and swerving

were on

most

roundabout

black backs by the hundred.

#

serpentine

tortuous twisty

and

best possible

best possible

spirals,

and loops.

We're fond of the phrase

meaning

Wc’rc whirligig beetles

fly directly,

but wc prefer

rf

%

%

and wheeling and swirling.

%

Thc same goes

36

so too

may

the communities

in

you would be well advised to confer with parents

different

singing

and members of the African American communi-

spiri-

there be different opinions in in

which

we teach. As

ty to

determine what would be considered

appropriate within your school culture.

a teacher,


~

Listen to "A Spiritual Reflection," a narrative

about the origin and meaning

of spirituals on Choral and Vocal Arrangements of Moses Hogan,

Hogan ~

ol.

(Moses

1

Chorale, 1995).

Listen to

American

Maya Angelou spirituals in

explain her use of symbols derived from African

the

poem "On

the Pulse of Morning, "which was writ-

ten for President Clinton's inauguration.

~

Listen to Lincoln Portrait (Copland,

Aaron Copland weaves

Lincoln's

1

987), a powerful

composition

in

which

own words about slavery and the Civil War

with a musical portrait.

~ Explore the World War

II,

role of

music

in

other wars and social movements, such as

Vietnam, the labor movement, and the

civil

rights

movement.

Music as an Expression of History: The American Civil War

References

Alcott, L.

M.

(1880). Little women. Boston: Alfred

M. (1993). On Random House.

Angelou,

Apple pie music: Music of American

[CD-ROM].

Mudge

6c Son.

the pulse of morning [audiocassette].

history,

history

New York:

of American music

(1994). Blacksburg, Va.: Lintronics Software.

Battle, K. (soprano), Hendricks, B. (soprano),

6c Quivar,

(mezzo-

F.

soprano). (1994). Great American spirituals [CD]. Ocean, N.J.:

Musical Heritage Society.

R (1984).

Beatty,

Turn homeward, Hannalee.

New York: William Morrow.

D. (1993). Hardtack and coffee: The unwritten

Billings, J.

story

of army

life.

Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. Brady,

M. B., 6c Gardner, A.

(1907). Originalphotographs taken on the bat-

during the Civil War ofthe United States. Hartford, Conn.: Edward B. Eaton.

tlefields

Brown,

6c Burns, K. (producers). (1991). Songs of the Civil War New York: Ginger Group Productions 6c American

J.,

[video].

Documentaries. Burns, K. (producer). (1990). The Civil War: Original soundtrack recording

[CD]. Beverly

Hills, Calif.: Elektra

Entertainment.

Burns, K. L. (producer). (1989). The Civil War [video]. Alexandria, Va.:

PBS Chang,

I.

Video.

(1991).

A separate battle:

Women and the

Civil War.

New York:

Lodestar.

Consortium of National Arts Education Associations (1994). National standards for arts education: What every young American should know and be able to do in the arts. Reston, Va.: Music Educators National Conference.

Copland, A. (1987). Lincoln portrait and other works [CD]. Cleveland: Telarc.

Cosner,

S.

(1991). The underground railroad.

Crawford, R.

(ed.). (1977).

New York:

The Civil War songbook.

Franklin Watts.

New York:

Dover.

Currie, S. (1992). Music in the Civil War. Cincinnati: Betterway.

237


238

M.

Curtis,

8c Cloud, L. V. (1991).

V.,

The

African American

Traditions and performance practice. ChoralJournal 32

spiritual:

(4):

15-22.

Eastman Wind Ensemble (performers). (1990). The Civil War: Its music and its sounds [CD]. New York: Philips Classics. Fleischman,

M.

Flower,

(1993). Bull Run.

P.

E.

(ed.). (1963).

New York:

HarperCollins.

Dearfolks at home: The Civil War letters ofLeo

W. andJohn I. Faller with an account ofAndersonville. Carlisle, Pa.: Cumberland County Historical Society and Hamilton Library Association.

Glascock, R. O., 8c Mitchell, E. H. (1990).

A curriculum connections model

for the middle grades. Baltimore: Maryland State Department of Education. Glass, P, 8c Singer, L. C. (1968). Singing soldiers: The spirit of the

New York:

sixties.

Grosset 8c Dunlap.


Goldston, R. (1972). The coming of the Civil War.

Grossman, J. (1974). Echo ofa distant drum: Winslow Homer and the Civil War. New York: Harry N. Abrams. Hamilton, V. (1993).

Many thousand gone. New York:

Henson, J. (1962). Father Hensons story ofhis own Hunt,

(1964 ). Acrossfive Aprils. Chicago:

I.

Johnson,

J.

W., 8c Johnson,

Negro Katz,

W. L.

spirituals.

J.

R.

(eds.).

New York:

(1974). Slavery to Civil

life.

Knopf.

New York: Corinth.

Follett.

(1962). The books of American

Viking.

War 1812-1865.

New York:

Franklin

Watts.

Kunzel, E. (conductor). (1988). American salute [CD]. Cincinnati Pops. Cleveland: Telarc. Lester, J. (1968). To be a slave.

Lord,

F.

A., 8c Wise, A. (1966). Bands

South Brunswick, Lovell,

New York: Dial Books for Young Readers.

J.

J.

N.J.:

and drummer boys of the

Civil War.

Thomas Yoseloff.

(1972). Black song: The forge

and

the flame.

New

York:

Macmillan.

Marsh, J. B.T. (1876). Story ofthe Jubilee Singers with London: Hodder 8c Stoughton.

their songs (3rd ed.).

Music

McNeil,

K., 8e

McNeil, R. (performers). (1989). Civil War songs [audio-

cassette]. Riverside, Calif.:

Miles, D.

H.

War

on of History: The American Civil

as an Expre

(ed.).

(1911). Poetry

WEM Records.

and eloquence ofblue and gray.

New York:

The Review of Reviews. Moses Hogan Chorale (performers). (1995). Choral and vocal arrangements Records. ofMoses Hogan (vol. 1). [CD]. New Orleans:

MGH

Murphy, J. (1990). The

boys war.

New York:

Clarion.

Music Educators National Conference. (1991). Teaching

the music of

African Americans, [video]. Reston, Va.: Author.

National Council for the Social Studies. (1994). Expectations ofexcellence: Curriculum standardsfor social studies. Washington, D.C.: Author.

The

Peters, E. (1989).

poetics of the

American Literature Forum 23 Ray, D. (1990).

Afro-American 559-578.

spiritual.

Black

(3):

A nation torn: The story of how the Civil War began. New

York: Lodestar. Ray, D. (1991). Behind the blue

New York:

and gray: The soldiers

life

in the Civil War.

Lodestar.

Reagon, B. J. (compiler 8c annotator). (1994). African American

spirituals:

Washington

D.C.:

The

concert

tradition

[CD].

Smithsonian/Folkways Records. Sacks,

H.

L.,

ly’s

8c Sacks, J. R. (1993). Way up North in Dixie:

claim

to

the

Confederate

anthem.

A blackfami-

Washington

D.C.:

Smithsonian Institution Press. Slatkin, L. (conductor). (1991).

Symphony. Wilkinson,

W.

The American album [CD].

New York: RCA Victor Red

(1990). Mother,

St.

Louis

Seal.

may you never see the sights I have seen: The

Fifty-seventh Massachusetts Veteran Volunteers in the last year of the

Civil War.

New York:

Harper and Row.

Winter, J. (1988). Follow the drinking gourd. Wisler,

G. C. (1991). Red cap.

New York:

New York:

Lodestar.

Knopf.

2-39


24 °

Resources for Teachers and Students

AUDIO RECORDINGS Battle, K. (soprano), Hendricks, B. (soprano), 6c Quivar, F.

(mezzo-

soprano). (1994). Great American spirituals [CD]. Ocean, N.J.:

Musical Heritage Society. Battle, K. (Soprano),

Norman,

(Soprano), 6c Levine,

J.

(1991). Spirituals in concert

J.

(conductor).

[CD]. Hamburg, Germany: Deutsche

Grammophon. Burns, K. L. (producer). (1990). The Civil War: Original soundtrack recording [CD]. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Elektra Entertainment. Classical Brass (performers). (1981).

Civil

War [CD]. Ocean,

N.J.:

Honor

to

our

soldiers:

Music of the

Musical Heritage Society.

Copland, A. (1987). Lincoln portrait and other works [CD]. Cleveland: Telarc.

Eastman Wind Ensemble (performers). (1990). The Civil War: Its music and its sounds [CD]. New York: Philips Classics. Kunzel, E. (conductor), 6c Cincinnati Pops (performers). (1988).

American

McNeil,

salute.

[CD]. Cleveland:

cassette]. Riverside, Calif.

Reagon, B.

Telarc.

McNeil, R. (performers). (1989). Civil War songs [audio-

K., 6c

J.

:

WEM Records.

(compiler 6c annotator).

spirituals:

The concert tradition

(1994). African American [CD]. Washington D.C.:

Smithsonian/Folkways Records.

Robeson,

P. (voice),

6c Brown, L. (voice 6c piano). (1991). Paul Robeson:

The power and the glory [CD].

New York:

Columbia.

Symphony (performers). (1991). The American album [CD]. New York: RCA Victor Red Seal.

Slatkin, L. (conductor), 6c St. Louis

Southern Lace (performers). (1992). Jackets of grey: Songs of the North

and South from

the

Civil

War

era

[audiocassette].

Atlanta:

Southern Lace.

Sweet Honey in the Rock (performers). (1994). I got shoes [CD]. Redway, Calif.:

Music

for Little People.

Music as an Expression of History: The American Civil War

VIDEO RECORDINGS &c Burns, K. (producers). (1991). Songs of the Civil War [video]. New York: Ginger Group Productions &. American

Brown,

J.,

Documentaries. Burns, K. L. (producer). (1989). The Civil War [video]. Alexandria, Va.:

PBS

Video.

CD ROMS Apple pie music: Music of American

[CD-ROM].

history,

of American music

history

(1994). Blacksburg, Va.: Lintronics Software.

NONFICTION BOOKS FOR STUDENTS

W.

Bircher,

(1995).

A drummer-boys diary.

Press of St. Cloud. (Original

Bryan, A. (1982). I’m going

St.

Cloud, Minn.: North Star

work published 1889.)

to sing: Black

American

spirituals.

New York:

Atheneum. Cosner,

S.

(1991). The underground railroad.

New York:

Franklin Watts.

Currie, S. (1992). Music in the Civil War. Cincinnati: Betterway.

Goldston, R. (1972). The coming of the Civil War.

Hamilton, V. (1993). Katz,

W.


Many thousand gone. New York:

L. (1974). Slavery to Civil

War 1812-1865.

Knopf.

New York:

Franklin

Watts. Lester, J. (1968). To be a slave.

Meltzer,

M.

New York:

Dial Books for Young Readers.

(1989). Voices from the Civil War.

New

York:

Thomas

Y.

Crowell.

Murphy, J. (1990). The Ray, D. (1990).

boys' war.

New York:

Clarion.

A nation torn: The story of how the Civil War began. New

York: Lodestar. Ray, D. (1991). Behind the blue

New York:

Lodestar.

and gray: The soldiers

life

in the Civil War.

241


242

FICTION BOOKS FOR STUDENTS Alcott, L.

M.

(1880). Little women. Boston: Alfred

Armstrong, J. (1992). Steal away. Beatty, P. (1984).

Fleischman,

P.

New York:

Turn homeward Hannalee. \

(1993). Bull Run.

New York:

Lyons,

I.

8c Son.

New York: William Morrow. HarperCollins.

Haynes, B. (1973). Cowslip. Nashville, Tenn.:

Hunt,

Mudge

Orchard.

Thomas

Nelson.

(1964). Acrossfive Aprils. Chicago: Follett.

M.

E. (1992). Letters from a slave girl: The story of Harriet Jacobs. Charles Scribner’s Sons.

New York: Porter,

C. (1993a). Addy learns a

Porter,

C. (1993b). Meet Addy. Middleton, Wis.: Pleasant.

lesson.

Middleton, Wis.: Pleasant.

Winter, J. (1988). Follow the drinking gourd. Wisler, G. C. (1991).

Red cap.

New York:

New York:

Lodestar.

Knopf.

*£

chapter

11

j*

Music and Culture

As you

Picture a music store.

enter,

you

maestros with batons poised in the

midsong with her eyes

closed,

through bins upon bins of ”

“World,

air,

notice the colorful posters

a close-up of a female

ofguitarists,

vocalist caught

giantfingers on a shiny saxophone. Shoppers hunt

CDs

displayed under labels of “Classical

\

"

“Pop,

”

”

“Jazz.

Consider the musical choices available to you in this store. In just one section,

you can sample a variety ofcrystallized sounds, some recorded 20 years ago, some

month out of the studio. The possibilities for exploring musical styles to you are expanding all the time. Liner notesfrom a CD sampler ofMoroccan music entice you at a listening

barely a

new

that are

station.

You read how the musicians prepareforperformance by burning incense

and warming the heads ofthe drums. You booflute as tiful

it

try to imagine the

sound ofthe bam-

mimics birdsong. Through the headphones, you hear the 99 beau-

names ofAllah chanted against the galloping rhythms of the qaraqsh and

imagine the

You

and sounds of this evening in Morocco. a hundred years ago, it would have been

sights, smells,

realize that only

difficult to

hear suchfar-removed music. Gaining access to the beauties ofMoroccan music would have necessitated either having been born there or traveling there

—

a once-in-a-lifetime experience. Today, through advances in communication,

and

distribution,

recording,

you have more

the music of

direct access to

geographically distant cultures than ever before.

plate Paris,

Des Moines,

M

usic

and culture share

affiliations.

special

When we contem-

or Rio de Janeiro, each place

name

conjures up

unique landscapes, foods, smells, and images. Music often bears the stamp of a place, as in Dixieland jazz, Delta blues, Russian opera, Texas swing. Place

and

culture,

however, are not necessarily the same. Place

cept of physical location or region, whereas culture social construct

marked by memberships and

affiliations.

time, place connotes culture because people in a social

and

cultural conventions. In

dence of place and culture

may be

some

cases,

less clear

may be

common

is

a con-

considered a

Much

of the

location share

however, the correspon-

because several different cul-


344

tures

may

exist

within a region and people of a region or location

have more than one cultural

The el

and

world.

ties

that bind place

relocate, local

New

may

affiliation.

and culture may be loosening. As people travlike microcosms of the

communities begin to look

technologies link people

who

are geographically distinct,

thus shrinking the perceived distances between them. Cultures that were

once closed and isolated have expanded dramatically because of changes

economic and

in

political systems.

These transformations in our world

influence culture.

Music may hold the stamp of a place, yet it may travel, merge, and fuse.

When we encounter a new musical style, we often recognize it as belonging to the culture of origin because of its particular influences of other cultures

expressions of those

who

also find their

stylistic features.

way

The

into the musical

have visited that culture, as was the case with

the jazz saxophonist Ornette

who

may

Coleman and rock Moroccan music

incorporated elements of

guitarist

Jimi Hendrix,

into their

own

perfor-

mances. Lipsitz (1994) describes the “poetics of place” with reference to popular music, but this notion pertains to the full spectrum of musical activity as well:

New Orleans jazz and sambas from

Sao Paulo

circulate freely

throughout the world, but they never completely lose the concerns and cultural qualities that give them determinate

shape in their places of origin. Through music

we

learn about

and about displacement.... Music that originally emerged from concrete historical experiences in places with

place

clearly identifiable geographic boundaries

now

circulates as

an interchangeable commodity marketed to consumers over the globe,

The

We we is

(p.

Plurality of Musics in Your

live in

our

own

select to hear

all

4)

aural bubbles,

Community

sometimes unaware of which sounds

and which ones we may vaguely sense or even ignore. It own musical traditions as commonplace,

easy for us to think of our

homogeneous, and ordinary, while construing other musical traditions as rich, exotic, and foreign. But when we examine our own traditions and musical environments, we may find that they are more diverse and interesting than

we

imagined.

Music and Culture

Examining Origins and Revisit your responses to

245

Affiliations

“Examining Personal Musical Experience: The

Circles Exercise” in Chapter 1, with particular attention to the musical traditions that play

an essential

Do

role in the

formation of your personal

reflect your place of Your ethnicity or nationality? How do other affiliations influence the kind of music you listen to and prefer? Have your musical tastes remained the same or changed as you have moved to new locations?

and

cultural identity.

your musical traditions

birth?

Examining the Diversity of Music within a Community In a class setting or with an interested friend, take several minutes to list all

nity.

of the practicing musicians and musical venues in your

Record

as

many

ideas as

you can

10 minutes, for example). Compare your

common names and Is there

places.

What

lists,

commu-

of time

in a given period

(5 or

of the

circling all

musical styles are represented?

evidence of various ethnic or social affiliations? Are there

mon, long-standing traditions involving music? music in your community?

How

diverse

comis

the

is a medium-sized, city in the center of Wisconsin. It was setand eastern Europeans and claims more than 30 polka bands in the Polish and distinctive Dutchmen polka style. Churchgoers regularly enjoy polka masses. One mayfind garage bands, an early music consort, gospel singers, a variety of Wisconsin Indian music, country singers, performers of “new music, ” Hmong musicians, an Elvis impersonator who regularly performs at the Holiday Dome, singer-songwriters, and a thriving school and university music life of classical performances, jazz ensembles, choirs, bands, and orchestras. Some residents cherish musicfrom their country of origin Ghana, Japan, Puerto Rico, and elsewhere. Some of these musics are heard over the airwaves along with rap, contemporary Christian songs, or Top 40 hits. Others arefound in informal venues such as taverns, community meeting places, and homes.

Stevens Point

tled by Poles

—

As

seen in the case of Stevens Point,

found in one

place. It

ethnic, regional,

may be

difficult to

many

musical cultures

may be

gauge the range and diversity of

and popular music found within communities, since

some musical traditions and practices tend to be fostered within the home, or heard most frequently at special occasions such as weddings or celebrations within a particular community.

We

might consider

this as

“hidden” music.

The

idea that local music

mented by Finnegan (1989)

making may be hidden from view is docuethnography of music making in an

in her


246

English city. Finnegan observed that local musicians are hidden because of lack of study and attention. She further commented that the system of local music-making is partially veiled not just from outsiders but even from the musicians themselves and their supporters. Of course in one sense they know it well these are not secret practices. But in another it seems so natural and given to the participants that they are often unaware both of its extent and of the structured work they themselves are putting into sustaining

it.

(p. 4)

Roles of Music in Culture The sheer variety and quantity of local music making activity serves

such an important force in people’s

and

When we

vital?

to analyze

may

find

its

it

suggests that this

Why is music Why is music making so vibrant

important individual and social functions. lives?

take any music as an object of study,

reason for being.

When we

it is

important

try to understand a culture,

we

valuable to examine the roles that music plays in the lives of

those within that culture. Table 11.1 offers an amalgamation of possible functions of music in people’s ars in

lives, as

seen from the perspective of schol-

ethnomusicology, anthropology, sociology, and social psychology.

Table 11.1 represents the complex ways people use music to make

meaning

for themselves.

For example, in

Bali,

Sometimes music may serve several functions. rituals marked by special music are synchro-

temple

nized with the irrigation of the rice paddies. Because meticulous attennecessary for good rice yields, the timing of the

tion to water levels

is

gious musical rites

may be

reli-

seen as an environmental adaptation as well as

an enhancement of religion (Kaemmer, 1993).

The ing

study of music’s functions can reveal the multiple layers of mean-

embedded

in

any

Take the case of the Saami, indigein Norway and other parts of the 1994 Winter Olympics in Norway.

social practice.

nous Scandinavian people

who

live

Scandinavia, who performed at The Saami song performed at the opening of the games

served simulta-

neously as a conscious and positive marker of ethnicity for the Saami and as

an indication of tolerance for

political differences

by other Norwegians,

who have a history of marginalizing the Saami. Others from outside of the culture may have experienced the songs as signaling the opening of the games, teaching about Norwegian culture, or simply

The

social practice

and

social experience

as entertainment. 1

of music encompass broad

and complex interactions among the musicians and listeners. A particutune may imply different things to different listeners. For example, songs from Paul Simon’s Graceland recording of 1986 feature a compos-

lar

Music and Culture

247

Functions of Music within a Society

WAYS OF KNOWING ~ communication ~ symbolic representation ~ body of knowledge ~ kinesthetic experience

Table 11.1 Functions of

SELF-EXPRESSION

Music within a

~ expression of emotions ~ personal experience ~ aesthetic experience ~ marker of identity

Society

(or identities)

GROUP IDENTITY

POWER RELATIONS

~ establishment and maintenance of group membership ~ integration of society ~ validation of social institutions and

political differences

~ control of conflict ~ indoctrination ~ subversion ~ development of nationalism among powerless ~ promotion of consumption

religious rituals

~ enforcement social

-

~ symbol of political differences ~ incitement, perpetuation of

of conformity to

norms

contribution to continuity and stability

of culture

~ coordination of group ~ marker of ethnicity - collective possession

responses

EDUCATION

~ enculturation ~ entertainment ~ body training ~ means to understand

EXPRESSIONS OF THE DIVINE

~ enhancement of religion - inducement of trances or

~ mnemonic aid ~ aesthetic experience

~ ~

OTHER FUNCTIONS ~ signal or mark an event - link with the past and future ~ symbolic indicator of change

play practice for adult

life

Sources: Gaston as cited in Hoffer,

~ environmental - commodity

ite

and culture

history

altered states

~ therapy or healing ~ catharsis or release ~ moral or symbolic force

1

992;

Kaemmer, 993; Kaplan, 990; Kmetz,

adaptation

1

1

1

996; Merriam,

of styles from South Africa and the United

1

964; Seeger,

States,

1

994.

which may mean

different things to different people within a multinational listenership Similarly,

when

.

2

jazz players borrow a phrase from a well-known song

may hear these musical quotations as a comment on the passing scene. If the listener doesn’t song being quoted, it may simply be heard as a new melodic

while improvising, the listener joke, a tribute, or a

know

the

motif in the improvisation. Clearly, although activity

music making

may

not seem

utilitarian, this

human

(some would say the most human of activities) serves important


248

needs. Certainly, music as

logical writings,

and

of this

As

art form.

human

tonight’s

a writer

from just

music making

is

which music

a

society, insofar

TV offerings confirm the ubiquitous nature

is

commodity, a

to

But while

music are not. The ways

structured vary radically because they are rooted in the

flag

and

ideals is

of beauty of particular peoples. As

at

once an everyday

an indus-

and cranny the

class

(p. 77).

ask

how

described in Table 11.1.

It is

Reflecting back to the circles exercise in Chapter

we know

activity,

of resistance, a personal world, and a deeply sym-

emotional grounding for people in every

superculture offers”

the music

many varia-

(Willis, 1995, p. xx).

meanings ascribed

universal,

Slobin (1993) points out: “Music

bolic,

human

on evolution commented: “Music may be the

few basic elements”

history, politics, culture,

trial

a part of every

is

ancient civilizations, epic poems, anthropo-

invention that most resembles evolution, because so

tions arose

in

making

we know. Carvings from

illustrates the functions

1,

we may

not only useful but perhaps even necessary to understand our cal traditions in light

we

of these functions before

start to

own musi-

ask questions

about the music of other cultures.

Understanding the Music of Another Culture metaphor of location was used to describe an individual’s work of art, progressing from an initial position of detachment (removed from the work) to deep comprehension and engagement (situated within a work). How does this metaphor apply

In Chapter

4, a

relationship with a

when an ture? Is

individual chooses to study the musical traditions of another cul-

it

possible to be “inside” a musical

work if you

are

an “outsider” to

the culture that created the work? In addition to the functions the music plays within the culture, are there other questions to ask or concepts to

consider as ficial

we

progress from the unfamiliar to the familiar or from super-

associations to fuller understanding

and perception?

To respond to these questions, recall the music of your childhood, family, regional, or cultural traditions. Just as it may be difficult to remember

how you

acquired the ability to speak, understand, read, and write your

primary language,

it

may be hard

to pinpoint

how

years of listening to

music in your environment has formed your expectations of the way

music sounds. Like the acquisition of language, the syntax and structure of familiar music its distinctive sounds, its beginnings and endings, its

—

tensions and relaxations

judge music tax.

—seem

commonplace

to you.

as beautiful, interesting, or expressive

You may even

according to this syn-

Others may agree with your judgments because they hold the same

membership

as

you

in this socially constructed musical culture.

From

years of informal exposure through repetition, formal study inside or out-

Music and Culture

side

of school

settings,

349

and performance of songs, dances, and

instru-

mental compositions, you have become an insider in one or more musical practices (see Figure 11.1).

Figure

1

1.1

An Insider in

a

Musical Culture

What

happens when you are led by

curiosity,

interest,

necessity,

request, or circumstance to the task of understanding a musical tradition

that

is

not your own? Music from unfamiliar cultural practices poses a

challenge to your ears, mind, and heart. tion because of the characteristic

You may

feel “outside” the tradi-

ways that sounds

are organized, pro-

You may perceive this music as exotic, foreign, or unusual because it is so new to you (although the style may be quite familiar to others). Your expectations about the way music moves may not transfer easily to this new tradition, as your ability to preduced, and performed (see Figure 11.2).

dict

what comes next may not apply

to this particular style. Perhaps the

unfamiliar works are songs, with texts in languages you do not speak or

The music of an unfamiliar culture is first encountered at a distance. museum exhibits behind glass are also experienced at a distance, you may think about this new music as a curious artifact or novelty.

write.

Just as

You

Figure

An

1

1.2

Outsider to a

Musical Culture

Fortunately for us, the special

cal practices, lends insider.

work of ethnomusicologists, who

traffic in

the

problems and processes of understanding cultures and their musiguidance to our efforts to move from outsider toward

Their insights are particularly crucial to the work of teachers, who

must be

sensitive to possible misrepresentations

when presenting new musics to

of musical traditions

students in classroom settings.

One of the

most crucial concepts to understand is that of authenticity, a fidelity between the presentation of the music and the music s meaning within a cultural context. Palmer (1992) brings clarity to this notion by presenting


25 °

authenticity as a continuum, ranging from complete, culturally informed

and situated performance promise

Figure

1

at the

Compromise

Absolute Authenticity

1.3

A Continuum for Representing

com-

to partial representation or questionable

opposite end (see Figure 11.3).

•

Cultural Authenticity

3

Palmer defines an absolutely authentic presentation of a musical work in a specific cultural tradition in terms of five requirements: “(a) perfor-

mance by the

artistic and by the composer or group creating the music; (c) use of the correct language as specified by the composer or group creating the music; (d) for an audience made up of the culture’s members; and (e) in a setting normally used in the culture”

culture’s practitioners,

recognized generally as

representative; (b) use of instruments as specified

(pp. 32-33). If a musical

the performance

is

performance

of these requirements,

fulfills all

faithful to the cultural context in full (represented in

Figure 11.3 by the dot on the

left).

As any of the

requirements are not

met, the performance begins to lose fidelity to the point at which the cultural contexts are so lacking that the

performance

is

compromised

(result-

ing in questionable fidelity to the culture).

Compromise tural context

because

it is

is unavoidable whenever music is removed from its culand brought into the classroom, Palmer acknowledges, not possible to fulfill all of the conditions he describes for

absolutely authentic presentation of the music (particularly the fourth

But the continuum helps us to think about instrucbetween absolute authenticity and total misrepresentation. We can reflect on Palmer’s notion of authenticity, for and

fifth conditions).

tional possibilities in the territory

example, to answer the question: traditions

insight

of another culture?

Can we become

Realistically,

by studying the music and the

insiders in the musical

probably not.

Can we

cultural traditions the

gain

music

A policy statement developed by ethnomusicoloand music educators for the International Society for Music Education (1994) elaborates on this idea: embodies? Certainly.

gists

An

outsider to a culture can learn to appreciate and under-

stand its

its

music, and even to perform

it,

but there

may be

lim-

to his or her ability to gain an insider’s perspective. In

many

cases, these limits are

not sufficiently serious to inhibit

students from achieving reasonable competence as listeners

and even

as

performers or composers, (pp. 667-668)

Music and Culture

How

who may

can teachers,

be “outsiders” to an unfamiliar musical

competence

tradition, achieve reasonable

25 1

as listeners or performers?

can learn, for example, about the performers and creators within the culture, and

we can

and performances

to view,

who

seek out recordings to listen

to,

videotapes

to attend. Technological access allows us to be

armchair listeners as never before.

We can also

study the

way sounds

produced, including characteristic vocal and instrumental timbres. translations of texts can reveal literal meanings,

when culture may

We

are revered

are

Good

enhancing the pairing of

tune and text

returning to the original language. Outsiders to a

musical

take an important

first

step

by acknowledging that

they can never truly become insiders but can improve their understanding of another tradition by listening widely and often, by seeking good

and by remaining open

to

new interpretations and insights. To return to an earlier comparison of the acquisition of language music, think about how parents use simpler, shorter forms of language

to

resource materials, by asking

good

questions,

to

communicate with children, while at the same time the children are surrounded by models of adult language with more sophisticated vocabulary and more complex sentence structure. As familiarity and facility with language develop, gradual changes in perception and comprehension allow children to speak in more complex sentences and to use an expanded standing in a tation,

how

may parallel the acquisition of underWith immersion, study, experimenand guidance from others, we come to understand what was for-

vocabulary. Consider

new

this

musical tradition.

merly incomprehensible.

Examining Musical Examples in the Context of Culture was still decorated with students' illustrations offolktales who had been in residence the previous week. The resia success that the third- andfourth-grade teachers decided

Hilldale Elementary

told by the storyteller

dency had been such to continue the

theme offolk traditions in their

teachers chose to focus on Ireland,

and

classrooms.

The third-grade

the fourth-grade teachers chose South

They had already selected folktales of those countries, and now were meeting in the media center to share ideas and materialsfor incorporating other

Africa.

aspects

offolk

" Well

\

Jacobs.

culture, such as music, into their lessons.

I've got the perfect

T just saw

example for South African music, ” said

Paul Simon’s Graceland concert on public

Andy

television the

other night. In one song, ‘Homeless,’ Paul Simon sings with a South African group called Ladysm ith Black Mambazo. I really like this music and I think the

fourth graders would,

too. ”

Crystal Connell, from the third-grade team, shared her experience of trying to

find appropriate examples of Irish

music.

"When I first

started thinking

”


252

My Wild Irish Rose, 'When I knew that there had to be betI knew I could find something more ’

about Irish music, all I could come up with was Irish ter

Eyes are Smiling,' and leprechaun

examples of Irish music than

I searched the

authentic, so

recordings

those.

library's online catalog

andfound some wonderful

ofIrish fiddle music played by Irishfiddlers.

decide the best

“Andy, let s

way to

Now I’m just trying to

music to our team’s study ofIrishfolk culture." ” think again about that 'perfect' example ofSouth African music, relate this

interjected Danielle Jackson. “Just as

tions

songs.

offolktales

we

couldfind,

we lookedfor the most authentic presenta-

I think we need to have

same

the

music. Crystal's idea about finding really authentic examples

der about using the musicfrom Graceland. 'Homeless'

criteria for makes me won-

isn’t really

an authentic

example of South African folk music, is it? Wouldn't that confuse students?” “Perhaps you could try to find recordings ofjust South African musicians singing music representative oftheirfolk tradition, "suggested Crystal. “I’vefound that liner notes on recordings can be helpful infinding out more about the music. “That’s a

good

idea,

"Andy

agreed.

“Maybe I can

still

use

”

Graceland as an

example of how musiciansfrom different traditions can collaborate The dilemmas about authenticity and cultural context of musical .

works posed by this scenario might be tions posed by the facets model:

clarified

by answering the ques-

~

Who created it?

~

When

~

Why and for whom was it created?

~

What does it sound or look like? What kind of structure or form does it have? What is its subject? What is being expressed? What techniques did its creator use to help us

~ ~ ~ ~

and where was

it

created?

understand what

is

being expressed? In the next section, two works, “Homeless,” from Paul Simons Graceland recording (1986), and a set of tunes, “Sheehan’s Jigs,” per-

formed by the fiddler Maire O’Keeffe (1994), will be used to explore the musical and cultural aspects of traditional and popular genres. In the case of “Homeless,” from Simon’s Graceland, the combination of American popular music styles with urban black South African styles adds to the challenge of answering the questions posed by the facets model (see Figure 11.4). Grappling with the questions, however,

may lead

concepts and ideas for presenting the music to students. Paul

directly to

Simon and

Music and Culture

353

Joseph Shabalala, the leader of Ladysmith Black Mambazo (a male chorus from South Africa), created this piece as a blend of musical ideas and

Although the song uses timbres, rhythms, and forms borrowed from and suggested by music from South Africa, it is not a traditional traditions.

African song. Graceland was produced at a time when apartheid was still in place in South Africa, so the collaboration between Paul Simon and Joseph Shabalala added layers of political as well as musical significance. Paul

Simon contended

that his motivation for this collaboration

Essentially I

come

play....

world from a cultural sociological point of view”

at the

Collaboration

between

Figure

Paul Simon and Joseph Shabalala

Unaccompanied male

Simon sent Shabalala a cassette tape with a melody and words. When they met in London at a

voices; chordal sections

alternating with single

melodic

was primari-

with the music and wanted to

ly artistic: “I just fell in love

\

lines; ululations

y

recording studio in 1 986, both worked until the song felt right.

X”

Alternates

Created because Simon wanted to explore South

between and Zulu;

African musical traditions; it was

sections in English

recorded for commercial

call-and-response form

wide audiences.

distribution to

Quasi-conversational exchange with the rise and fall of voices, crescendo

NX

/

and diminuendo convey the feeling of displacement; two languages

show

\

Homelessness and displacement

collaboration of cultures

words refer to homelessness. The Zulu word thulululu is used in wedding songs and refers to

English

heartbeat.The Zulu interjection ih hih is found in work and drinking songs and expresses ideas of carrying

ih hih ih

a heavy burden

and

suffering.

(McNeil/Lehrer News Hour, Public Broadcasting Service, February 25, 1987, cited in Meintjes, 1990,

Sometimes we want

p. 39).

to explore the connections

between music and

culture in even greater depth, a task especially appropriate for

folk traditions.

To

music from

get to the heart of the processes of creation and trans-

mission, and to situate this music firmly in

need to ask additional questions,

as

shown

its

cultural context,

we may

in Figure 11.5.

Questions from the expanded facets model are used to examine

“Sheehans

Jigs,” a medley, or set,

of three Irish

Traditional music originates and travels in a

way

jigs played

that

on

might be

fiddle.

different

1

1.4

Facets of “

Homeless

”


254

How and to whom is it

transmitted?

Who performs, dances,

Who created

Figure

1

1.5

Expanded Facets Model with Focus on Culture and History

listens to, and values it?

it?

How do differences in performance

What does it mean within

or interpretation change its meaning?

historical/cultural contexts?

than art music or popular music. Traditional music can be described as “the product of a musical tradition that has been evolved through the

process of oral transmission.

The

factors that shape the tradition are:

continuity which links the present with the past;

(i)

which springs from the creative impulse of the individual or the group; and (iii) selection by the community, which determines the form or forms in which the music survives” (Breathnach, 1986, p.l). To understand “Sheehan’s Jigs,” you must know about the fiddlers who have performed them Maire and Padraig O’Keeffe and where they have been performed County Kerry, Ireland. Maire first heard these three tunes on a recording made nearly 50 years ago by Padraig, who, despite his surname, is no known relation. Her performance of “Sheehan’s Jigs” can be heard on the CD Coisir House Party (1994). In the points that follow, notice how the culture and the music are closely intertwined: variation

—

— —

~

(ii)

How and to whom is it transmitted? During Padraig O’Keeffe’s lifetime, fiddlers in Sliabh Luachra, County Kerry, learned their tunes from each other, an example of oral transmission. Since this

music

is

now widely available through now listen to it.

recordings, people outside Sliabh Luachra can

~

Who performs, dances, listens to, and values it? Maire O’Keeffe, the Tralee,

County

Irish fiddler

who

plays these jigs,

is

from

Kerry, near Sliabh Luachra, a region in Ireland

Music and Culture

known

for

distinctive style

its

^55

of playing. In the

Sliabh Luachra performed, danced, listened jigs.

Unique

styles

and forms of dancing

to,

past, people in

and valued these

are also associated

with the

unique tunes. ~

What is its function for individuals and groups? “Sheehan’s Jigs” are played for dancing and listening.

~

What does it mean to individuals and groups? Maire O’Keeffe said, “This set of tunes jumped out at me because of the melody” (personal communication, December 16, 1996). She chose to learn and record “Sheehan’s Jigs” as close to Padraig’s version as she could because this medley hadn’t been recorded since 1949, and because she identifies with and enjoys this way of playing.

Other musicians

The names of the

whom ~

in the area

know and remember

these tunes.

tunes indicate the composers or the people from

the tunes were learned.

What does it mean within a particular historical or cultural context?

Padraig O’Keeffe influenced the music of Sliabh Luachra through his teaching and playing. This

is

a unique set of jigs,

for residents of this region because these jigs

which has meaning

may be

associated with

Other Irish people who hear these them with Sliabh Luachra, County Kerry.

particular people, places, or things. jigs

~

may also

identify

How do differences in performance or interpretation change

meaning? compare the two recordings (of Maire and Padraig), but because the fiddlers are from the same region, the meaning is likely to remain constant. In this case,

~

it

its

would be

possible to

How does it change through different interpretations or versions?

Because these

jigs are

rooted in the conventions of Kerry fiddle

playing, anything outside of this tradition, such as different perfor-

mance Consider

practices,

how

would change the sound and the meaning.

closely “Sheehan’s Jigs” adhere to a cultural context.

examples of Irish fiddle music, played by a musician

will continue to

authentic are they?

who exemplifies

an audience made up of

home, where such

how

The

As

Irish jigs are

the Kerry style of fiddle playing, for

Irish people (and others),

jigs are often played.

and recorded in

a

“Sheehan’s Jigs” have been and

be traditional tunes, played by Irish musicians. While

we


25 6

can’t

know who

created these jigs or when they were composed,

that they are part of a living tradition

and

will continue to

it is

certain

be played, per-

haps altered through the course of being taught and learned. For those reasons, if we place

work Figure

1

1.6

The Cultural Authenticity of

“Sheehans Jigs” on Palmer’s continuum, we can judge the

to represent the traditions

of Irish fiddle music rather authentically.


Compromise

® —"Sheehan's Jigs"

"Sheehans Jigs” to

Represent Irish

Music

“Homeless”

is a fusion of Zulu traditional styles and Western popular was created by Simon and Shabalala as an expression of artistic as a piece to be performed in concert, and as a recording to be dis-

song. It ideas,

tributed commercially. Unlike folk music, creation.

As

the facets

model

suggests,

we can

pinpoint the date of its

“Homeless” wouldn’t be

fully suit-

able as an example of a traditional song. It certainly could not serve as an

African song because Africa

is

which many people

live,

region, country, class,

and

a continent in

many musical traditions that vary by group. Nor would “Homeless” qualify as a

with

completely authentic Zulu

song, because words, meanings, tone color, and other stylistic features

have been altered. If the teacher’s goal in the scenario above was to intro-

duce music representative of the Zulu people, “Homeless” would obviously not be appropriate.

Figure

1

1.7

The Cultural

Compromise


•

"Homeless"

?

Authenticity of "Homeless” to

Represent South

African Music

“Homeless,” however, has validity as a fusion of

through musical collaboration. As you can popular and traditional music

The

selection of an

the purposes for

As we

select

its

is

a matter

between

of degree, not of rigid absolutes.

example for classroom use use. In other words,

achieved

styles

see, the distinction

is

highly dependent upon

what will the example

represent?

music for the purpose of understanding cultural groups, we

need to determine the functions and cultural context of a musical work, which will illuminate both the music and the culture from which it comes. In the next section, these principles are put into practice as three teachers collaborate in curriculum generation and application using music

from another

culture.

Music and Culture

^57

Issues in Planning and Preparation

When

travelers venture into unfamiliar territory, they often

do so with

mixture of excitement and apprehension as they encounter

new

a

lan-

guages, social conventions, and food. Teachers sometimes experience a similar mixture

of excitement and apprehension

as they venture into

As an example of this process, we use our own personal experience of studying a musical culture new to us and offer a description of the discoveries and insights we gained as we designed curriculum together. We were surprised at the serendipitous way that events, unfamiliar worlds of music.

people, books, artwork, and recordings that could expand our under-

standing seemed to

with others creates

come our way. But

its

own

ies trigger another’s ideas

ments our processes place that

as

tion, issues

and

we

was unfamiliar

the very process of collaborating

serendipity as one person’s ideas discoveries.

The

and discover-

following scenario docu-

developed a lesson that linked music and a

to us.

During the course of curriculum genera-

of logistics, time, and

criteria for material selection arose.

was preparing a lessonfor graduate students taking a course on music in the interdisciplinary curriculum in which the students would interact with art in an effort to discover parallels between art and music. She went to a local museum to revisitfamiliar worksfrom the permanent exhibit, thinking about Claire

instructional strategies she could design to help her students begin to see those

more in

works than they might through casual observation.

After viewing the permanent

museum

collection, Claire

moved

into the area

of the

that housed a special traveling exhibit, “Faces ofSorrow: Agony in the

Former Yugoslavia. ” Although she suspected that the

and moving,

she

of the Bosnian

was unpreparedfor

conflict in the context

paper. With her

exhibit might be troubling

the powerful effect of seeing photographs

ofan art museum rather than in a newstears just below the surface, she

hand over her mouth and

movedfrom one group ofphotos iron bars on

as

to another: faces of hostages peering through which their clothes were hung, gaunt prisoners barely recognizable

human, Muslim women dealing with the aftermath of rape, a

her pet dog gunned down on the street

woman and

4

.

Claire described her experience to Janet laborate

and Kari, who were planning to

col-

with her in teaching the course. Janet asked, “Since your students will be

we try to put together some kind of interdisciplinary presentation on the music of Bosniafor your class'?” It sounded like a good idea, but neither Claire, Janet, nor Kari knew very much about music of the

seeing this exhibit, too, should

Balkan

region,

nor did theyfeel that they completely understood the current state

of conflict in Bosnia and the history of ethnic rivalries in the region. They felt hindered by thefact that they had only afew daysfor research andplanning and that they wouldn’t be able to get together in person until shortly before the

They

decided, however, to see if they couldfind

any

resources that

class.

would help


25 8

them learn more about music of the region, then reconsider thefeasibility ofplanning a lesson around the topic.

Questions to Consider in Selecting and Teaching Music

Claire remembered that she

from Another Culture ~ Where can we

music from another culture?

~ How can

this

music be placed

also recalled a videotape from the

tiveness

JVC

representa-

for a Muslim

and authenticity of our

Janet consulted

girl.

Rough Guide (Broughton

,

Trillo,

what ways can students experience this music? Can this music be performed by students? In

Should

this

respectful

is

the

is

the potential of this

and regions unfa-

most students

in

music. She dis-

and by

Anne

sheer serendipity

War by

Frank, in a local

found

I

Dream of

Children of the Former

Yugoslavia (UNICEF, 1 993) at her local library. She also found a book from a childrens geography series on Yugoslavia that seemed rather dated and of questionable value for the project at hand. Kari, who is active in folk

music to promote understandmiliar to

similar to the Diary of

Peace: Images of

the most

and most responsible

ing of cultures

war

bookstore,

way to use this music?

~ What

1994) for a discography ofBosnian

covered Zlata’s Diary (Filipovic, 1994), a girl's account of

music be performed

by students? What

World Music: The Muddyman, &

Ellingham,

musical selections?

~

Video Anthology

of World Music and Dance (Katsumori, 1990) that included a song in which a Serbian man expresses his love

in

context?

~ How can we gauge

Serbian folk

appropriately in the context ofsuch a sobering exhibit. She

examples of

find

knew a

wondered how a joyful dance could be used

dance, but

music

the

circles,

consultedfellow musicians she thought might

have some expertise in Bosnian music. She searched

class?

local

record stores for recordings that might be useful. All three

began reading magazine and newspaper

articles to shore

up their understand-

ing of the historical andpolitical background ofBosnia.

Janet and Kari listened to the entire recording Bosnia: Echoes from an Endangered World (Levin Petrovic, 1993) and read the liner notes. They identified two intriguing contrasting selections: 'Kad ja podjoh na Benbasu’ [ When I went to Benbasu] and “Ganga: Odkad seke nismo zapjevale" [How

&

long

we sisters haven't sung], which they laterplayedfor Claire. Someone posed “How can we make sense ofthese pieces, and how can we help the

the questions:

?”

make sense of them The ganga seemed especially problematic because the women's voices move

students

parallel motion at the interval of a major second ously

(e.g.,

with D). The major second is considered a consonant interval in

of Bosnian music, but Claire suggested

an

it

in

C sounding simultanethis style

sounds dissonant to ears trained in Western music.

activity that she

had used many

times in the context of

choral rehearsals: singing a scale in canon, first at the interval of a third,

and

then at the interval of a second. Kari recalled seeing singers from the Balkan region being physically linked, scale in seconds

and suggested experimenting with

while standing

close together,

arms

linked.

singing the

Janet transcribed

“Kadja podjoh na Benbasu so that the class could sing it, then discovered that song was mentioned in Zlata’s Diary. Very rapidly, the shape

this particular

andflow of the lesson

revealed

itself.

Music and Culture

259

and Kari to the museum to see the and Kari had spent some time immersing themselves in

Before the class began Claire took Janet ,

exhibit. Because Janet

and literature of the region before seeing the photographs, they were able to understand the context ofthe photographs more quickly than ifthey had come to them without preparation. The songs that they had been listening the music, art,

to that

morning played over and over

moved by

in their

minds as they viewed and were

the display.

Lesson Plan Music

in

the Former Republic of Yugoslavia

Rationale

At the time this lesson was written, media reports on the war so frequent and regular that

we

risked

and hardships of the people there and to the complex families

and communities.To extend the impact of the

Sorrow: Agony

in

ples to underscore the effects of

Objectives

Sixth

to the suffering

issues that

class's visit

had divided

to the "Faces of

civil

more contemporary exam-

war on the Balkan peoples.

through Twelfth

Students

will

~ perform

a Serbian folk dance, "Sentja, "adjusting

with changes

in

[When

went

I

sing a in

ja

will

we

be contrasted with "Ganga: Odkad

sisters haven't sung],

podjoh na Benbasu" accurately.

canon

at the interval of a second, maintaining

order to experience the harmonic relationships

nismo

in

an independent part "Ganga: Odkad seke

zapjevale."

~ discuss can

to correspond

to a Sarajevan folk song,"Kad ja podjoh na Benbasu"

to Benbasu], which

seke nismo zapje vale" [Flow long

~ sing"Kad

movements

tempo.

~ describe responses

-

Bosnia had been

the Former Yugoslavia" exhibit, this lesson juxtaposed folk song,

dance, and literature of Yugoslavia before 1991 with

Grade Level

in

becoming anesthetized

how the arts (folk dance, songs, literature, and children's artwork) human tragedies and move "outsiders" to contemplate these

reflect

difficult realities.

Materials

~ Recording of Serbian Seventh Avenue,

~ Videotape of Serbian er)

(1

folk

dance

New York, NY folk

"Setnja" (available

song "Beautiful Emina"from Katsumori, (produc-

990), The JVC video anthology of world

Tokyo: JVC

from Worldtone Music,

10011) I.

music and dance

(vol.

22) [video],

~ Books: Viking;

Filipovic, Z. (1994), Zlata's diary:

UNICEF

(1

993),

/

A

child's life in Sarajevo,

New

York:

dream of peace: Images of war by children of the

mer Yugoslavia, New York:

HarperCollins.

book to describe the people and break of the war, such as Lye,

Any

features of Yugoslavia before the out-

a

987), Take

K. (1

for-

short travelogue or children's

trip to

New York:

Yugoslavia,

Franklin Watts.

~ Recording: Levin, T„ &

Petrovic, A.,

(1

an endangered

993), Bosnia: Echoes from

world [CD], Washington, DC: Smithsonian/Folkways Records.

Introducing

the lesson

1)

Begin by playing the music for the Serbian folk dance "Setnja.'The dance is

performed

on the

an open

in

arm of the person steps

is:

in

left,

arm

links his/her right

left

in

hand

the

left

right knee; step

left,

bend

left

knee; step right,

bend

bend left knee. Turn 90 degrees and repeat the sequence

while stepping out from the

bend with

formation. The leader places the

front of them. In the line of direction, the pattern of

bend

step right,

right knee; step

circle

each successive dancer

left hip;

a hop.

circle.

When the tempo

The leader may

increases, replace the

direct the line in a "snail"

maneuver

throughout the dance. 2)

View the videotape of the Serbian Mostar. Describe

how

the song

folk

song

"Beautiful Emina," set in

the story of a Christian poet

tells

who

observes the beautiful Emina, a Muslim, as she waters her rose garden with a pitcher.

She glances coldly

at the

poet died, and Emina drew her

poet and goes about her

last

breath.

poem

overgrown, the pitcher broke, the flowers wilted. But the will live forever"

3)

(Tomoaki,

1

990,

the area formerly

known

of Emina

p. 65).

Take turns reading selected portions of a general Yugoslavia aloud. Discuss

task. "The old

The garden grew quiet and

how the

travel

guide

guide portrays a tranquil view of

for

life in

as Yugoslavia.


4)

Listen to "Kad ja

podjoh na Benbasu" [When

I

went

we

"Ganga: Odkad seke nismo zapjevale" [How long

Ask students to write reactions to the music as ("Benbasu"

is

a

poignant melody performed

in

uses vocal timbres and harmonies that are less

5)

to Benbasu] and

sisters

folk-song

haven't sung].

heard. Discuss.

first

style;

the ganga

familiar.)

Establish a context for the music.

Read excerpts from Zlata

(pp.6-9) as she describes the

of a rather typical child of Sarajevo antic-

life

weekend of skiing and choir practice in 991 Her choir is "When Went to Benbasu" for an upcoming performance. She

ipating a

ing

Filipovic's diary

1

I

conflicts in Slovenia

.

rehears-

hears of

and Croatia and worries that the "winds of war" will

blow toward Bosnia-Herzegovina.

Music and Culture

6)

261

Following the transcription of the melody, sing "Kad

on

a neutral syllable (see

liner notes,

Example

which describe the

affiliation

ja

podjoh na Benbasu"

Read the translation and the

11. 1).

CD

that people of Sarajevo have with

anthem. Listen again and sing with the recording. Ask the students to

this

add to

music any additional descriptions

their original descriptions of the

and

reactions.

Kad

ja

Example 11.1 “Kadja podjoh na Benbasu”

podjoh na Benbasu

Na Benbasu na vodu

povedoh

Ja

b'jelo jagnje,

B'jelojagnje sa

Sve od derta

od tuge Svud sam

i

sobom.

When went to Benbasu I

To Benbasu I

A

water

small white

lamb with me.

Because of the suffering and passion

sevdaha,

of love,

zalosti

i

is'o

for

took a small white lamb,

svud sam gled'o

Because of sorrow and longing, went I

and looked everywhere

Ne

To

try to see

Sve djevojke Benbasanke

All

the

Na

Stood

bil'dragu vidleo.

kapiji stajahu.

Samo moja Na

mila draga

demirli pendzeru.

Ja joj nazvah

Dobro vece

Only

Was

dobro vece,

djevojce,

Ona meni doj'do vecer, doj', do vecer dilberce.

I

girls in

my darling.

from Benbasu

the door (of the courtyard)

my dear darling at

window with the good evening,

the

told her

Good evening She

told

Come

in

iron

grill.

girl,

me to come

in

the evening,

the evening, darling.

Translated by T. Levin and A. Petrovic

7)

In

preparation for listening again to"Ganga:

sing through the A-minor scale

in

solfege

Odkad seke nismo zapjevale," do re mi fa sol la). Divide the

(la ti

?


262

group in

in

canon

halves and sing the scale

canon, starting at the

in

at the second.Try singing the

and-arm to

canon

third.

Sing again

seconds while linked arm-

in

Can you keep steadfast to your part? How does

a partner.

it

feel to

sing such dissonant intervals while standing so close 8)

Read the translation of the ganga and describe the differences region. Listen again

changed

after

in

urban and

notes for the recording, which

liner

musical traditions within the

rural

and ask students to describe how

their perceptions

they learned more about the musical characteristics and

context of the ganga.

Closing

the lesson

9)

Return to Zlata's Diary and read excerpts from

confusion regarding ethnic labeling.

1

992

in

which

Zlata expresses her

the entry on pp. 1 02-1 03, she describes

In

her family and friends as a mix of Serb, Croat, and Muslim, and she expresses her

dismay that

1

0)

politics

has divided families based on these distinctions.

Display selections from

1)

Dream of Peace: Images of War by

Children of the

book come

letters in this

from UNICEF-sponsored projects to provide

therapy as a means to

viate the psychological 1

/

Former Yugoslavia. The drawings, poems, and

Consider

how people

tion, despair, identity,

trauma

in

for children

art

caught

in

alle-

the midst of war.

war-torn regions use the arts to express frustra-

determination, and hope. Identify examples of works

that also educate those outside the war-torn regions to respond to the

traumas of the

Assessment

~

conflict.

Collect student responses to the

two

once they understand the context ~ Do students respond to changes position of the leader

songs.

for

in

Do

tempo

~ Can students maintain an independent second

part,

when

singing a scale a

change

in

the dance and adjust to the

and fellow dancers?

~ Do students accurately sing the melody of "Kad

~ Do students express

their descriptions

the music?

in

ja

part, yet

canon

heightened interest

podjoh na Benbasu"? remain sensitive to the

at the interval of a in

second?

the events and outcomes of

the Bosnian conflict and an appreciation for the arts as an expression of

human

feeling?


~ Encourage students to events

in

collect reports, images,

~ Obtain maps that show Yugoslavia with

and accounts of current

the Balkan region for display.

maps

of the

in its

former configuration to contrast

political divisions at this time.

Music and Culture

2,63

This lesson was presentedfirst to participants in a graduate course on music in the interdisciplinary curriculum.

One of the

class

members an elementary ,

music teacher had visited Yugoslavia shortly before the breakup of the country. ;

She described the beauty ofthe country and also her surprise at the depth ofethnic hatred that some Bosnians had expressed to her.

The lesson was presented again

to

a music methods

class for

elementary class-

One ofthe students in that class was Ruzica Jovanovic, who had been born in Yugoslavia. We were especially interested in any insights she could provide regarding the former Yugoslavia and the authenticity and accuracy of the information materials, and experiences we had included in our lesson plan room

teachers.

,

on music of the Balkan region. Kari interviewed Ruzica after the

Here

class.

are excerpts from that interview.

Interview with Ruzica Jovanovic Ruzica Jovanovic was born in Serbia, in

town

a

called Kagwelitz, about

an hour’s journey from Belgrade. Her family moved to Racine,

when

Wisconsin, in 1979

she was four years old.

the wealthiest in her Serbian village. after

World War

K:

I

noticed that

Her mother’s

is

in the

family was

great-grandfather emigrated

Gradually he brought over

I.

mother’s side of the family ily is still in Serbia.

Her

United

all

the family. Ruzica’s

States. Ruzica’s father’s

fam-

Ruzica speaks Serbian fluendy.

when we

started to

do the dance, you were doing

it

a

different way. R: Just because there are

right

away when

slow dance.

It’s

many

ways

it

do

to

it.

And

name of the dance

easy for everybody to learn

ured you guys would do K:

different

[Janet] said the

the easiest

how

to

do

I

that

figured it

And

it.

was

a

I fig-

way possible.

would be the way that would be most successful for us. Do you notice that this happens a lot that when you hear a song or see something from back home that it’s changed a

Absolutely. Because that

—

litde bit?

R:

Oh yeah.

I

went

[to Serbia] this

summer and

a lot of things have

changed. Everyone’s listening to rap and disco music. music, like they used to listen

to.

No

more

folk

All the youngsters are into

American music. They’re Americanized, like we are. And it’s weird because when you go over there, you expect to see something different and you don’t. K:

—

—

Besides the pop music that everybody listens to that’s global did you notice other kinds of music that people were listening to? Did you hear any traditional musics?


264

by the youngBut older people like my grandparents listen to the songs we heard today [in class]. Older songs, old fashioned songs. And when they get together, they would sing. They don’t need instruments. They have their voices to express

K: All different

music

listened to over there, mostly

is

Dancing music and

sters.

stuff like that.

everything. K:

When they sing, do

they get close together?

R: Yeah. Usually when the guys have a litde bit too

hug each other and and

start singing.

listens to music. I listen to

Our whole

listen to

it.

Just because

group ever since K:

Are the

I

was

I like it

Most of them

are alike.

so

I

turn on Serbian music

much.

And I’ve been in a folk

it,

six years old.

folk groups a lot alike?

find, or are they different,

R:

drink, they

Serbian music here at school. Instead

of turning on the radio and listening to

and

much to

family likes to dance

Are

there certain instruments

you

each one?

Some

are different.

You can

they are dif-

tell

by the costumes that they wear. Not every dance needs a different costume. But certain dances tend to have a gypsy costume, the baggy pants, and the tambourine. The normal costumes are like wool skirts that my great-grandma gave me. She gave me her costume that she used to wear. It’s a wool skirt, pleated, really scratchy. And then a white woven blouse, woven with red roses around the collar, and then a vest. Then you tie a red bow around the arms. ferent

K:

In this lesson,

we were

then also contrasting

You were

telling us

it

listening to

“When I went

with a song we don’t

something about

way

Benbasu” and about.

[that song].

That song, “Ganga: Odkad seke nismo

R: Yes.

to

know very much zapjevale”

—the way

mother were to 5 lose a child, or a niece, or a nephew, or her husband The ladies would cry and sing like that. And that was just weird when I heard that. It sounded so sad. they sing

is

the

that ladies sing at funerals if a

.

K:

was hard for us to figure out what it meant because the liner notes some stuff but didn’t tell us other things. It seemed like the words must be happy “Too long since we sisters have sung,” and It

told us

—

now were

singing together.

R: I didn’t really pay attention [to the words] because I stuff K:

But you could

R: Yes.

was jotting

down.

It’s

tell

what the words were?

Bosnian-Serbian.

It’s

similar because

vale” [zah-peh-vall-yeh], that’s Bosnian.

when

We

they

say,

“zapje-

say “zapjevale” [sah-

Music and Culture

We

peh-yall-eh].

don’t say the j.

The two

265

languages are very close,

with differences in pronunciation. K:

So your grandmother

lives

next to this graveyard?

She lives right next door. And usually early mornings on Sundays they would go and lay out food, like the favorite food of the person that died. That’s our tradition. We do that here when we go because my grandpa died and my great-grandpa and my mom’s aunt. When we go, they are all next to each other and we lay some food down. My grandpa used to smoke and we stick a cigarette in the ground for him, for his spirit, for his soul. And he used to take

R: Yes.

—

a shot

of cognac or whiskey, so we’d put a

litde shot next to his place

on top. It’s something we always have to do. The second song that was sung [“Ganga: Odkad seke nismo zapjevale”], those are usually sung by older women. Like in their 60s and 70s. K:

This lesson in the

the introduction [to Bosnian music] for

is

room.

And

for us,

thing together. There are

And

it

it

was our

many

attempt

at

many people

putting some-

things that this lesson does not do.

show high

doesn’t really

first

culture, a lot

of kinds of music.

It

show the instrumental traditions. It is basically a little taste. What would you add next, or what would you change to make it closer to what you know? doesn’t really

R:

would let the class hear more them actually see how the dance I

tation I’m going to bring in

dancing. So they can see

different types of is

little

how

it’s

done. That’s

actually done.

ferent variations of the dance there are. That,

don’t

know what

class

it is

my folk And how you put And how many dif-

excerpts from a video of

the bounce into the steps and with the music.

of the people in the

music and have

why for my presen-

and I’m sure that

or what’s going on, or who’s involved.

Reflecting upon the Bosnian Lesson The interview with Ruzica Jovanovic points out

several issues that are

important to our consideration of music as a reflection of culture. that are

when

bound

a lot

have heard of the war in Bosnia but they

One

is

songs and dances are passed on from person to person, there to

be

many

different versions of those songs

and dances. One

does not have to go to a distant culture to see that principle in operation.

For example,

when you

sing “All around the

[fill

in the words], the

mon-

key chased the weasel,” what words do you fill in? People from some parts of the United States answer, “mulberry bush,” whereas people from other parts answer, “cobbler’s bench.” true, authentic version.

Everyone thinks that

their version

is

the


?66

Further, as Ruzica suggests, the music

and dance presented

in this les-

son are only a limited sample of the wealth of music found in Bosnia. Just as the

Me Out to the Ball

well-known songs “Happy Birthday” and “Take

Game”

could not possibly epitomize the variety of song possibilities in

the United States, no two or three songs, however well loved, fully represent a country’s music. Bosnian people, like people everywhere, interact

many styles of music

with

Another lithic

issue

is

—

in their daily lives

ular tunes, classical compositions,

lullabies,

hymns, and so

work songs, pop-

forth.

monomay be many musical traditions with-

the danger of portraying a musical culture as

or stable through time. There

in a given country or region or even generations within a region, as the

interview suggests. Also, because of modern technology, traditional music

competes with increasingly global popular music. The musical youth in other cultures ilar

popular media

from other

may be

we need

to recognize the influence

munications on local cultures and remember that in ditional music places,

some

widely, others

We were

not the only type of music that

is

to

less so,

comment on

the tra-

heard. In fact, in

some

while

someone with connections and was willing

this culture, participated in this lesson

the context that

naturally broader in cultural practices.

is

of global com-

many places

may be sung and experienced some may completely fade away.

fortunate that Ruzica Jovanovic,

and insights into

of

forms

traditional musical

much

life

MTV and sim-

of American youth. In teaching about music

as that

cultures,

by

as strongly influenced

is

part of the music.

knowledge and more

Her

perspective

is

specific to the musical

She knows how the dance goes, and she can make judgments

about whether variations in performance

fit

within the general character

of the dance. Although Ruzica might not consider herself a musician or an expert, she knows

how

the music should sound from her lifetime of

hearing the music in context.

Whenever a person

possible, teachers should seek

which classroom

ways

in

tices

of that culture. If it

cians

from the

vibrant,

informed commentary from

of the culture they are studying; a tradition bearer can verify the activities align is

with the

beliefs, values,

culture, the educational experience will

and more

and pracby musi-

possible to have the music performed

be

fuller,

more

credible.

Criteria for Selection of

Musical Examples from Another Culture The previous lesson and interview illustrate how music and other arts can illuminate many aspects of culture, and that knowledge about a particular culture (or context) can illuminate music. The entry point or impetus for this study

was provided by an

art exhibit dealing

with the then-cur-

Music and Culture

rent conflict in Bosnia.

267

Our exploration of the music of the Balkan

region

was influenced by available resources, the quality of the music (quality meaning a combination of authenticity, representativeness, and musical interest inherent in the works), and the potential of this music to promote understanding of the people. While the process of finding meaningful links

between music and culture lesson

cific

may

is

unique to each investigation,

suggest useful approaches.

We

reflected

raised through the questions posed at the beginning

In what ways can students experience

formed by

music ?

way

to use this

issues

of this lesson.

Can

this

music be per-

students ? Should this music be performed by students?

most respecful and most responsible

We

this

this spe-

upon the

What

is

the

music?

up context for performing the music by learning the Serbian and viewing a videotape of a Serbian singer. Students first lis“Kad ja podjoh na Benbasu,” and learned it easily because of its

set

folk dance

tened to

simple folk-like tune.

Odkad if

We chose not to try to have the class sing “Ganga:

seke nismo zapjevale” because

we knew

that

it

would be

difficult,

not impossible, to recreate the close harmonies and characteristic vocal

timbre. Instead,

we

provided an approximate experience by having stu-

dents listen to the recording, then sing a minor scale as a round in intervals

of a second. After they sang the dissonances, they listened again, with

greater appreciation for the challenging

Understanding the ganga and music can

to us. Because ers or persons

elicit a

role

sound of the ganga.

within the culture was a challenge

variety of personal responses, even insid-

very close to a culture can sometimes mislabel or misrepre-

sent the music.

A

case in point

ganga in the lesson to laments

The

its

is

that Ruzica Jovanovic

for the

compared the

dead that she’d heard

at the grave-

no indication of this practice. Upon investigation, it appears that the ganga and laments may sound similar to Ruzica, but in fact, the ganga is not a lament. The timbre of the women’s voices has a quality and intensity which we could interpreted as mournful, but which would not sound sad to the people familiar with this genre 6 What is the potential ofthis music to promote understanding ofcultures and yard.

liner notes gave

.

regions unfamiliar to

For this

many of the

was the

first

most students

in the class?

teachers in the seminar and classes, as well as for us,

introduction to the music of this region of the world.

Singing songs and listening to the voices of the people of the former Yugoslavia lent an immediacy and a reality to our study that sense and

feel.

The music

we

could

became the impetus for us to read more of these peoples, and to show empathy for

also

about the culture and history their current struggles.

In this chapter,

we used examples from

African/American collaboration to

Bosnia, Ireland, and a South

illustrate

the synergy of music and


268

we show how the rich musical traditions of one many possibilities for curriculum design. The role of music in celebrations, the way music reflects the blending of cultures, and the way songs are altered as they move from traditional to popular culture. In

Chapter

12,

country, Mexico, offer

settings are

some of the themes addressed

in the lessons.

References Breathnach, B. (1986). The use of notation in the transmission of Irish folk music. Cork, Ireland: University College Cork Irish Traditional

Music Broughton,

Society.

S.,

Ellingham, M.,

Muddyman,

(1994). World music: The rough guide. Filipovic, Z. (1994). Zlata's diary:

A child's

D., 8c Trillo, R. (eds.).

London: Penguin. life

in Sarajevo.

New

York:

Viking.

Finnegan, R. (1989). The hidden musicians: Music-making in an English town. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hoffer, C. R. (1992). Sociology and music education. In R. Colwell (ed.),

Handbook ofresearch on music teaching and learning (pp. 713-723).

New York:

Schirmer.

International Society for

Music Education

(1994). Policy

on music of

the world’s cultures. International Journal of Music Education 24: 67-68.

Jones-Bauman, R. (1995). The Joik heard round the world: Mass media in Saamiland and the negotiation of ethnicity. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Ethnomusicology, Los Angeles.

Kaemmer, J. E.

(1993). Music in

human

music. Austin: University

Kaplan,

M.

(1990). The arts:

A

life: Anthropological perspectives

on

of Texas Press. social perspective.

Rutherford, Conn.:

Fairleigh Dickinson University Press.

Katsumori,

I.

(producer). (1990). The JVC video anthology of world music

and dance

(vol.

22) [video]. Tokyo: JVC.

Levin, T., 8c Petrovic, A. (recorders and annotators). (1993). Bosnia: Echoes from an endangered world [CD]. Washington, D.C.:

Smithsonian/Folkways Records.

Music and Culture

Lipsitz,

G. (1994). Dangerous the poetics ofplace.

crossroads:

269

Popular music, postmodernism and

New York: Verso.

Lye, K. (1987). Take a trip to Yugoslavia.

New York:

Franklin Watts.

Meintjes, L. (1990). Paul Simon’s Graceland, South Africa, and the mediation of musical meaning. Ethnomusicology

Merriam, A.

34

37-73.

(1):

(1964). The anthropology of music. Chicago: Northwestern

P.

University Press.

M.

O’Keeffe,

(performer). (1994).

[CD]. Dublin:

Coisir house party

Gael-Linn. Palmer, A.

J.

(1992).

World musics

in music education:

The

matter of

authenticity. InternationalJournal ofMusic Education 19: 32-40.

Seeger,

A. (1994). Whoever we are today, we can sing you a song about it. In G. Behague (ed.), Music and black ethnicity: Carribbean and South America. Miami, Fla.: University of

Miami North South

Center.

Simon,

P.

(performer). (1986). Graceland [CD]. Burbank, Calif.:

Warner

Brothers. Slobin,

M.

(1993). Subcultural sounds: Micromusics of the West. Hanover,

N.H.: University Press of New England.

Tomoaki, F. (ed.). (1990). The JVC anthology of world music and dance: Book III: Europe. Tokyo: JVC.

UNICEF

(1993). I dream ofpeace: Images of war by children of the former

Yugoslavia.

Willis,

New York:

D. (1995). The sand Wesley.

HarperCollins. dollar

and

the slide rule.

Reading, Mass.:

—

chapter

125 j*

Music as an Expression of Culture: Mexico

The

earth could also feel that something

something

it

new was coming

needed

and had been secretly wishing for. the wind god came nearer, the earth let out a slow sigh of relief. Its fruit began to ripen and its flowers began to bloom with new, deeper colors.

As

The whole

planet seemed to be waking

Finally Quetzalcoatl touched

down on

up from

a long sleep.

the earth

with the musicians and singers.

They looked around curiously Then they began to play. Through forests

at the silent,

waiting planet.

and valleys and deserts and oceans they wandered, filling

the air with music.

Soon people learned and so did the

trees

to sing

and

and

play,

birds,

the whales and wolves,

the running streams, the crickets and frogs,

and every other

From dawn

to

creature.

dusk

the melodies spread until

music covered the earth.

From How Music Came to

An Ancient Mexican Myth

the World:

(Ober, 1994, pp. 26—30)


27 ?

A

s this

beautiful old

trates,

music

is

myth

illu-

an integral

ele-

ment of Mexican and Mexican American life. The vibrant music of street with the legacies of many peoples. Strands of migraand adaptation weave together in new aural patterns that owe much to the influence of pre-Columbian Indians, Spaniards,

and

city reverberate

tion, assimilation,

Contemporary musical artists, heard through popmedia of radio and recordings, create new songs threaded through the warp and woof of ancient, long-standing traditions. The resilience of this culture and the depth of its expression are eloquently captured in this Mexican proverb: Out ofpoverty, poetry; out of suffering, song (HerreraAfricans, and others. ular

Sobek, 1993).

We chose Mexico to illustrate the connections between music and culture because of

its

rich

and diverse musical expressions and

its

physical

proximity to the United States. Indeed, before political boundaries were

redrawn in the middle of the nineteenth century, significant parcels of land in present-day Texas,

New

Mexico, Nevada, Utah, Colorado,

Arizona, and California were part of Mexico. Today the interactions

between the peoples and cultures of the United States and Mexico

more

extensive than ever because people of

are

Mexican heritage comprise

the fastest growing ethnic group in the United States.

The

issues

of authenticity and representation of a

culture’s

music that

were raised in Chapter 11 are central to the study of Mexico’s people and

How do we provide enough context to appreciate the comHow does the music we choose reflect those comHow do we and our students approach something as intricate

their music. plexities

plexities?

and

of culture?

sensitive as ethnicity

other, us,

and them

—with

curiosity

and under-

standing? Cultural stereotypes arise from overgeneralizations, simplified portrayals, insufficient information,

the curriculum,

and shallow understanding. Through

we can move beyond

picture-postcard descriptions of

and serapes to represent Mexico’s cultural traditions with greater depth and authenticity. Music embodies nuance beyond the power of words, enabling the essence of these traditions to be heard and burros, cactus, tacos,

felt in

the voices of the people.

Music

Lesson Plan

Expression of Culture: Mexico

as an

273

I

Introducing Mexico through the Pinata Pinata

Pinata

En

In

la

noche,

mientras dormiamos, pinata del

la

the night,

while

cumpleanos se

fell

como fruta demasiado madura

like

tiro

todos

asleep,

out of the tree

cayb del arbol

y

we were

the birthday pinata

los dulces.

an overripe

spilling

all

Nos dio mucho gusto

We were

no tener que romperla

we did

pues era un leon amarillo

as

con sombrero verde.

in a

happy

not have to break

was

it

fruit,

the candy.

it

a yellow lion

green

hat.

Jennifer Clement

Translated by

Consuelo de Aerenlund

From The Tree Is Older than You Are: A

Poems and Stories from Mexico with Rationale

Bilingual Gathering of

Paintings by Mexican Artists (Nye,

Holiday celebrations are festive occasions

in

995,

p. 28).

primary classrooms, especially

when

1

they are designed to introduce children to the fascinating customs and traditions of

many

cultures. (See "Controversy in the Classroom: Holidays in Public School"

later in this chapter.)

The

ming from Mexican

culture,

pinata, is

one of the most familiar and

a natural subject for

of a pinata lesson, one basic and

one enhanced,

1

are

festive objects

stem-

Two versions provided to demonstrate how

songs and

stories.

the contexts of music making are central to children's understanding of culture.The

sequence of events by

culturally

teristics

in

the basic version

grounded

stories,

is

supplemented

movement, and

in

the enhanced version

attention to the particular charac-

of the music and the visual elements of the pinatas.The second version

is

further enriched through collaboration with the art specialist: Students apply their

understanding of Mexican culture to the design and creation of a pinata. The two versions illustrate ities

Grade Level

how carefully selected

materials

and thoughtfully designed

can improve the quality of an educational experience.

Second and Third

activ-


274

Objectives

Students

will

Basic Lesson learn

Enriched Lesson

about customs of Mexico,

locate Mexico

on

a

describe customs of Mexico after

map of

viewing a video of musicians at a

and

the Americas,

Mexican

sing a piiiata song.

book, The Pihata Maker

festival

(El

Pinatero).

showing

sing a pihata song,

changes

listening to a

meter by moving and

in

playing percussion instruments

describe the variety of sounds

heard

in

a recording of a fiesta,

create pinatas, using designs

techniques

Mexican craftsperson

how

discuss

and

those of the

like

art,

in

the book,

music, and dance

play a role in the lives of Mexican

people.

Differences in

versions

The objectives

in

the enriched version are focused more specifically on cultural

understanding and describe what students standing.The objectives also ating, describing,

Materials

and

show

(1

Ets,

M. H„ & Labastida,

New York: Viking ~ Large map of the

A.

such as performing, cre-

Americas

&

(Martinez

Llama, 1991)

from Lewiston,

some

other

instrument for accompaniment

in

[CD],

Nonesuch

Oaxaca"

D. (recorder),

Mexico: Fiestas of Chiapas

Oaxaca

12.1)

Guitar, piano, or

~ Video: Pinatas, posadas y pastorales ~ Recording: "Christmas

for"La Pihata" (see

Example

~

to demonstrate that under-

Enriched Lesson

979), Nine days to Christmas,

~ Music

do

valuing.

Basic Lesson

~ Book:

will

a range of activities

(1

991 ),

and

New York: Elektra

(originally released 1976)

~ Books: Ancona, G. (1 994), The Pihata maker, San Diego, Calif: Harcourt Brace; (1

and

978),

Pettit,

Mexican

orations

F.

H„ &

Pettit, R.

M.

folk toys: Festival dec-

and ritual objects, New York:

Hastings House

- Music for"La ~ Guitar

for

Pihata" (Example 12.1)

accompaniment

~ Art supplies


^75

Differences in

versions

Materials

of

in

the enriched lesson have been chosen to reflect scenes and sounds

Mexico whenever

real life in

tapes,

possible. Carefully selected videotapes, audio-

and personal accounts of the

specific

lives

of Mexican people provide

more

and authentic representations of culture.

Introducing

the Lesson

Enriched Lesson

Basic Lesson 1 )

Today we

will

begin work on a

1

)

me about some of the special and customs your family

traditions

Winter Holidays program. This

celebrates. Every culture

year's

theme is "Songs of Many

traditions. This

Lands." Who can find Mexico on this

map 1 Here are some maps

to color while

2)

Tell

special song from Mexico for the

I

read you a

Read Nine Days

2)

own

selects a star-shaped pihata

upset

friends.

when

it is

with the

star.

class,

Pinatas,

a collage

festivities,

City,

and Michoacan.

Several sequences feature pinatas

being

made by

hand, displayed

in

the market, and broken at a party.

Discuss the story

prompting them

Representative music, including

remember shapes of pinatas, what children do during Las turned into

View excerpts from

Mexico

broken by her

why the

one of their special holidays.

parades, and plays from Colima,

and

the pihata song from this lesson,

to

Posadas, and

how people in Mexico cele-

brate

minute video presents

However, the pihata turns

into a real

own

learn

of colorful Christmas

special posada, or

Christmas celebration. She

is

its

Posadas y Pastorelas. This 25-

tells

about Ceci,who wanted to have her

has

we're going to

story.

to Christmas: A

Story of Mexico. This story

week

are heard.

pihata

a star.

Differences in

versions

In

the basic version, the

used to pique interest tural

fictional story

in pinatas. In

Nine Days to Christmas: A Story of Mexico

context by presenting scenes of real

life in

Mexico through

sents a vivid collage of parades, plays, the marketplace, specific cal

is

contrast, the enriched version establishes cul-

and

a

video that pre-

a party. References to

people and places help students move beyond general and stereotypi-

notions of Mexico and

its

culture. The enriched version

nificance of the pihata in people's

lives.

sheds

light

on the

sig-


276 D

Example 12.1 La Pinata An

da

-

le

-

a

-

mi

-

go,

G

Da

-

le,

da

-

G

canasta de

la

Andale amigo,

con

la

-

le,

no

cacahuates.

del rincon la

colacion.

pierdas

que hay en

el

camino.

Hit, hit

lo

pierdes

el

camino.

pierdes

mi

no,

no

-

-

de

la

dis

-

delay,

all

the pinata, lose your aim,

or you'll lose the way.

do not

si

-

measure well the distance

no pierdas porque

ti

bring us the baskets with

Dale, dale, dale, el tino,

el

Bring the pinata with

Hit, hit

distancia

ca

la

we want to party, we want to play. Come on my friend, please don't be tardy,

do not

la

con

tes

D

no pierdas

el tino,

-

D

Dale, dale, dale,

mide

Orozco (1994)

sal

canasta de

la

-

A7

dilates

los

di

te

A7

Andale amigo, no te

con

da

le,

no

the pinata, lose your aim,

because

you

if

you

will lose

lose

it

the way.

the candy.


377


Enriched Lesson

Basic Lesson 3)

Today we song it

will start

working on our

for the program. Let

for you. Sing

to "La Pinata."

3)

me sing

Draw

students' attention to the

piiiatas in

the video Pihatas,

the English words

Posadas y Pastorelas. Have you ever

What are

seen a pinata before? Where?

the

children doing as they sing this

did

it

song ? How do you know this?

tures

Sing again.

in

look

like?

What

Here are some pic-

of pihatas from different places

Mexico.

Show

pictures from

Mexican Folk Toys: Festival Decorations

and Ritual Objects.

Read description of pinata making as a family enterprise

on pages

142-143. Ask students to contrast

handmade

these

piiiatas

with

commercial ones they may have seen.

Draw

qualities

attention to visual

and design elements by

asking questions such as "What colors

do the

pinata makers

choose?" and "What kinds of

shapes and materials do they use?"

4)

Display words and music for "La Pinata" on

an overhead projector.

Can you

find

changes

to

where the music

a new section? Sing

again. Right, the

the

"hit,

4)

Read The Pinata Maker and share the photographs with the

class.

Discuss the special role of the it

hit" part starts

new section. Listen again and

pinata maker, the families of

makers, and the kind of skills

they need. Emphasize that pinata

way people have

read the words as I sing them. Teach

making

the song, perhaps by having the

expressing care for each other.

students echo phrases.

Describe the significance of piiiatas,

is

a

of

using the background

information ("The Significance of Pihatas

given

in

Mexican

Festivals")

in this lesson.

We will be

designing our own pihatas You'll

want to

think

later.

about the kind

of shape you might want your pinata to have and the colors you will use.

Make books about

making

available for reference.

pinata


27 8

Basic Lesson

Enriched Lesson 5)

Listen to this song.

children sing

Mexican

while they are play-

it

ing at breaking the pihata. Sing

or play "La Pinata."Show the

Spanish words on an overhead.

Can you find where the music changes it

a

to

new section ? Right,

changes at the "Dale, dale" part. again and

Listen

try to

words as I sing them. Spanish speakers

room,

invite

them

in

read the

(If

there are

the class-

demon-

to

strate the pronunciation. You

may

also consult with a Spanish

teacher or English as a Second

Language

specialist

available.)

Have students either

one

if

is

translate the Spanish text or read

the English the Spanish

6)

lyrics.

lyrics

Students sing again.

The rhythm changes from 6/8 meter to teristic

Latin

2/4, a

common

of Mexican and

American music.

dents to

charac-

some Invite stu-

show the change

rhythm by moving

in

their bodies.

Begin by swaying during the

A

section and switch to rocking

forward and backward during the B section.

In

preparation for

instrumental parts to be added later to

the B section, tap hands

right, left, right, left, in

time with

the eighth-note pulse.

Differences in

versions

In

the enriched lesson, the teacher presents several photographs of pinatas,and

draws attention to

their particular visual qualities. The role of the pihata

shows the ingenuity and care with which he

crafts pinatas for his local

maker

commu-


nity.

Although a teacher may not wish to share

research and reading. Differences In

the

first

Spanish.

lesson, the

song

is

all

of the history of the pinata with

the lesson more knowledgeably as a result of

may approach

students, he or she

279

in

the treatment of language are also evident.

sung only

the second,

in English; in

The enriched lesson prepares students to play percussion

part of the lesson by drawing attention to the

dents to

move

change

in

it

is

in

sung

in

the next

meter and asking

stu-

accordingly.

Closing the lesson 5)

few contrasting percus-

Play a

7)

tion

—

for

to

Because the character of the A

example, jingles and

bongo drums on the A

Add percussion instruments

the performance of the song.

sion instruments with each sec-

section

section,

is

very

lyrical,

perform

triangles during the B section.

with voices only.

Keep

emphasize the duple meter by

it

simple so that students

can hear

how their

instrument

assigning

In

the B section,

one student to

play

with the song. Rotate the

maracas on the eighth-note pulse

instruments so that students

and another to play claves on the

have a chance to play during

first

both sections.

by singing, moving, and playing

fits

beat of every measure. Finish

instruments.

Differences in

versions

In

the enriched lesson, culturally appropriate instruments are chosen to accom-

pany the song

in a

way that suits the

a satisfying musical

culture of Mexico.

character of the music.The lesson ends with

performance that closes

To provide

a

this introduction to

more comprehensive view than

the music and just

one

day's

experience can provide, a second experience, which builds on information and ideas presented

in

the

first,

has been planned.

In

the second lesson, students

begin the process of creating a pinata with the guidance of the

art teacher,

who

helps students focus on design elements.

Continuing the lesson

8)

Let's listen to

a recording of a

takes place during the

ments,

and enjoying

main

fiesta,

Mexican

city

of Oaxaca. This

fiesta

singing, playing musical instru-

the sights. Read this selection or have a student read

The Christmas season with a

festival in the

day with many people

is

culminating

plaza. Brass

celebrated in

a

bands from nearby

depicting holiday themes

in

in

Oaxaca (wah-HA-kah)

parade on Christmas Eve villages

march with

in

the

floats

the boisterous parade; merry-

it:


380

Enhancing the Understanding of Context: in Mexican Festivals

The Significance of Pinatas At Christmastime

descent

silver,

in

Mexico, pinatas of

all

colors (lime green, hot pink,

and wild combinations of colors) and shapes

airplanes, donkeys, parrots, etc.)

under trees, and

in

hang

the marketplace, from lampposts,

in

homes.The whimsical

and

plastic toys, candy, nuts,

fruit.

vessels are

They

filled

with

treats, small

are displayed throughout Las

end

Posadas, a nine-day reenactment of the biblical Christmas story. At the

of the celebration, after days of high anticipation, children are

allowed to break the pinata and eagerly scoop up

The pinata originated

balls

it

was

its

ceiling.This pignatta, filled with sweets, was

during the Renaissance period. The

was adapted

for

When sionaries,

this it

contents.

broken

at

vessel

hung

masquerade

where

traveled to Spain,

dances and masquerades and was called the pinata.

Spain, the container Italian pignatta,

game

finally

called pignatta (Italian for

The pignatta was a pineapple-shaped pottery

"fragile pot").

from the

where

in Italy,

was

called an olla.

but soon became more

iri-

Batman,

(stars,

It

was

at

first

unadorned,

like

it

In

the

colorful.

custom was brought to Mexico by sixteenth-century mis-

was soon accepted by the Aztec

who had

Indians,

a similar tra-

At the end of the

year,

Aztec priests prepared a clay pot decorated

with bright feathers and

filled

with treasures as an offering for their god of

dition.

war. On the anniversary of the god's birth, the pot

was placed on

a pole in

the temple and broken with a club. The treasures spilled out beneath the idol's altar

as a tribute.

As Mexicans gradually converted to Catholicism, pinatas took on a religious Devil,

meaning.

who

Brilliantly

decorated, they

became metaphors

was thought to represent triumph over

evil;

all

1

996;

faithful souls. For

may still hold deep come through faith.

Sources: Elmer, Beall,

May 2,

a representation of the

held and things

Perl,

The blindfolded

child

power of faith to

the resulting shower of treats and candies was the

reward for courageous and

game

evil.

blind faith, using a stick that symbolized virtue.

The smashing of the pinata was

sage that

the

entices unsuspecting souls. Sweets hidden inside the pinata

symbolized temptations that lead people into

child's

new

for

&

Robertson,

1

Mexican Catholics, then, this

religious significance in

its

mes-

993; Holmes, personal communication,

1983; Ross, 1991; Silverthorne, 1992.


281

making spectators cheer and students sing 9)

over 500 brass bands

perform during

in

this festive

Listen to "Christmas in Oaxaca."

you may decide to ing.

limit

the

carols.

.

season (Lewiston, 1991).

Because

first

There are

many of them

the state of Oaxaca, and

this selection

is

five

minutes long,

listening to a small section of the record-

Discuss the variety of sounds such as brass bands and carolers, which

enter and exit as they parade by. 10)

Review the pihata song learned previously with reference to the meaning of this holiday custom. Invite students to design their to the books

on pihata making to review the

examine the design elements of the pinatas

in

own

pinatas.

2

pinatero's process

Return

and to

the photographs.

Closing

the lesson

1

1)

Over the course of several days students work to complete

their pinatas.

Display the finished pinatas and discuss the design elements that students

chose, raising specific questions about color, texture, and shape. You

wish to question students about

how

Mexico influenced the design of their "La Pihata" while playing the

game

may

learning about celebrations

in

pinatas. As a culminating activity, sing

with a pihata the teacher has

made for

the occasion.

Emphasis for the continuation of the lesson

The second day extends the study of culture with the use of captures the ambient sounds of a Christmas parade

techniques

for creating

art teacher. Bringing art

er in the classroom provides students with a

Mexican

Assessment

Enriched Lesson

How easily and do students

and music togeth-

more complete experience of this

culture.

Basic Lesson

~

a recording that

Oaxaca. The process and

the pihata, based on the traditional practices of the

Mexican pinatero, are guided by the

festive celebration in

in

enthusiastically

learn the

song?

~ Can students show changes form and meter

in

in

"La Pihata"

through movement?

~ Are instrumental accompaniments rhythmic?

~ Can students accurately

sing the

song and pronounce the Spanish text?

continues


28?

I

Basic Lesson

Enriched Lesson

~ Can students location of

~ Are instrumental accompani-

identify the

Mexico on

a

map?

ments accurate and

stylistically

appropriate?

- Do students show

care

the

in

design and construction of their piiiatas?

~ Do they incorporate elements of design derived from authentic piiiatas?

~ Do students ask questions and volunteer ideas that reflect growing awareness of the role of holi-

day celebrations

in

other cultures?

Differences in

versions

The assessment questions and

in

the enriched lesson reflect more depth

musical

in

cultural content.


~ Watch dances of Mexico's national Ballet Folclorico

many

folklore

dance troupe

in

the color video

Nacional de Mexico (1990). This hour-long video presents

different regional dances.

Note differences

in

costumes, musical

ensembles, and dance steps.

- There

are

many Mexican

fiestas that celebrate religious, patriotic,

events.One of the most colorful

is

celebrated from October 31 through spirits

of the

and

local

Los Dias de los Muertos [Days of the Dead],

November

dead and combines solemn personal

2.

This fiesta honors the

rituals

with

lively

of "skeletons" and mariachi bands. Marigolds adorn the freshly

parades

washed

gravestones; the orange color of this spicy scented "flower of the dead" has

been associated with death since pre-Columbian times. Bakeries los

sell

muertos, special cakes for the occasion, and children happily

small colored sugar skulls with their

pan de

munch

names written on them.The video Day

of the Dead: A LivingTradition (Llama, 1989), offers an accessible introduction to the celebration that includes music. Recent children's books that docu-

ment the

this colorful

Dead (Ancona,

(Hoyt-Goldsmith,

1

event include Pablo Remembers:The Fiesta of the Day of 1

993),

994),

Day of the Dead: A Mexican American

and Days of the Dead

(Lasky,

1

994).

Celebration

Musi c as an Expression of Culture: Mexico

~ Students may wish to hear sounds of other

283

festivals in

Mexico, such as "Son

Sventa N'ahual San Lorenzo," from Mexico: Fiestas of Chiapas and Oaxaca (Lewiston, 1 991). This

is

a recording of the Fiesta of Guadelupe, held in

December.

~ Other

piiiata

songs may be found

in

Amigo Cantando (Merman,

1

960). For

other Christmas carols, see Las Navidades: Popular Christmas Songs from Latin

CONTROVERSY

IN

America (Delacre, 1 990).

CURRICULUM

Holidays in Public School Some educators

say that children deserve to learn

about and celebrate holidays

in

school.

They

argue that religious and secular symbols such as the cross, Christmas rocks, rabbits, eggs, tural

tree, piiiata,

and so forth

menorah, sham-

are significant cul-

symbols, and that understanding the mean-

tion

images except

feel that holidays offer

opportunities

to focus on different cultures. Music and the other arts naturally play a vital role in

seen

in

these customs, as

the pinata lesson.

Others

feel that

the holiday approach both

and stereotypes cultures. Still others are concerned that celebrating any aspect of holidays trivializes

in

schools can reinforce or promote the views of

one group over another. For example, some Christian groups oppose having their children participate in school holiday celebrations, a posi-

for

instances, parents

Bible,

a

geometric abstractions.

may object to

Mexican pinata party on

a

In

both

reenactment of

religious grounds,

but

for different reasons.

Teachers need to consider their

ings of traditions should be a part of a child's edu-

cation.They

based on their interpretation of the

Based on teachings of the Koran, Muslims avoid

local

school

and community when mediating issues of tolerance and religious freedom in education.The culture

study of a culture practices

and

gion. While

is

inextricably

bound

to the

beliefs of that culture, including reli-

it is

perfectly appropriate for schools to

teach about religions, they

may

not promote any

particular religion or practice. When cultural studies

touch upon religious

teachers

issues,

it

is

vital

that

communicate the broad educational

purposes of those studies to parents.


384

Mexico’s Music:

Many musical

A Mix of Cultures

traditions thrive in

Mexico, reflecting

this culture’s

unique

blending of indigenous, colonial, and contemporary influences. The people

of Mexico are extremely diverse because of overlapping and continu-

From at least 1000 b.c. to the present day, Mexican and Mesoamerican 3 populations have been in a state of continual flux and migration. Sixty percent of the Mexican population is mestizo, that is, having a mixture of Spanish and Indian blood. The mestizo population, however, is not homogeneous: There are more than 50 identifiable Indian groups in Mexico, whose members speak 200 dialects. Each region, city, and village has its own identity and traditions. In fact, these more localized units and language groups tend to confer stronger ous waves of immigration.

collective identity

than

political or nation-state affiliations.

Mestizos

continue to celebrate folk expressions, which draw upon the roots of the

combined

cultures.


The

285

on Mexico’s music began with the arrival of “We came here,” wrote Bernal Diaz Castillo, a soldier-author, “to serve God and also to become rich” (Marrin, 1986, p. 63). The clash between the European colocolonial influence

Spanish fortune hunters led by Hernando Cortez in 1519.

nizers

and the sophisticated Aztec Empire was

bitter.

4

An

Aztec poem

written in the 1520s records the distress of the defeated peoples.

Our walls are keening, Our tears fall down like

rain.

Weep, weep, our

people,

we have

Mexico.

For

lost

5

Marrin, 1986, frontispiece

As the Spanish began to colonize Mexico, their culture dominated. There they re-created a two-tiered class system, similar to the medieval society in Spain and Portugal. Spanish-born people occupied the highest social class, with the lower classes stratified according to racial mix (Constable, 1985). Indigenous religion, music, and culture were discourmonks established the first music schools in the New way of Christianizing indigenous people. The musics started blend as European scales, triadic harmony, and the sounds of new

aged. Spanish

World to

as a

instruments were fused into mestizo music.

do musical instruments. One way of examfrom one culture to another. When the Spanish arrived in Mexico, what kinds of musical practices did they find? Ancient Mexican murals depict musicians with small drums, footed drums, and rattles. Early musicians played a variety of wind instruments such as flutes, whistles, and ocarinas as well as rattles and drums, but no stringed instruments (Diagram Group, 1976).

As people

travel, so, too,

ining cultural influences

is

to trace the path of instruments

—

—

Stringed instruments, primarily the guitar, were originally introduced to

Mexico by the Spanish. Over

time, other guitar-like instruments

evolved to become prominent in Mexican folk music.

ment, the vihuela, vex back. Another

is

the huapanguera,

than a guitar and has eight strings in guitar derivatives

is

such instru-

which

is

slightly

five courses.

The

wider and deeper

largest

of the three

the guitarron, a large, six-stringed bass guitar with a

convex, spined back. transplanted to the

One

smaller than a guitar, and has five strings and a con-

is

The

Iberian violin and diatonic harp 6 were also

New World.

For a brief time in the early 1600s, the Spaniards imported some 150,000 slaves from West Africa to work in the

The

African influence in Mexican music

is

fields (Constable, 1985).

heard in the rhythms and


286

Figure 12.2

Mariachi

Ensemble (Two Trumpets,

Two

Violins, Guitarron,

and

Vihuela)

Performing in

Plaza Garibaldi,

Mexico

City.

Photo by Daniel Sheehy.

buzzing timbres of the wooden marimba, which evolved from the West African xylophone (Olson, Sheehy, &. Perrone, 1987).

Bringing the Music of Mexico into the Classroom

We often have to rely on indirect experiences of reading books or listening to lectures to learn about other cultures and their interactions.

Through

the sounds of music, however,

cultural assimilation. In

Lesson Plan

II,

we can

hear direct evidence of

students will discover the influ-

ence of African musical traditions on Mexican music by comparing the

sound of a marimba from Mexico with the sound of one from Ghana.

Lesson Plan Mexican Marimbas II

Rationale

The

fluid

and dynamic nature of musical

traditions

is

strikingly

apparent

in

the

music of Mexico. As populations migrate, interactions of persons from various cultures cause cultural practices

and

traditions to

One way to trace these processes of acculturation tion of new instruments into a culture parallels groups and musical

be influenced and modified. is

to study

how the introducnew cultural

the infusion of

ideas. In the following lesson, students learn

migration of an African instrument to Mexico and play a children's

about the

game song


from Mexico on Orff xylophones. Because music performance and perception, specialist. The activities in

language

arts,

and

it

287

this lesson features

would most

likely

the processes of

be taught by the music

the lesson also draw upon related content

social studies,

however, suggesting

in

science,

possibilities for collabora-

tion with other teachers or connections to other settings.

Suggested grade

level

Objectives

Fourth through Sixth

Students

will

~ discover how the in

acoustical properties of vibration

and resonance operate

xylophones and marimbas.

~ compare the sound of

Mexican marimba with the sound of a West

a

African xylophone.

~

trace the influences of African music

~

sing a Mexican children's song,"Vfbora

on the music of Mexico. de

la

mar,"

and play the song on

xylophones.

Materials

~ Song: "Vibora de

~ Recordings ers), (1994),

la

mar" (see Example

of Mexican

12.2,

page 293)

marimba music such

as

Marimba Yajalon (perform-

jChiapas! [CD], Kansas City, Mo.: Heart of

Lewiston, D. (recorder), (1991), Mexico: Fiestas of Chiapas

New York: Elektra Nonesuch ~ Recordings

Wood

Project; or

and Oaxaca

[CD],

(originally released 1976)

of xylophone music from Ghana, such as Jay,

(recorder),

S.

New

(1991),

Ghana: Ancient ceremonies, song and dance music [CD],

Elektra

Nonesuch, and Kobom,J.(1992 ), Xylophone music from Ghana [audio

cassette],

Crown

Point, Ind.: White Cliffs

York:

Media

~ World map ~ Pictures of marimbas. Consult

A

celebration of percussion

Diagram Group Paddington

and Lieberman, F. (1 991 ), Planet drum: Francisco: HarperCollins, or

(1976), Musical instruments of the world,

Press, for picture

~ Orff xylophones and felt,

Hart, M.,

and rhythm, San

a

New

York:

sources

marimba,

if

available; various mallets (hard rubber,

yarn-wrapped)

~ Combs and waxed paper

for

each student

Introducing

the lesson

1)

Play a scale

on an Orff xylophone. What is the name of this instrument?Wr\X.e

xylophone on the board.

If

we

divide the

word

in two,

we have

phone. What other words can you think of that have the

letters

xylo

and

p-h-o-n

in


288

them? Responses may include telephone, phonograph, and phonics. What do these words have in

common with a xylophone? They both have something to do

with sound. The xylo part of the word comes from the Greek word meaning wood.

So the xylophone is "wood that makes sound."All sounds are caused by vibration.

What makes a xylophone the

vibrate?

When we strike

the xylophone with a mallet,

wooden bars vibrate. We can change the sound of the xylophone by striking it

with different types of mallets. Have students write

the difference ber mallet, a

2)

in

the sound of a xylophone when

felt mallet,

Today we're going

and

a

yarn-wrapped

Let's

are played by placing pins in the map.

mark your school's

and mark

its

location

mallet.

our Orff xylophones

keep track of places where xylophones

Have

and then

location with a pin. The

describe

played with a hard rub-

to listen to recordings of relatives of

from different parts of the world.

to

down words that it is

a student put a pin

on the map

find the state of Chiapas in

marimba is a

Mexico

type of xylophone that is

very popular in Chiapas. As you listen to this recording of a Mexican marimba, write

down some words

that describe

how its sound is

xylophone. Play "Chiapas" from the recording by

different

from our Orff

Marimba Yajalon

(1994), "El

Chinito"from Mexico: Fiestas of Chiapas and Oaxaca (Lewiston, 1991), or any

other available recording of a Mexican marimba.

What words Students not heard

Figure 12.3

Marimba

Yajalon

did you use to describe the sound of the Mexican

may observe that the Mexican marimbas have in

the Orff xylophones.

marimba?

a buzzing quality


389

Figure 12.4 Central American

Marimba. Photo by

Shawn

Kolles.

3)

Show In

a picture of a

marimba.

what ways does the marimba look the same as the Orffxylophones? In what

ways does it look different? Both instruments have wooden bars that are sus-

pended on

a frame. The bars

on the Mexican marimba

rows, similar to the rows of white and black keys possibly create the buzzing

summarize or have

a

on the

are laid out in

piano.

two

What could

sound in the Mexican marimba? You may wish to

student read "The Marimbas of Mexico and Central

America," below.

Enhancing the Understanding of Context: The Marimbas of Mexico and Central America vibrating wooden keys or bars can be marimba is a special type of xylophone because it resonators made of metal, gourds, wood, or bamboo to ampli-

Any percussion instrument with called a

xylophone;

uses hollow fy

a

the vibration of the bars. Mexican marimbas, with their distinctive sound,

are especially popular in the state of Chiapas, as well as in the states of

Oaxaca, Veracruz, and Tabasco. The instrument play

it,

and the music they play are respected

(1995) explains that "the qualities in

marimba

both conversation and

often refer to the

marimba

is

the musicians

often described as having

in literature,

as las

itself,

who

as cultural treasures. Kaptain

human

and the people of Chiapas

maderas que cantan (the wood that


29°

sings)" (p. 250).

The

residents of nearby

marimba, honoring

The source of the be found

at the

Guatemala are

also

proud of the

as the national instrument.

it

distinctive buzzing

sound

in

Mexican marimbas can

end of the wooden resonating chambers. A piece of wax

at the

bottom of the column supports a

which

is

thin

membrane

of pig intestine,

stretched over a small hole. When the musicians set the bar into

motion by

striking

it

with a mallet, the

air in

the chamber vibrates; so does

the

membrane

at the

like

buzz that

so characteristic of marimbas

is

bottom of the chamber.

This produces the kazoo-

in this

region.

Figure 12.5

Pig Intestines

Used in Mexican

Marimba

Resonators.

Photo by

Shawn

Kolles.

In

Chiapas,

it is

common

for several musicians to

marimba, standing side by side as each person plays the instrument. Chromatic marimbas (with

perform on the same in a certain register

two rows

black and white keys of the piano) can include as

of pitches

like

of

the

many as six octaves. them rapidly for a

Performers play with three or four mallets, alternating

smooth, sustained sound.

Sources:

4)

You

Chenoweth, 1961/1 984; Kaptain, 1992, 1995; O'Brien, 1982

may

you go

be trying

to

imagine what pig

to the grocery, take

intestine

a look at the

membranes

look

thin film that covers

like.

a

When

chorizo,

bratwurst, or Italian sausage. That's the kind of material that makes the buzzing


sound

in

Mexican marimbas.

Let's

291

how those membranes comb and rectangle of

experiment to see

couid create that buzzing sound. Provide a plastic

waxed paper approximately the sible,

or at least

one

for

size of

the

experiment with producing a sound by with

the

waxed

waxed

comb

for

every student,

if

pos-

demonstration. Allow the student a chance to

humming

into the

paper. Not only will they hear the buzzing

paper, but they will feel the vibration

on

comb covered

sound produced by

their

lips.


5)

The marimba

is

not originally from Mexico. For almost 300 years, the Spanish

who settled Mexico and Central America imported slaves to work in the fields, just as plantation owners in the United States did. Many of these slaves came from the west coast of Africa. Locate the west coast of Africa and the modern country of

wrap

Ghana on

a piece of yarn

Chiapas to brought

a

map. Ask

around the pin

show the

a student to in

distance and direction

their culture, their

language,

mark

it

with a pin.Then

Ghana and connect

and

their

it

to the pin

between them. The

music with them.

It is

in

slaves

thought

that the basic concept for a marimba-like instrument (and ideas for its design)

was carried by slaves 6)

to

Mexico from

Africa.

Listen to this

music from Ghana. Does the sound of the xylophone from Ghana

sound more

like

"Dzil

the Mexican

marimba

or

more

like

our Orff xylophones? Play

Duet" from Ghana: Ancient Ceremonies, Song and Dance Music

1991) or any recording from the nize that both the African

Kobom

(1992) tape. Students

and Mexican instruments have

ty that the Orff instruments

do

Marimbas of West and Central

not.

Summarize or have

Africa,"

may

(Jay,

recog-

a buzzing quali-

a student read "The

below.

Enhancing the Understanding of Context: The Marimbas of West and Central Africa The first reference to xylophone-type instruments oral

in Africa

can be traced to

and written records from the thirteenth- and fourteenth-century king-

dom

who study the origins of musical instruments name marimba to the Bantu of Malawi and Mozambique, who call a single bar sticking out a rimba and many bars a marimba. An African xylophone of particular interest is the dzil (or gyil) of Ghana, which may include bars of mahogany or other wood that sit on a frame. Underneath each bar, gourds are used as resonating chambers. A hole is drilled in each of Mali. Scholars

attribute the

gourd and nest).These

is

covered with a spider's egg case (with a texture

egg cases buzz when the bar is

struck, in

pig intestines vibrate in the Mexican marimba.

the

like

a wasp's

same way that the

Figure 12.6

Xylophonefrom

Ghana

Figure 12.7 Resonating

Gourds with Spider's

Egg

Cases

The

dzil

can be played as a solo instrument or by two players

The performers

sit

plays the melody, terns.

for

and the other provides

Wiggins and

considered to be

facing each other, holding thick beaters;

Kobom

repetitive

(1992) describe

spiritually

how

at once.

one

player

accompaniment

pat-

playing the xylophone

is

dangerous, an undertaking only appropriate

men, according to the regional Dagaare myths and legends.


293

Three important clues seem to suggest the African marimba as the

Mexican marimba:

direct ancestor of the

(a)

common name

the

of the

instrument, (b) the lack of any archaeological evidence for xylophone-type

instruments

in

pre-Columbian Central America before the Spanish began

importing Africans to work as

slaves,

and

(c)

the buzz produced by a

mem-

brane over the resonators.

Sources: Anderson, Blades,

Kubik, Blades,

&

Roberts,

1

List,

&

O'Brien, 1984; Jay, 1991; Kaptain, 1995;

984; O'Brien,

1

982; Wiggins

& Kobom, 992 1

Closing

the lesson

7)

Teach "Vibora de that in

is

mar, "a traditional

la

played by children

in

game song

similar to

"London Bridge"

7

Mexico. To highlight the eighth-note triplets

the song and to promote their smooth, even performance, have stu-

dents

lightly

rebound

pat the beat

for beats

beats with

on

their thighs as

they sing, using a small

vertical

with quarter or eighth notes and a circular rebound for

triplets.

Example 12.2 Notation for

A

RRLRRLRLR

vf

la

RL

"Vibora de la

mar”

-

bo

-

ra,

vi

-

bo

LLRR LRL

por

a

-

qui

pue

-

den

pa

-

sar

-

ra

de

la

RLR

de

mar,

mar,

la

RLRL RLR u

-

na

ni

-

na

6 cual

se

-

RLRR LLRR LRL

ra?


?94

A

la

vibora, vibora,

de

la

Serpent, serpent from the sea

mar,

por aqui pueden pasar una

One

niiia,

iLa La

de adelante o

8)

la

de

atras?

de adelante corre mucho de

atras se

Students

girl

one

icual sera?

la

can pass your way. Which

will

One

in

One

runs,

it

be?

front or

one

one

in

back?

stays.

quedara

may want to try

melody of "Vibora de

playing the

la

mar" on Orff

xylophones, following the sticking patterns as suggested.

Assessment

~ Can students

xylophones and marimbas

identify the source of vibration in

and explain the purpose of resonators

Mexican marimbas and xylo-

in

phones from Ghana?

~ Can students

between the Mexican marim-

identify the similarity of timbre

ba and the West African xylophone music?

~ Can students

sing

and play "Vibora de

la

mar" accurately?


~ Students may wish to play the game form an arch

(as in

"London

arms of the head couple. On the ple lower their

for "Vibora

de

Bridge"). Children pass

arms to catch the

la

mar." Two children

under the upraised

cadence of the song, the head cou-

final

child

who

is

passing through.

~ West African percussion ensemble music has been transcribed sources. Wiggins

and Kobom (1992) include

several

in

transcriptions of Ghanaian

xylophone pieces that may be accessible to students, such as "Simple Kpanlogo" or "Simple Tomeyielu" (play Kobom's [1992] recording dents to introduce the rhythmic

feel

—

based on various drums

gankogui and axatse

the ensembles found

All

in

rather than xylophones,

Hands On! An Introduction

Percussion Ensembles (Jessup, 1996)

for stu-

of the pieces). Although they are

may

also

to

West African

be used to extend the study

of cultural music and percussion instruments.

~ Contrast the music from the Chiapas region with other regional musics.

In

the Mexican state of Veracruz, a distinctive ensemble called a conjuntojaro-

cho features vocals and harp, a small melody guitar guitars (jarana).

An example

of this style

(requinto),

may be found on

and rhythm

the recording

Music of Veracruz: The Sones Jarochos of Los Pregoneros del Puerto (Los Pregoneros del Puerto, 1 990). See Olson et

al. (1

987) for lesson plans using

jarocho music of Veracruz and other Latin American musical forms.


295

Spanish and African musical traditions were not the only influences on the evolving music of Mexico. In the 1900s,

German immigrants brought

the button accordion to the music of the northern borderlands, along

and schottische. Thus, the new style Tex-Mex, was forged of old and new along the Rio Grande between 1928 and 1960 (Pena, 1985). Contemporary Mexican music covers an impressive range of styles and traditions, including classical, folk, jazz, and popular. In these musics, listeners can hear the influences of other Latin American countries and the United States. Big band sounds and the 1940s swing style from the United States were taken up by Mexican dance bands. Mexican listeners enjoy pan-Latin styles such as salsa, the Cuban bolero and danzon, and Colombia’s cumbia (Farquharson, 1994; Manuel, 1988). Other forms and

with dances such

as the polka, waltz,

called norteno conjunto, ,

styles,

and

later

such as the balada, bomba, bossa nova, habanera lambada, merengue, ,

rumba, samba,

and waltz

tropical, tropicalismo,

Mexico, as

are popular in

they are throughout the American continents.

Lesson Plan

transformation of a traditional Veracruz

III charts the

song to a 1950s rock-and-roll hit so

resilient that it resurfaced in the

1980s. In the lesson, students identify the ways a traditional version differs

from

By

a popular version.

noting which elements of the music

how music

remain stable and which change, students analyze

and transmits culture while

it

also adapts to

and geographical context. They

are also

encouraged to form

ions about the effects of the changes. This lesson

is

Lesson Plan

Rationale

critical

social,

opin-

appropriate for a

Spanish, geography, general music, or music performance

Travels of "La

preserves

changes in economic,

class.

III

Bamba"from Veracruz to Los Angeles Several years

ago

I

heard a fascinating talk that followed the Mexican folk song

"La

Bamba" through multiple permutations (Solomon,

this

song moved from

a traditional

tune rooted

in a

1989). During

region

in

its

mercial product with global distribution, simultaneously transforming

scending connections with a geographic location. was I

song. Was the song interpreted by

itself

many

enduring? Or did

singers? At

music

travels

tran-

become enduring through being "La Bamba" become a product

"La

Bamba"? These questions and others

who are often keenly aware of ever-changwho may be unaware of the ways in which

school students

ing commercial "youth music," but

for

and

wondering about the

what point did

and not part of a process? Who "owned"

may engage middle

it

left

journey,

Mexico to a com-

from place to place and the ways

themselves through music.

in

which people make meaning


296

Example 12.3 “La Bamba"

*

Suggested accompaniment:

J

J. Bt

JiU C


La

Bamba

Para bailar

la

Bamba,

In

order to dance the Bamba,

Para bailar

la

Bamba,

In

order to dance the Bamba,

Se necesita una poca de gracia,

Una poca de

Y arriba y Y arriba y

gracia para mi, para

A

ti,

little

bit

arriba

For you

Por

ti

sere!

Por

ti

sere! Por

ti

For

sere!

1

1

Soy capitan,

1

Soy capitan, soy capitan.

1

you

am am am am

1

1

grace,

will be!

will be, for

not a

sailor,

not a

sailor,

you

1

will be!

a captain, a captain,

1

am

a captain.

Bamba, Bamba,

Bamba, Bamba,

Bamba, Bamba,

Bamba, Bamba,

Bamba, Bamba, Bamba!

Bamba, Bamba, Bamba!

Seventh through Twelfth Students

will

~ explore traditional and contemporary music, ensembles, and and the United ~ sing

States by

a traditional

~ explain why

~ describe

comparing

a musical

differences

Many versions lect

Bamba."

Spanish.

example sounds"traditional"or"popular."

between two performances of the same song and aesthetic value.

two

categories: the

more traditional Veracruz

style of perfor-

popularized versions.

~ Recordings (1

in

of "La Bamba"are available. For this lesson, the teacher should col-

recordings from

mance and

styles of Mexico

different versions of "La

Mexican/Mexican American song

make judgments about their Materials

little

of grace for me, for you,

And upward and upward And upward and upward

arriba

Yo no soy marinero,

Objectives

necessary to have a

It is

Yo no soy marinero,

Suggested Grade Level

297

in

the Veracruz

style:

Los Pregoneros del Puerto (performers),

990), Music ofVeracruz:The sones jarochos of Los Pregoneros del Puerto [CD],

Cambridge, Mass.: Rounder Records; Conjunto Alma Jarocha (performers), (1994), Sones jarochos [CD],

recording 1979); Llerenas,

El

E.

Cerrito, Calif.: Arhoolie

Productions (original

(producer), (1996), La iguana: Sones jarochos

from Veracruz, Mexico [CD], Cambridge, Mass.: Rounder Records.


298

~ Recordings

in

the popular

motion picture soundtrack

Los Lobos, (1987), La Bamba: Original

style:

[LP],

Los Angeles: Slash/Warner Brothers; Valens,

958), The best of Ritchie Valens [LP], Los Angeles: Del-Fi; Los

R. (1

dream

Papa's

~ Valdez,

[CD],

(producer),

L.

RCA/Columbia ~ Music

Redway, Calif.: Music

for "La

Pictures

La

(1987),

for Little

People

Bamba

[video],

Lobos

(1

Burbank,

995),

Calif.:

Home Video

Bamba" (see Example

12.3)

Introducing

the lesson

1 )

Sometimes a song

travels

from place

to place

and changes as

it is

sung by new

and tell me ifyou recognize this song.

people. Listen to this recording

Play

one of

the Veracruz recordings of "La Bamba." This is a well-known song originally from the state of Veracruz in Mexico.

Have students

locate Veracruz

on the map.


2)

Set

up

"La

Bamba, "including representative examples from the Veracruz style and

a listening lesson in

which students

will listen

to several versions of

popular versions.On the board, construct a chart similar to the one 12.1. Play a

recording from each

asking students to

style,

with descriptions of the musical elements used

"La Bamba"Version

in

fill

in

in

Table

the chart

each.

"La Bamba"Version 2

Instruments

Rhythmic character

Melodic character

Tone color

3)

If

additional recordings from either style are available, extend the chart by

adding more columns, labeled "Version

3, ""Version 4,"

and so on.

After

lis-

tening to the recordings, students can decide which examples more closely

resemble version

1

or version

information from the chart

in

2.

Supplement student responses with

Table 12.2 and label the

two

styles as

"Veracruz" and "Popular." 4)

Have you ever thought a current hit was

original only to find

remake of a previous recording ? Musicians often tunes, giving

them a musical

example, a current cover of a

and

electronic

1

spin to appeal to

out that it was a

"cover" previously recorded

contemporary

listeners.

For

960s song would most likely include synthesized

sounds that weren't available

in

the

sixties.

"La

Bamba," as


299

Table 12.2 Acoustic instruments:

Acoustic and electrified

guitars of various sizes

instruments including

Instruments

jorana, requinto

harps

Rhythmic

Fast,

in

1

drum

set,

and bass

Tempo

consistent rhythm

Accents on beats

character

guitar,

many examples

varies with version

Accents on beats 2 and 4

and 3

Wider range that uses

Melodic

Narrow range

character

register of singer's voice

singer's lower register

and

Deeper, resonant vocal

Tone color

Bright

vocal

higher

in

brittle

sound

sound Song-like style

"Conversational" style

recorded by Ritchie cover,

video

but

a rock-and-roll star of the

Valeris,

in this case, traditional

clip

of La

Bamba

or

"folk" music

which Valens wows

in

1950s,

was the

is

an example of a

original source.

a critical

New

Show

York crowd

with his gold lame outfit and electric guitar. 5)

We've heard several versions of "La

Bamba" today. Which of the versions do you

think is the original one? (Have the class vote

not be possible to

identify

an

and

tally

the responses.)

It

original version of a tune, but the versions

may from

Veracruz sound "original" to us because they reflect the traditional practices of the culture.

What

is

"traditional"

musicians borrow tunes and

music

to transform the

history of a tune by

8

music ? What

texts,

is

"popular" music? As other

and elements of the

they change aspects

work and make

"new."

it

We can sometimes

trace the

examining various versions and the changes. Summarize

the travels of this song, using a

map of Mexico to point out Veracruz and its how the song spread

proximity to Los Angeles. Invite students to speculate

to other places. For example, the version of "La Bamba"provided 12.3

was contributed by

What

are

some

Carla

Moreno,

a university student

in

Example

from Texas.

of the ways that she could have learned the song?

Distribute or display notation

words, asking students

who

ation.Then sing the song.

and

text for"La Bamba." Practice the Spanish

have studied Spanish

Enlist

students

who

for help with

pronunci-

play the guitar to

accompa-

ny the singing, using strumming patterns heard on the recordings.

Closing

the lesson

Challenge the students to find examples of songs recorded

sometimes

referred to as "covers."

Some examples

recorded by the Rednex and by traditional Big

Mama Thornton

and

later

by

fiddlers; "Hound

Elvis Presley;

in several versions,

include "Cotton-Eyed Joe," as

Dog" as recorded by

and the second movement of the


3oo

Pathetique Sonata by Beethoven as transformed into "This Night" by students to write a paper that includes

more recent

(a)

Billy Joel.

the changes

a description of

in

Ask the

versions or that reflect the different backgrounds of the musicians

who performed them, (b) judgments about whether the cover is an improvement or corruption of the earlier version, and

Assessment

(c)

reasons to support those judgments.

~ Can students recognize the use of musical elements ular versions of "La

~ Can students define the ~ Do students give

in

Veracruz and pop-

Bamba"?

full

differences

between

and popular music?

traditional

and accurate descriptions of the musical differences

between two performances of the same music and do they

justify their

judgments about the aesthetic value of the two versions?


~

"La

Bamba" is often arranged

mental music educator

may

for

performance by school bands.The

ask students to

with versions of "La Bamba" from Veracruz to see fers

from

how the arrangement dif-

traditional performances.

~ Extend the discussion of how music Fronteras

instru-

compare the arrangement

976).This

(1

ditions are passed

is

transmitted by viewing Chulas

documentary of norteiio styles focuses on the way tra-

from generation to generation. One

particularly effective

sequence begins with Flaco Jimenez playing accordion

in a club,

with Jimenez's son teasing out a melody on the accordion, and

by a cut of Flaco accompanying

~ Have students make

a

his father, also a

renowned

continues

is

followed

player.

taped collage of popular Mexican American music,

noting the diversity of styles and traditions.

~ Raise

issues of

Bamba."

If

ownership and copyright of music by

a version of "La

recordings,

who does

song? Does

it

the

Bamba" makes

money belong

citing the case of "La

money through sales of Did Ritchie Valens own this

a lot of

to?

belong to the people of Veracruz? Can students describe

other instances where ownership

is

unclear?


3oi

Exploring Other Styles of Mexican Music diversity of musical styles within Mexico is echoed within Mexican American communities in the United States. Steven Loza comments on the many Mexican and Chicano musical genres:

The

In Mexico alone, there is a wide diversity of regional cultures. There are many regions: Chiapas, Chihuahua, Jalisco, Oaxaca, Veracruz, for example. Music in Mexico includes the

popular banda music, but also mariachi music, tropical music, norteno music, ranchera music (especially class), salsa

these are

United

The

among

the working

music, jarocho music, and huapango music. All of

Mexican music, and

all

States. (Loza, as cited in

rich heritage

of

it

can be found in the

Campbell, 1995, pp. 52-53)

of Mexican folk music

exists alongside

more mod-

ern musical developments. Popular music industries in Mexico and the

United States target communities throughout the Americas. Like folk

much popular music is based on imported style features combine with indigenous musics. Enduring Spanish influences in contemporary musics may be heard in such details as harmonies in thirds, triple meter, dance forms, and timbres. As illustrated in Lesson Plan II, music of Mexico, that

the buzzing timbres produced by gourd resonators in the

marimba

back to African influences from

and eighteenth

slaves in the seventeenth

trace

centuries.

Some of the

traditional

and popular music of Mexico

is

described in

Table 12.3.

Banda [BAHN-dah]

Village

bands that play brass instruments and drums.

Bandas play

a variety of

norteno

Table 12.3

dance music such as polkas and

waltzes as well as songs such as rancheras and corridos

in

style.

Literally "song," especially a

[cahn-see-OHN]

mental, slow song, not associated with dance. A cancidn is

through-composed, senti-

a love song.

Conjunto

Accordion, guitar, and vocal music of northern Mexico;

[cohn-HUHN-to]

another term for norteno or Tex-Mex.

Corrido

Mexican ballads of true events, often about the revolu-

[coh-REE-do]

tion, villains,

and heroes. Corridos that chronicle current

events are often heard over the airwaves.

Danzon [dahn-ZOHN]

Mexican American Music

Cancion

romantica

Mexican and

Popular Mexican dance derived from European dances and a Cuban salon dance popular from the late nine-

teenth to early twentieth century. continues


3o2

Table 12.3

Huapango

Instrumental dance music and a generic term for music

Mexican and

[wah-PAHN-go]

from central and eastern Mexico. Huapango music

Mexican

played on

American Music,

sometimes percussion.

continued

violin,

Jarocho

Traditional

[hah-ROH-cho]

features requinto (small guitar-like

Mariachi

Mexican band associated with west Mexico and

[mah-ree-AH-chee]

derived from mestizo music of the

ensemble

urban areas

is

small guitar ( jarana ), rhythm guitar,

in

for parties,

and

Veracruz (eastern Mexico) that lute), jarana,

and

harp.

Jalisco,

800s; popular in

1

weddings, and dining. Mariachi

bands play trumpets, violins, rhythm guitars ( vihuelas), other guitars, and bass guitar (guitarrdn). They perform

dance music such as

son, polka,

and

waltz,

and songs

such as rancheras, boleros, corridos,huapangos, and other popular musics.

Mestizo

new music formed

"Mixed" music, a term for a

[mes-TEE-zo]

1

in

about

775 from a combination of Indian, European, and African

musics. Mestizo music or

two

violins,

was

some form

music evolved from

often performed

on

harp,

this style.

Norteno

Accordion, guitar, and vocal music from the north of

[nor-TAY-nyo]

Mexico, also

known

one

of guitar, and voices. Mariachi

as conjunto

incarnation. Corrido ballads

and

may be

as Tex-Mex in

included

its

U.S.

in this style.

Ranchera

Mexican urban song, often nostalgic

[rahn-CHAY-rah]

quently melodramatic and sentimental. Refrains often

Son

Generic term for various Mexican

[SOHN]

are several regional variants such as son jarocho, huasteco,

include

for rural lifestyles, fre-

"ay, ay, ay, ay."

jaliscience,

styles,

of which there

and abajeho. Instrumental genres, such as son

marimba, are also included.

Tex-Mex

Accordion-led music originally from northern Mexico

where it is known as norteno or conjunto.The term "TexMex" is used by or for cultural outsiders almost exclusively. Sources: Apel,

1

977; Behague,

1

986; Broughton, Ellingham,

Muddyman, and Trillo,

1

994;

Campbell, 1 995; Harpole and Fagelquist, 1 989; Manuel, 1 988, 1 955; Myers, 1 993; Sheehy (personal communication, June, 1996).

Embedded

and transmission of musical practices are the which encompasses melody, rhythm, harmony, tone color, and form, and the social studies themes (National Council for the Social Studies, 1994) of (a) culture; (b) time, continuity, and change; (c) people, places and environments; (d) individual development and in the history

musical element of

style,

identity; (e) power, authority,

The

following are

culture,

some

and governance; and

(f)

global connections.

ideas for integrating the study of music, history,

and Spanish language.


Ranchera or ranchera romantica lands between es

and

singer.

love,

is

a popular

song form from the border-

Mexico and Texas. These songs

are

slow ballads with vers-

a refrain that are usually rendered in a heartfelt

manner by

Rancheras are often nostalgic for an idealized rural

and

are expressive

a popular vocalist

volver” ([I will]

who

3o3

life,

a

male

or a lost

of passion and machismo. Guadalupe Betancourt,

performs on both sides of the border, sings “Volver,

Come back, come back) on

TheJVC/Smithsonian/Folkways

and Dance of the Americas, Volume South America II (McArthur 8c Yoshida, 1995). Video Anthology ofMusic

6,

Central and

Corridos are narrative ballads that record historical events or

comment

on current issues through Mexican eyes. One prolific body of corridos from the Texas-Mexican border region relates tales of migration and the hardships of migrant workers. Other popular corridos include songs about the Mexican revolution, historical heroes such as Gregorio Cortez,

and contemporary figures such as John F. Kennedy. These songs may be sung by one person, but are more typically sung by at least two singers

who harmonize

in thirds,

accompanied by

guitars.

~ Historic recordings and documentation of corridos from 1928 to

1937 may be sampled on the newly issued Tragedias de la Fronteras (Strachwitz, 1994).

the dust-bowl ballads of

American

Woody

CD

Corridos

Compare

and

these with

Guthrie and other traditional

ballads.

meticulous Northward

~ Maria Herrera-Sobek’s

explores immigrant corridos.

Bound (1993)

Supplement these songs of longing

for

homeland with other voices of immigrants. Varied experiences of Mexican Americans may be explored in Santoli’s (1988) New Americans, an Oral History: Immigrants and Refugees in the U.S. Today, a collection of interviews and profiles of recent immigrants from Afghanistan, Poland, Ethiopia, Laos, and other countries. The the

experiences of those

who

straddle the borderlands of the Southwest

are eloquently portrayed in Martinez’s (1994) Border People: Life

and

and Davis’s (1990) Mexican Oral History of Mexican Immigration to

Society in the U.S. -Mexico Borderlands Voices,

American Dreams: An

the United States.

~ Encourage students to create corridos that have tions,

modeled on

historical

and modern

political implica-

corridos.

Canciones or canciones romanticas are love songs favored by

and Mexican American

singers.

Mexican


3c>4

~ Change and

stability in this

paring older and

song form can be

new versions. View a video

the “Nightingale of the Border”

who

Mendoza with modern

clip

illustrated

by com-

of Lydia Mendoza,

recorded from the 1930s on.

Mendoza sings “Tango Negro” on two videos: The JVC/Smithsonian/Folkways Video Anthology ofMusic and Dance ofthe Americas, Volume 6, Central and South America II (McArthur 8c Yoshida, 1995) and Tex-Mex: The Music of the Texas-Mexican Borderlands (Marre, 1980). Contrast

singers.

~ Recent recordings of popular singers that offer distinct contrasts include Tish Hinojosa (1995) singing “Solo Tus Ojos” (Only Your

Eyes) with Peter

Rowan on

performing “Mi Ranchito” ers

on Mas

Frontejas and Linda Ronstadt (1991)

(My

Little

Ranch) with her two broth-

canciones.

Tex-Mex, or conjunto music ensembles consist of accordion and the contrabass, which in the 1950s was replaced with electric bass. At that time, the dance band drum set was added. The big band sounds of Glenn Miller and Tommy Dorsey were echoed in the Mexican American orquestas. Two films that document norteho music are Chulas Fronteras (1976) and the more controversial TexMex: Music of the Texas-Mexican Borderlands (Marre, 1980). The second film, from the “Beats of the Heart” video series, films music in the contexts of commercial and private venues. Shots of scavengers in a junkyard, confrontations between police and border crossers, and other scenes of real life are woven throughout. Mariachi bands, associated with the state of Jalisco and west Mexico and now popular in many Mexican and Mexican American communities, play for weddings, fiestas, and other joyful occasions. See Campbell (1995) and Harpole 8c Fogelquist (1989) for lesson plans using guitar and voices to augment listening lessons based on mariachi music. Norteho,

and banjo

sexto (12-string guitar)

Extending the Study of Mexico Across the Curriculum Music and the arts open unique windows on the ways different people know and express their understanding of the world. As Charles Fowler (1994) writes:

In America, our sense of community depends on our establishing linkages across our

Music

many ethnic and

racial differences.

one of the splendid connectors between different peoples and cultures. It is a way for America to speak to itself in all its different guises. It is a way for Americans to attain a is

feeling of unity

and cohesiveness

—of

oneness,

(p.

527)


305

In addition to the music-focused curriculum ideas presented in this chapter,

you may wish

to explore

how

other art forms can illuminate the

study of Mexico.

~ Students

may wish to read poems

Hispanic and Mexican American

to

augment

lives.

their understanding

of

Recent Hispanic poetry may

be sampled in Cool Salsa: Bilingual Poems on Growing up Latino in the United States (Carlson, 1994) and Unsettling America: An Anthology of

Contemporary Multicultural Poetry (Gillan 8c Gillan, 1995). Here

is

My Kingdom: Hispanic-American Literature and Arts for Young People (Sullivan, 1994)

is

a beautiful

book with artwork and poems.

~ Photo documentaries offer a valuable perspective. Material World:

A

Global Family Portrait (Menzel, 1994) offers a remarkable geography lesson about material culture. Photographers visited

ing for a week with a family that

Each side

visit

is

was commemorated by

of their

home with

all

statistically

30

countries, liv-

average for that nation.

a portrait of the family

posed out-

of their possessions. Details of a family

from Guadalajara, Mexico, capture a mother and four children

in

spodess white dresses and shirts going to church, kids on the bus,

window shopping, and working on ly are

the job. Pictures of a Texas fami-

of a similar nature but reveal striking differences in

lifestyle.

References Ancona, G. (1993). Pablo remembers: Thefiesta ofthe Day ofthe Dead. York: Lothrop, Lee 8c Shepard. Ancona, G. (1994). The pifiata maker. San Diego, Anderson, L. A., Blades, J., In

S.

(pp.

Sadie

(ed.),

List, G.,

Calif.:

New

Harcourt Brace.

8c O’Brien, L. L. (1984). Xylophone.

The new Grove dictionary of musical instruments

869-879). London: Macmillan.

Apel, W. (1977). Harvard dictionary of music. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap. Ballet Folclorico Nacional de Mexico. (1990) [video].

Banks, J. A. (1991). Teaching

New York:

strategies for ethnic studies.

Gessler.

Boston: Allyn 8c

Bacon.

Behague, G. (1986). Hispanic-American music. In H. S.

2,

W.

Hitchcock 8c

The new Grove dictionary ofAmerican music pp. 501-508). London: Macmillan. Sadie

(eds.),

(vol.


3o6

Broughton,

S.,

Ellingham, M.,

Muddyman,

(1994). World musk: The rough guide.

Campbell,

P. S.

(1995). Steven

Journal 82 Carlson, L.

M.

(2):

(ed.).

D., 8c Trillo, R. (eds.).

London: Penguin.

Loza on Latino music. Music Educators

45-52. (1994). Cool salsa: Bilingual poems on growing up

Latino in the United States.

New York: Henry Holt.

8c Gossen, G. H. (1996). The legacy of Mesoamerica: History and culture ofa Native American civilization.

Carmack, R. M., Gasco,

Upper Saddle

J.,

River, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.

Chenoweth, V. (1984). The

differences

among xylophone-marimba(p. 186). Evanston, 111.: The

vibraphone. In Percussion Anthology Instrumentalist

Chrisp,

P.

Company.

(Article originally published 1961.)

(1993). The Spanish conquests in the

new

New

world.

York:

Thomson. Chulasfronteras (1976) [video]. El Cerrito, Calif.: Brazos Films.

Conjunto Alma Jarocha (performers). (1994). Sones jarochos [CD]. El Cerrito, Calif.: Arhoolie Productions. (Original recording 1979.)

Constable, G. Davis,

M.

(ed.).

Amsterdam: Time-Life.

(1985). Mexico.

(1990). Mexican voices, American dreams:

Mexican immigration

to the

United States.

An

oral history of

New York: Henry Holt.

Delacre, L. (1990). Las Navidades: Popular Christmas songs from Latin

America.

Diagram Group.

New York:

Scholastic.

New

(1976). Musical instruments of the world.

Paddington

York:

Press.

Elmer, M., Beall, C., 8c Robertson,

S.

(1993). Festivals of light. Seattle,

Wash.: The Children’s Museum. Ets,

M.

H., 8c Labastida, A. (1979). Nine days to Christmas.

New York:

Viking.

Farquharson,

M.

(1994).

than mariachi. In 8c R. Trillo

Over the S.

(eds.),

border:

Broughton,

Mexico

M.

is

a

whole

Ellingham, D.

lot

more

Muddyman,

World music: The rough guide. London:

Penguin. Fowler, C. (1994). Music! Its

Glencoe.

role

and importance

in our lives.

New York:


Gillan,

M., 6c Gillan, J.

An anthology of

(eds.). (1995). Unsettling America:

contemporary multicultural poetry.

New York:

307

Penguin.

Grant, C. A., 6c Sleeter, C. (1989). Turning on learning: Five approaches for multicultural teaching plans for race

Columbus, Ohio: Harpole,

M.

6c Fogelquist,

P.,

and rhythm. San

M.

Herrera- Sobek,

class,

gender and

(1989). Los mariachis!

mariachi music. Danbury, Conn.:

Hart, M., 6cLieberman,

,

disability.

Merrill.

An

World Music

introduction to

Press.

R (1991). Planet drum: A celebration ofpercussion Francisco: HarperCollins.

(1993).

experience in ballad

Northward bound: The Mexican immigrant and song. Bloomington: Indiana University

Press.

Hinojosa, T.

[CD]. Cambridge, Mass.: Rounder

(1995). Frontejas

Records.

Hoyt-Goldsmith, D. (1994). Day of the Dead: A Mexican American bration. New York: Holiday House. Jay, S. (1991).

cele-

Liner notes to Ghana: Ancient ceremonies, song and dance music

[CD].

New York:

Elektra Nonesuch. (Originally released 1979.)

Jessup, L. (1996). All hands on! An introduction to West African percussion ensembles.

Danbury, Conn.: World Music.

Kaptain, L. D. (1992). The Mexico. Everett, Pa.:

Kaptain, L. D. (1995). The

Beck

(ed.),

wood

that sings:

The marimba

in Chiapas,

HoneyRock.

marimba

in

Mexico and

related areas. In J.

Encyclopedia ofpercussion (pp. 239-256).

New

H.

York:

Garland.

Kobom,

J.

(1992). Xylophone music from

Point, Ind.:

White

Cliffs

Ghana

[audiocassette].

Crown

Media.

J., 6c Roberts, R. (1984). Marimba. In S. Sadie (ed.), The new Grove dictionary of musical instruments (pp. 614-617). London: Macmillan.

Kubik, G., Blades,

Lasky, K. (1994). Days of the Dead.

New York:

Hyperion.

Lewiston, D. (recorder). (1991). Mexico: Fiestas of Chiapas and Oaxaca [CD]. New York: Elektra Nonesuch. (Originally released 1976.)

Llama,

M.

A. (producer). (1989). Day of the Dead:

[video].

New York:

Gessler.

A

living tradition

y


3o8

Llerenas, E. (producer). (1996).

La

iguana: Sones jarochos from Veracruz,

Mexico [CD]. Cambridge, Mass.: Rounder Records.

Los Lobos. (1987). La Bamba: Original motion Los Angeles: Slash/Warner Brothers. Los Lobos 6c Guerrero, L. (1995). Music for Little People. Los Pregoneros

picture soundtrack [LP].

Papa’s dream

[CD]. Redway,

Calif.:

del Puerto (performers). (1990). Music of Veracruz: The

sones jarochos

of Los Pregoneros del Puerto [CD]. Cambridge,

Mass.: Rounder Records.

Manuel,

P.

(1988). Popular music of the non-Western world: An introducto-

ry survey.

Manuel,

P.

New York:

Temple University

gae. Philadelphia:

Marimba

J.

Press. to reg-

Press.

Yajalon (performers). (1994). jChiapas! [CD], Kansas City,

Mo.: Heart of Wood Marre,

Oxford University

(1995). Caribbean currents: Caribbean musicfrom rumba

Project.

(producer). (1980). Tex-Mex: The music of the Texas-Mexican

borderlands [video].

Newton,

N.J.:

Harcourt Films.

Marrin, A. (1986). Aztecs and Spaniards: Cortes and the conquest ofMexico.

New York: Atheneum. Martinez, L. A., 6c Llama,

M. A.

(producers). (1991). Pinatas, posadas

New York:

pastorelas [video].

Gessler.

Martinez, O. (1994). Border people: Life and society in the U.S.-Mexico borderlands.

McArthur,

S.,

Tucson: University of Arizona Press.

6c Yoshida, H. (producers). (1995).

The JVC/Smith-

sonian/Folkways video anthology of music and dance of the Americas. Vol. 6, Central and South America II [video]. Tokyo:

Menzel,

P.

(1994). Material world:

A globalfamily portrait.

JVC.

San Francisco:

Sierra Club.

Merman, J. (1960). Amigo World Music. Myers, H.

(ed.) (1993).

cantando. Delaware

Water Gap,

Pa.:

Ethnomusicology historical and regional

New York: W. W.

Wide

studies.

Norton.

National Council for the Social Studies. (1994). Expectations ofexcellence: Curriculum standardsfor social studies. Washington, D.C.: Author.

Music

Nye, N.


as an

(1995). The tree

S.

poems and

is

stories from

older than

you

309

A bilingual gathering of

are:

Mexico with paintings by Mexican

artists.

New York: Simon 8c Schuster. Ober, H. (1994). Boston:

How music came to the world: An ancient Mexican

Houghton

myth.

Mifflin.

Marimbas of Guatemala: The African connection.

O’Brien, L. L. (1982).

The World ofMusic IS

(2):

99-103.

(eds.). (1987). Music of Latin America: Mexico Ecuador, Brazil (study guide for Sounds of the World series). Reston, Va.: Music Educators National Conference.

Olson, D., Sheehy, D., 8c Perrone, C. ,

Orozco,

J.

Pena,

M.

De

(1994).

dren.

and other Latin-American folk Dutton Children’s Books.

Colores

New York:

(1985). The Texas-Mexican conjunto: History of a working-class

music. Austin: University Perl,

I.

(1983). Pinatas

H., 8c

Pettit, F.

Pettit,

M.

M.

New York:

Mas

New York:

Clarion.

(1978). Mexican folk toys: Festival decorations

New York:

(1992). Mexico.

Ronstadt, L. (1991).

of Texas.

and paperflowers. R.

and ritual objects. Reilly,

songs for chil-

canciones

Hastings House.

Marshall Cavendish.

[CD].

New

York: Elektra/Warner

Brothers.

Ross, C. (1991). Christmas in Mexico. Lincolnwood, Santoli,

111.:

Passport.

New Americans, an oral history: Immigrants and refugees U.S. today. New York: Viking Penguin.

A. (1988). in the

Silverthorne, E. (1992). Fiesta! Mexico’s great celebrations. Brookfield,

Conn.: Millbrook.

Solomon, T. (1989). “La Bamba”: Mass mediation and the omy of a Mexican “folk song.” Paper presented

political

at the

econ-

annual

meeting of the Society for Ethnomusicology, Cambridge, Mass. Stein,

R. C. (1984). Mexico: Enchantment of the world.

Chicago:

Children’s Press.

Strachwitz, C. (producer). (1994). Corridos

[CD]. El Cerrito, Sullivan,

C.

(ed.).

Calif.:

(1994). Here

is

and artsfor young people.

and

tragedias de las fronteras

Arhoolie Productions.

my kingdom: Hispanic-American literature

New York:

Harry N. Abrams.

!


3io

Tapia, O. M., Sc Los Mecateros (1994). Songs of Mexico II [CD]. Angeles: JVC. Valdez, L.

(producer).

RCA/Columbia

(1987).

La Bamba

Pictures

Home Video.

[video].

Valens, R. (1958). The best ofRitchie Valens [LP].

Wiggins,

T.,

Sc

Kobom, J. White

Point, Ind.:

Burbank,

Los

Calif.:

Los Angeles: Del-Fi.

(1992). Xylophone music from Ghana.

Crown

Media.

Cliffs

Resources for Teachers and Students

AUDIO RECORDINGS Conjunto Alma Jarocha (performers). (1994). Sones jarochos [CD]. El Cerrito, Calif.: Arhoolie Productions. (Original recording 1979.)

Hinojosa, T. (1995). Frontejas [CD]. Cambridge, Mass.: Rounder Records.

Ghana: Ancient

Jay, S. (recorder). (1991).

[CD].

Kobom,

J.

New York:

(1992). Xylophone music from

Point, Ind.:

ceremonies, song

and dance music

Electra Nonesuch. (Originally released 1979.)

White

Ghana

[audiocassette].

Crown

Media.

Cliffs

Lewiston, D. (recorder). (1991). Mexico: Fiestas of Chiapas and Oaxaca [CD]. New York: Elektra Nonesuch. (Originally released 1976.) Llerenas, E. (producer). (1996).

La

iguana: Sones jarochos from Veracruz,

Mexico [CD]. Cambridge, Mass.: Rounder Records.

Los Lobos. (1987). La Bamba: Original motion picture soundtrack [LP]. Los Angeles: Slash/Warner Brothers.

Los Lobos. (1988). La

pistola

el

y

corazon

[CD]. Los Angeles:

Slash/Warner Brothers.

Los Lobos Sc Guerrero, L. (1995). Music for Litde People. Los Pregoneros

Papa’s dream

[CD]. Redway,

Calif.:

del Puerto (performers). (1990). Music of Veracruz: The

sones jarochos of

Los Pregoneros del Puerto [CD]. Cambridge,

Mass.: Rounder Records.

Marimba

Yajalon (performers). (1994).

Mo.: Heart of Wood

Project.

/

Chiapas

[CD]. Kansas

City,

3n


Ronstadt, L. (1991).

Mas

canciones

[CD].

New

York: Elektra/Warner

Brothers.

Strachwitz, C. (producer). (1994). Corridos

[CD]. El Cerrito,

Calif.:

and

tragedias de las fronteras

Arhoolie Productions.

Tapia, O. M., 8c Los Mecateros. (1994). Songs of Mexico II [CD].

Los

Angeles: JVC. Valens, R. (1958). The best ofRitchie Valens [LP].

Los Angeles: Del-Fi.

VIDEO RECORDINGS Ballet Folclorico Nacional de Mexico. (1990).

New York:

Gessler.

Chulasfronteras. (1976). El Cerrito, Calif.: Brazos Films.

Llama,

M. A.

(producer). (1989).

Day ofthe Dead: A living tradition. New

York: Gessler.

Marre,

J.

(producer). (1980). Tex-Mex: The music of the Texas-Mexican

borderlands.

Newton,

pastorelas.

McArthur,

N.J.:

M. A.

Martinez, L. A., 8c Llama,

New York:

Harcourt Films. (producers). (1991). Pihatas, posadas y

Gessler.

8c Yoshida, H. (producers). (1995).

S.,

The JVC/Smith-

sonian/Folkways video anthology ofmusic and dance ofthe Americas. Vol. 6, Central and South America II. Tokyo: JVC.

Valdez,

L.

(producer).

RCA/Columbia

(1987).

Pictures

La Bamba.

Home

Burbank,

Calif.:

Video.

MUSIC SOURCES Campbell,

P. S.

(1995). Steven

Journals 2

(2):

Loza on Latino music. Music Educators

45-52.

Delacre, L. (1990). Las Navidades: Popular Christmas songs from Latin

America.

New York:

Scholastic.

George, L. (1987). Teaching the music of six Conn.: World Music. Harpole, P, 8c Fogelquist,

M.

(1989). Los Mariachis!

mariachi music. Danbury, Conn.:

Merman, J. (1960). Amigo World Music.

different cultures.

An

Danbury,

introduction to

World Music.

cantando. Delaware

Water Gap,

Pa.:

Wide


3i2

Olson, D., Sheehy, D., &. Perrone, C.

(eds.). (1987). Music of Latin America: Mexico, Ecuador, Brazil (study guide for Sounds of the

World series). Reston, Va.: Music Educators National Conference.

Orozco,

J.

(1994).

dren.

De

Yurchenco, H. (1967).

New York:

G.

and other Latin-American folk Dutton Children’s Books.

Colores

New York:

songs for chil-

Afiesta offolk songs from Spain and Latin America. P.

Putnam’s Sons.

NONFICTION BOOKS FOR STUDENTS

New

Ancona, G. (1993). Pablo remembers: Thefiesta ofthe Day ofthe Dead. York: Lothrop, Lee &c Shepard. Ancona, G. (1994). The pinata maker. San Diego,

Calif.:

Harcourt Brace.

Arnold, H. (1996). Mexico. Austin, Tex.: Raintree Steck-Vaughn. Chrisp,

P.

(1993). The Spanish conquests in the

new

world.

New

York:

Thomson. Hoyt-Goldsmith, D. (1994). Day of the Dead: A Mexican American bration. New York: Holiday House.

Katz,

New York:

C. (1987). Passport to Mexico.

Irizarry,

James,

I.

(1989). Inside Mexico.

W.

L. (1993).

A history

New York:

cele-

Franklin Watts.

Franklin Watts.

of multicultural America: Minorities today.

Austin, Tex.: Raintree Steck-Vaughn.

Lankford,

M.

(1994). Quinceanera:

A

Latina’s journey to

womanhood.

Brookfield, Conn.: Millbrook.

Lasky, K. (1994). Days of the Dead. Reilly,

M.

(1992). Mexico.

New York:

New York: Marshall

Hyperion. Cavendish.

Silverthorne, E. (1992). Fiesta! Mexico’s great celebrations.

Brookfield,

Conn.: Millbrook. Stein,

R.

C. (1984). Mexico: Enchantment of the world.

Children’s Press.

Chicago:

Music

as an


FICTION BOOKS FOR STUDENTS Bernhard, E., 6c Bernhard, D. (1994). The the Huichol Indians ofMexico.

Ets,

M.

Theflood myth of Holiday House.

tree that rains:

New York:

H., 6c Labastida, A. (1979). Nine days to Christmas.

New York:

Viking. Fisher, L. (ed.). (1988).

Pyramid ofthe sun, pyramid ofthe moon.

New York:

Macmillan. Haskins,

J.

(1989).

Count your way through Mexico. Minneapolis:

Carolrhoda.

Ober, H. (1994). Boston:

How

music came

Houghton

to the

Mifflin.

world: An ancient Mexican myth.

3i3

*f

chapter i3

}*


One ofthe long-standing traditions in Beth's urban middle school was the annuSymphony concert. Although she lookedforward to the per-

al trip to the Youth

formance, she sensed that her students felt differently about

was

so far

removedfrom

it

because the music

their daily experience. “In the past, the students

have

enjoyed getting out ofschool, but they have not developed a love ofthe music they

were hearing, "she admitted. One

way

semester,

Beth

set

meaningful andperhaps more lasting than just a

make a change in the make the experience more

out to

she prepared students for the concert, hoping to

day's excursion.

Fortunately, Beth learned of the program for the concert several months in

and to gather resources. Among the composiwould perform was Elgar's Enigma Variations. She remembered hearing them once before but didn’t know too much about them. Beth began to listen to and study this work, finding out how Elgar hadpaid

advance, giving her time to plan tions the orchestra

andfriends through a

set of variations, each bearing the The music of each variation reflected something honoree’s personality or relationship to Elgar. Once Beth knew what

tribute to his family

honoree’s initials or nickname.

about the

to listen for, she could recognize

bulldog running

down

what Elgar did to portray

the chapel organist’s

the hill to paddle in the water, or the

way

the abrupt

young musician, Dorabella who stuttered and loved to ride her bike. Beth was certain that her students would enjoy hearing the stories behind the music, but she also wanted to interest them in the musical techniques Elgar used to show the endearing quirks and traits of his family violin figures referred to the

,

andfriends. As she kept searchingfor ideas, Beth decided to include paintings and poems in her lessons, feeling that students might understand the notion of “

tribute ”

morefully ifshe used several artforms.

Beth planned questions and that writers, musicians,

and

activities that

artists

would lead

students to realize

can characterize the individuality

and

ofsignificant people through words, sounds, and images. Over severas students listened to and learned about the Enigma Variations, Beth

influence

al days,

encouraged them to think of influentialpeople in their

might

lives,

and the ways

they

a poem, drawing, or piece of music to represent those individuals. The students eagerly took up the challenge, some choosing famous celebrities, create

others selecting closefriends orfamily members. recess

One student devoted lunch and

time to work on his project. With the aid ofa software program, he creat-


3i6

ed a

a famous basketball player in the form of a musical work with to parallel thefour quarters ofa basketball game. All in all, the

tribute to

four movements

students' tributes

When

werefunny, imaginative, revealing, and moving.

the sixth graders finally attended the Youth

Beth was gratified

to see

Symphony performance,

how engaged and absorbed the students were during

the performance, watching their smiles of recognition as they heard the variations they

had studied. Because

ing their

own

immediate way. As Beth

and the

they

had grappled with

tributes, they understood the reflected

the challenges of creat-

performance in a

deeper,

more

on what she had learned about her students

music, shefelt satisfied and eager to

np -L

move on

to

another

new project.

he curricular imagination

work whenever

is

at

teachers consid-

what is possible and turn those possibilities into the realities of classroom experience. When this imagination is lacking, curriculum work feels er

—

like a technical exercise

dull,

impersonal, and mundane.

or group of teachers give rein to the possible, curriculum

ing and challenging.

At

curriculum planning

its best,

is

When a teacher

work feels engaga

form of artistry

involving essential elements of passion, craftsmanship, and caring.

Passion

is

at the heart

of the

teacher’s creative impulse. Teachers are

frequently passionate about the subjects and students they teach, particularly as a result

of years of study and commitment to their

fields.

Strong

convictions about the content of the curriculum and the quality of school-

ing are expressed through innovative interdisciplinary projects and plans.

may

Invention

also spring

from a deep-seated desire to communicate communicate their own ideas

ideas to students or to enable students to

through music, creative writing, drawing, or other expressive forms. Individual interests often fuel the imagination as teachers “embellish their

teaching with the kind of originality,

flair,

and panache that

to their projects” (Rubin, 1991, p. 56). Passion

work

to convince others

nary idea; passion

is

needed to sustain the

and

both elementary and Spanish educa-

materials:

Usually dead ends inspire

me

the most. Then,

I

think,

has really thought of this before, in this way.

work

is

truly valuable. I dislike ideas that

want to do something the same way.

trite. I

do in

of teachers’

project.

about the importance of originality in her search for curricu-

tion, speaks

else

bring

interdiscipli-

momentum

and flows of a new

Kristin, a preservice teacher in

artists

crucial in collaborative

of the potential and integrity of an

also

ideas through the inevitable ebbs

lar ideas

is

don’t

no one

Thus my

seem overused or

that anyone could easily


3i 7

Craftsmanship in curriculum design involves a potent blend of knowledge and generate

skill.

Teachers draw upon a base of disciplinary knowledge to

new ideas and

test valid

connections

areas. Yet, especially in interdisciplinary

among themes and

work,

this base

continually being modified, reorganized, and enlarged as

what we know and what we learn best as teachers;

we

don’t know.

Hodgkin (1976)

teach best as learners.

The

subject

of knowledge

we

is

confront

writes:

“We

communi-

effort to

knowledge and to be an authority is to know how to There is a certain humility in acknowledging that you cannot be an expert in all things, yet there is also a freedom to inquire that comes with that acknowledgment. A well-stocked storehouse of metaphors, images, and examples is cate strengthens

doubt”

(p. 3).

invaluable

interdisciplinary connections.

for

The

psychologist Keith

Simonton describes a theory of scientific genius by using a metaphor of the playroom (Ramo 8c Rosenberg, 1993). He compares a genius who solves perplexing problems in a discipline through the innovative combination of the disciplines elements to a child with

many Legos

many sets of Legos. The

child with

has a far greater chance of creating a masterpiece by combin-

ing the pieces in novel ways than does a child with a basic set of just a few pieces.

We are reminded of this “Lego theory” every time we

music and materials that are compelling and the lookout for

new works and

materials

potential, teachers find inspiration

and

full

come

across

of possibility. In staying on

and remaining open

to their

exercise their creativity.

shown through the ways teachers combine eleto make a satisfying whole, which is parallel to artistic processes. For example, teachers may use a broad theme or essential questions as unifying devices to show relationships throughout a series of lessons. Within the project, they may attend to elements of Craftsmanship

is

also

ments of the educational experience

variety

and contrast so that the educational experience

dent interest and enthusiasm.

when teachers

balance

will sustain stu-

among elements

is

achieved

attend to the ways subjects complement each other and the

ways

essential content

sized.

There

is

A

and processes of various

also a sense

disciplines are

empha-

of artistry in the way transitions from one

ele-

ment of the lesson to the next allow the lesson to unfold naturally and inevitably. Another way that artistry is expressed is through the improvisatory give-and-take that results

from honoring unexpected events

in

the classroom and responding flexibly to those teachable moments.

Joanna, whose journal in Chapter 4 showed her depth of preparation to teach Zwilich’s Concerto Grosso 1985, describes

how

the process of

designing interdisciplinary lessons serves as an exercise of artistic crafts-

manship

for her:


3i8

An

metaphor

arts

lesson.

says

This seems

it

best for

me

designing interdisciplinary lessons. a lesson

—the —has

—how

I

choreograph a

so when The dance we do through

really important,

maybe more

bridges, hinges, transitions, connections, pace,

order, etc.

a powerful role to play in

how

successfully

students are engaged and learning. If conscious connections are

made from music

raphy,

to poetry, art, movement, culture, geogand back again, the lesson could take on more “gem-

like” qualities.

Care in curriculum work involves consideration of the ultimate aims and goals of education and evaluation of the way those goals are attained in school practice. Eisner (1990) challenges teachers by stating that “the purpose of education in the broadest sense, and particularly given the characteristics

of our world today,

ty of helping children traits,

is

to succeed at the paradoxical activi-

become what we

and dispositions

are

are not” (p. 62).

What

qualities,

important for students to acquire and

how

does the school community and the curriculum foster the development of students as individuals?

What

habits of

mind and

heart are acquired in

classroom settings? In creative curriculum design, teachers model intel-

by asking good questions and sharing insights they have new works, reading widely and deeply, conversing with colleagues, and seeking out new opportunities to learn. Teachers model intellectual flexibility by showing a willingness to seek new information and to modify old ideas when they no longer hold true. They also show intellectual maturity when they see complex problems and issues

lectual curiosity

gained from listening to

from many perspectives.

The Facets Model and the Interdisciplinary Curriculum

A central premise

of this book is that intense engagement 'with a work and deep comprehension of a work come from efforts to describe its structure, to consider its contextual content, and to contemplate its expressive meaning. These essential processes led to the development of the facets model. As we have experimented with the use of this model in our

own

classrooms,

we have

noticed

how often engagement with a work

has led us outward to related areas of the curriculum as natural and necessary extensions of our musical study. In turn, understanding gained

from study in related areas has augmented our perception and performance of the work. These insights have led us to believe that teachers can use the facets model as a starting point and as a helpful strategy in designing curriculum projects that are balanced, valid, and comprehensive.


319

who

take pride in the originality of their plans and knowing that their personal and professional talents have been put to good use are inspiring models of the curricular imagination. Although the demands of time and energy are considerable whenever teachers invent curriculum from scratch, the corresponding benefits are just as significant. Teachers who are considering interdisciplinary work for the first time may wish to begin with projects of small and manageable scope before taking on more ambitious initiatives, such as all-school pro-

Creative teachers

derive satisfaction from

jects or collaborations across

The

many

areas

of the curriculum.

process for designing an interdisciplinary curriculum cannot be

described adequately as a linear series of steps, insomuch as the playful exploration of possibilities and the serendipitous discovery of connections

may move teachers and students in tions. As a new curricular initiative

productive but unpredictable directakes shape, however, the questions

Figure 13.1

provided in Figure 13.1 can help teachers define the purpose for the project, identify

the participants

who

will

be involved, and

Facets of the

clarify the rela-

Interdisciplinary

tionships of content to be emphasized.

Is it

Curriculum

an individual or shared

effort?

How does

it

reflect

teachers' knowledge, interests,

and

beliefs?

What is the unique contribution of each of the elements of the curriculum?

Does reality

How do its elements combine

it

reflect students'

of the here and

What motivated

now?

its

creation?

to create a total experience greater than the sum of its

How are students' unique

parts?

reflected?

needs and perspectives

How do the ways of knowing and content interact?

What content

What will students learn that transcends the content? Are multiple ways of knowing valued?

The

questions

—

Is it

an individual or shared

teachers’ knowledge, interests,

ty of the here

and now?

What

and

beliefs?

motivated

effort?

Does

it

its

creation?

—

clarify

unique needs and perspectives reflected?

How does it reflect

reflect students’ reali-

How are

who

students’

the curriculum

is

included?


3^o

designers are, and for

whom they are

take the initiative to

make

interdisciplinary in

nature by emphasizing

connect. Collaborations

designing. Individual teachers often

own

the curriculum in their

among

how

classrooms more

and concepts

ideas

colleagues are also powerful, because

complementary areas of expertise are widely distributed within a school community. Music teachers develop expertise in music, of course, but also possess expertise in teaching music to students of many ages and levels. Classroom teachers, who hold many areas of expertise and content knowledge, have a well-developed understanding of student development particular to the students they teach. This is why it is essential, whenever possible, to bring

work on and

music

specialists

and classroom teachers together

to

interdisciplinary curriculum planning in a mutually satisfying

intellectually stimulating way.

Teachers’ knowledge, interests, and beliefs often provide the impetus for curriculum planning. In

Chapter

1,

we recommended

that teachers

survey their musical idiocultures and those of their students to find com-

mon

areas

of interest or unique areas of knowledge or expertise

ing points. Nothing

is

musical worlds; music rience. Students’

more

is

a part

knowledge,

and immediate

real

as start-

to students than their

of the way they make sense of their expe-

interests,

and

beliefs also motivate the cre-

ation of curriculum. Teachers design with these interests in mind, as well as consideration

of the developmental

of the lesson and

fit

its

appropri-

ateness for the school community.

The

questions

—What content

is

included?

What is

bution of each of the elements of the curriculum?

combine

to create a total experience greater than the

are essential for teachers to address.

Music

experience; through music and the arts,

and

feelings.

viduals

Through

and groups

the

arts,

is

we

the unique contri-

How

do

its

sum of its

elements parts?

an expressive form of human

intensify

and deepen thoughts

the achievements and aspirations of indi-

are represented through culture

and

history.

The way

these ideas are manifested in the curricular goals of school subjects

music,

art,

dance, theater, literature, and social studies

intertwined and complementary they

are.

As

—demonstrates how

school subjects, these disci-

plines offer students the opportunity to experience the

world through

—

many forms through sound, image, gesture, narrative, and symbol. The integrity of content is of primary importance in the interdisciplinary curriculum. Teachers must attend to the integrity of each form of study for students to acquire a thorough and sequential grounding in the knowledge and ways of thinking central to the disciplines. But as the lessons in this

book have demonstrated,

integrity of combined disciplines

promising their validity or

it is

also possible to attend to the

and the way they overlap without com-

trivializing the

importance of particular sub-


and imaginative

ject areas. Sensitive, artistic,

321

correlations encourage the

development of concepts and perspectives that transcend separate plines.

As one workshop

participant put

“The

it,

disci-

right equation for

putting two subjects together must be 1 + 1 = 3.”

The

questions

—What —

will students learn that transcends the content?

Are multiple ways of knowing valued? content interact?

How do the ways of knowing and

are central to the design

of an interdisciplinary cur-

riculum. Teachers are committed to the challenge of assisting students to realize

their potential as competent, curious,

Music and the

arts cultivate students’

to the sensory qualities

and caring

individuals.

perception of and aesthetic response

of experience.

The

impression of an aesthetic

experience lingers with us long after the encounter of a work;

we

preserve

and cherish those works that have profound impact on our thoughts and feelings. We study the works that others who are separated from us by time or place have valued, and beings.

we empathize with them

When students work with the forms

as fellow

and materials of a

human

discipline

produce and create new works, they question, interpret, and represent meaning from their own sense of the world. The ways the subject is explored are as important as the subject itself. To know music, for example, students must perceive, produce, and reflect upon qualities of sound. Certainly, we can learn about music through other types of experience, but without an emphasis on sound and thinking in music, the fullness of the encounter will be diminished. The ways we learn about art, literature, dance, or the social world must also honor ways of knowing in those disciplines as well. To design interdisciplinary projects that are comprehensive and engaging, teachers must not only to

select the content to

be taught but also consider

how that content will be

experienced.

we explained how the title, Sound Ways of wordplay on the double meaning of sound. Through music,

In the preface to this book,

Knowing,

we

is

explore

a

who we

are

and how we

relate to others, particularly

the realms of expression, history, and culture.

The

through

strength, validity,

and

substance of the students’ educational experiences are influenced and

made

possible

by the

artistry

of teachers. This

care they take in designing curriculum ship,

and passion.

and

artistry

is

reflected in the

their imagination, craftsman-


322

References Eisner, E.

W.

(1990).

A

development and 6 (1): 62-73.

developmental agenda: Creative curriculum practice. Journal

of Curriculum, and Supervision

Hodgkin, R. A. (1976). Born curious: New perspectives ry. London: John Wiley 8c Sons.

Ramo,

in educational theo-

C., 8c Rosenberg, D. (June 28, 1993). The puzzle of genius. Newsweek, pp. 46-51.

J.

Rubin, L. (1991).

The

H. Schubert

arts

and an

artistic

curriculum. In G. Willis 8c W.

ofeducational inquiry: Understanding curriculum and teaching through the arts (pp. (eds.), Reflectionsfrom the heart

49-59). Albany: State University of New York Press.

Notes 1.

Chapter % 1.

We use the term “work” or “artwork” broadly as a reference to any example or

process involving music,

art, poetry, literature,

dance, or theater. For an engag-

ing critique of the concept of an aesthetic “work” as an object that distances the perceiver from full representations of

Matters:

Chapter 4 The stages of on

loosely

meaning and understanding,

A new philosophy of music education (Elliott,

a

interaction with a musical

model

for

use

work

see

Music

1995).

in Table 4.1 are based very

of innovations described in Hall, Loucks,

Rutherford, and Newlove (1975).

Chapter 5 1.

For example, Haack (1970) found that junior high school wind instrumen-

talists

who were taught to

romanticism in both

art

recognize the

stylistic characteristics

and music were more successful

of classicism and

at classifying the style

of music exemplars than were similar students taught to recognize teristics in

2.

music

style charac-

only.

Some museums

provide opportunities for visually impaired people to experi-

ence paintings by touching them. 3.

A lesson

plan that explores multiple facets of “Simple Gifts” and

Appalachian Spring can be found in Ch.

its

use in

7.

Chapter 6 1.

From “Song of the Train” by David McCord

2.

From

3.

The

(Cole, 1984, pp. 34-35).

“Slowly” by James Reeves (Blishen, 1984,

p. 138).

times indicated in Table 6.5 correspond to the recording of “Farandole”

from LArlesienne performed by the Bernstein conducting. This

is

New

York Philharmonic, Leonard

the same recording used in the set of

accompany the Music and You textbook

series

Staton, 1990).

3g3

CDs

that

(Davidson, Ferguson, Staton,

&


3^4 4.

Variations

the

on “Simple Gifts”

full ballet

is

recorded in several versions: the version from

and the version from Appalachian Spring Suite. Some performances

utilize a full orchestra; others use the original

listening chart in this lesson tra.

is

chamber instrumentation. The

based on Appalachian Spring Suite for

full

orches-

If you intend to use the listening guide with another version of Variations

on

“Simple Gifts” you will need to make some minor changes in the descriptors.

Chapter 8 1. The complete 2.

list

of content standards

“Controversy in the Curriculum: cussion of the 3.

is

provided in Ch.

3.

See “Controversy in the Curriculum: Should You Sing Dixie?” and

These

way changes

texts are taken

The Use of Dialect” in Ch. 10

in text

for further dis-

compromise the authenticity of songs.

from Songs ofthe Civil War (Silber and Silverman, 1995).

Chapter 9 1

.

Brueghel’s

name can be found

variously written as Brueghel, Bruegel, Breughel,

or Breugel. 2.

The performance of

the dance

1588/1967). The “Gesture of the relatively easy steps 3.

The

first

is

on

pp. 187-189, has

and sword gestures.

exact dates for the Renaissance are debated.

Renaissance continued outside Italy until as there

Orchesography (Arbeau

discussed in

passage,” as described

was no Renaissance

at

sion of developments that

all,

Some

late as

scholars contend the

1750. Others argue that

but that what happened in Italy was an exten-

had been occurring throughout the Middle Ages.

This chapter takes the starting point of the

Italian Renaissance as the begin-

ning of the fourteenth century and the end

as

to

deny

his discoveries in

ally date the

to

The bubonic

claimed several

6.

p.

736).

plague, initially spread

pneumonic plague, which

5. Literally,

This

Galileo was forced

Musicologists usu-

Renaissance period in Western art music from 1430 to 1600

(Lockwood, 1980, 4.

when

p. 46).

1633,

astronomy (Wood, 1993,

lives,

began

is

by

fleas

from infected

spread through the

in India in

air.

An

rats,

has mutated

epidemic, which

August 1994 (Richardson, 1995).

“The Feast of the Vow.”

retelling

of the

feast

is

derived from accounts given in Cartellieri (1929),

Chamberlin (1969), Fallows (1991), Lafortune-M artel (1984), Vaughn (1970), and Wright (1979, 1980) based on primary sources of Mathieu D’Escouchy (1858-1864) and Olivier

De La Marche

(1883-1888),

among

others.

Notes

3*5

Chapter 10 Recordings of these bugle

1.

Sounds (Eastman

Its

2.

These

Wind

calls

can be found in The Civil War:

essential questions for interdisciplinary study

come from Glascock

Music and

of the Civil

War

period

& Mitchell (1990).

3.

National Council for the Social Studies (1994,

4.

The

list

Its

Ensemble, 1990).

on page 206

p. 82).

drawn from the Consortium of National Arts

is

Education Associations (1994, pp. 42, 44-45). 5.

The

on page 234 was inspired by Lovell (1972).

chart

6. It will

be important to

Perceptions

may

differ

clarify with students

based on their

own

how their perceptions

are formed.

ethnic backgrounds, the ethnic and

socioeconomic characteristics of their community, and their exposure to either

broad information or narrow stereotypes via the media. Discuss the role of individual perceptions and generalizations.

How can they sometimes be Chapter 1.

How

can they sometimes be helpful?

misleading or dangerous?

i i

Inspiration for this example

came from

a paper

by Richard Jones-Bauman

(1995). 2.

See Meintjes (1990) for an intriguing discussion of this recording.

3.

This continuum was adapted from Palmer (1992).

4.

At the time of publication, the Faces of Sorrow exhibit could be World Wide Web. It can be found at this address:

accessed on

the

http://www.i3tele.com/photoperspectives/facesofsorrow/html/exhibition.html

or by searching for the words faces of sorrow with a search engine. 5.

Although “Ganga: Odkad seke nismo zapjevale” reminded Ruzica of a funer-

al

lament,

it is

6.

Thanks

to

not.

Dane Kusic

for clarifying the

meaning of ganga.

Chapter 12 1.

This format

2.

For further directions on pinata making, see Fiesta! Mexico’s Great Celebrations

is

adapted from Grant and Sleeter (1989).

(Silverthorne, 1992), Pinatas

Mexico (Ross, 1991).

and Paper Flowers

(Perl, 1983), or

Christmas in


3g6

3.

This definition of Mesoamerica

(1996). It

drawn from Carmack, Gasco, 8c Gossen

is

means “Middle America,”

referring to

all

the indigenous peoples of

Central America before and after Spanish contact. 4.

With two million people, may have been the biggest city in the world. Montezuma weland his men with wreaths of flowers. Soon after, the Spaniards hosts, murdering Montezuma and driving the Aztecs from the

In 1519, the Spaniards journeyed to Tenochtitlan.

this

Aztec

capital

comed Cortes betrayed their city.

As bloody as

the conflicts were, the real villain was smallpox, brought to the

New World by the

conquerors. Smallpox decimated the Aztecs and

native peoples of America.

When

many other

Cortes arrived in Mexico, there were more

than 20 million Indians; by 1620, there were not even 1 million

left.

Spaniards

continued domination of the Aztecs, Mayans, and Incas in their colonization of the Americas (Chrisp, 1993; Marrin, 1986; Menzel, 1994; Stein, 1984). 5.

Mesoamericans accept that they were invaded and defeated

Spanish but

insist that

in

wars by the

they were never conquered (Carmack, Gasco, 8c

Gossen, 1996). 6.

The

diatonic harp

is

to the orchestral harp, 7.

The

Tovey 8.

version of in

limited to the pitches of a single scale, or key, in contrast

which can play

“ Vibora

de

la

mar”

all

in

the pitches of the chromatic scale.

Example 12.2 was recorded by David

an Indian village outside of Oaxaca, Mexico.

See Ch. 11 for a discussion of traditional and popular music.

Permissions and Credits

49 “Sometimes Running,” from In Fact by John 61

New York 62

Used by permission of the Ciardi

Times.

Family.

Reproduced by permission of Music Associates of America.

Excerpts from Concerto Grosso 1985 by Ellen Taaffe Zwilich. Copyright

Mobart Music 71

Ciardi.

Photograph of Ellen Taaffe Zwilich by Andrew Sacks. Courtesy of Andrew Sacks and the

Publications. Reprinted

The Sleeping Gypsy by Henri Rousseau.

©

1985 by

by permission.

The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Gift of © 1997 The Museum of Modern Art,

Mrs. Simon Guggenheim. Photograph copyright

New York. 80

“I

Am Growing a Glorious Garden” from Something Big Has Been Here by Jack Prelutsky. © 1990. Used by permission of Greenwillow Books, a division of William

Copyright

Morrow and Company, 97 Back

I,

Back

II,

Back

Inc.

III,

Back

by permission of Hirshhorn Gift of Joseph

113

“Jump or

H. Hirshhorn, 1966.

Jiggle”

Copyright

©

IV by Henri Matisse. Photograph by Lee Stalsworth. Used Museum and Sculpture Garden, Smithsonian Institution.

from Another Here and

1937 by E.

P.

Now

Dutton, renewed

©

by Lucy Sprague Mitchell.

Story Book

1965 by Lucy Sprague Mitchell. Used by

permission of Dutton Children’s Books, a division of Penguin Books

119

“Whirligig Beetles” from Joyful Noise. Text copyright tion copyright

124

Shakers’ Slat

USA,

Inc.

© 1988 by Paul Fleischman, illustra-

© 1988 by Eric Beddows. Used by permission of HarperCollins Publishers.

Back Chairs, with Rockers. Reprinted from

Illustrated Catalogue

and

List ofShakers’ Chairs (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press), page 22,

mission of the publisher. Copyright

5-56

Portions of Chapter 8 were

“Where

did you

first

© 1972.

published as K. K. Veblen,

who

R. Barrett,

& C. W. McCoy.

for context in the music cur-

and Learning 6

riculum.” Quarterly Journal of Music Teaching

151

J.

come from? Where do you go? Searching

grateful to the editors,

Price

by per-

(3)

1995: 46-56.

We

are

have granted permission for use of this material.

“Dixie” reproduced from the Americana Collection, Mills

Music

Library, University of

Wisconsin-Madison. Reproduced with permission. 163

Childrens

Games by

Pieter Brueghel the Elder.

Used by permission of Kunsthistorisches

Museum, Vienna. 177

The Garden of Love at the Court of Philip

Reunion des Musees Nationaux.

3?7

the

Good (1432). Photograph copyright

©


3s>8

198

Copy of a composite

tintype of the 1st Brigade, 3rd Division, 15th

Army Corps

Band,

Wis., Civil War. Reprinted with the permission of the State Historical Society of

Wisconsin, negative number (X3) 35083,

216 News from

the

War from Harpers

lot

Weekly,

2947.

June 14, 1862.

Wood

engraving by

Winslow

Homer. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Harris Brisbane Dick Fund, 1929. All reserved,

232

“All

God’s Chillun Got Wings” from The Books ofAmerican Negro

Johnson and

J.

Spirituals

by James Weldon

© 1925, 1926 by the Viking © 1954 by Grace Nail Johnson and

Rosamond Johnson. Copyright

renewed 1953 by Lawrence Brown, 1953,

“Kad

ja

Press, Inc.,

J.

Johnson. Used by permission of Viking Penguin, a division of Penguin Books

261

rights

The Metropolitan Museum of Art.

Rosamond

USA, Inc.

podjoh na Benbasu” courtesy of Smithsonian Folkways Recordings (SF 40407).

Translation by T. Levan and A. Petrovic.

271

Excerpt from

How Music Came to the

World by Hal Ober. Text copyright

©

1994 by Hal

Ober. Reprinted by permission of Houghton Mifflin Co. All rights reserved.

273 The poem “Pinata” reprinted by permission of Jennifer Clement. Translation by Consuelo de Aerenlund.

276 “La Pinata/The Pinata,” from “De

Colores”

Children by Jose-Luis Orozco. Copyright sion of

285

Dutton Children’s Books, a

and Other Latin American Folk Songs for

1994 by Jose-Luis Orozco. Used by permis-

division of Penguin

Books USA,

Inc.

“Our Walls Are Keening.” Reprinted with the permission of Atheneum Books Readers, an imprint of Simon

for

Young

& Schuster Children’s Publishing Division, from Aztecs and

Spaniards by Albert Marrin. Copyright

292

©

©

1986 Albert Marrin.

Photographs of Ghanaian xylophone from Xylophone Musicfrom Ghana by Trevor Wiggins

and Joseph Kobom, page

6.

Reproduced by permission of White

Cliffs

Media,

Inc.

Name Index

A

Battle, K.,

C

230 Calliope, 167

306

Ackerman, D. B., 35, 47 Adams, S., 186

Beall, C., 280,

AdsheadJ., 88

Beethoven, L. van, 87, 98, 298

Beatty,

P.,

211

Campbell,

P. S.,

301, 302, 304,

306

Aerenlund, C., 273

Behague, G., 302, 305

Carlson, L. M., 305, 306

Albrecht, G., 29, 32

Bernstein, L., 50, 66, 70, 123 Best, D., 76

Carmack, R. M., 306, 326 Cartellieri, O., 324 n. 6

Betancourt, G., 303

Caselli, G.,

Alcott, L.

M„ 197

183,211 American Recorder Society, 170 Ancona, G., 274, 282, 305 Anderson, H. C., 73 Anderson, L. A., 293, 305 Angelou, M., 235 Anzovin, S., 186 Apel, W., 302, 305 Arbeau, T., 167-8, 178, 324 n. 2 Aliki,

Arbuthnot,

Arnheim,

M.

R.,

R.,

112

73

Beyer, E.,

112-113

Bial, R.,

96

Chenoweth,

293, 305,307

Blishen, E., 323 n. 2

H.

G„

13, 32,

Chrisp,

P.,

V., 290,

Ciardi,J.,49, 60, 101

87

Cincinnati Pops, 221

Boix-Mansilla, V., 12, 32

Clement, J., 273

Aronson, M., 154

Bolick, 129

Clinton,

Boston Camerata, 123. 150

Cloud, L.

R

R.,

117

Ayoub, A., 186

Bracket,

J.,

B Bach, J.

S.,

M.

B.,

Mexico, 282, 305

Bresler, L., 27,

234

Cole, J., 323 n. 2

Coleman, O., 244

Breathnach, B., 254, 268

Ballet Folclorico Nacional de

V.,

Cole, A., 69

219

Brahms, J., 87

87, 118-21

W.J, 235

Cohen, J., 130

131

Brady, M., 140 Brady,

306

306, 326

Arnold, G., 186

Aschbacher,

28-30, 32, 33

Briginshaw, V. A., 88

Ballonga, J., 186

Britten, B.,

Bamberger, J., 36, 47 Banks, J. A., 305

Brown, J., 196, 202, 230 Brown, L., 230

98

Columbus, C., 172, 175, 185, 221 Conjunto Alma Jarocha, 297, 306 Consort of Musicke, 159, 165 Consortium of National Arts Education Associations, 40, 47,70, 141, 325 n. 4

Baring-Gould, C., 162

Broudy, H.

S.,

101

Constable, G., 285, 306

Baring-Gould, W.

Broughton,

S.,

258, 268, 302, 306

Copernicus, N., 172, 175

Barresi, A., 29,

Barrett,

J.

Bates, K.

R.,

32

146

L„ 145

S.,

162

Brueghel,

P.,

186,

6

Charles the Bold, 178

Blackwood, A., 185

Blocker,

n.

Chang, I., 211 Charlemagne, 175

Binous,J., 186 Bizet, G., 94,

J.,

7

Chamberlin, E. R., 324

129

Binchois, G., 180

Blades,

1,

Chalk, G., 165

197

Billings, J. D.,

186

Cavicchi, D.,

70, 158, 163-5,

324

n. 1

Burns, K. L., 211, 213, 230

3^9

Copland, A., 65, 70, 78-79, 98, 123, 126-31, 235 Cortez, G., 303

Sound Ways

33o

Cortez,

H, 285, 325

of

179

Haack,

Fisher, G.,

Crawford, R. 208

Fleischman, R, 95, 118-20, 211

230 Currie, S., 211 Curtis, M. V., 2344

Flexner, S. B., 35,

S.,

M.

Flower,

47

L.,

Frith, S.,

Davidson, L., 110

Fritz, J.,

M.

Davidson,

163-5

Fraser, K.,

C., 323 n. 3

Hendrix, J., 244

Henry IV, King of England, 167 Henry VIII, King of England,

G Galileo, 173,

n. 1

W., 46, 47, 140-1, 318,

324

175, 186

n. 3

Galway, James, 170

Henry

Gardner, A., 186, 219

Henson, J., 227-8

Gardner, H. 12, 22, 32, 140

Herman, J.

Gasco, J., 306, 326

Hernandez, X., 186

Gaston, E.T.,247 Gershwin, G., 70

Herrera-Sobek,

Gershwin,

E

305, 307

Gillan,

J.,

Gillan,

M., 305, 307

Hodgens,

Gilmore, Patrick, 202, 214 Glascock, R. O., 325

n.

2

Ellingham, M., 258, 268, 302,

Goodlad, J.

46,

306 D. J„ 32, 66, 136, 323 Elmer, M., 280, 306 Emmett, D. D., 150-2

Gossen, G. H., 306, 326

Ensemble Ets,

M.

I.,

186

47

R., 280 Homer, W., 216, 219 Hope, S., 15, 20, 32

Howarth,

Graham, M.,

Hoyt-Goldsmith, D., 282, 307 Hunt, I., 211

70, 73, 78-79, 126,

129, 131

Grant, C. A., 307, 325

H., 274, 306

Holmes,

Gould, M., 98, 221, 224 Gragueb, A., 186

Gilles Binchois, 181,

183

88

P.,

Hodgkin, R. A., 317, 322 Hoffer, C. R., 247, 268 Holbein, H., 186

S.,

Elliott,

M„ 272, 303, 307

Hogan, M. 235

Goodenough,

315

117

Hinojosa, T., 304, 307

Goldston, R., 211

El Cid, 175

L.,

Highwater, J., 186

70

I.,

the Navigator, 175

Hevner, K., 102, 103

Glass, P„ 208

322 Elgar, E.,

136

F. J.,

Hecht, A, 50, 67 Hendricks, B., 230

186

Frost, R. 101

324 n. 6 Debussy, C., 87, 102 Delacre, L., 283, 306 D’Escouchy, M., 324 n. 6 Dewey, J., 45, 47, 50, 66 Diaz de Castillo, B., 285 Dobbs, S. M., 101 Dorsey, T., 304

Eisner, E.

302, 304, 307

P.,

V, 171

Haydn,

O.,

Eastman Wind Ensemble, 325 Eco, U., 104

Harpole,

Havel,

138

Davis, M., 303, 306

De La Marche,

V.,

Hart,

Frank, A., 258

172-3

323 230

E., 67,

M„ 287, 307 Hartmann, V. 70

Fowler, C., 304, 306

Daniel, 227

G.

Hammerstein, O., 70 Handel, G. F., 58, 60-65, 67

47

M., 302, 304, 307

Fogelquist,

Hall,

A., 323 n. 1

P.

Hamilton,

199

E.,

Fogarty, R., 43,

D da Vinci,

H

Finnegan, R., 245-6, 268

Crafts, S. D., 1, 7

Cosner,

Knowing

Grant, U.

S.,

S.,

186

Howe, J.W., 202-3

Huxley,

M.

R., 88

196

Greene, M., 49, 66, 172 Greer,

F Fagan, G., 70 Faller, L.,

199

W.

International Society for

Grossman, J., 219

Ives, C., 65,

Fallows, D.,

324 n. 6 Farquharson, M., 295, 306

Grun, B„ 175, 186 Guerrero, L., 308

Ferguson, N., 323 n. 3

Gutenberg, 175

FUipovic, Z., 258, 260-1, 268

I

D., 101

Grimes, E., 65, 66 Gross, T., 69

Guthrie, W., 147

Music

Education, 250, 268

98

J Jackson, T. Jacobs,

H.

J.

“Stonewall,” 196

H„ 43, 47

1

Name Index

Janson, H. W., 186

Lee, A., 124

Jason, 180

Lee, R.

287, 291, 293, 307

Jay, S.,

226 Jessup, L., 294, 307 Jesus, 227-8 Jimenez,

Joel, B.,

McNeil,

Johnson, J. R., 234 Johnson, J. W., 234

Jones-Bamman, Joshua, 227

Mehta,

Lewiston, D., 274, 281, 283, 287,

Meintjes, L., 253, 269, 325

325

List, G., 293,

M.

A., 274, 282, 307, 308

L.,

324

S.,

Mitchell, E. H., 325 n. 2

301

Lute Society of America, 185 Luther,

Key, F.

King,

S.,

M.

M.

H. M., Kmetz, D., 247

13,

Lye, K., 260, 269

32

Kobom, J., 287, 291, 292, 293, 294, 307, 310

Magellan,

F.

172, 175

Kovalik,

Manuel,

S. J.,

P.

295, 302, 308

Kramer, A., 186

Marimba Yajalon, 287, 288, 308

Kubik, G., 293, 307

Marre, J., 304, 308

Kunzel, E., 221 Kusic,

Marsalis,

Studies, 141, 181, 302, 308,

W., 70

325

Martinez, L. A., 274, 308 Labastida, A., 274, 306

Ladysmith Black Mambazo, 251-3 Lafortune-Martel, A., 324 n.6 Lasker,

J.,

Matisse, H., 97 T., 19, 28,

Lasky, K., 282, 307

May,W. V.,6,7

LaugUin, J., 73

McArthur,

LeBlanc, A.

McCord, D., 323 n. McCoy, C. W., 146

6,

7

Ledbe, J. H., 202

161,

166

May, W.

186

323

Martinez, O., 303, 38

Mary I, Queen of England,

S.,

n.

3

New York Philharmonic,

Martin, Jr., B., 114-15

L

N National Council for the Social

Marrin, A., 285, 308, 326

D„ 325

D., 258, 268, 302, 306

Murphy, J., 211 Music Educators National Conference, 234 Mussorgsky, M., 70, 87 Myers, H., 302, 308

M Mahy, M., 186

290 43, 47

Mozart, W. A., 70, 79, 87, 98 Mtimet, A., 186 Muhlberger, R., 165

Mabry, L. 27, 33

Kolles, S., 289,

Montagu, J., 185 Montezuma, 325 Moore, T., 49, 67 Moreno, C., 299 Moses, 227 Moses Hogan Chorale, 235

Muddyman,

175

60

L., Jr.,

Kleibard,

304

Miller, G.,

n. 3

A., 199

Los Lobos, 298, 308 Los Mecateros, 310 Los Pregoneros del Puerto, 294, 297, 308 Loucks, S. F, 67, 323 Lovell, J. J., 227-8, 234, 325 n. 5 Loza,

Michaelangelo, 172, 175 Miles, D. H., 199

Llerenas, E., 297, 308

F.

P.,

Merriam, A. R, 247, 269 Merrill, F. T., 197

269

305

Kennedy, J.

60, 303 145, 201

304

305, 308, 326

Merman, J., 283, 308

Keil, C., 1, 7 F.,

L.,

Menzel,

Lord,

K

D. 161

Mendoza,

Lincoln, A. 196, 226, 235

Lockwood,

Kaemmer, J. E., 246, 247, 268 Kandinsky, W., 69 Kaplan, M., 247, 268 Kaptain, L, 289, 290, 293, 307 Katsumori, I. 259, 268 Katz, W.L, 211, 230

67

Limbourg Brothers, 186

Llama,

Jovanovic, R., 263-7, 325

Z., 60,

Melvill,

287, 307

F.,

Lipsitz, G., 244,

R., 268,

213

K.,

Levin, T., 258, 260, 268

288, 307

300

186

McNeil, R„ 213

230

Lieberman,

Joan of Arc, 175

F.,

McKissack, R, 186

Leonhard, C., 19, 32

300

F.,

McKissack,

E„ 196

Lester, J.,

Jefferson, T.

33

n.

60, 67,

3

Newlove, B. W., 67, 323 Norstrom, S., 17, 21, 23, 24, 29, 39, 41 Nye, N.

S.,

273, 309

32

o

302, 304, 308 1

Ober, H., 271, 309 Obert, M., O’Brien, L.

6,

7

L„

290, 293, 305, 309


33 *

O’Keeffe, G., 49-50,

O’Keeffe, R, 254-5

Olds,

Reagon, B. J., 234

Sabbathday Lake, The,

Rednex, 298

69

S.,

Shaker Community of

Ray, D., 211

M, 252, 254-5, 269

O’Keeffe,

123, 130, 150

Sheehy, D., 286, 302, 309

Reeves, J., 6.2

Olson, D., 286, 294, 309

Reilly,

M., 309

Sherman, G., 196

Opie,

I.,

162

Reimer, B., 37-38, 47

Siivola, C., 6,

Opie,

P.,

162

Rich, A., 61, 67

Silber,

Orozco, J., 309

Osgood, K.

Richardson, 213, 217, 219

P.,

S.,

324

n.

4

Rene of Lorraine 179 Renwick Gallery of the National

P Palmer, A.

249-50, 256, 269,

J.,

325 13, 32, 87, 101, 110

Paterson, K., 186 Patterson, D. Pavarotti, L.,

M, 295, 309

Pena,

D. N.,

Perkins, Perl,

I.,

15,

32

280, 309, 325

Peters, E.,

Pettit, F.

Pettit,

268

H., 274, 309

R. M., 274, 309

Pike, A. 150-1

Good, 176-8, 180

Philip the

S.,

280, 306

M.

Sizer, T. R., 12,

Sleeter, C., 307,

Rogers, R., 70

Slobin,

Ronstadt, L., 304, 309

Smith, R. A., 23, 33, 88

Rosenberg, D., 317, 322

Snowden,

B.,

150

Snowden,

L.,

150

M., 284

J.,

E,

Ross, C., 280, 309, 325

Solomon, T., 295, 309 Sondheim, S., 70

Rousseau, H., 70

Sonneck, O. G.

Rousset, C., 60, 67

Spielberg, S. 70

Rowan, P„ 304

St.

Rubin, L., 316, 322

Stake, R., 27, 33

S. L.,

Rutherford,

112

W.

L., 67,

323

S.

Sacks,

80-82, 86

Sacks,

147, 299

H.

R,

J.

197

150, 153, 197

Saint-Saens, C., 73-74, 87

67

G., 176

Santoli, A., 303, Sass, L.

J.,

309

Q Quetzalcoatl, 271

185

230

R Radford, E., 162

M. A, 162

326

Stevenson, R. L., 92 Stiggins, R.

J.,

117

Strachwitz, C., 303, 309

Sullivan,

70, 87, 102

I.

C„

305, 309

Susato, T., 167, 169

Suzuki, H., 60, 67

Swanwick,

119

Schiff, A.,

Schmid,

W„ 147

Scholes,

P.

Schubert,

Radford,

Staton, B., 323 n. 3

Stravinsky,

123

F.,

145

Louis Symphony, 221

Stein, R. C., 309,

L., 150, 153,

Schola Cantorum of Boston,

Quivar,

T.,

Stein, G., 88

S

186

Preston, K. K., 61-62,

Purdy,

325

M., 248, 269

Staton, M., 323 n. 3

Powell, A., 186

Presley,

33

221

Slatkin, L.,

175

Poortvliet, R.,

Prelutsky,

208

Robin Hood, 183

PodellJ., 186 Polo,

7

L., 6,

Singer, L. C.,

230

P.,

W.

K.,

146

A., 162

F.,

T

136

Schuman, W., 65 Schwab, J.J., 19, 32

Tansey, R. G.

Schwartz, B., 175

Tatem, M., 162

Tapia, O. M., 310

Tchaikovsky, 103

Scripp, L., 110

269

Ramo,J. C., 317, 322 Randolph, S. G., 129

Seeger, A., 139, 247,

Ravenscroft, T., 157-61, 163, 166

ShabalalaJ., 252-3, 256

Seurat, G., 98

325

246, 251-3, 256, 269

P.,

Sims,

Robertson,

Root,

234

Petrovic, Z., 258, 260,

Simon,

Simonton, K., 317

Rosenfelt,

Perrone, C., 286, 309

Silverthorne, E., 280, 309,

129

Robeson,

W., 130 94

3

n.

Silm, H., 186

Collection of Fine Arts,

Roberts, R., 293, 307

M. J.,

Parsons,

7

324

Silverman, J., 324 n. 3

176

Riley, G.,

I.,

Terakado, R., 60, 67

Thomas, T., 74 Thompson, J., 199, 201

Name Index

Thornton, Big

Tomoaki,

F.,

Mama, 299

260, 269

333

Valens, R., 299, 300,

310

Veblen, K. K., 146

Winters, L., 117

Wise, A., 199

Tovey, D., 326

Vide, J. 183

Wisler, G. C., 211

Trease, G., 186

Vivaldi, A., 87, 136

Wolf, D. P, 110

Trillo, R.,

Wood, T„ 185,324

258, 268, 302, 306

Tubman, H., 228

w

Wright, C., 324

n.

n.

3

6

Washington Friends of Handel,

u Uemura,

K., 60,

UNICEF, 258,

Whittier, J. G., 60

262, 269

United Society of Believers, 124

n.

Valdez, L., 298, 310

Yolen, 129

Wiggins, T., 292, 293, 294, 310

Yoshida, H., 303, 304, 308

Wilhelm of Bavaria, 170 Wilkinson, W., 199, 202

Young, K. A., 174

Williams, J., 70

V Vaughan, R., 324

Y

58,61

67

Williams, 6

W.

C.,

Willis, D., 248,

Winter, J. 230

z

70

269

Zwilich, E. T., 57-65, 66, 67, 87,

317

Subject Index Page numbers

in boldface indicate

works actually provided in the book,

for example, reproductions of paintings, songs,

A

77; music as

Accent: in music, 89-90; in

metaphor

for

other, 69-70; physical

poetry, 89

Acoustics, 21, 93, 287-8, 291

tionships between and

Aesthetic scanning, 100-3

among, 69-82,

African-American

techniques for expression

226-35 works, Back I,

II, III,

IV

Games (Brueghel), 158, 164, 164-5; Henry VUI (Holbein), 186; The Philip the Good, 177;

Authenticity of musical examples,

272

B

271-305; distinction

between place and, 243

Appalachian Spring

(Graham), 129-31; Griot

Kermess (Brueghel), 70; The

New York

Lutemaker (Standebuch),

Pulcinella, 70;

March Family

(Fagan), 70;

Swan

Lake,

87

Canon:

(Brueghel), 186; The Sleeping

Color: in

98

Artistic development,

109-10

Arts: collaborations, 70; engage-

ment

with, 49-65; facets of,

music, 150-3, 195-235

art,

les-

son planning, 109-17;

music, 95. See also round

War

Civil

(Seurat),

of

257-9, 265-8, 315-21;

in dance, 95, 122; in

186; Peasant Wedding

Articulation, 89, 91, 93

15-17; inquiry,

ciplinary,

Curriculum planning, 142-3,

c

Peasant Dance (Brueghel),

the

9-11;

curriculum

Newsfrom the War (Homer), 216; October

Gypsy (Rousseau), 71;

of,

and interdis-

13. See also integrity

(Merrill), 197;

Sunday Afternoon on

Curriculum: definition disciplinary

Gathered around the Piano

Island ofLa Grande Jatte

music, 64-65, 113-6,

Culture, 79, 123-31, 142, 243-68,

Ballets:

(Limbourg Brothers), 186;

The” 234 movement, 114, 122;

Dialect,

Creating:

Criticism. See artworks

(UNICEF), 258, 260-2; The

157; The

You Sing

Dixie?” 197; “Use of

128

I

Dream ofPeace: Images of War by the Children ofthe Former Yugoslavia

Words

New Meanings,” 226;

183; “Should

ments about, 37-38, 298; subject of, 86-88 154, 249-51,

with

“Reading the Records,”

Artworks: quality of and judg-

Hunt of

in his-

138-54, 195-235

School,” 283; “Old

74-76, 88-91

(Matisse), 97; Children’s

271-305; of music

Controversy in the Curriculum:

“Holidays in Public

85, 104;

100-1; terminology,

in,

Art: connections to music, 65;

etc.

tory,

properties of, 72-74; rela-

spirituals,

poems,

objectives, learning activities,

and assessment, 117

75-90; in dance, 75;

in poetry, 75; in music,

Composition: in

art,

75

75; in dance,

Concept formation in music, 38 Consonance: in music, 75; in of,

136; of

music in culture, 243-68,

334

folk dance of Mexico, 282;

Renaissance, 167-9; Setnja (Serbian), 259-60, 263. See

poetry, 75

Context: definition

D Dance: connections to music, 65;

75; in music, 75

also ballet,

Dynamics, 89, 91

movement

Subject Index

E Enhancing

the Understanding of

33 5

styles

Sheehans Jigs, 254-5;

28-30; topical themes,

Context: “Brief Portrait of

“Simple Gifts” (Brackett),

the Shakers, A” 124-5;

131; “Three Blinde Mice”

“Marimbas of Mexico and Central America, The” 289-90; “Marimbas of

(Ravenscroft), 166;

West and Central The” 291-93

Africa,

Mexican The” 279-80

tion of, 35-36; superficiali-

G Major (Bach),

in

List,

Form. See structure

arts, 60:

connections to

art,

75, 90, 93; in dance,

75, 89; in music, 75; in poetry, 75

G

Listening: guiding, 66, 219,

Educational Practice,”

Games, 114-5, 163-4, 286-7, 293-4

16-17; “Examining Origins

Geography. See culture, social

Musical Connections in

Gesture: in

The Transport “Examining

Personal Musical

223-5; musical maps,

63-64 Listening charts: American Salute

(Gould), 224-5; “La

studies

Affiliations,” 245;

“Examining Personal

The

L Language Line: in

Other Art

Experience:

36-41, 76

music, 60, 65

70

Forms,” 86; “Examining

Exercise,” 54;

concerns about, 22-24,

Third Kind, 70; Raiders of

to Music,” 79;

Experience:

ty,

27, 71; within the disciplines,

“Applying the Facets

and

45-47; defini-

“Whirligig Beetles”

the Lost Ark, 70; Schindlers

“Applying the Facets

to

beyond

31, 42-45, 70, 82;

Films: Close Encounters of the

Pinatas in

Model

between

disciplines, 19,

disciplines,

118

Epistemology, 12—13

Model

and among

Feast of the Pheasant, 175-87

161-2; “Significance of

Exercises:

on “Simple

43-44 Integrity of curriculum:

Gifts” (Copland), 131;

No. 10

‘Three Blind Mice,’”

Festivals,

Variations

(Fleischman) and Invention

“Origins and Significance of

of arts integration,

plinary curriculum, 319;

75; in dance, 75;

art,

Bamba,” 298, 299; “Farandole” from

75

in music,

Ghana, music from, 287, 291-4

LArlesienne Suite (Bizet), 96; Variations on “Simple Gifts ” (Copland),

Circles

127

Literature (fiction): Across Five

Exercise, Part I,” 2;

H

“Examining the Diversity of Music within a

Harmony,

Community,” 245; “Examining the Musical Experience of Others:

The

91,

Aprils (Hunt), 211; Bull

89: chords, 91; tonality,

Run

220-5

Cool Salsa: Bilingual Poems

History, 79, 103, 123-131, 142-3; Civil

War, 195-235; related

(Fleischman), 211;

on Growing

Up Latino

Circles Exercise, Part II,” 6;

to music, 138-54, 157-87,

305; Daily Life in Holland

“How Do the Arts

195-235; Renaissance,

in the Year

157-87;

(Poortvliet), 186; Florentine

72;

Differ?”

“Restoring Context to

Familiar Songs,” 144

slavery, 196,

1566

226-35, 285, 291, 293. See

Merchant

also social studies

Follow the Drinking Gourd

(Caselli), 186;

(Winters), 230; Here

F 144-5, 252, 254

model applied

to: Civil

My

Arts for Young People

Idioculture, 1

War

Interarts relationships. See arts,

music, 207; “Homeless”

relationships

(Simon and

among;

253; “I

is

Kingdom: HispanicAmerican Literature and

Facets model, 76-82, 85-86,

Facets

in

the United States (Carlson),

Shabalala),

Am Growing a

Glorious Garden” (Prelutsky), 82; interdisci-

between and

interdisciplinary

curriculum Interdisciplinary curriculum: essential questions, 181;

(Sullivan), 305;

Came Into

How Music

the World (Ober),

A

City of 271; Lebek: Northern Europe Through the Ages

(Hernandez &.

Ballonga), 186; Little

?


336

Literature (fiction), continued

Women

(Alcott), 197, 211;

Maestro Plays, The (Martin), 114-16;

Nation Torn, A: The Story

Motive: in

of How the Civil War

Movement:

Began (Ray), 211; Old

Many

Worlds to

New

art,

98; in music,

98

in art, 75, 90; in

dance, 75, 89; in music, 75;

(Podell 8c

in poetry, 75; to music, 62,

Thousand Gone

Anzovin), 186; Pinata

114, 121, 172-82; to poet-

(Hamilton), 230; Medieval

Maker, The (Ancona), 274,

ry,

Feast,

A (Aliki), 183; Merry

Ever After: The

Story of

Two Medieval Weddings Nine Days

(Lasker), 186;

Christmas (Ets

to

&

277; Renaissance, The

(Wood), 185; Renaissance, The: The Living Past (Goodenough), 186;

120

Multiple intelligences, theory

Music: absolute, 86-88;

36tion, 22;

as cogni-

cultural authentic-

249-51, 266-8, 272;

Renaissance People

ity,

Labastida), 274-6; Pablo

(Howarth), 186;

elements

Remembers: The Fiesta of

Renaissance Places

37tions

Day of the Dead (Ancona), 282; Red Cap

(Howarth), 186; Rise of Islam, The (Powell), 186;

139, 146-8; literature,

(Wisler), 211;

popular, 6, 295-300;

gram, 87; selection

the

Somersaults,

and

Royal Kingdom of Ghana, Mali, and Songhay

Headstands:

Game Poems

(McKissack 8c

Stilts,

of,

22, 140

of,

of, 18,

38-39; func-

28-29, 50,

38; notation, 159-61;

processes of, 39-40; proof,

Based on a Painting by Peter

McKissack), 187; Separate

Breughel (Fraser), 163, 165;

Battle,

mission

Turn Homeward, Hannalee

Civil

295-300; verbal description

(Beatty), 211; Ugly

A: Women and the War (Chang), 211; Slavery to Civil War

Duckling, The (Anderson),

(Katz), 211; Timetables of

73;

Umm El Madayan: An

History (Grun), 186; To Be

38; traditional, trans-

of,

Music

of,

145-8,

50-51, 90-91, 103

instruction: in the general

classroom, 17-19, 25-31;

Islamic City through the Ages

a Slave (Lester), 230;

interdisciplinary nature of,

(Ayoub, Binous, Gragueb,

Underground Railroad, The

20-24; scheduling, 13-15,

Mtimet, 8c Silm), 186;

(Cosner), 230;

Unsettling Amer ica: An

a Breughel a Breughel

Musical preferences, 6

Anthology of Contemporary

(Muhlberger), 165; World

Musical works: 1812 Overture

Multicultural Poetry (Gillan

1492 (Fritz, Paterson, Mahy, McKissack, McKissack, 8c Highwater), 186; Zlata's Diary (Filipovic), 258, 260-1

8c Gillan), 305 Literature (nonfiction): Boys’ War, The (Murphy), 211;

Coming of the Civil

War,

What Makes

in

The (Goldston), 211;

Goldsmith), 282; Days of the Dead (Lasky), 282;

Diary ofAnne Frank, 258; Exploration and Empire

98, 207, 221, 224-5;

Appalachian Spring (Copland), 70, 78-9;

168, 169; Bransle (Susato),

M

(Arnold 8cTrease), 186;

Mexican -A merican Celebration (Hoyt-

(Tchaikovsky), 103;

American Salute (Gould),

“Bouffons” (Arbeau), 167,

Datelines of World History

Day of the Dead: A

19-20

Melody, 89, 125, 297: contour, 63, 90, 93-94; interval, 90;

167; Carnival of the Animals (Saint-Saens),

73—74, 87; Concerto Grosso

range, 90; register, 90,

1985

93-94;

317; Eine Kleine

scale, 90,

220;

(Zwilich), 57-65, 87,

Nachtmusik (Mozart), 71;

sequence, 90

Meter: in dance, 92; in music, 82, 92, 118-22, 274-82; in

Enigma

Variations (Elgar),

315-6; “Et C’est Assez”

(Kramer 8c Adams), 186;

poetry, 82, 89, 92, 112,

(Vide), 183; “Farandole”

Mexican Folk

118-22

from L'Arlesienne Suite No.

Decorations

Toys: Festival

and Ritual

Mexico, 271-305:

map

of,

284;

Objects (Pettit 8c Pettit),

musical instruments

274, 277; Music in the

285-94, 297, 300-4; musi-

Civil

War

(Currie), 211;

cal styles of,

301-2

of,

2

(Bizet), 94, 96;

Seasons,

Fourth ofJuly Griot

Four

The (Vivaldi), 87; (Ives), 65;

New York

(Marsalis),

)

Subject Index

70; “Harbinger of Spring”

337

Photographs, books

of:

World:

(Stravinsky), 102; Invention

Portrait (Menzel), 305;

No. 10

in

118-22;

G (Bach), New

England Triptych

States

poses

War of the United

46 of,

124-5;

furniture of, 124-5, 128-9;

music

(Brady &. Gardner),

of,

123, 125-6,

141128-31

Poems: “The Dance” (Williams),

Home

Bald Mountain

70; “Driving

(Mussorgsky), 87; Octet (Stravinsky), 87; Pictures at

Cows” (Osgood), 213, 217- 19 “I Am Growing

an Exhibition

Glorious Garden”

(Mussorgsky), 70; Prelude

(Prelutsky),

D Minor

of,

Shakers: description

219

(Schuman), 65; Night on

230

Schooling: aims of, 46-47; pur-

on the Battlefields During the Civil

87; Lincoln Portrait

and Fugue

Science, 21,

Original Photographs Taken

La Mer (Debussy),

(Copland), 65, 235;

s

Material

A Global Family

from Rite of Spring

Social studies: inclusion of music

the

in,

139-43; standards, 2, 181,

Song

80 82-83, 86; ,

206, 302. See

also culture, history

a

;

texts as subjects for study,

143-54, 213-9, 229-34

Got

Songs: “All God’s Chillun

(Bach), 87; Prelude to the

“Jump or Jiggle” (Beyer), 112 - 113 “Matha Graham”

Afternoon of a Faun

(Laughlin), 73; “Music in

“America, the Beautiful,”

Camp” (Miles), 199-201 “On the Pulse of Morning”

295-300, 296- 7 300;

(Angelou), 235; “Pinata”

“Battle

(Brahms), 87; Second

(Clement), 273 “Slowly”

The,” 199, 208, 219; “Battle

Symphony

(Reeves), 93; “Sometimes

Hymn of the

Running”

The,” 195, 197, 199, 202,

in

(Debussy), 102; Pulcinella (Stravinsky), 70; Quintet for Clarinet

and Strings

(Ives), 65;

Sheehans Jigs, 253—6;

D Major

;

;

;

(Ciardi),

49

;

Wings,” 230, 232 232-6; ,

145; “Bamba, La,” ,

Cry of Freedom, Republic,

(Handel), 58, 60-65;

(McCord), 93; “Whirligig

203 208; “Beautifbl Emina,” 259-60; “Billy,

Sonata Op. 13

Beetles” (Fleischman), 96,

Billy,” 114,

118, 119 120-2

Blue Flag,” 195, 199, 202,

Sonata in

“Song of the Train”

(Pathe'tique)

(Beethoven), 298;

Swan

Lake (Tchaikovsky), 87;

Symphony No.

5

(Beethoven), 98;

Symphony

No. 6 (Pastoral (Beethoven), 87;

No. 41

in

C

(Mozart), 87;

Variations on “Ah, Vous Dirai-je,

98

\

,

Maman” (Mozart),

112; assonance, 81, 89;

Races,” 65; “Chester,” 65;

consonance, 89, 93; devices

“Cotton- Eyed Joe,” 146, 299; “Dixie,” 150-3, 195,

81-82; metaphor,

80-81, 89; onomatopoeia,

93; simile, 89. See also

The,” 94; “Follow the

meter

R in,

157-87

199;

“Go Down

art,

128;

“Happy “Hard

Birthday,” 144, 266; 98;

98-100; in poetry,

98-100 Round, 94, 122, 162. See also canon Rhythm: beat, 90; in art, 74; in dance, 74, 89, 92; in music,

P

I

Me, The,”

Aunt Rhody,”

Repetition and contrast: in

95

Left Behind

231; “Girl

Moses,” 228, 231; “Go Tell

Recorder, 167-70

in music,

in the Dell,

Drinkin’ Gourd,” 228, 230,

Renaissance, music

Ostinato: in dance, 95; in music,

“Donkey Riding,”

142144; “Farmer

on

o

197, 199;

89, 93, 112; rhyme, 82, 89,

“Simple Gifts” (Copland), 78-79, 98, 123, 126-31

;

,

Variations on “America”

(Ives), 98; Variations

115 “Bonnie

204 219; “Camptown

Poetry: alliteration, 81, 89, 93,

of,

Symphony

,

Times, Cotton Mill Girls,” 3; “Home, Sweet Home,” 199; “Homeless,” 251-3, 256; “Homespun

Dress, The,” 195, 202, 205

,

210; “Hot Cross Buns,”

“Hound Dog,”

74, 89, 92, 125, 297; in

128;

poetry, 74, 89, 92; melodic,

“In Bright Mansions

167-70, 213-17, 220-23,

90. See also accent, meter,

Above,” 230, 233, 234, 235;

229-32, 274-82, 286-94

tempo

“John Brown’s Body,” 199,

Performing music 114, 125-6,

298;


338

Songs, continued

Hardly

T

Blinde Mice,” 157-8,

202, 204, 208; “Johnny,

I

Knew Ye,” 206, 213,

159-60, 161-2, 164, 166;

“To Anacreon

201; “Tomorrow the Fox

Before the Battle, Mother,”

Will

“Kad ja

Come to Towne,”

“Twinkle Twinkle

Little

podjoh na Benbasu,”

Star,” 98,

“Vibora de

“London Bridge is Falling Down,” 144, 293; “Lorena,”

293, 294; “Volver, Volver,”

199; “Marriage of the

197, 228, 231;

la

303; “Wade

265;

the Weasel,”

“Row Row Row Your

Boat,” 94, 160;

“Run

Gifts,” 79, 123, 125, 126,

127-31, 150; “Sing a Song

of Sixpence,” 176, 183;

Low Sweet

Chariot,” 231; “Take

Out

to the Ball

Me

Game,” 266;

Camp

199, 219; “This

Ground),”

Land

is

Your

American

224-5; Variations on

Standards, National: music, 40-41,

(Mozart), 98; Variations on “America" (Ives), 98;

71, 141, 206; social studies,

141-2, 181, 206, 302

Variations on “Simple Gifts"

“Guiding Listening,”

(Copland), 78-79, 98, 123,

126-31 Timbre, 21, 81, 91, 125, 288-93.

“Objectives, Learning

See also tone color

Tone

and

“Ah,

Maman"

Vous Dirai-je,

color, 81, 89, 93,

297

Assessment,” 117 Structure: in architecture, 79; in

V

music, 79, 98-100, 118-22; in poetry, 99,

118-22

Style: in music, 20, 39,

60-65,

Land,” 147; “This Night,”

169, 296-8, 301-2; in other

298; “Three Blind Mice,”

arts,

157-8, 159, 160-2; “Three

variations:

Salute (Gould), 98, 221,

African-American

Activities,

“Tenting Tonight (Tenting

on the Old

95,98

Theme and

160, 199, 208

Leading a Song,” 220;

Away,” 197, 228, 231;

in art, 97,

129; in dance, 96; in music,

66; “Introducing and

The,” 144-5, 201, 208;

“Swing

“Yankee Doodle,” 79, 145,

Strategies:

“Star-Spangled Banner,

“Steal

Theme and variation:

195, 197,202,206,

spirituals

Children Run,” 144; “Simple

74; in music, 74,

Theater, connections to music, 65

213, 214, 219-21, 223-4;

Spirituals. See

92

art,

74

Home,”

Goes

89,

Texture: in

“We Shall 148; “When

Nismo

276; “Pop

89, 91, 221, 223-5; in poetry,

94-95, 118-22; in poetry,

Overcome,”

197,

16

in dance, 89; in music,

in the Water,”

Johnny Comes Marching

“Oh Freedom,”

Tempo:

Mar,” 287,

Frogge and the Mouse,

228; “Pinata, La,” 274-8,

cialists,

99-100, 222;

The,” 165; “Odkad Seke

265;

as generalists, 16; as spe-

165;

258-60, 261, 263-4;

Zapjavale,” 258-61,

30-31, 58, 173-4, 315-21;

in Heav’n,”

214, 219, 221, 223-4; “Just

199;

Teachers: as curriculum planners,

65

Symmetry/Asymmetry, 99

Validity,

35-36. See

also integrity

of curriculum

Venn diagrams, 42-45

Janet R. Barrett

is

associate professor

of music

education at the University of Wisconsin-

Whitewater, where she teaches elementary and secondary general music courses. She

is

co-author

of Looking In on Music Teaching.

Claire

W. McCoy is

associate professor

of music

education at the University of Minnesota. She has published widely on issues relating to choral

and general music education, with

special

emphasis

on teaching music through movement.

Kari K. Veblen is a research

associate at the Irish

World Music Centre of the University of Limerick. She

chairs the

Education Committee for the

Society for Ethnomusicology and the

ISME

Activity.

is

chair elect for

Commission on Community Music

She

advises orchestras, school systems,

and community groups on integrating the

arts

into the curriculum.

Cover design by designLab

©

1997 Simon

& Schuster Macmillan

Schirmer Books

An Imprint of Simon

& Schuster Macmillan

1633 Broadway

New York, New York

10019

http ://www. mlr. com/ schirmer

Music

From

in Childhood

Preschool through the Elementary Grades

Patricia

Shehan Campbell and Carol Scott-Kassner

Book: 0-02-870552-1

Audio CD: 0-02-864792-0

“This methodical book provides the music educator with some unique and

found in comparable music education

practical teaching strategies not

text-

books, ... a rich repository of sound teaching suggestions for the neophyte

and the experienced

The work

teacher.

is

an important addition to the

field

—Music Educators Journal

of music education.”

Lessonsfrom the World

A Cross-Cultural Guide to Music Teaching and Learning Patricia

Shehan Campbell

0-02-872361-9

Campbell draws on the ways

in

which music

is

learned in various cultures

throughout the world to argue for the cultivation of attentive listening and creative expression

on an equal footing with music

literacy

and performance

skills.

“Will prove valuable to music education teachers and students interested in

—Notes

multicultural approaches to learning.”

Contemporary Music Education, Third Edition

Michael L.

Mark

0-02-871915-8

“A wide-ranging introduction

to

most of the main concerns and trends of music

education in America and a book which will be of value both to students in

music education programs and to educators already working in the

— Council

field.”

for Research in Music Education Bulletin