Sports Celebrity Influence on the Behavioral Intentions of ... - CiteSeerX

Sports Celebrity Influence on the Behavioral Intentions of Generation Y

ALAN J. BUSH

Teenagers currently spend an estimated $153 billion a year on everything from

University of Memphis

computers to cars to clothes (Brand, 2000). Trend conscious teens are very active in

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utilizing the media and advertising in seeking out the latest products, services, and CRAIG A. MARTIN University of Western Kentucky [email protected] VICTORIA D. BUSH University of Mississippi

fashions (Zollo, 1995). A greater understanding of teens’ role model influences can help organizations and their advertising agencies more effectively target and communicate to this growing market. In this study, we examine the effect of athlete role models on teenagers’ purchase intentions and behaviors. Results from a survey of 218 adolescents are discussed with implications and future research directions for advertising and sports marketing researchers.

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“When I take my kid out and hit him ground balls at shortstop, he wants to be Derek Jeter. He doesn’t want to be me. So any professional athlete who tells you he’s not a role model is full of baloney” —Father and Little League Coach (Pulley 2001, p. 131)

108

SPORTS AND SPORTS CELEBRITIES have become ma-

these athletes may have on a target market. Fur-

jor spectacles of today’s media culture. Sports

ther, it remains questionable as to whether or not

celebrities have been looked upon as role models

celebrity endorsers really make a difference on the

for decades, and with the technological advances

bottom line for advertisers. Miciak and Shanklin

in broadcast and interactive media, it appears that

(1994) reported that only one out of five commer-

famous and infamous athletes are everywhere

cials that included celebrity endorsers met adver-

(Jones and Schumann, 2000). Over the years, ad-

tisers’ strategic expectations. Researchers have

vertisers have paid famous athletes millions of

concluded that celebrity endorsers may not have

dollars to endorse their products. Sports celebri-

“connected” or identified with the intended target

ties’ endorsement responsibilities can range from

market (cf. Sukhdial, Aiken, and Kahle, 2002).

using or wearing certain brands (e.g., Tiger Woods

One can argue that this may occur because the

and Nike apparel) to providing actual brand tes-

celebrity endorser lacked identification and per-

timonials (e.g., Rafael Palmiero of the Texas Rang-

ceived familiarity with the target market.

ers and Viagra). Some of the most widely utilized

Perhaps one of the most important and sought

advertising spokespersons today are famous ath-

after target markets for advertisers today is one

letes such as Michael Jordan (Nike, Hanes, Gato-

that represents great potential yet considerable

rade), Tiger Woods (Wheaties, Buick, Target),

challenges—teenagers. Currently, teenagers have

Shaquille O’Neal (Radio Shack, Nestles, Burger

been classified as a part of Generation Y—those

King), Venus Williams (Reebok), and so on.

individuals born between 1977 and 1994. A recent

Despite the widespread use of athletes as prod-

issue of the Journal of Advertising Research (2001,

uct or brand endorsers, there is a relative lack of

Vol. 41, No. 5) highlighted and identified the

published research that investigates the influence

potential and yet resistance of Generation Y to

JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH

March 2004

DOI: 10.1017/S0021849904040206

GEN Y SPORTS CELEBRITY INFLUENCE

marketing efforts. Authors in this special

ner, 1997; Wolburg and Pokrywczynski,

individual. Socialization agents com-

issue discussed this need with a call for

2001).

monly used in the literature include par-

more research to understand the motiva-

Despite these seemingly opposite per-

tions and behaviors of this important

spectives, researchers and practitioners ar-

group. This need for research may be

gue that this group is an easier target to

The concept of consumer socialization has

particularly evident in sports and sports

market to because they have grown up in a

been utilized to determine, among other

marketing. For years, professional sports

consumer oriented society (Brand, 2000). Ac-

things, how consumers learn thought pro-

such as major league baseball have at-

cording to Rob Frankel, author of The Re-

cesses and consumption behaviors through

tempted to attract a younger audience to

venge of Brand X (2000), “. . . Gen Y is less

modeling (Moschis and Churchill, 1978).

its declining fan base.

ents, peers, mass media, school, and television viewing.

rooted in traditional social mores and eth-

Role models can be anyone the individual

More recently, Sukhdial, Aiken, and

ics. They are easier targets, because they

consumer comes in contact with who can

Kahle (2002) discussed the lack of re-

have grown up in a culture of pure con-

potentially influence the consumer’s con-

search on the female market for sports

sumerism” (as quoted in Manning-Schaffel,

sumption decisions (Bandura, 1977). From

marketers. Since the passage of Title 9 in

2002). Because of this, “. . . they are way more

this conceptual definition of role models, it

1972, a federal mandate to provide equal

tuned into media because there is so much

is obvious that parents, teachers, peers, or

athletic opportunities for men and women,

more media to be tuned into” (as quoted in

relatives can all be considered role models.

these women, of whom a large group

Manning-Schaffel, 2002). Thus, members of

In fact, many recent research studies have

belong to Generation Y, represent a huge

Gen Y, and in particular teen members of

analyzed how parents and/or peers influ-

market for sports, sports marketers, and

this generation, represent a viable group to

ence the consumption attitudes of individ-

sports celebrities. However, this major mar-

study in terms of media influences.

ual consumers (Bush, Smith, and Martin,

ket may be the least researched segment

According to the theory of consumer

1999; Carlson, Walsh, Laczniak, and Gross-

by sports organizations and sports mar-

socialization, as teens mature, their drive

bart, 1994; Keillor, Parker, and Schaefer, 1996;

keters. Do sports celebrity endorsers act

for independence contributes to establish-

Laczniak, Muehling, and Carlson, 1995).

as role models to females? And, if so, can

ing their own set of norms and behaviors

Many research studies, however, have

they influence this segment’s intentions

(Mascarenhas and Higby, 1993). Many of

not specifically investigated the impact of

and behaviors?

these new behaviors tend to be based on

role models with which the adolescent

Hence, the objectives of this study are

group stereotypes (Bodec, 1981; Graham

has little or no direct contact. A recent

to: (1) explore the concept of sports celeb-

and Hamdan, 1988). In searching for their

study examining the impact of role mod-

rities as role models for Generation Y,

independence, influences such as the me-

els on the self-views of young adults rec-

(2) investigate whether or not sports ce-

dia become very important to teenagers.

ognized that “individuals of outstanding

lebrity role models influence this gener-

What follows is a discussion of the theo-

achievement can serve as role models to

ation’s intentions and behaviors, and

retical foundations for this study.

others,” motivating young adults to adopt

(3) explore the influence of sports celebrity role models on female members of

certain self-images and lifestyle patterns (Lockwood and Kunda, 1997, p. 91). In-

CONCEPTUAL FOUNDATION

Generation Y.

cluded in this category of role models Consumer socialization

would be models from electronic or print

BACKGROUND

Consumer socialization is the process by

media that influence consumer consump-

Wolburg and Pokrywczynski (2001) em-

which “young people acquire skills, knowl-

tion attitudes and patterns without ever

phasized that the youth market is one of

edge, and attitudes relevant to their func-

directly contacting or meeting the con-

the most coveted of all segments due to

tioning as consumers in the marketplace”

sumer. These role models are the vicarious

their: (1) spending power, (2) ability to be

(Ward, 1974, p. 1). Consumer socialization

role models acknowledged by Bandura

trendsetters, (3) receptivity to new prod-

emphasizes sources of influence or “so-

(1986). Thus, a role model for an adoles-

ucts, and (4) tremendous potential for be-

cialization agents” that transmit norms,

cent can be anyone the individual comes

coming lifetime customers. Conversely,

attitudes, motivations, and behaviors to

in contact with, either directly or indi-

others emphasize that Generation Y is

the learner (Moschis and Churchill, 1978).

rectly, that potentially can influence the

one who is resistant to advertising efforts,

A socialization agent may be any person

individual’s

individualistic, and anticorporate (Kap-

or organization directly involved with the

(Bandura, 1977).

March 2004

consumption

decisions


109


Research has examined the impact of

and they have attractive and likable qual-

tentions of teenagers may help advertis-

vicarious role models on a variety of dif-

ities (Atkin and Block, 1983). Friedman

ers better communicate to this important

ferent dependent variables. For example,

and Friedman (1979) proposed that celeb-

target.

the influence of television role models has

rity spokespeople can add value to the

Traditionally, behavioral intentions have

been examined in terms of their impact

endorsed product due to a combination

been theorized and operationalized in a

on adolescent occupational goals (Chris-

of the physical attractiveness and status

unidimensional way rather than looking

tiansen, 1979) and career aspirations (King

of the athlete. Finally, McCracken (1986)

at specific types of behaviors. In fact, sev-

and Multon, 1996). Even superstars have

has theorized that celebrity endorsers can

eral research studies have used one- and

been analyzed to determine if they influ-

transfer cultural meaning from the celeb-

two-item scales to operationalize behav-

enced the self-views of young adults (Lock-

rity to the advertised product.

ioral intentions (cf. Anderson and Sulli-

wood and Kunda, 1997). Overall, the

Although these theoretical explanations

van, 1990; Cronin and Taylor, 1992). More

general consensus of these studies indi-

have increased our understanding of ce-

recently, Zeithaml, Berry, and Parasura-

cates that vicarious role models can be

lebrity spokespeople and have added to the

man (1996) developed a multidimen-

socialization agents and can have a signif-

body of knowledge on celebrity endorse-

sional behavioral intentions construct that

icant effect on the career aspirations, ed-

ments, none have assessed the impact of

included several aspects of behavioral in-

ucational choices, and the self-views of

celebrity endorsements on adolescent con-

tentions that have not been incorporated

young adults.

sumers. Thus, consumer socialization is a

into previous research. This construct in-

theoretical foundation that can provide a

cludes both favorable (i.e., word-of-mouth

Vicarious role models:

setting to assess the influence that a vicar-

communications, purchase intentions, price

The celebrity athlete

ious role model such as a celebrity athlete

sensitivity) and unfavorable (i.e., negative

Sports and entertainment marketing is one

would have on an adolescent. From this

word-of-mouth, complaining behavior) di-

of the fastest growing industries in the coun-

theoretical perspective, it is hypothesized

mensions of behavioral intentions.

try today. Sports marketing experts indi-

that a celebrity athlete will act as a social-

A multidimensional construct and mea-

cate that major advertising agencies are

ization agent in a teenager’s consumer so-

sure of behavioral intentions fits well into

expanding their services to include provid-

cialization process.

the socialization process for the teenage

ing sports marketing and sponsorship op-

market because it deals with facets of

portunities for their clients (Bonham, 1998).

Behavioral intentions: Outcomes of

behavioral intentions related to friends,

A large and very visible part of sports mar-

socialization

peers, and celebrity spokespeople such as

keting is the vicarious role model or the

The end result of the socialization process

saying positive things about a company

celebrity athlete spokesperson.

is based on the learning of consumer be-

or brand to others or recommending a

Celebrity athlete endorsement has been

haviors and is termed “outcomes” or con-

brand name to a friend. For the present

a topic of great interest to many organiza-

sumer skills. Behavioral intentions is an

study, behavioral intentions will be de-

tions. Seemingly, advertisers are choosing

outcome of socialization that may be of

fined based on the following three dimen-

larger-than-life sports heroes as spokespeo-

particular importance to advertisers be-

sions: (1) product switching or complaining

ple for their products (Brooks and Harris,

cause it is related to favorable and un-

behavior, (2) favorable or positive word-

1998; Sukhdial, Aiken, and Kahle, 2002).

favorable behaviors consumers may exhibit

of-mouth, and (3) brand loyalty.

Some of the most recognized advertising

toward a brand. For example, when con-

spokespeople today are sports celebrities

sumers praise the brand and express pref-

HYPOTHESES

such as Tiger Woods, Michael Jordan, Sha-

erence for one advertiser over others, these

Studies have found that mass media

quille O’Neal, Nolan Ryan, George Fore-

favorable intentions may ultimately lead

sources are important references for teens

man, and Mia Hamm, just to name a few.

to increased sales of the brand, paying

in selecting products (Gilkison, 1973; Mas-

Historically, there have been several

premium prices for the brand, spreading

carenhas and Higby, 1993). For example,

theoretical explanations for the wide-

positive word-of-mouth for the brand, etc.

Boush, Friestad, and Rose (1994) posited

spread use of celebrity spokespeople. For

Conversely, unfavorable intentions can lead

that mass media sources such as advertis-

example, researchers have suggested that

to switching brands and spreading nega-

ing would serve as a type of normative

celebrity endorsers may be influential be-

tive word-of-mouth. Therefore, gaining a

influence to teenagers. Vicarious role mod-

cause they are viewed as highly dynamic

better understanding of the behavioral in-

els such as athletes, entertainers, etc. have

110


March 2004


also been shown to influence adolescents

ings concerning gender. Their findings sug-

(4) they tend to be trendsetters for each

(Bandura, 1986). Mascarenhas and Higby

gest that women are less “old-school” than

other as well as the general population.

(1993) reported that the media is one of

men when it comes to materialism. That

Perhaps most importantly, teens were se-

the most important interpersonal influenc-

is, women were more likely than men to

lected for this study because teenagers

ers for teenagers. Furthermore, Martin and

disagree with the statement that “most pro-

are still learning and searching for their

Bush (2000) recently suggested the vicar-

fessional athletes have been too material-

own identity. Positive reinforcement from

ious role models such as entertainers and

istic,” “have no sense of loyalty to the

outside individuals or media can re-

athletes can be important influencers of

team,” and “are more interested in mak-

inforce preferences in deciding which be-

teens’ lifestyles and consumption pat-

ing money than playing the game.” This

haviors, values, attitudes, and skills are

terns. Based on these findings, we would

finding was even more evident in women

appropriate for them in a social context.

expect vicarious role models such as ath-

under 30 years of age (i.e., Generation Y).

A total of 218 teenagers participated in

letes to positively effect teens’ intentions

Based on this finding, one can argue that,

this study. Subjects were drawn from 70

and behaviors. Hence, this is the basis for

if females are less apt than men to view

separate high schools and junior high

the following hypotheses:

current athletes as materialistic, then young

schools in the midsouth United States.

women may be more receptive to sports

Table 1 provides a brief description of the

Teenagers’ athlete role model in-

celebrity role models. Thus, this is the

demographic characteristics of this eco-

fluence is positively related to

basis for the following hypothesis:

nomically and socially diverse sample.

H1:

Fifty-four percent were male (n 5 118)

product switching and complaint behavior. H2:

H4:


and 46 percent were female (n 5 100).

model influence is more posi-

Sixty-two percent were white, 28 percent

tively related to (a) product

fluence is positively related to

switching and complaint behav-

favorable or positive word-of-

ior, (b) favorable word-of-mouth

mouth behavior. H3:

Female teenagers’ athlete role

behavior, and (c) brand loyalty than male teenagers.


TABLE 1 Characteristics of Sample

fluence is positively related to brand loyalty.

Characteristic Frequency Percent ...........................................................................

METHODOLOGY

Gender Sports marketers are beginning to realize the tremendous potential of female members of Generation Y for sportsrelated products and services. In a recent study, the U.S. General Accounting Office discovered that, since 1997, more women than men participate in intercollegiate athletics (Lords, 1999). Thus, an important question for sports marketers and advertisers is whether or not young women can be influenced by sports celebrities and if these women’s perceptions of sports celebrities differ from those of men. In a recent study that investigated an attitudinal dimension of how fans identify with teams and athletes (i.e., “oldschool” or “new-school”), Sukhdial, Aiken, and Kahle (2002) reported intriguing find-

Subjects The teenage segment of Generation Y was

Males 118 54% ...........................................................................

the selected sample for the current study.

Females 100 46% ...........................................................................

There has been a great deal of variation

Ethnicity

among age ranges used in the literature

Caucasian 135 62% ...........................................................................

to define this important group (see Wol-

African American 61 28% ...........................................................................

burg and Pokrywczynski, 2001 for an excellent review of these studies). Generation

Asian 11 5% ...........................................................................

Y has been described in the literature as

Hispanic 3 1% ...........................................................................

anyone born between the years of 1977

Other 8 4% ...........................................................................

and 1994 (i.e., ages 8–25 years old). As a

Age

subset of this large group, adolescents

13 years 18 8% ...........................................................................

between the ages of 13 and 18 participated in this study. As stated earlier, teen-

14 years 25 11% ...........................................................................

agers were selected for many reasons

15 years 28 13% ...........................................................................

including: (1) their sheer size, (2) they are

16 years 57 26% ...........................................................................

in the process of acquiring preferences for products and brand loyalties, (3) they will

17 years 69 32% ...........................................................................

spend a lot of money in the future, and

18 years 21 10% ...........................................................................

March 2004


111


were black, 5 percent were Asian, and the

certain companies.” All items are pre-

plained nearly 70 percent of the variance

remaining 5 percent classified themselves

sented in the Appendix.

(69.63 percent), and each had alpha val-

as other ethnic backgrounds.

Three methods (exploratory factor analy-

ues exceeding .80, yielding factors accept-

sis, Cronbach’s alpha, and confirmatory

able for theory testing research (Churchill,

Measures

factor analysis) were used to select and

1979; Gerbing and Anderson, 1988).

The scales utilized in the present study

assess the final items that would be used

measure teenagers’ athlete role model per-

to measure the dependent variable of pur-

Confirmatory factor analysis. Finally, con-

ceptions in general and how these role

chase intentions and behavior. Explor-

firmatory factor analysis was conducted

models may influence their consumer-

atory factor analysis was first conducted

to assess the multidimensionality of the

related behavioral intentions. These scales

to examine whether the items produced

behavioral intentions scale. We subjected

are provided in the Appendix.

the three proposed factors and whether

the data to a confirmatory factor analysis

the individual items loaded on the in-

using LISREL 8.30 (Joreskog and Sor-

Role model influence. Athlete role model

tended factors. Factor analysis with a var-

bom, 1999). Considered a more rigorous

influence was assessed using an adapted

imax rotation was conducted on all 12

test than exploratory factor analysis, con-

version of the Rich (1997) role model scale.

items of the scale. As proposed, three

firmatory factor analysis specifies a mea-

This scale asks specifically how one’s fa-

distinct factors emerged and were la-

surement model a priori to restrict the

vorite role model influences the respon-

beled: favorable word-of-mouth (three

possible number of factors in the solu-

dent’s behavior in general as well as others.

items, a 5 .91), complaining and switch-

tion (Anderson and Gerbing, 1988). As

This measurement device asks the respon-

ing behavior (six items, a 5 .90), and

seen in Table 2, the standardized param-

dent’s level of agreement to such state-

brand loyalty or price insensitivity (three

eter estimate results of the confirmatory

ments as “my favorite athlete exhibits the

items, a 5 .81). The three factors ex-

factor analysis provide strong support

kind of work ethic and behavior I try to imitate” and “my favorite athlete sets a positive example for others to follow.” The athlete role model scale included five items and utilized a 7-point strongly disagree to strongly agree continuum. The reliability coefficient of this scale was a 5 .93.

TABLE 2 Standardized Parameter Estimates using Confirmatory Factor Analysis: Behavioral Intentions Scale Factor ....................................................................................................... Switching/Complaint Positive Brand

Intentions and behaviors. Consumerrelated behavioral intentions were meaZeithaml, Berry, and Parasuraman (1996)

Item Behavior W-O-M Loyalty ............................................................................................................................................................. Item 1 .91 .............................................................................................................................................................

purchase intentions scale. This 12-item

Item 2 .93 .............................................................................................................................................................

scale, anchored by a 7-point strongly dis-

Item 3 .81 .............................................................................................................................................................

sured utilizing an adapted version of the

agree to strongly agree continuum, provides responses to a variety of purchase

Item 4 .78 .............................................................................................................................................................

and behavioral intention questions. Be-

Item 5 .81 .............................................................................................................................................................

cause we are specifically interested in ath-

Item 6 .91 .............................................................................................................................................................

lete role models, we adapted each item of

Item 7 .80 .............................................................................................................................................................

the scale to include specific reference to “my favorite athlete.” Thus, the final scale

Item 8 .78 .............................................................................................................................................................

included items such as “my favorite ath-

Item 9 .84 .............................................................................................................................................................

lete influences me to recommend prod-

Item 10 .77 .............................................................................................................................................................

ucts or brands to someone who seeks my advice” and “my favorite athlete influ-

Item 11 .78 .............................................................................................................................................................

ences me to buy fewer products from

Item 12 .75 .............................................................................................................................................................

112


March 2004


for the original 3-factor structure of the

influence ( p . .05) is not significantly re-

itive W-O-M, significant differences exist

behavioral intentions scale.

lated to product switching or complaining

between males and females. As shown in

Although the fit of the model is signif-

behavior. Thus, Hypothesis H1 is not sup-

Table 4, on a scale where 1 5 strongly

icant ( p , .01) with a chi-square value of

ported. Our second hypothesis (H2), how-

disagree and 7 5 strongly agree, females

136.9 and 51 degrees of freedom, other

ever, is supported. The results in Table 3

had significantly higher responses to each

model statistics indicate that the pro-

show that athlete role model influence ( b 5

item. Thus, females are in stronger agree-

posed 3-factor structure provides parsimo-

.307, p , .0001) is positively related to teen-

ment that their favorite athlete role mod-

nious fit of the model to the data. Initially,

agers’ favorable word-of-mouth commu-

els influence them to say positive things

all of the standardized parameter esti-

nications. The final regression equation

about a product/brand, recommend

mates shown in Table 2 are greater than

presented in Table 3 was used to test Hy-

products/brands to others, and encour-

or equal to .75, indicating significant ex-

pothesis H3. Again, the results show that

age friends or relatives to by certain prod-

plained variance from each item. Addi-

athlete role model influence ( b 5 .187, p ,

ucts or brands. As for Hypothesis H4c,

tionally, the goodness of fit index is .91,

.006) is positively related to teenagers’ brand

we again found partial support. Here, a

the root-mean-squared residual is .04, the

loyalty. Hence Hypothesis H3 is supported.

significant difference exists between males

incremental fit index is .95, and the normed

To test our fourth hypothesis (H4), we

(mean 5 4.02) and females (mean 5 4.75)

fit index is .93. All of these fit statistics

assessed the mean values of each behav-

when it comes to athlete role model in-

indicate that overall model fit is accept-

ioral intention scale item by gender (118

fluence on buying certain brands. How-

able for social science research (Bagozzi

males, 100 females). These results are re-

ever, no differences were found on the

and Yi, 1988).

ported in Table 4. Based on previous find-

other two items that make up this factor

ings, we had hypothesized that females

of brand loyalty.

RESULTS

would report more positive results than

We used regression analysis to test the

males when it comes to the amount of

DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS

hypothesized effects of the independent

influence athlete role models have on their

Our findings from this study suggest sev-

variable (athlete role model influence) on

behavioral intentions. We found partial

eral interesting implications for advertis-

each of the three purchase intentions and

support for this hypothesis.

ing researchers and practitioners. Although

behavior dimensions. What follows is a

More specifically, Hypothesis H4a is

previous research on adolescents has ex-

discussion of three regression analyses—

not supported. There appears to be no

plained how this group relies on various

one for each behavioral intention out-

significant differences between male and

socialization agents in developing such

come (i.e., dependent variable) as shown

female members of Generation Y when it

consumer behaviors as attitudes toward

in Table 3.

comes to athlete role model influence on

advertising, skepticism toward advertis-

We tested Hypothesis H1 by using the

product switching and complaint behav-

ing, and self-views, the present study may

regression model presented in Table 3. The

ior. We did find support for Hypothesis

shed some more light on the actual inten-

results show that teens’ athlete role model

H4b. For each item in the factor of Pos-

tions or behaviors of this important and growing target market. Perhaps the most interesting finding of our study is that celebrity sports athletes

TABLE 3 Regression Results of Role Model Perceptions on Behavioral Intentions

have a positive influence on adolescents’ favorable word-of-mouth and brand loyalty. This suggests that celebrity sports athletes are important to adolescents when

Predictor: Athlete

Standardized Beta

they make brand choices and talk about

t-value Sign. Level Role Model Coefficient Adj. r 2 .............................................................................................................................................................

these brands positively. The public press

Dependent variable

has recently debated the issue of whether

Complaining behavior .107 .007 1.583 .115 .............................................................................................................................................................

or not professional athletes are role mod-

Positive word-of-mouth .307 .090 4.741 .000 ............................................................................................................................................................. Brand loyalty .187 .031 2.802 .006 .............................................................................................................................................................

els to children and young adults. In fact, much of this controversy was brought about several years ago in a Nike com-

March 2004


113


Perhaps the most interesting finding of our study is that

female members of Generation Y. As stated previously, there has been a relative lack

celebrity sports athletes have a positive influence on

of research on the female market for sports marketers (Sukhdial, Aiken, and Kahle,

adolescents’ favorable word-of-mouth and brand loyalty.

2002). Our findings revealed some interesting initial insights about this underresearched market and, more specifically, about female teens. We found that fe-

mercial featuring NBA basketball player

regardless of their public behavior, teen-

males in our sample may spread more

Charles Barkley. In the commercial, Bark-

agers do consider athletes as important

positive word-of-mouth about a product

ley stated bluntly that, “I’m not a role

role models.

or brand that is endorsed by their favorite

model.” Though the controversy contin-

Our findings also reveal some initial

celebrity athlete than males. Further, we

ues, the results of our study suggest that,

insights into differences between male and

also found that females agreed more than

TABLE 4 Test of Mean Values* of Athlete Role Model Influence on Behavioral Intention Items by Gender Factors/Item Descriptors ........................................................................................................... My favorite athlete influences me to: Females Males T-Value Sign. Level ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Switching and complaining behavior Buy fewer products from certain companies. 3.45 3.53 0.33 .740 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Take some of my purchases to other businesses that offer better prices. 3.64 3.73 0.37 .708 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Switch to a competitor if I experience a problem with a company’s service. 3.69 3.56 −0.52 .604 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Complain to other customers if I experience a problem with a company’s service. 3.29 3.20 −0.36 .722 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Complain to external agencies if I experience problems with a company’s service. 3.15 3.19 0.15 .883 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Complain to a company’s employees if I see a problem with that company’s service. 3.42 3.33 −0.37 .714 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Positive W-O-M Say positive things about products or brands to other people. 4.81 3.96 −3.48 .001 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Recommend products or brands to someone who seeks my advice. 4.59 3.80 −3.31 .001 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Encourage friends or relatives to buy certain products or brands. 5.07 3.26 −8.26 .000 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Brand loyalty Continue to do business with a certain company even if it increases its prices. 3.63 3.45 −0.74 .462 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Pay more for products at one business even though I could buy them cheaper elsewhere. 3.45 3.18 −1.11 .268 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Buy certain brands. 4.75 4.02 −2.75 .006 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ *Mean values based on a 1- to 7-point scale where 1 5 strongly disagree and 7 5 strongly agree.

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[W]e . . . found that females agreed more than males

published his research in the Journal of Marketing Research, the Journal of the Academy of Marketing

that athlete role models influence them to buy certain

Science, the Journal of Advertising Research, the Journal of Business Research, the Journal of Advertising,

brands—this is a key insight for marketers seeking to

the Journal of Retailing, the Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management, Industrial Marketing Management, the Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, the

develop brand loyalty among women at an early age.

Journal of Services Marketing, and others. Dr. Bush is a past president of the Southern Marketing Association and has published several textbooks in the sales

males that athlete role models influence

(2002) recently discussed “old school” ver-

management area.

them to buy certain brands—this is a key

sus “new school” sports fan orientation.

................................................................................................

insight for marketers seeking to develop

An old school orientation basically is one

CRAIG MARTIN (Ph.D., University of Memphis) is assis-

brand loyalty among women at an early

that focuses “not on winning but how

tant professor of marketing at Western Kentucky Uni-

age. More information should be gath-

you play the game.” A new school orien-

versity. His research focuses on sales and sales

ered on who female members of Genera-

tation focuses on “winning at any cost.”

management, the consumer socialization of adoles-

tion Y perceive as athlete role models and

Indeed, many of the celebrity athletes to-

cents, sports marketing, and advertising to adoles-

how this group spreads word-of-mouth.

day are considered new school—they win

cents. Dr. Martin has had research accepted for

Overall, the implication from our study

at any cost, make exorbitant salaries, and

publication in the Journal of Advertising Research, the

for advertisers is that, if they are targeting

are sometimes coveted by young people

Journal of Advertising, the Journal of Consumer Market-

teenagers, athletes may be considered as

for their rebel behavior on and off the

ing, the Journal of Business and Industrial Marketing,

spokespeople for their products. Athletes

field (Burton, Farrelly, and Quester, 2001;

the Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, Market-

are role models to many teenagers and they

Sukhdial, Aiken, and Kahle, 2002). Future

ing Management Journal, and multiple national and

look up to them for what’s “cool” in prod-

research could focus on investigating teens’

regional conferences.

ucts and brands. According to Zollo (1995),

sports fan orientation, uncover who these

sports participation and interest are at an

“new school” athletes are, and investigate

all time high for both teen boys and girls.

how these role models impact teens’

Nearly three-quarters of teens play some

values.

................................................................................................ VICTORIA BUSH (Ph.D., University of Memphis) is associate professor of marketing at the University of Mississippi. Her research interests include advertising

type of sports in a given week, including

issues, intercultural communication, public policy, and

two-thirds of girls. Sports are “in” for most

CONCLUSION

teenagers. Some of the most “in” athletes

Teenagers represent an enormous market

among teens today include Kobe Bryant,

for advertisers. Athlete role models are

Tiger Woods, Shaquille O’Neal, Venus and

perceived as important influencers to

Serena Williams, “Stone Cold” Steve Aus-

teens. These influencers are not only im-

tin, Anna Kournikova, “The Rock,” and

portant in helping spread positive word-

Gabrielle Reece, just to name a few. Hence,

of-mouth about a product or brand, but

sports celebrities are a natural for teen ad-

also for enhancing brand loyalty. It is

vertising and promotions.

extremely important that advertising man-

sales management. She has published in such journals as the Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, the Journal of Advertising Research, the Journal of Advertising, Industrial Marketing Management, the Journal of Services Marketing, and others.

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APPENDIX Measures of Constructs Role Model Influence (Rich, 1997) My favorite athlete . . . 1. provides a good model for me to follow. 2. leads by example. 3. sets a positive example for others to follow. 4. exhibits the kind of work ethic and behavior that I try to imitate. 5. acts as a role model for me. Purchase Intentions (Zeithaml, Berry, and Parasuraman, 1996) The opinions of my favorite athlete influence me to . . . 1. say positive things about products or brands to other people. 2. recommend products or brands to someone who seeks my advice. 3. encourage friends or relatives to buy certain products or brands. 4. buy fewer products from certain companies. 5. take some of my purchases to other businesses that offer better prices. 6. continue to do business with a certain company even if it increases its prices. 7. pay more for products at one business even though I could buy them cheaper elsewhere. 8. switch to a competitor if I experience a problem with a company’s service. 9. complain to other customers if I experience a problem with a company’s service. 10. complain to external agencies, such as the Better Business Bureau, if I experience problems with a company’s service. 11. complain to a company’s employees if I see a problem with that company’s service. 12. buy certain brands.

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