Spatial heterogeneity of DTPA-extractable zinc in

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DTPA-extractable zinc appeared in the near suburbs and the riverside along ... drainage of Xihe River, and the extremely high values in the near suburb of the.
2005 V01.48 Supp I.82—91

Science in China Ser.C Life Sciences

82

Spatial heterogeneity of DTPA--extractable zinc in cultivated soils induced by city pollution and land Wenjul’,WEN Dazhon92,ZHANG Yuge3

J IANG Yon91’,LIANG

Wenb02

&CHEN 1.Key

use

Laboratory of Terrestrial Ecological Process,Institute of Applied Ecology,Chinese Academy of Sciences,Shenyang

110016.China; 2.Shenyang Experimental Station of Ecology,Chinese Academy of Sciences,Shenyang 1 1 001 6,China; 3.College of Land and Environment,Shenyang Agricultural University,Shenyang 1 1 01 61,China Correspondence should be addressed to Jiang Yong(email:jiangyongchina@hotmail.com) Received October 1 3.2004

Abstract

The spatial heterogeneity of DTPA.extractable zinc in the cultivated soils of Shen—

yang suburbs in Liaoning Province of China was investigated.and its map was drawn by thb methods

of

geostatistics combined

DTPA—extractable

zinc

semivariogram fitted



fitted

with

normal

geographic

distribution

information

after

system.The data

logarithm

of

transformation.and

solI its

spherical model.The semivariogram indicated that the spatiaI depend—

of solI DTPA-extractable zinc content was moderate.with the spatiaI dependence range of

ence

1.69 km and the fractaI dimension of 1.96.Stochastic factors contributed to 49.9%of the spatial variability,while structuraI factors contributed to 50.1%of it.The spatiaI heterogeneity of solI DTPA—extractable zinc shown by factors such

as



city pollution,Iand

kriged interpolation map was deeply influenced by stochastic use

pattern and crop distributions.For example。the average

content of Zn in vegetable garden soils was 2.5—4 times

much

as

was Iower in paddy soils than in their originated soils.The DTPA-extractable zinc appeared in the

near

as

areas

in their originated soils.and

with

higher content of solI



suburbs and the riverside along Hunhe River and

the wastewater drainage of Xihe River,and the extremely high values in the city’S residentiaI

were

area





suburb of the

striking feature.indicating the key role of city pollution in the spatiaI

heterogeneity of solI DTPA・extractable the results of such

near

zinc.When

recorded in the fOrm 0f



solI pollution map,

survey make it possible to identify the unusually polluted areas.and to pro—

vide more information for precise agriculture and environmental contr01. Keywords:soil zinc,spatial heterogeneity,city pollution,land use,geostatisics.

Zinc iS the primary

an

essential element for a111ife.and soiliS of Zn in

plant,animal

and human

tion,the improvement in diet quality,and of the nature

and



better

extent of plant,human

nutrition.Maps illustrating the spatial distribution of

understanding and animal Zn deficienciesm】.They

soil available Zn should contribute to the improvement

considering the consequences of applying Zn・・contain-—

and

ing solid wastes from agriculture

source

sustainability of agriculture and livestock produc—

Copyright by Science in China Press 2005

万方数据

will be useful in

and

sewage sludge.

of DTPA—extractable zinc in cultivated soils induced by city pollution and land Spatial heterogeneity

Soil zinc is necessary for plant nutrition,but its high content may induce phytotoxicity

logical

transformation

P in soil【jJ.Soil

and

affect the bio-

of other nutrients such

and plant

as

N and

factors influencing the die—

tary supply of both essential and toxic Zn have been

their speciarion

widely studied.including

availability■while

and

bio-

DTPA—extractable Zn from top

soils represents the more bio—available fraction of the total Zn content in soils,it is always regarded

as

characterized by

are

develop



map illustrating the geographic distribution

of DTPA.extractable Zn in the cultivated soil surface horizons of Shenyang suburbs.

Materials

1 1.1

and methods

Description of the survey region

Shenyang

is the capital city of Liaoning Province

of China.which is located

high degree of spatial



study is aimed to obtain the factors affecting the

spatial variability of DTPA—extractable soil Zn,and to

plant

available Zn in soils of north China。“. Soils

This

Liaohe

and

variability,even in intensively managed ecosystems。“. The spatial distribution of soil properties should be

named

management

of agricultural

analyze and interpret

fields.The most effective way to

as

on

the alluvial plains of the

Hunhe Rivers.with 5.68 million of popu—

lation 1iving in the

monitored for the effective

83

use

one

urban

area.It is

an

industrial city,

of the most polluted cities in the world

by the United Nations in early 1980s.It is in the

con-

tinental temperate monsoon zone,with dry and cold

and warm and

wet

summers.The

annual

mean

the existing soil survey data to extract useful informa—

winters

tion for further study is often of great concerno….Ra-

temperature is 7.0℃.and annual mean precipitation is

an understanding of across cultivated 1and。

700 inin.of which.70%occurs during May to Sep—

and

around

tional soil management requires how micronutrient status varies

and

we

can

soil sampling

use

micronutrients

soil

for

analysis

to develop maps to delineate the areas

t11at would benefit for

tember.The 1ength of the

days.The

150

annual

non—frost period is

survey was conducted in the

four suburb districts of Shenyang,with Dongling Dis—

us,or to identify the areas of

trict in the east.Sujiatun District in the south,Yuhong

micronutrient deficiency

or

Disnjct in the west.and Xinchengzhi District in the

environmental pollution.The inherent thing in this

north(41028’一42010’N:123。1’一123。48’E).The

process is the assumption that

total area of the four suburbs is 3299 km‘,of which,

particular

concern

such

as



soil property meas—

ured at a given point represents the surrounding

un—

sampled neighborhood.The validity of this assump— tion depends

on

the spatial variability of the soil prop—

erty.Geostastistics combined with geographic infor- marion system fGIS)have proven to be useful in pre— dicting the spatial distribution of soil properties that are very spatially dependent in fields having



limited

number of soil samples.The interpolation technique usually used is kriging。7’…. City pollution

and land

use

were considered

the two of the main contributors to trace element

as

en-

richments in cultivated soils of city suburbs。’1“.Re— searches conducted by

Manta

et a1.。1纠in Italy

and

by

1.63×1 03 hm2 is cultivated

land.According

to the

Chinese Soil Taxonomy‘1….the soils in the east of the survey region

are

classified

brown soils(Typic

as

Hapli—Udic Argosols),in the west

(Stagnic

Anthrosols)and

Hapli。Udic

Cambosols).and

as

meadow in the

long term planting of vegetables

near

as

paddy

soils

soils(Typic suburbs with

vegetable garden

soils(Orthic Anthrosols).The main crops in the near suburb are vegetables,and in the far suburb are corn (Zea mays L.)and rice(Oryza sativa L.).The parent materials,rivers

and

soil types in the survey region are

showninfig.1. 1.2

Soil sampling and laboratory

analysis

Sharma et a1.【1’1 in India demonstrated that Zn could 1984 samples were collected during

be inferred to be the tracers of anthropogenic pollution,

and

hence.using spatial heterogeneity of DTPA—ex—

of

2000,and the

samples

sampling sites

are

April—May

shown in fig.2.All

taken from 0—20 cm surface layer were

tractable Zn by the methods of geostatistics combined

soil

witll GIS should be helpful in assessing the influences

georeferenced by latitude and longitude with the

of city pollution

万方数据

and

land

use

on

Zn distribution。“.

global positioning system(GPS).Each sample repre‘

Science in China Ser.C Life Sciences

North

④ 20km



■■■■■■■●●—■■_

Fig.1.Parent materials,rivers and soil types of the survey

region.I,Alluvial deposit of Liaohe River(meadow soils);II,Mesa from slope deposit

(brown soils and meadow soils);III,slope deposit(brown soils);IV,alluvial deposit of Hunhe River(meadow soils and paddy soil);V,alluvial

and Hunhe Rivers(meadow

deposit between Liaohe

soils and paddy soil);VI.flat fields from alluvial



sented 70—90 hrn2 of cultivated soils.The samples collected were air-dried,sieved through



2一rnin nylon

deposit(paddy soil and meadow soils).

characterized by the sernivariogram which graphs the

variances

between spatially separate data points

screen,and split into two equal parts.One part was for

function of the distance

DTPA—Zn

modeled sernivariogram

as

determination,and

the other part was stored

reference for later investigation.

Wastewater River in May

samples

and

were collected from

Xihe

River.

The extractable Zn in soil was ex仃acted by DTPA

(diethylenetriamine penta—acetic acid)at pH 7.3,while

The

in wastewater was di.

ory

of regional

sumptions.On OUS

variables,and

one

spectrometry(AAS),with

or

absorption

graphite furnace

the lag

when required‘1…. 1.3

Geostatistical

The

or

weak

that it is

distance.independent

Zn is



the the—

several a

as—

continu—

hand。the

set of spatial

in.



unique function of

of location【1 o。.

obtained from omnidirectional

D7翻.extractable

on

stationary assumes that the

Experimental semivariogram in this

analysis

spatial variabifity of

万方数据

on

bution should be normal.On the 0ther

semivariance exists,and

measured by atomic

relies

hand,the data must be

and

flame

be used in kriging,a

distribution.For parameter estimation,this distri.

trinsic hypothesis

were

Can then

sernivariogram analysis is based

gested by HF—HN03一HCl04.Both DTPA—extractable total Zn



semivariogram and variance minimization.

by

June of 2000.Each time,five sam-

and

as

1ag separating them.A

weighted linear interpolation with weights determined

ples were taken along the coastwise of Xthe

the total Zn both in soil

or

study was

semivariances,】,(矗),of

observations,z(xi),which was calcu—

zinc in cultivated soils induced by city pollution and land Spatial heterogeneity of DTPA—extractable

85

use

Sampling site



North



20km

■■■●●■■■■■■■一

Fig.2.Sampling sites in the survey region

lated

10.0.SPSS inc..1999).In this study,the data exhibited

as

positive

N(h)

以功2丽∑i=1[z(鼍)一z(Xi+h)]2, 1.

(1)

whereⅣ(^)is the number of observations separated by

on

ber,and

the parameters such

as

by

lag interval,lag aura。 2

semivariograms are

anisotropy.Experimental

fitted by theoretical models that have well known pa-

2.1

rameters

Zn

nugget

dependence

Co,sill(Co+e1),and range

fig.3、.The

geostatistical

parameters

and



the

KIiged maD for DTPA—extractable Zn were obtained

lag distance h.Semivariance estimations may de-

pend

statistics indicated that

normal distribution after log transformation ftable

and a

skewness,and kurtosis

the data of DTPA.extractable Zn were basically fitted

of spatial

use

of Arclnfo and ArcView.

Results and discussion

a.

Descriptive statistics of soil DTPA‘extractable

The frequency distribution histograms for the

Traditional statistical parameters

and the

logarithm

lated by SPSS(Statistics Package for Social Sciences,

Table 1

篙嚣。

N嘴盯 堕!

!里g:坚g:

1984

1.93

万方数据

and

data of DTPA—extractable Zn in soil before

distribu—

tion frequency of DTPA--extractable Zn were calcu・-

seen

transformation

are shown in fig.3.It

that DTPA—extractable Zn fitted

Descriptive statistics of DTPA—extractable Zn in soil

normal

after

can



篙絮

等等

嚣粤。

sD

1里g:坚g:

!!堕:蔓g:

cM%,

s咖ness

‰腻

0.01

9.80

1.38

1.65

85.49

1.86

3.47

!堡g:垦g



be

distribu—

Sciences

Science fn China Ser.C Life

soil

denitrification.and

they attributed this difference

to the presence of localized areas with extremely high 500

rate of denitrification.The difference of mean and me.

dian

Values

and the

high coefficient of variance in this

study should be attributed to extremely high Values of DTPA—extractable Zn in the

300

suburbs and point—

near

polluted sites. 一S矗oglI嚣uI&旨荡

200

2.2

Semivariogram

analysis and

interpolation via

kriging lOO

The

best fitted semivariogram model of DTPA—

extractable Zn was the spherical

0 1.5

0.0

3.O

4.5

6.0

7.5

9.0

model.and

功e (b)

nugget semivariance expressed

of the total

semivariance

the percentage

enables the comparison of

the relative size of the nugget effect

280

as

cor—

and fig.4.

responding parameters are shown in table 2

350

the

among

soil prop—

erfiesll8】.Cambardella et a1.[8】used this percentage to

一S

drive distinct classes of spatial dependence

210

if it was less

than

as

follows:

25%.the variable was considered

strongly spatially dependent;if it was between 25%

140

and J9Dgjo∞I =厶旨日∞

75%.the variable was considered moderately spa.

tially 70

dependent;and

if it was larger than 75%.the

variable was considered weakly spatially dependent. The ratio of Co to C0+C1 in this study was 49.9%,in—



dicating that the -2.0—1.6一l’3—0.9-0.5-0.1

0.3

0.6

D硎.extractable

Zn in

soil was

1.0

moderately spatially dependent. Fig.3.Histogram(bars)and

theoretical normal

DTPA-extractable

and after logarithm

Zn before

DTPA extractable Zn

distribution(1ines)of

content(mg・昭。1);fo)after

Table 2

transformation.(a)

Parameters for best-fitted semivariogram model of DTPA—extractable Zn

logarithm transfor.

marion.

tion after logarithm transformation.The main distribu. tion interval was from 0.5 to 3.0 mg・kg~.and about one

fifth of the data showed DTPA—extractable Zn

content more than 3.0 mg・kg~.The descfiptive sta.



tistics for the data of DTPA.extractable Zn is listed in table 1.The mean

and

median were used

as



the pri.

tendency,and the stan. dard deviation(S.D.),coefficient of variance(C.V%), and the maximum and minimum Values were used as



mary estimation of the central

the estimation of variability.The mean value was much higher than the

median

value.indicating the

uo星—h矗>一—Io疗

,蛩‘Ⅲ/



O 0

20

central tendency dominated by the outHers in the dis— tributions.Parkin et difference in the

万方数据

a1.【1

mean

71

and

reported occasionally the

median

values of natural

40 Lag

Fig.4.Experimental extractable Zn.

and

60

80

distance/km

model—fixed

semivariograms for DTPA—

Spatial heterogeneity of DTPA—extractable zinc in cultivated soils induced by city pollution and land

Range value(a)is the most important parameter

use

near suburb in Yuhong District were



striking feature

indicating the heterogeneity caused by spatial auto—

in the kriged map.Compared fig.5 with fig.1,we

dependence.In this study,it was only 1.69 km,indi—

could

cating the short

distance

over

which soil DTPA—-ex--

tractable Zn was spatially dependent,and some im— portant ecological processes having deeply

affected

the heterogeneity of soil DTPA—extractable Zn.The spatial

dependence

range

DTPA—extractable Zn

was

than for

much

shorter

for

DTPA—extractable Fe

f34.9 kin)t1 91.

see

that the lowest value of

Zn was in areas I

and

D碱.extractable

VI.the highest value was in

areasⅣand V.While areas II and III had the mid. dle

value.The

kriged maD of DTPA—extractable Zn

showed the strongly heterogeneous characteristics in the study area. 2.3

Effects of

land

use

and

soil

types

on

the

heterogeneity of soil DTPA—extractable Zn

The kriged map of DTPA..extractable Zn in cul..

Soils are varied widely in their Zn content

and

in

tivated soils(fig.51 indicated the lower average Value

their ability to supply

of DT王'A.extractable Zn in the northwest of Xincheng—

growth.The soils with poor ability to supply Zn to

zhi DistriCt。southeast of Suiiatun District,and west of

crops are alarmingly widespread

妁白ong

District.while the soils in the near suburbs

around the city

and

in the riverside along the Hunhe

and the wastewater

sufficient

Zn for optimal crop

across

the

globe,and

this problem is aggravated by the fact that many mod— ern

cultivars of major crops are highly sensitive to low



Zn levelso“1.Although the original geologic substrate

higher average value.The extremely high values in the

and its subsequent geochemical and pedogenic regimes

River

drainage of Xihe River had

Fig.5.Kriged map of DTPA—extractable Zn in cultivated soils of Shenyang suburbs

万方数据

Science in China Ser.C Life Sciences

determined the total Zn levels in soils,they

are

rarely

indicative of the Zn availability,because the Zn avail— ability depends adsorptive

use

surface,and

practice

other

and

physical,chemical,and rhizosphere,and

hence,

soil type may induce the hetero—

geneity of soil DTPA—extractable Zn.Fig.6 shows the

DT黔一extractable

average

Zn content in different soil

types of of soil

(n=399),respectively(fig.6).

soil pH,organic matter content,

on

biochemical conditions in the land

∽=33),1.887 mg・kg一1(,z=18),and 1.393 mg・kg一1

Shenyang suburbs,which indicated the effects type and land use on Zn levels.Vegetable gar—

den soils,either derived from brown soil meadow soil,had the extremely high

or

from

values of

DTPA—extractable Zn.The average content of Zn in vegetable garden soils was

2.5’4

times

as

much

as

in

The high value of DTPA—extractable Zn in vege— table garden soils could be attributed to the high ap— plication amount of chemical fertilizers

inputs,and zinc

the

deficiency

use

manllre

of

in

paddy

and city

and

pesticide

sludge■The

soils has been

reported

worldwide。particularly in calcareous soilsljJ.In India. about half of the soils were low in Zn,with

as

much

as

74%of the rice—growing soils of the Andra Pradesh fa SOUthelTl state in India)being Zn deficient02…。The

re—

dox condition in paddy soils when submerged might result in Zn

deficiencyKL“J.and

the increase of soil

pH in calcareous soils,the irrigation water containing

their originated soils.Carbonate meadow boggy soil

high amount

had the lowest average content of DTPA—extractable

amount

Zn(O.685 mg・kg~,n=9),only 12.08%of that in

might decrease the available Zn content in paddy soils

vegetable garden soil derived from brown soil f5.672

as

mg‘kg~,n=18).T11e average

content of DTPlA—ex—

tractable Zn was lower in paddy soils

than

in their

of HC03一,the soils

well—In

short.different

zinc in cultivated soils of 2.4

soil had an average content of 1.181 mg・k91∽=

DTPA—ex仃actable Zn

579),while the meadow soils with sandy,loamy,and

an

average content of 1.803

mg・蚝“

land

use

practice may in—

duce the spatial heterogeneity of DTFA.extractable

originated soils,e.g.paddy soil derived from meadow

clay texture had

containing high

of free CaC03,and the submerged condition

a certain

Effects of city pollution

Determinations

on

on

region. the heterogeneity of

the total Zn contents in some

vegetable fields in the near suburb of Shenyang,10









.h_.∞m,口NvdHQ





O 2















10

11

Soil type Fig.6.Average DTPA—extractable Zn

content of different soil types.1,Brown soil derived from acidic rocks(n,27):2,brown soil derived from rocks(,l,15);3,brown soil derived from slope deposit(n,40);4,brown soil derived from loess deposit(n,126);5,meadow brown soil(n, 218);6,vegetable garden soil derived from brown soil(,l,18);7,sandy meadow soil(,l,33);8,loamy meadow soil(,l,18);9,clay meadow soil(n, 399);10,vegetable garden soil derived from meadow soil(n,134);11,carbonate meadow soil(n,90);12,carbonate meadow boggy soil(n,9);13, paddy soil derived from meadow soil(n,579);14,paddy soil derived from carbonate meadow soil(,l,69);15,paddy soil derived from brown soil(n,

alkaline

68).

万方数据

induced by Spatial heterogeneity of DTPA—extractable zinc in cultivated soils

city pollution and land

89

use

villages of 5 towns in Dongling and Yuhong districts,

the main contributors to the soil Zn enrichment in the

showed that(table 3)the total Zn contents in test

near suburb of large cities。2….Moreover,heavy appli—

vegetable garden soils had

cation of chemical fertilizers



striking contrast to the

and

pesticides in vegeta—

background value in soils of Shenyang‘。1.The total

ble fields was alSO thought to be the contributors to

Zn contents in test soils were 1.86—10.79 times

soil Zn concentration[9'29】.According to

as

Zhang et

a1.【271,

the background value.indicating the varia—

the average contents of DTPA—extractable Zn in flesh

fions of soil total Zn affected by anthropogenic poilu—

pig and chicken manure in Liaoning Province of China

tion.A1though it was not significantly correlated to the

were 38.9

total Zn in test soils.the DTPA—ex仃actable Zn in test

t11at the

vegetable garden soils in the

be the

much

as

was much higher

than

near

suburb of Shenyang

its average value in the whole

suburbs(tables 1 and 31.

and

as

atmospheric dust,vehicle

sewage sludge could increase the total Zn

in soils both in

urban

parts

raised Zn concentrations in soils

over

Warman

and in

all

plant

the whole growth seasonK“.The Zn in both

fresh chicken

manure

and the compost,according to

and Cooper¨….exceeded the maximum

concen仃ations of ordinarily used compost.The age contents of total Zn in flesh pig

and

aver-

chicken ma—

nure

in Liaoning Province of China were 121.0 and

84.5

mg。埏一,respectivelyu“,and

hence,the heavy

application of animal wastes was thought to be Table 3

Total Zn

content

one

of

of vegetable garden soils in

a、Thebackground value ofZnin soils ofShenyangwas Table4

万方数据

of

manure.especially

of chicken manure

of high DTPA.extractable Zn content in

soils of the near suburb.It could be concluded that city

neity of

one

of the main

D删.extractable

causes

of the heteroge—

Zn in the vegetable field

area of the near suburb.

砀e

and in the vicinity rural areasIj,“1.

Heavy application of sewage sludge caused signify—

cantly

use

cause

pollution was

City pollution such exhaust

and 31.4 mg’埏~,respectively,suggesting

total Zn content in test wastewater of Xihe

River during irrigation

ranged

season

from

1 8.2 to

30.4 mg・L_1,with the average value of 25.4 mg・L.1, which was 1 2.7 times irrigation

limit(table

as

much

41.Xihe

as

China’S national

River

is



principal

wastewater drainage in the western suburb of Shen—

yang,which

collects the industrial wastewater from

dozens of factories in western trict

and

Shenyang’S

Tiexi Dis.

the living sewage from northern Shenyang’S

Huanggu District,with an average daily output of 5×103 t.Meanwhile.Xihe River is also an irrigation near

suburb of Shenyang and its background value

64.13mg・kg一心

TotalZn contentinwastewaterofXiheRiver

rn=10)

Science fn China Ser.C Life Sciences

drainage which has irrigated the fields of the riverside

impact of geophagia

villages and towns for about forty years【5….It could be

cium in human nutrition,Environmental Geochemistry and Health,

concluded that the Zn enrichment in soils of this was due to the

area

10ng—term irrigation by wastewater,and

hence.the DTPA.extractable Zn was heterogeneous in this area compared to the nearby areas.The Zn incre— ment in cultivated fields irrigated by wastewater was

China.and

reported in some large cities of

most

re.

the bioavailability of iron,zinc and cal—

on

2002.24:305—319. 3.Liu,Z.,Agricultural Chemistry of

tural livestock

and

wildlife,Applied

5.Robertson,G R,Freckman,D.w’,The spatial distribution of nematode trophic groups

total Zn in wastewater irrigation area in western sub.

1995,76:1425—1432.

was n 1.45 i timesj as much as in its flesh g . 一

water irrigation

area.and

2.33 times

much

as

the

as

across

cultivated



6.Chien,r J.j Lee,D.Z,Guoj H.Z

et

ecosystem,Ecology,

aljj Geostatistics analysis of

soil properties of mid.west Taiwan soils,Soil Science,1997,162:

291—298.

background valuep 11. 3

Geochemistry,2002,17(8):

1017—1028.

suits were in accordance with ours.For example,the

urb of Bei

Microelements(in Chinese),

Beijing:ChinaAgriculture Press,1991,202--206,216—217. 4.Thornton,I.,Geochemistry and the mineral nutrition of agricul—

7.Yost,R.S.,Uehara,G,Fox,R.L.,Geostatistics analysis of soil chemical properties of large

Conclusion

land

areas.II:Kriging,Soil Science

Society ofAmerica Journal.1982.46:1033—1037.

The spatial heterogeneity of DTPA—extractable

8.Cambardella,C.A.,Moorlnan,T.B.,Novak,J.M.et

Zn in cultivated soils of Shenyang suburbs was deeply

Field—scale

influenced by the stochastic factors such

Science

tion,land

use

patterns and

as

city poilu.

distribution.The

crop

high

values of soil DTPA—extractable Zn in the near suburb

and

Shenyang poilution from an—

in the wastewater irrigation area of

were basically induced by the city

thropogenic activities.Currently,chemical Zn fertiliz— ers

are

so

ordinarily used in cultivated soils in the

suburbs of Shenyang and of other large cities of northern China that the soil Zn map

and

related infor—

mation obtained in this study could be useful in guid— ing Zn fertilization considered

as



practice.Wastewater irrigation was main source of Zn and other heavy

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suburbs.When

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