Jul 15, 2015 - (Tegner et al., 2011) and the main EâW compression- al phase on Svalbard ...... ern part of Anduin river (Hjort and Feyling-Hans- sen, 1987).
UNIVERSITY OF COPENHAGEN FACULTY OF SCIENCE NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM OF DENMARK
Tectonic evolution and 3D-modelling of eastern North Greenland – Structural geology of Kilen PhD thesis – Kristian Svennevig Academic advisor: External advisor: Submitted:
Lars Stemmerik Pierpaolo Guarnieri 16/12-2016
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF DENMARK AND GREENLAND DEPARTMENT OF PETROLOGY AND ECONOMIC GEOLOGY
PhD Thesis
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Faculty:
Faculty of Science
Name of department:
Natural History Museum of Denmark
Author:
Kristian Svennevig
Title:
Tectonic evolution and 3D-modelling of eastern North Greenland – Structural geology of Kilen
Subject description:
This thesis deals with the tectonic evolution of Kilen in eastern North Greenland studied through application of mapping from oblique photogrammetry and 3D-modelling.
Academic advisor:
Lars Stemmerik
External advisor:
Pierpaolo Guarnieri
Submitted:
16/12-2016
Cover illustration:
Scene from the 3D-model used in Svennevig et al. (2016a) showing the geology in Kilen Fjelde in northern Kilen. The view is towards the north showing mapped and modelled polylines and a modelled surface (blue) representing the top of the Lichenryg Formation (Lr). The digital elevation model is draped with a black and white orthophoto and made transparent so the 3D-surface is visible at depth.
Summary The aim of this dissertation is to describe the tectonic evolution of Kilen in eastern North Greenland through 3D-modelling of geological features mapped in oblique photogrammetry. This is described in depth in a synopsis, three articles and two manuscripts along with a geological map. In eastern North Greenland the Carboniferous to Palaeogene Wandel Sea Basin is sporadically exposed over 500 km; from Holm Land in the south to Kap Washington in the north. Upper Palaeozoic sediments consist of mostly limestone and clastic sediments with local evaporites in the central and southern part of the basin while Mesozoic and Cenozoic sediments consist of clastic sediments except in the far north where also volcanics are present. The structural evolution of the basin has been a topic of discussion and especially the nature and age of the late contractional deformation is debated. It has by some authors been described as formed by transpressional dextral strike-slip movement and by others as pure compression. furthermore ages ranging from Late Cretaceous to Eocene have been proposed. In addition correlation of structural events and geological units to the better constrained geology on Svalbard on the conjugate Barents Sea margin have been difficult to establish. Kilen in the southeast part of the Wandel Sea Basin is a 10 x 40 km large semi-nunatak surrounded on three sides by the ice sheet Flade Isblink and on the fourth by the Greenland Sea. Here the most complete Mesozoic succession in the Wandel Sea Basin is complexly folded and faulted. Previously the structures observed were interpreted as formed by dextral strike-slip in connection with the opening of the North Atlantic and faults were described as sub vertical strike-slip faults crosscutting domal folds. The results of this PhD give rise to a new interpretation where the area was subjected to post Coniacian ENE–WSW extension followed by N–S compression of probably Palaeocene-Eocene age. During fieldwork in eastern North Greenland in 2012 and 2013, 1300 oblique images were collected from a helicopter during flybys over Kilen. The images were georeferenced and triangulated and geological features, such as bedding and faults, were mapped in stereo on a 3D-workstation as 3D-polylines. These and a large set of computer generated strike-dip data were imported into a 3D-modelling software along with a digital elevation model, a black and white orthophoto, a scanned unpublished previous geological map of Kilen and digitized strike-dip measurements from this along with new strike-dip measurements collected in the field. These data were used to build a geological 3D-model of Kilen where structural hypothesis could be tested by visually examining the relationships between layers and faults in 3D and by restoring the folded geology to highlight the pre-deformational structures. The workflow is described in the article ”From oblique photogrammetry to a 3D model – Structural modeling of Kilen, eastern North Greenland” (Svennevig et al., 2015) The 3D-mapping and modelling show that Kilen is dominated by large E–W striking folds and that a fault pattern previously interpreted as being formed by strike-slip is more likely the result of passive folding of normal faults. In addition a series of previously identified vertical strike-slip faults are rather a single sub-horizontal fault, the Central Detachment. Above the Central Detachment the Hondal Elv Thrust Sheet consists of upper Lower Cretaceous and Upper Cretaceous sediments and below the Kilen Thrust Sheet consists of Carboniferous to Lower Cretaceous sediments. The structures in Kilen are interpreted to have formed by post Coniacian ENE–WSW extension followed by folding of strata and normal faults by N–S compression, probably in Palaeocene-Eocene times. No evidence of large scale strike-slip movements, as previously described in the literature, was observed. The younger-on-older relationship across the Central Detachment indicates that the area was subjected to tectonic inversion and overall the structures of Kilen are identical to structures in thin skinned fold and thrust belts.
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The structural and tectonic situation on Kilen is thus more similar to that known from the West Spitsbergen Fold-and-Thrust Belt on Svalbard than previously thought. These results are described in the article ”Tectonic inversion in the Wandel Sea Basin: a new structural model of Kilen (eastern North Greenland)” (Svennevig et al., 2016a) To examine the Late Cretaceous architecture of the basin a simplified 3D-model focusing on a well constrained mid-Cretaceous horizon has been constructed and restored to its pre-folding geometry. Previously, the area was interpreted to be dominated by sub-vertical transtensional strike-slip faults defining deep local pullapart basins but the new model shows that the basin could be viewed as a classic rift basin with NNW–SSE striking normal faults dipping to the NE, towards the present day plate boundary. The results are described in the manuscript ”A Cretaceous rift basin in Kilen, eastern North Greenland, identified through 3D-restoration“ (Svennevig et al., 2016b). The photogrammetry mapping assisted in identifying a new geological formation: the Triassic Isrand Formation. The discovery has greatly expanded the known occurrences of Triassic strata in North Greenland and a correlation to contemporary strata on Svalbard is proposed. The results are published in the article “The Isrand Formation: a Middle Triassic Daonella-bearing, black shale unit in Kilen, North Greenland (with a note on the Triassic in Amdrup Land)” (Alsen et al., 2017). Finally the 3D-mapping resulted in a 1:50 000 scale geological map of Kilen and an accompanying map description. The map is attached as Appendix I (Svennevig, 2016) and the map description as a manuscript ”Descriptive text to the geological map of Kilen, eastern North Greenland 1:50 000” (Svennevig et al., 2016c).
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Dansk sammendrag Denne Ph.D.-afhandling beskriver den tektoniske udvikling af Kilen i det østlige Nordgrønland belyst igennem geologisk 3D-modellering af data kortlagt ved hjælp af skråfotogrammetri. Dette er beskrevet i dybden i tre artikler, to manuskripter og et geologisk kort samt i en synopsis. Blotninger af det karbone til palæogene Wandel Hav Bassin i det østlige Nordgrønland strækker sig over 500 km fra Holm Land i syd til Kap Washington i nord. Øvre palæozoiske aflejringer består af kalksten og siliciklastiske sedimenter med indslag af evaporitter i den centrale og sydlige del af bassinet, imens mesozoiske og kænozoiske aflejringer består af klastiske sedimenter bortset fra i den nordligste del, hvor der desuden findes vulkanske bjergarter. Den strukturgeologiske udvikling i bassinet har været omdiskuteret i litteraturen, og især karakteren af den sene kompressive deformation og dateringen af denne er blevet debatteret. Af nogle er den blevet beskrevet som transpressiv dannet ved dekstrale strike-slip bevægelser og af andre som en ren kompression. Derudover har aldre fra Sen Kridt til Eocæn været foreslået for deformationen. Endvidere har det været svært at korrelere strukturelle hændelser og geologiske enheder fra den grønlandske side til den mere undersøgte geologi på Barentsshelfen og på Svalbard. Kilen i den sydøstlige del af Wandel Hav Bassinet er en semi-nunatak på 10 x 40 kilometer omgivet på tre sider af iskappen Flade Isblink og på den fjerde af Grønlandshavet. Her er den mest komplette mesozoiske sedimentsuccession i Nordgrønland komplekst foldet og forkastet. Tidligere er strukturerne af flere forfattere tolket til at være dannet ved transpressionale dekstrale strike-slip bevægelser i forbindelse med åbningen af det nordlige Atlanterhav. Forkastningerne har været beskrevet som lodrette strike-slip forkastninger, der skærer domeformede folder. Resultaterne i denne afhandling giver anledning til en ny tolkning, hvor området først var udsat for post-Coniacien ØNØ–VSV ekstension og siden N–S kompression, formentlig af Paleocæn–Eocæn alder. Under feltarbejde i det østlige Nordgrønland i 2012 og 2013 blev 1300 skråbilleder taget fra helikopter under overflyvninger af Kilen. Billederne blev georefereret og trianguleret, så de på en 3D-arbejdsstation kunne ses i stereo og geologiske elementer såsom laggrænser og forkastninger blev udtegnet som 3D-polylinier. Disse og en stor mængde computergenerede strygning/hældnings-data blev importeret ind i et geologisk 3D-modelleringssoftware sammen med en højdemodel, et sort-hvidt ortofoto, et indscannet upubliceret geologisk kort over Kilen samt strygning/hældnings-målingerne fra dette og nye målinger indsamlet i felten. Disse data er blevet brugt til at lave en geologisk 3D-model over Kilen, hvori strukturelle hypoteser kunne testes, dels ved visuelt at undersøge relationerne imellem lag og forkastningerne i 3D, og dels ved at eliminere den kompressive deformation ved at rette folderne ud og derved se strukturerne fra før foldefasen. Arbejdsgangen er beskrevet i artiklen ”From oblique photogrammetry to a 3D model – Structural modeling of Kilen, eastern North Greenland” (Svennevig et al., 2015). 3D-kortlægningen og modelleringen viste, at strukturerne på Kilen er domineret af store Ø–V orienterede folder samt at forkastningsmønstre, der tidligere blev tolket som værende dannet af strike-slip-bevægelser, var resultatet af passiv foldning af normalforkastninger. Endvidere viste andre tidligere identificerede strike-slip forkastninger sig at være et enkelt vandret glidningsplan kaldet det Centrale Detachment (Central Detachment). Det Centrale Detachment adskiller to overskydningsdækker; nederst ligger Kilen Thrust Sheet bestående af sedimenter fra Karbon til Nedre Kridt og ovenover ligger Hondal Elv Thrust Sheet bestående af sedimenter fra øverste Nedre Kridt og Øvre Kridt. Strukturerne på Kilen tolkes til at være dannet ved først ØNØ–VSV eksten-
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sion på et tidspunkt efter Coniacien og dernæst foldning af lag og normalforkastninger under N–S kompression formentlig af Paleocæn–Eocæn alder. Der blev ikke fundet spor af forkastninger dannet ved strike-slip bevægelser som tidligere beskrevet i litteraturen. Yngre-på-ældre forholdet over det Centrale Detachment tyder på, at området er resultatet af tektonisk inversion, og overordnet set ligner strukturerne kortlagt på Kilen de strukturer, som man finder i tyndskindede foldebælter. Dermed ligner den tektoniske og strukturelle situation på Kilen den, der kendes fra Vest Spitsbergen Foldebæltet på Svalbard på den konjugerede side af Atlanten meget mere, end man hidtil har troet. Resultaterne er beskrevet i artiklen ”Tectonic inversion in the Wandel Sea Basin: a new structural model of Kilen (eastern North Greenland)” (Svennevig et al., 2016a). Fjernes den kompressive deformation ved at restaurere en midt-kretassisk horisont ved hjælp af 3D-modellering kommer strukturerne fra det sen kretassiske bassin frem. Tidligere var dette tolket til at bestå af flere pull-apart bassiner dannet ved transtenssionelle forkastninger, men den nye modellering viser, at bassinet mere ligner et klassisk riftbassin med NNV–SSØ strygende normalforkastninger, der for det meste hælder mod NØ, mod den nuværende pladegrænse. Resultaterne er beskrevet i manuskriptet ”A Cretaceous rift basin in Kilen, eastern North Greenland, identified through 3D-restoration“ (Svennevig et al., 2016b). 3D-kortlægningen har endvidere bidraget til at identificere en ny geologisk formation: den triassiske Isrand Formation. Opdagelsen af formationen har vist, at Trias aflejringer i det østlige Nordgrønland har en betydeligt større udbredelse end hidtil dokumenteret. Resultaterne er publiceret i artiklen ”The Isrand Formation: a Middle Triassic Daonella-bearing, black shale unit in Kilen, North Greenland (with a note on the Triassic in Amdrup Land)” (Alsen et al., 2017). Slutteligt har 3D-kortlægningen samt data fra feltarbejde på jorden udmøntet sig i et geologisk kort over Kilen i 1:50 000 samt en tilhørende kortbladsbeskrivelse, om baggrunden for kortet. Kortet er vedlagt som Appendiks 1 (Svennevig, 2016) og kortbladsbeskrivelsen som et manuskript ”Descriptive text to the geological map of Kilen, eastern North Greenland 1:50 000” (Svennevig et al., 2016c).
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Contents Summary............................................................................................................................................................3 Dansk sammendrag........................................................................................................................................... 5
Chapter I, Synopsis............................................................................................................. 8 Introduction to the Wandel Sea Basin........................................................................................................... 8 Background and purpose of the study........................................................................................................... 8 Overview of publications and scientific dissemination................................................................................. 10 Paper 1; From oblique photogrammetry to a 3D model – Structural modeling of Kilen, eastern North Greenland.............................................................................................................................................. 10 Paper 2; Tectonic inversion in the Wandel Sea Basin: a new structural model of Kilen (eastern North Greenland)............................................................................................................................................. 10 Paper 3; A Cretaceous rift basin in Kilen, eastern North Greenland, identified through 3D-restoration.11 Paper 4; Descriptive text to the geological map of Kilen, eastern North Greenland 1:50 000 and Appendix I; Geological map of Kilen, eastern North Greenland 1:50 000........................................................ 11 Paper 5; The Isrand Formation: a Middle Triassic Daonella-bearing, black shale unit in Kilen, North Greenland (with a note on the Triassic in Amdrup Land)....................................................................... 11 Publications not included in this PhD..................................................................................................... 12 Scientific dissemination.......................................................................................................................... 13 A note on the Late Cretaceous – Palaeogene tectonic evolution of North Greenland – Svalbard.............. 13 Contributions from the present study..................................................................................................... 15 Outlook........................................................................................................................................................ 17 Application of 3D modelling based on oblique photogrammetry data.................................................... 17 Further work in the Wandel Sea Basin................................................................................................... 17 More Kilen.............................................................................................................................................. 17 Revising nearby localities....................................................................................................................... 17 Acknowledgements..................................................................................................................................... 19 References.................................................................................................................................................. 20
Not shown in this version of the thesis24 Chapter II, Paper 1............................................................................................................. Svennevig, K., Guarnieri, P., and Stemmerik, L. (2015), From oblique photogrammetry to a 3D model – Structural modeling of Kilen, eastern North Greenland.
Not shown in this version of the thesis 32 Chapter III, Paper 2............................................................................................................ Svennevig, K., Guarnieri, P. and Stemmerik, L. (2016a), Tectonic inversion in the Wandel Sea Basin: a new structural model of Kilen (eastern North Greenland).
Chapter IV, Paper 3............................................................................................................ 56 Svennevig, K., Guarnieri, P., Stemmerik, L., 2016b. A Cretaceous rift basin in Kilen, eastern North Greenland, identified through 3D-restoration.
Chapter V, Paper 4............................................................................................................. 74 Svennevig, K., Alsen, P., Guarnieri, P., Hovikoski, J., Lauridsen, B. W. and Pedersen, G. K., Nøhr, H., Sheldon. E., 2016c. Descriptive text to the Geological map of Kilen, eastern North Greenland 1:50 000.
Not shown in this version of the thesis 96 Chapter VI, Paper 5........................................................................................................... Alsen, P., McRoberts, C., Svennevig, K., Bojesen-Koefoed, J., Hovikoski, J., Piasecki, S., 2017. The Isrand Formation: a Middle Triassic Daonella-bearing, black shale unit in Kilen, North Greenland (with a note on the Triassic in Amdrup Land).
Appendix I........................................................................................................................ 114 Svennevig, K., 2016. Geological map of Kilen, eastern North Greenland 1:50 000
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Chapter I, Synopsis
Introduction to the Wandel Sea Basin The eastern corner of North Greenland is a geologically complex area where the mid-Palaeozoic Caledonian and Ellesmerian orogenies meet and structures of the younger Carboniferous to Palaeogene Wandel Sea Basin records the opening of the North Atlantic (Håkansson and Stemmerik, 1989) (Fig. 1). The term Wandel Sea Basin was first applied by Dawes and Soper (1973) to Carboniferous–Tertiary sediments in eastern North Greenland bordering the Wandel Sea. The basin shares a common geological and structural history with the surrounding Mesozoic sedimentary basins in Arctic Canada, Svalbard and the western Barents Sea (Håkansson and Stemmerik, 1989; von Gosen and Piepjohn, 2003; Stemmerik and Worsley, 2005; Piepjohn et al., 2015, 2016) but is relatively underexplored due to its remote location and the extreme arctic conditions. The scattered preserved parts of the basin are exposed over a 500 km stretch from Kap Washington in northernmost Greenland southeast to Holm Land and comprise Carboniferous–Permian limestones, clastic sediments and local evaporites, Mesozoic– Palaeogene clastic sediments (Håkansson et al., 1981; Håkansson and Stemmerik, 1989) along with Upper Cretaceous volcanics in the northernmost part (Tegner et al., 2011; Thórarinsson et al., 2011) (Fig. 1). Previous works on the Wandel Sea Basin have revealed a complex structural history of folded, faulted and thermally affected strata deformed during several events of Mesozoic and Palaeogene age (Håkansson et al., 1993, 1994; Pedersen and Håkansson, 1999; von Gosen and Piepjohn, 2003). In particular the late deformation related to the initial opening of the North Atlantic have been debated and referred to transpressive dextral strike-slip movements by some authors (Håkansson and Pedersen, 1982, 2001, 2015; Pedersen and Håkansson, 1999; von Gosen and Piepjohn, 2003; Piepjohn et al., 2015, 2016) while others suggest pure compression (Soper et al., 1982; Soper and Higgins, 1991; Lyberis and Manby, 1999; Manby and Lyberis, 2000; Guarnieri, 2015). The age of deformation has also been debated and a pre-opening Late Cretaceous – earliest Palaeocene age has been suggested by some (Håkansson and Pedersen, 1982;
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Håkansson, 1988; Pedersen and Håkansson, 1999; Manby and Lyberis, 2000; Guarnieri, 2015) while others suggest a Palaeocene–Eocene age (Soper et al., 1982; Soper and Higgins, 1991; von Gosen and Piepjohn, 2003). Background and purpose of the study This project was funded by a PhD scholarship awarded by Geocenter Danmark, the Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland (GEUS) and the Natural History Museum of Denmark at University of Copenhagen. The aim of the project is to improve the tectonic understanding of eastern North Greenland based on 3D-mapping from oblique photogrammetry and 3D-modelling and in the course of this evaluate the use of oblique photogrammetry data in 3D-modelling. GEUS has since the eighties build up a capacity in oblique photogrammetry as a mapping tool to produce high quality 3D-data for the production of maps and cross sections (Dueholm, 1981; Dawes, 1987; Dueholm and Pedersen, 1992; Dueholm et al., 1993; Sørensen, 2011; Svennevig and Guarnieri, 2012; Vosgerau et al., 2015). Building on this work the focus of the present PhD study has been to use this type of 3D-data for 3D-modelling (Svennevig, 2014; Svennevig et al., 2015) to expand the geological knowledge of eastern North Greenland (Svennevig et al., 2016a,b,c). Eastern North Greenland, where the Wandel Sea Basin is exposed, is characterized by a relatively low relief and in most places bedrock is covered by the sea, ice or Quaternary deposits (Fig. 2). Mapping from oblique photogrammetry is a relatively easy and cheap way of getting high quality geological 3D-data from a large area and is thus ideal for Arctic fieldwork (Sørensen, 2011; Svennevig, 2014; Svennevig et al., 2015). Using the data for 3D-modelling honours the high quality of the data and integrated with data collected on ground and previously published data, detailed and robust 3D-models can be built and used in restorations and further advance the geological knowledge of the area. The project started in the summer of 2012 and fieldwork was carried out for one month in the
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Fig. 1. Simplified geological map of the Wandel Sea Basin showing the major structural elements and Upper Palaeozoic to Palaeogene sediments. Modified from Bengaard and Henriksen (1984) and Henriksen (2003) with schematic faults from Kilen modified from Svennevig et al. (2016a).
summers of 2012 and 2013 as part of a larger GEUS expedition focussing on the Wandel Sea Basin (Bojesen-Koefoed et al., 2014a,b). Oblique photos were collected in most of the Wandel Sea Basin but already after the first field season the focus of this PhD turned turned to Kilen as the main area of interest. The geology of Kilen is complex but for photogrammetry purposes relatively well exposed and as the mapping progressed several interesting aspects emerged that
highlighted the need for a new structural model of the area (Svennevig et al., 2016a,b). Teams of geologists were on ground during the two field seasons revising Jurassic–Cretaceous stratigraphy and recently, in the summer of 2016, a minor expedition focussed on further studies of the newly discovered Triassic Isrand Formation (Alsen et al., 2017). The findings of the field teams and the new lithostratigraphy produced from this (Hovikoski
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Fig. 2. Oblique aerial photomosaic of Kilen looking south. The area is sorrounded by the ice sheet Flade Isblink. Amdrup Land is in the background to the right. Photos taken by P. Alsen in 2013.
et al., in prep.) has contributed significantly to the structural understanding of Kilen and is included in the geological map and map description (Svennevig, 2016; Svennevig et al., 2016c). Overview of publications and scientific dissemination Five papers and a geological map – all concerning the geology of Kilen – are presented in this PhD thesis as Chapter II to VI and Appendix I. Paper 1, 2 and 5 are published, while paper 3 is submitted and paper 4 is an unpublished manuscript. Paper 1; From oblique photogrammetry to a 3D model – Structural modeling of Kilen, eastern North Greenland The first paper, Chapter II (Svennevig et al., 2015), deals with the workflow from oblique photogrammetry to a 3D model; the workflow behind the subsequent papers. It is the first time that this workflow has been applied in such detail to unravel a complex geological area. The paper demonstrates the value of the method in collecting large quantities of
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high quality geological spatial data from remote Arctic areas. The paper is published in Computers and Geosciences in the summer of 2015. Paper 2; Tectonic inversion in the Wandel Sea Basin: a new structural model of Kilen (eastern North Greenland) The second paper, Chapter III (Svennevig et al., 2016a), presents a new structural model of Kilen based on the workflow presented in Svennevig et al. (2015), limited field data and integration of previously published and unpublished observations. The paper concludes that the structures mapped on Kilen were produced by first post Coniacian NE–SW extension and subsequent (possible) Palaeocene–Eocene N–S compression resulting in passive folding of normal faults and tectonic inversion. It further concludes that the eastern North Greenland margin is more alike the conjugate Barents Sea margin than previously thought. The paper is published in Tectonics in the fall of 2016. As the paper was published before the publication of the revised lithostratigraphy (Hovikoski et al., in prep) a simplified stratigraphic scheme is applied retaining the stratigraphic terminology of Pedersen (1989) and Håkansson et al. (1994a) where applicable. For the same reasons the previous map colours of Pedersen (1989) is retained on the figures.
Paper 3; A Cretaceous rift basin in Kilen, eastern North Greenland, identified through 3D-restoration The third paper, Chapter IV (Svennevig et al., 2016b), deals with 3D-restoration of the inverted Cretaceous basin of Kilen. A single mid-Cretaceous horizon is used to constrain the architecture of the basin in pre-folding times. This is done by unfolding the horizon and restore it along the compressive faults identified in paper two (Svennevig et al., 2016a). The restoration shows that the basin resembled a normal rift basin prior to folding characterized by ENE dipping normal faults and NNW–SSE striking fault blocks. Previously deposition on Kilen was interpreted as being controlled by sub-vertical strike-slip faults defining local pull-apart basins (eg. Håkansson and Pedersen, 2015). The paper is submitted for publication in Norwegian Journal of Geology. As the paper was submitted before the completion of the revised lithostratigraphy (Hovikoski et al., in prep) a simplified stratigraphic scheme is applied as in paper 2. Paper 4; Descriptive text to the geological map of Kilen, eastern North Greenland 1:50 000 and Appendix I; Geological map of Kilen, eastern North Greenland 1:50 000 The fourth paper, Chapter V (Svennevig et al., 2016c), is a map description for a new 1:50 000
scale geological map of Kilen (Appendix I, (Svennevig, 2016)). The map is the result of mapping from oblique photogrammetry, 3D-modelling and integration of old and new field data. The map units are based on a revised version of the lithostratigraphy of Kilen (Hovikoski et al. in prep.). The map and map description is being further processed into an official GEUS 1:100 000 scale map sheet of Kilen and adjacent areas in the GEUS map series bulletin (Fig. 3). Paper 5; The Isrand Formation: a Middle Triassic Daonella-bearing, black shale unit in Kilen, North Greenland (with a note on the Triassic in Amdrup Land) The fifth paper, Chapter VI (Alsen et al., 2017), is a description of the newly discovered Triassic Isrand Formation from Kilen. It is an example of how oblique photogrammetry and 3D-modelling have aided in identifying previously unknown strata and supported stratigraphers in discovering and describing the new formation and thus expanded the known distribution of Triassic strata in North Greenland. Unknown strata were identified in the 2012 oblique aerial photographs west of Galadriel Fjeld as the ice has retracted significantly since the previous 1980’ies expeditions to the area (Håkansson et al., 1993). The locality was visited by P. Alsen during fieldwork in 2013 and Triassic fossils were discovered. In prepara-
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Fig. 3. The 1:50 000 scale geological map in Appendix I is being processed into a 1:100 000 scale geological map of Kilen and adjancent areas in the GEUS map series. Shown above is an early draft of this map sheet.
Stemmerik, L., Frykman, P., Pilgaard, A. and Lindström, S. 2016: The Jurassic and Cretaceous of the Wandel Sea Basin – Lithostratigraphy (Report 3). Report for Project within the project ’Petroleum Geological Studies, Services and Data in East and Northeast Greenland’. Danmarks og Grønlands Geologiske Undersøgelse Rapport 2016/x, (confidential).
tion for the paper thickness estimates, a locality map and photo interpretation of the area were produced from oblique photogrammetry. The 2013 discovery of Triassic strata led to a new two-man expedition to Kilen in the summer 2016 to further examine this occurrence. The paper was published online in Newsletters on Stratigraphy in the summer of 2016. Publications not included in this PhD The following publications have been published with contribution by the author during the course of the PhD project but are not included in the thesis: - Hovikoski, J., Pedersen, G.K., Alsen, P., Lauridsen, B.W., Svennevig, K., Nøhr-Hansen, H., Sheldon, E., Dybkjær, K., (in prep.). Jurassic– Cretaceous lithostratigraphy of Kilen, eastern North Greenland. Geol. Surv. Denmark Greenl. Bull. -
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Hovikoski, J., Pedersen, G.K., Ineson, J.R., Alsen, P., Lauridsen, B.W., Svennevig, K., Bjerager, M.,Nøhr-Hansen, H., Sheldon, E., Dybkær, K., Bojesen-Koefoed, J.A., Piasecki, S.,
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Hovikoski, J., Pedersen, G.K., Ineson, J.R., Bojesen-Koefoed, J.A., Hansen, R.W., Bjerager, M., Lauridsen, B.W., Guarnieri, P., Svennevig, K., Sheldon, E., Dybkær, K., Alsen, P., NøhrHansen, H., Piasecki, S., Kjøller, C., Pilgaard, A., Stemmerik, L. and Frykman, P. 2016: The Jurassic and Cretaceous of the Wandel Sea Basin – Depositional Evolution (Sedimentology, Sequence stratigraphy, Tectonostratigraphy, Source rock screening, and Diagenesis and Mineralogy) (Report 4). Report for Project within the project ’Petroleum Geological Studies, Services and Data in East and Northeast Greenland’. Danmarks og Grønlands Geologiske Undersøgelse Rapport 2016/x, (confidential).
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Hovikoski, J., Ineson, J.R., Bojesen-Koefoed, J.A., Hansen, R.W., Pedersen, G.K., Alsen, P., Bjerager, M., Guarnieri, P., Dybkær, K., NøhrHansen, H., Keulen, N., Lauridsen, B.W., Piasecki, S., Sheldon, E., Svennevig, K. and Thomsen, T.B. 2016: The Jurassic and Cretaceous of the Wandel Sea Basin – Summary and Implications (Report 1). Report for Project within the project ’Petroleum Geological Studies, Services and Data in East and Northeast Greenland’. Danmarks og Grønlands Geologiske Undersøgelse Rapport 2016/x, (confidential). Vosgerau, H., Passey, S.R., Svennevig, K., Strunck, M.N., Jolley, D.W., 2015. Reservoir architectures of interlava systems: a 3D photogrammetrical study of Eocene cliff sections, Faroe Islands. Geol. Soc. London, Spec. Publ. 436. Vosgerau, H., Passey, S.R., Svennevig, K., Strunck, M.N., Jolley, D.W., Larsen, L.M., 2014. 3D Photogeological Study of Faroese Cliff Sections as an Analogue for Intra-Volcanic Reservoir Architectures, in: Reducing Subsurface Uncertainty and Risk through Field-Based Studies. p. 83.
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Bojesen-Koefoed, J.A., Alsen, P., Bjerager, M., Dybkjær, K., Fyhn, M.B.W., Guarnieri, P., Hovikoski, J., Ineson, J., Japsen, P., Johannessen, P., Lauridsen, B.W., Nielsen, L.H., Nøhr-Hansen, H., Pedersen, G.K., Piasecki, S., Pilgaard, A., Svennevig, K., Therkelsen, J., Vosgerau, H., Weibel, R., 2014. Geological fieldwork to reduce risks for petroleum exploration in frontier areas – examples from Northeast Greenland, in: Arctic Conference Days. pp. 44–45.
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Svennevig, K., 2014. Photogrammetrical 3D-mapping of Kilen – a complex corner of eastern North Greenland. Nor. Polarinstitut Rapp. 146, 36–37.
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Svennevig, K., Guarnieri, P., 2012. From 3D mapping to 3D modelling: a case study from the Skaergaard intrusion, southern East Greenland. Geoligical Surv. Denmark Greenl. Bull. 26, 57– 60.
Scientific dissemination During the course of the PhD the following contributions in scientific dissemination has been made: (In the pdf-version of this document; click the link to go to a web version of the document or media file)
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Danish National Radio, P1 Morgen. Radio interview in Danish about geological mapping in North Greenland, May 2016 http://tinyurl.com/ KSVp1morgen
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Videnskab.dk. Article in Danish about 3D-mapping in North Greenland: 3D-kortlægning af ukendt hjørne af Grønland afslører ældgamle geologiske hemmeligheder, May 2016, http://tinyurl.com/KSVvidenskabdk
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ScienceNordic.com, shorter English version of the article above: Remote corner of Greenland mapped in 3D, May 2016, http://tinyurl.com/ KSVsciencenordic
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Undergroundchannel.dk, Video about the PhD project, in Danish with (poor) English subtitles: 3D-mapping of North Greenland, March 2015, http://tinyurl.com/KSVundergroundchannel
A note on the Late Cretaceous – Palaeogene tectonic evolution of North Greenland – Svalbard As mentioned above several different views on the Late Cretaceous – Palaeogene tectonic relation between Svalbard and North Greenland have been proposed. The recent theories are summarized below and in figure 4 and compared to results from the most recent global plate reconstruction which incorporate numerous regional updates for the Arctic, North Atlantic and Labrador Sea (Müller et al., 2016). The model has been used to illustrate the relative movement of Svalbard to Greenland in the software GPlates 1.5 (Boyden et al., 2011) (Fig. 5). In this model movement began in Late Cretaceous – Palaeocene (79–60 Ma) with dextral strike-slip followed by a shift in Late Palaeocene – Early Eocene (60–50 Ma) to transpression with ~18° convergence. The relative transpressive motion was particularly fast during a relatively short time interval in Early Eocene (54–50 Ma) coinciding with the initial opening of the North Atlantic (Tsikalas et al., 2002). After this time the regime changed back to dextral strike-slip in the remainder of the Eocene (50–34 Ma) until oblique oceanic opening between Svalbard and Greenland started in the Oligocene (Engen et al., 2008). Lyberis and Manby (1993a), Manby and Lyberis (1996, 2000) and Guarnieri (2015) suggested a pre-North Atlantic opening stage of Late Cretaceous – Palaeocene head on collision between Greenland and Svalbard followed by Eocene strike-slip. Lyberis and Manby (1993a) and Manby and Lyberis (2000), based on plate reconstructions of Srivastava and Tapscott (1986), suggested a 15° N directed convergence
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14 Eurekan
Fig. 4. Caption on the following page. 1
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Bergh et al. (1997) Braathen et al. (1999) Leever et al. (2011) (N Greenland - Svalbard)
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Guarnieri (2015) (N Greenland)
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NW-SE dykes emplaced in North Greenland (Thórarinsson et al. 2015) NE-SW extension (84 Ma +/- 4)
N-S dykes emplaced in North Greenland (Thórarinsson et al. 2015) E-W extension, initial rifting in Eurasia Basin
Kap Cannon volcanics (tuff): extensive regime North Greenland (Tegner et al., 2011)
North Atlantic opening (Tsikalas et al., 2002) Clinoforms start building out from W in the Central Tertiary Basin; uplift and erosion in West Spitsbergen Fold-and-Thrust Belt (Crabaugh and Steel 2004)
Thermal resetting Kap Cannon; peak of Eurekan orogeny in northernmost Greenland (Tegner et al. 2011)
Fram Strait opening (Engen et al., 2008)
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Legend
in excess of 220–250 km across the North Greenland – Svalbard margin during the Chron 34–25 interval implying that compression commenced already around 92 Ma (Fig. 4). The Late Cretaceous – Early Palaeogene age for the West Spitsbergen Fold-andThrust Belt (Lyberis and Manby, 1993b; Manby and Lyberis, 1996) has been debated by several authors (eg. Harland et al. 1995; Maher et al. 1995, 2001). On Svalbard strain partitioning during transpression was suggested to explain the compressional West Spitsbergen Fold-and-Thrust Belt developing in an overall strike-slip plate setting between North Greenland and Svalbard (Maher and Craddock, 1988). In this framework Bergh et al. (1997) and Braathen et al. (1999) defined five tentatively dated Late Cretaceous – Oligocene structural stages in the evolution of the West Spitsbergen Fold-and-Trust Belt (Fig. 4). Stage 1 comprises a Late Cretaceous or Early Palaeocene pre-uplift event with relatively minor folds and thrusts localized in the far west hinterland part of the fold-and-thrust belt. The Late Palaeocene – Eocene stages 2–4 are the main phases of fold and thrust development and includes orogen parallel strike-slip movement in the hinterland highlighting strain partitioning. Stage 5 is a Late Eocene to Oligocene phase of extensional collapse and basin formation in the hinterland. The strain partitioning during transpression theory has been supported by analogue modelling with 15° of plate convergence by Leever et al. (2011). Håkansson and Pedersen (1982, 2001, 2015) and Pedersen and Håkansson (1999) focussed on the Greenland side and the time up to and including transpression. They defined the “Wandel Hav StrikeSlip Mobile Belt”: a Permian–Cretaceous strike-slip plate boundary and a precursor to the De Geer Line between Greenland and Svalbard (Håkansson and Pedersen, 1982, 2001, 2015). Based on mapping, from among other places Kilen, the late deformation was interpreted to be formed during Late Cretaceous to earliest Palaeocene transpression and dominated by strike-slip movements during the “Kronprins Christian Land Orogeny” (Pedersen and Håkansson, 1999). After the Late Cretaceous transpression, the plate boundary migrated to the northeast to the present day location in the De Geer Line. The deformation in the Wandel Sea Basin was thus inferred to be older than, and unrelated to, the compressive deformation on Svalbard and Ellesmere Island (Pedersen and Håkansson, 1999).
In a recent paper Piepjohn et al. (2016) outlined the Eurekan deformation in the Artic area based on extensive fieldwork in the long lived “Circum-Arctic Structural Events” (CASE) project. They proposed an initial stage of post North Atlantic opening Early Eocene WSW–ENE compression forming the West Spitsbergen Fold-and-Thrust Belt followed by a Late Eocene stage of transpression. The Conjugate Greenland margin in the Wandel Sea Basin was dominated by dextral strike-slip and transpression (von Gosen and Piepjohn, 2003) while the Harder Fjord Fault Zone and Kap Cannon Thrust Zone were dominated by N–S shortening (von Gosen and Piepjohn, 1999; Piepjohn and von Gosen, 2001). Contributions from the present study This thesis only focus on a small part of the Wandel Sea Basin on the northeast Greenland margin but the results nevertheless calls for a cautionary re-evaluation of the late compressive deformation and the role of the eastern North Greenland margin leading up to the final opening of the North Atlantic. In this thesis it is proposed that Kilen was subjected to initial post-Coniacian–pre-folding NE–SW extension (Svennevig et al., 2016a,b) followed by later N–S compression (Svennevig et al., 2016a). In a plate tectonic context (Müller et al., 2016) (Fig. 5) the extensional phase correlates to the 79–60 Ma strikeslip movement between the two plates and may be attributed to transtensional strain partitioning and link to Late Cretaceous E–W and NE–SW extension in North Greenland as recorded by dykes and extrusive volcanics (Kontak et al., 2001; Tegner et al., 2011; Thórarinsson et al., 2011; Thórarinsson et al., 2015) (Fig. 1). In Late Cretaceous times Kilen was located close to deep Cretaceous basins on the southwest Barents margin (Müller et al., 2016; Svennevig et al., 2016b) and extension in Kilen could also be associated to basin formation in this area. The N–S compression described from Kilen could be ascribed to strain partitioning during transpression as also suggested for the conjugate margin (Maher and Craddock, 1988; Braathen et al., 1999; Leever et al., 2011) and correlated to transpression with ~18° convergence initiating in Late Palaeocene (60 Ma) and culminating in Early Eocene (54–50 Ma) according to the global plate tectonic model (Müller et al., 2016) (Figs 4, 5). If the compressional structures on Kilen were
Fig. 4. (on the facing page). Summary of recent theories of the timing and type of deformation in eastern North Greenland and in Svalbard compared to the most recent global plate reconstruction (Müller et al., 2016) and the tentatively dated D1 and D2 events from Kilen (Svennevig et al., 2016a,b). Constrains on the tectonic evolution from the literature is shown to the far right.
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Fig. 5. Relative movement of Svalbard to Greenland from 80 Ma to present. The bold black lines are paths of points on the eastern and western coast of Svalbard. Every 10 Ma position of Svalbard is shown with age. Sharp changes of direction at 54 and 34 Ma are also shown along with ~18° transpression from 60 Ma. The reconstruction is produced using GPlates 1.5 (Boyden et al., 2011) and the global plate reconstruction of Müller et al.(2016) with a fixed Greenland plate. Palaeocene– Eocene shortening on Greenland and Svalbard is not restored.
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formed by Late Cretaceous – Palaeocene pre-opening compression (Manby and Lyberis, 2000; Guarnieri, 2015) or Early Palaeocene early opening compression (Piepjohn et al., 2016) (Fig. 4) compressional features of equal magnitude would be expected on the conjugate margin around Stappen High and Bjørnøya Basin. However, there only relatively minor Late Cretaceous – Palaeogene structural inversion is described (Gabrielsen et al., 1997) and a proper fold and thrust belt is only observed onshore Svalbard (Bergh et al., 1997; Braathen et al., 1999) and on the seafloor immediately to the south of Svalbard (Bergh and Grogan, 2003). In the plate reconstruction (Müller et al., 2016) the West Spitsbergen Fold-and-Thrust Belt was situated directly northeast of eastern North Greenland around Early Eocene times (50 Ma). At this time clinoforms started to build out into the Central Tertiary Basin from uplifted hinterland in the west on Svalbard (Crabaugh and Steel, 2004; Petersen et al., 2016), Late Cretaceous volcanic rocks at Kap Cannon in northernmost Greenland were thermally reset (Tegner et al., 2011) and the main E–W compressional phase on Svalbard has been inferred (Braathen et al., 1999; Piepjohn et al., 2016). Based on this an Late Palaeocene – Early Eocene age for the N–S compression on Kilen can be inferred and as such the results of this PhD gives credence to the strain partitioning during transpression theory of Maher and Craddock (1988) and Leever et al. (2011). However, more work in the Wandel Sea Basin is needed to better understand the extent and magnitude of thin skinned folding and thrusting and to better constrain the timing of the compression.
Outlook Application of 3D modelling based on oblique photogrammetry data Oblique Photogrammetry The oblique photogrammetry method is evolving rapidly and larger and larger dataset are coming home from the field each year. At the same time processing the images and mapping in them becomes ever faster and easier and both hardware and software becomes cheaper and more accessible. With the integrations of new data collection platforms such as high resolution satellite images and drones or unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) new areas can be covered in a hitherto unseen detail for a modest price. In addition the use of 3D-modelling software as an aide to solve geological problems becomes more and more common in the field of geoscience and the present study has showed that combining photogrammetry,
available field data and 3D-modelling as described in Svennevig et al. (2015) has the potential to contribute to solving geological questions in remote areas with difficult logistics around the world. Further work in the Wandel Sea Basin The structural interpretation from this PhD calls for a reevaluation of the surrounding Wandel Sea Basin with respect to the Cretaceous–Palaeogene history and its contributions in the opening of the North Atlantic. Below are mentioned some of the areas on or near Kilen that could benefit from further studies. More Kilen A 3D-model, like a map, represents the current state of knowledge and will never be finished as such. Several geological questions remain to be answered for Kilen. Some of these are mentioned in Svennevig et al. (2016c) and four of them are discussed below. 1) The structures of Anduin river are poorly understood due to lack of ground truthing and insufficient coverage by oblique photographs. Especially understanding the N–S trending tectonic boundary in the central part of the river (Svennevig, 2016; Svennevig et al., 2016c) is considered important. 2) The possible presence of exposed bedrock west of Sølverbæk along the ice margin also remains to be investigated. This area has never been visited by geologists but cliffs of several metres seem to be present along the rivers there (Svennevig et al., 2016c). 3) The thickness variations in the Galadriel Fjeld Formation across fault II (Pedersen, 1989; Svennevig et al., 2016a) also call for further investigations including ground truthing to establish whether the normal faults were active during Early Cretaceous times. 4) More ground truthing in the form of kinematic data is also needed to further examine the Central Detachment, the Gåseslette Thrust and the Southern Normal faults to control the modelled and interpreted movement on these (Svennevig et al., 2016a,c). Revising nearby localities Prinsesse Ingeborg Halvø The Upper Palaeozoic succession at Prinsesse Ingeborg Halvø has previously been examined and E-W oriented folds and N-S thrusting has been described (Håkansson et al., 1988; Pedersen, 1994; Pedersen et al., 1994). The peninsula has a very low relief and outcrops are generally of poor quality. The area could benefit from the implementation of the workflow used for Kilen (Svennevig et al., 2015) to tie together scattered outcrops and extract lineaments
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Fig. 6. Oblique areial view looking east of “Gipsklinterne” the gypsym cliffs in southwest Prinsesse Ingeborg Halvø comprising melange of gypsum in a thrust fault apex zone (Pedersen and Håkansson, 1999). The cliffs are around 50 m high.
Fig. 7. Oblique aerial photograph looking east. The “Fiskehalen peninsular” in the foreground with Palaeocene–Eocene sediments and Prinsesse Ingeborg Halvø in the background with Upper Palaeozoic sediments. Fiskehalen is 5 km across.
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Fig. 8. The main section at Nakkehoved looking south. The cliffs reaches a height of 600 m.
from aerial photographs (Fig. 6). Several oblique photo lines have been recorded across key areas on Prinsesse Ingeborg Halvø. Thyra Ø and the “princess islands” archipelago On Svalbard Palaeocene–Eocene strata are effected by compression (Maher et al., 1995; Paech, 2001) however the contemporaneous Thyra Ø Formation (Lyck and Stemmerik, 2000) in eastern North Greenland has been described as only affected by extensional faults (Håkansson, 1988; Pedersen and Håkansson, 1999) (Fig. 7). A thorough investigation of the Thyra Ø Formation including mapping from oblique photogrammetry to establish structural similarities and/or difference to contemporaneous deposits on Svalbard would greatly help to further advance the geological understanding of the Wandel Sea Basin. All the islands along with the Fiskehalen peninsular have been extensively covered by oblique photo lines and these data could form the basis for a thorough preparation for future fieldwork. Nakkehoved to Nordøstrundingen The Upper Cretaceous strata northeast of Kilen at Nakkehoved, Erik S. Henius Land and Nordøstrundingen (Dawes, 1976; Håkansson, 1979; Bengaard and Henriksen, 1984) are rarely visited by ge-
ologist and very little is known about their structural and sedimentary evolution (Fig. 8). As these are the closest Mesozoic deposits to Kilen, understanding their interrelationship is central to the overall understanding of the geology of Kronprins Christian Land and the Wandel Sea Basin. Oblique photo lines were recorded around Nakkehoved and Erik S. Henius Land. Subsurface data Subsurface (seismic) data is but with a few low resolution exceptions absent from the Wandel Sea Basin (e.g. Døssing et al., 2010). Seismic lines combining onshore and offshore parts of the basins would greatly contribute to the geological knowledge of the basin and help in understanding the scattered outcrops. Skidoo based seismic studies on the sea ice and glaciers (Bælum et al., 2012) could be an obvious possibility.
Acknowledgements There are many people I would like to thank, for their help in making this thesis a reality. First of all, my supervisors Lars Stemmerik (Natural History Museum of Denmark) and Pierpaolo Guarnieri
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(GEUS) for their guidance and supervision. Pierpaolo is especially thanked for initiating the project. My acknowledgements are also due to Geocenter Danmark, the Natural History Museum of Denmark (University of Copenhagen) and GEUS for funding this PhD project. GEUS is further thanked for providing a platform for the fieldwork. The PhD School at the Faculty of Science, PhD coordinators and secretaries at the Natural History Museum are thanked for hosting me and supporting the administrative part of the PhD. Midland Valley Exploration Ltd. is thanked for the use of Move software under the Academic Software Initiative (ASI). Stig Schack Pedersen is thanked for invaluable discussion on the structural geology of Kilen and the previous map and Eckart Håkansson is thanked for information on previous data and on the exploration history of Kilen. Peter Alsen, Jussi Hovikoski, Bodil Wesenberg Lauridsen and Gunver Krarup Pedersen are thanked for fruitful discussion and invaluable input from the ongoing work on the stratigraphy of Kilen. Thanks to all the participants in the GEUS 2012 and 2013 fieldwork; expedition leaders Kristine Thrane (2012) and Jørgen Bøjesen Koefoed (2013), the GEUS logistics personnel, colleagues and the ever helpful permanent staff at Station Nord. Erik Vest Sørensen, Max Nykjær Strunck, Mevludin “Mesha” Besic and Julian Koch are thanked for assistance and company in the GEUS aerial photography lab. Jette Halskov is thanked for drafting most of the figures for the papers. Annette Hindø Thorning and Willy Lehman Weng are thanked for the digital production of the 1:50 000 scale Geo-
logical map of Kilen (Appendix I) and accommodating the numerous small changes I kept making along the way to the final map. Christian Brogaard Pedersen is thanked for assistance compiling the 3D-pdf in Appendix 3 of paper 3. Thanks to my wonderful colleagues at GEUS and in particular at the Department of Petrology and Economic Geology which has been my place of work for the past years. Anaïs Brethes is thanked for company at the office along with the rest of the PhD students in the department. The head of departments I have survived: Leif Thorning, Lotte Melchior Larsen, Per Kalvig, Karen Hanghøj and Stefan Bernstein are thanked for nourishing a fantastic work environment in the Department. Lars Henrik Nielsen, head of Department of Stratigraphy and his colleagues in the department are thanked for good discussions and collaboration during the course of the project. Several emeriti affiliated to GEUS have helped through helpful discussions of data, papers, maps and early drafts of manuscripts. These include; Peter R. Dawes, Niels (Oscar) Henriksen, Lotte Melchior Larsen, Asger Ken Pedersen, Stefan Piasecki and W. Stuart Watt. Jakob Bruun Kristensen is thanked for friendship and company during my stay at the University Centre in Svalbard and in Copenhagen afterwards. And finally thanks to my friends and family and especially Cecilie Brøndum Boesen and Palle Boesen Svennevig with whom I share my life. A special thanks to Palle for appearing at just the right time and for reminding me that a PhD is a nine-to-five job and is best made during the workday.
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