sustainability in environmental remediation - biosacc

Environmental Engineering and Management Journal

December 2011, Vol.10, No. 12, 1987-1996

http://omicron.ch.tuiasi.ro/EEMJ/

“Gheorghe Asachi” Technical University of Iasi, Romania

SUSTAINABILITY IN ENVIRONMENTAL REMEDIATION Maria Emiliana Fortuna, Isabela Maria Simion, Maria Gavrilescu “Gheorghe Asachi” Technical University of Iasi, Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Environmental Protection, Department of Environmental Engineering and Management, 73 Prof.dr.docent Dimitrie Mangeron Street, 700050 Iasi, Romania

Abstract The concept of sustainable development has become an important objective for policy makers, since the key principle of sustainable development understands the interdependence between economy, environment and society concerns. The objective of this study is to analyze the supports for sustainable environmental remediation, considering sustainability indicators and sustainable remediation practices, based on both methods that are known for a long time as well as emergent processes and technologies. The remediation system goal is to promote environmental quality, human health, well–being and safety. The emergence of sustainability ideas during the past two decades has catalyzed high levels of activity in generating facts on sustainability in the form of bioremediation and biomimetics, and also of indicators as metrics. Indicators are used for monitoring and assessment of various environmental impacts, and for social and economic issues. Bioremediation and biomimetic practices proved to be among the most sustainable for environmental remediation, where performed according to the type of contaminant, environmental component etc. So, they are applied for cleaning soils, surface water, groundwater, air contaminated with a wide range of toxic, persistent, recalcitrant chemicals. Key words: bioremediation, biomimetic, environment, green remediation, indicators Received: August, 2011; Revised final: November, 2011; Accepted: December, 2011

1. Introduction Environmental contamination from both natural and anthropogenic sources is of major concern due to the persistence and toxicity of many pollutants. Over the years, scientists have elaborated various decontamination processes and technologies, as to attend the sustainability goals in environmental remediation (Doble and Kumar, 2005; Gavrilescu and Macoveanu, 1999; Gavrilescu and Macoveanu, 2000; Khan et al., 2004). An activity is sustainable if it is able of being continued with minimal long-term effect on the environment, striving for a no-impact goal, and takes into account social and economic factors (Gavrilescu, 2011). Sustainability and sustainable development are complex concepts, with many definitions and much about the ways in which the concept can be operational (Gavrilescu, 2011; WCED, 1987). 

However, the most widely internationally quoted definition of sustainability is that given by Brundtland on the occasion of the 1987 Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development according to which sustainability means "meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs". Also, sustainability has been defined by the World Bank as a process or condition that can be maintained indefinitely without progressive diminution of valued qualities inside or outside the system in which the process operates on the condition prevails (Holdren et al., 1995). Hawken (1993) considered the sustainability in the following context: “Leave the world a better place than you found it, take no more than you need, try not to harm life or the environment, make amends if you do”. Balancing these interdependent elements is recognized in three sustainable practices:

Author to whom all correspondence should be addressed: e-mail: [email protected]

Fortuna et al./Environmental Engineering and Management Journal 10 (2011), 12, 1987-1996

environmental stewardship, economic vitality, social health and justice (Fig. 1). The actions addressing the minimization of environmental footprint, including greenhouse gases (GHG) and other air emissions, waste, energy, water, materials, land and ecological impacts, as well as the use of biodegradable and ecological friendly materials are covered by the “green” characteristics (Hurst, 2010).

application of a certain remediation system as well as by a judicious use of limited resources (http://itww.itrcweb.org). A schematic representation of the evolution of the remediation approach was given by Ellis and Handley (2009) (Fig. 2). The European Union adopted the Environmental Technology Action Plan (ETAP) in 2004 as to encourage and support the development and broader use of environmental technologies. Also, the European Coordination Action for Demonstration of Efficient Soil and Groundwater Remediation was started in 2004, playing the role of a central demonstration platform for soil and groundwater remediation (Ellis and Handley, 2009).

Fig. 1. Characteristics of the interdependent elements recognized in three sustainable practices (adapted upon Hawken, 1993)

Sustainable remediation can equate to green remediation since: reduced energy consumption reduces GHG emissions; lower environmental impacts are associated to lower costs; green practices can lead to social acceptability (Hurst, 2010). Although the terms green and sustainable are sometimes used interchangeably: green remediation can be considered as having a high focus on environmental components, while sustainable environmental remediation considers the environmental factors, social responsibility and economic aspects (NAVFAC, 2010). Sometimes, these two concepts are considered together as green and sustainable remediation (GSR), addressing a board range of environmental, social and economical impacts during all remediation phases (Reddy and Adams, 2010). However, GSR addresses the protection of human health and the environment as well as the minimization of environmental side effects, such as (Ellis and Hadley, 2009; Reddy and Adams, 2010; USEPA, 2008): - minimization of the total energy use, - promotion of the use of renewable energy for operations and transportation, - preserving natural resources, - minimizing waste generation, - maximizing material recycling, - reusing of decontaminated sites or waters. Sustainable Environmental Remediation (SER) is an important concept for soil and ground water cleaning, since it keeps in view both the social and economic issues (Ganti, 2010). The ultimate goal of remediation systems is to promote environmental well-being and human health and safety, in order to minimize any negative impact during and post

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Fig. 2. Evolution of the approach about waste and remediation (Ellis and Handley, 2009)

2. Sustainability indicators Indicators have been extensively used both for monitoring and assessment of various environmental impacts, and for social and economic issues. There is no standard techniques for evaluation or calculus of sustainability (like ISO 14040 for LCA, for example), but sustainability appraisal tends to be based on assessment of indicators (Bardos et al., 2009). Each element of sustainability (economic, environmental, social, Fig. 1) can be assessed on the basis of indicators. Table 1 sets out a series of headline indicators as a preliminary means of categorizing individual factors (Bardos et al., 2009; Warhurst, 2002). Sustainability indicators are dedicated to measure the degree which a community is meeting the needs and expectations of its present and future citizens. Policies and measures related to production, consumption and waste management are associated to sustainability indicators, which are able to qualitatively and quantitatively account all relevant impacts. Also they could avoid the unfair transfer of impact burdens among countries and various types of environment and human health considerations (JRC, 2007). OECD (2004) provides a practical definition of an indicator as “a parameter or a value derived from parameters, which provides information about a phenomenon”. Generally, an indicator possesses a synthetic significance and is developed for a specific reason, which could be extended beyond the properties directly associated with the parameter values (Warhurst, 2002).

Sustainability in environmental remediation

Table 1. Headline of sustainability indicators INDICATOR TYPES Social Economic Descriptive Can be qualitative and quantitative; in practical terms being a statement of fact; can relate the tree dimensions of sustainable development to drivers, pressure, state, impact or response Performance Compare the actual situation with targets (at national or international levels, or voluntary targets) Efficiency Provides insights into the efficiency of the use of a process/ product Sustainable reference values Related levels of environmental quality sets to targets Production Production Drawn from standard engineering approaches to process management; relate aspects of production to environmental and economic aspects Regulatory Drawn from consideration of legal compliance and limited to environmental dimension Accounting Accounting Used for internal or external reporting with a focus on liability management and tracking costs associated to waste production, management and disposal Economic Can be used for accounting the external environmental and social costs and allow their internalization. Are essential for LCA inputs Quality Quality Their focal point is waste minimization during the production process Ecological Relate to local, regional, natural and international impacts of human activity on ecosystems Environmental

The Dictionary of Environment and Sustainable Development gives a practical meaning of an indicator as “a substance or organism used as a measure of air or water quality, or biological or ecological well-being” (Gilpin, 1996). During time there were identified and discussed sustainability indices (500 reported) and considered that 11 of them are the most popular and used, namely: Living Planet Index, Ecological Footprint, City Development Index, Human Development Index, Environmental Sustainability Index, Environmental Performance Index, Index of Sustainable Economic Welfare, Well Being Index etc. (Böhringer and Jochem, 2007; Esty et al., 2005; VNCI, 2000). International Institute for Sustainable Development’s United Nations Report provided large discussion on the way forward in sustainability indices and indicators (Pintér et al., 2005). Wilson et al. (2007) provided a further review of global policy level metrics. However, Sikdar (2007) revealed that it is no uniform consensus on metrics, indices or frameworks of sustainability, but awareness of the board and relevant goals of sustainability is specifically important in the developments of strategies and targets of a certain system. The need for sustainability results from the fact that economic systems are imperfect and do not reflect total costs or values, including environmental and social impacts (Powell, 2010). Although diverse,

composite – level indices and indicators can provide more specific, actionable grabs for management, which to some degree transcend specific industries (Powell, 2010). Therefore, sustainability indicators for SER/GSR performance are not standardized (Reddy and Adams, 2010). For a global and synthetic evaluation, the key principles and factors of SER should be included in all phases of a remediation program, such as: site investigation, selection of the remediation system, application, monitoring, site closure and determination of future use (Reddy and Adams, 2010). 3. Sustainable remediation practices The selection of any practice or alternative for environmental remediation has historically been performed according to the type of contaminant, environmental component affected by the pollution, the location and the potentially exposed and affected receptors. Also, available remediation technologies have to be chosen according to European and national regulation (Gimpelson, 2011; ITRC, 2011). Sustainable remediation has some fundamental characteristics, addressing the optimization of the triple bottom line of the environmental, social and economic factors in remediation projects (Gimpelson, 2011; Lovenburg, 2011): - does not transfer the contamination to another environmental component;

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- does not generate secondary pollution or waste streams; - minimizes the impacts on environmental quality and human health; - efforts for zero discharge; - attempts for as lowest as possible use of non – renewable energy and resources. There are some drivers in the context of sustainable remediation solutions, such as (Lovenburg, 2011): - scarcity of some resources, as a result of an overwhelming of global demands (energy, water, commodities etc); - increased environmental impact significance (related to resource depletion, ecosystems damage, climate change); - requirement of global and business solutions. The best management practices should consider all effects of remedy options implementation to maximize net environmental benefits or cleanup actions, for all stages of a project performing (Fig. 3) (Lovenburg, 2011).

Fig. 3. The chain of best management practices in remedial options, applied in construction and demolition (Lovenburg, 2011)

3.1. Bioremediation, a sustainable alternative for environmental cleanup Biotechnology should become an increasing valuable tool for developing sustainable remediation and for preventing excessive pollution through environmentally friendly products and processes. This way research and development efforts are focused on a number of priority areas (Fig. 4) (Crawford and Crawford, 2005; Gavrilescu and Chisti, 2005; Gavrilescu, 2010; Singh and Stapleton, 2002): - wider explanation of biological systems (enzymes, microorganism, cells, whole organisms); - emphasis on the use of bioconsortia for developing production and degradation processes based on them; - innovative biocatalyst technology for use in areas where conventional biocatalysts are not still exploited; - biological recycling processes for the conversion of various resources to useful compounds; - focus on the development and application of recombinant technology. The group of environmental bioremediation includes emerging technologies, as an alternative to the conventional methods sometimes cost – intensive and eco – unfriendly (Singh and Trepathi, 2007). Amongst living organisms, microbial systems held a 1990

key position owing to their potential in degrading and eliminating both biodegradable and hazardous compounds (Singh and Stapleton, 2002).

Fig. 4. Main research and development issues in environmental biotechnology

Bioremediation is not a new concept in the field of applied microbiology, but it’s emergence and expansion as an industry, with the role of an effective, economically viable alternative for cleaning soils, surface water, groundwater, air contaminated with a wide range of toxic, persistent, recalcitrant chemicals conferred it the characteristics of novelty and sustainability (Crawford and Crawford, 2005). The processes associated to bioremediation are applied to remove, degrade or detoxify the pollutants in environmental components (water, air, soil, solid waste) (Gavrilescu, 2010). These actions include four processes considered as acting on the contaminants (Doble and Kumar, 2005; Gavrilescu, 2005; Gavrilescu, 2006; Gavrilescu, 2010; Khan et al., 2004): - removal: physically eliminates the pollutants from the environmental compartment, without the need of separation from the host medium; - separation: removes the contaminant from the host environmental compartment; - destruction/ degradation: chemically or biologically destroy or neutralizes the contaminant to less toxic compounds; - containment/ immobilization: impede or immobilize the surface and subsurface migration of contaminant. Two groups of factors can influence the efficiency of bioremediation (Beaudette et al., 2002; Caliman et al., 2011; Gavrilescu and Macoveanu, 1999; Gavrilescu and Macoveanu, 2000; Gavrilescu, 2005; Gavrilescu, 2010) (Fig. 5): - properties of contaminant/contamination (chemical nature, physical state: concentration, aggregation state, environmental component that contains it, oxido – reduction potential etc.); - environmental conditions (temperature, pH, environmental component characteristics, source of energy, carbon, nitrogen, trace compounds, temperature, moisture contents etc.).


Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) include a variety of compounds (pesticides, surfactants, wood preservatives, dyes dioxins, polyaromatic hydrocarbons). Heavy metals is another group of compounds causing severe environmental problems (Caliman and Gavrilescu, 2010; Gavrilescu, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2009, 2010; Gavrilescu et al., 2009; Harrad, 2009; Pavel et al., 2010; Smaranda et al., 2010; Smaranda et al., 2011).

rhett_butler.html) (Fig. 6). Generally there are three areas in biology after which technological solutions can be modeled (Fontaine, 2009; George, 2011; Wei et al., 2011): - replicating natural manufacturing methods as in the production of chemical compounds by plants and animals, - mimicking mechanisms found in nature, - imitating organizational principles from social behavior of organisms.

Fig. 5. Factors of influence in bioremediation processes

3.2. Biomimetic based remediation practices Numerous people involved in engineering, science, business are more and more turning toward nature for design inspiration. The term biomimicry, or imitation of nature, has been defined as, copying or adaptation or derivation from biology (Eadie and Ghosh, 2011; Vincent et al., 2006). The term bionics was first introduced by Steele as, the science of systems which has some function copied from nature, or which represents characteristics of natural systems or their analogues (Eadie and Ghosh, 2011). The term biomimetics introduced by Schmitt (1969) is derived from bios, meaning life (in Greek) and mimesis, meaning to imitate (Bar-Cohen, 2006; Eadie and Ghosh, 2011). The Merriam-Webster Dictionary define biomimetics as (http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/biomimetics): “the study of the formation, structure, or function of biologically produced substances and materials (as enzymes or silk) and biological mechanisms and processes (as protein synthesis or photosynthesis) especially for the purpose of synthesizing similar products by artificial mechanisms which mimic natural ones”. Biomimetics, ideally, should be the process of incorporating principles that promote sustainability much like nature does from cradle to grave, from raw material usage to recyclability (Bushan, 2009; Eadie and Ghosh, 2011). The field of biomimetics that is the application of methods and systems, found in nature, to engineering and technology, has generated a number of innovations far advanced to what the human mind alone could have thought up (http://news.mongabay.com/2005/0711-

Fig. 6. Main areas and tools connected to biomimetic concept

3.2.1. Biomimetic sorption and sorbents Some removal processes exploit the ability of biomimetic adsorbents originated from aquatic animals for removing trace amounts of organic contaminants (Wei et al., 2011). These pollutants can be found in water bodies and bioaccumulate in living organisms as fish, selfish etc. The application of biomimetic adsorbents is based on the capacity of materials as biological lipids to immobilize trace pollutants, which usually exhibit low water solubility (Tamerler and Sarikaya, 2006; Zhang et al., 2010). Some data in literature are provided on the preparation of porous biomimetic adsorbent, which revealed three advantages, at least (Sakellarides et al., 2006; Wei et al., 2011; Zhang et al., 2010; Zhou et al., 2007): - biomimetic adsorbents have excellent sorption capacities due to the porosity and lipophilic nature; - can be considered as environmentally friendly products since they are biodegradable and innocuocus; - waste can be reused. The design of biomimetic films at planar surfaces is of great interest as a model system for studying the interaction of biomolecules with membrane surfaces, as well as for the development of biocompatible interfaces (Krastev, 2010). Liu et al. (2007) developed a novel biomimetic absorbent based on lipid triolein for the removal of persistent organic pollutants from aqueous effluents. The sorbent was prepared by embedding triolein into

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cellulose acetate spheres, both considered as pollution – free and environmentally friendly raw materials. The results of adsorption experiments were explained by considering the structure of adsorbents. POPs were firstly adsorbed into the surface of adsorbents and then transferred into the triolein (Liu et al., 2007). Lower residual concentrations of selected POPs were obtained by the cellulose acetate – triolein absorbent in composition with the cellulose acetate. 3.2.2. Biomimetic catalysts The application of synthetic biomimetic catalyst to mimic the activity of natural oxidative enzymes may represent an efficient alternative to overcome the disadvantages of natural enzymes (Fontaine, 2009; Gonsalves and Pereira, 1996). Biomimetic synthetic catalysts are artificial compounds containing the same active prosthetic group as in the natural enzymes, but functionalized as to increase their solubility in water and their stability under oxidative conditions (Cristini et al., 1999; Fontaine, 2009; Milos, 2001). Some research concentrates on the development of oxidative processes for environmental remediation (groundwater, soils/ sediments) contaminated with hazardous compounds, which are suspected of reproductive and developmental disruptive effects. Stavropulos (2011) developed a project for the treatment of halogenated and nonhalogenated organics based on catalytic ion reagents whose action mimicked that of biological oxigenase (P-450, sMMo). This way, the process is more selective than other advanced oxidative technologies that make use of hydroxyl radicals. The oxidation of dibenzothiophene by mononuclear nonheme oxo-iron(IV) complexes hearing pentadentate ligands were explored in using a biomimetic approach by Vardhaman et al. (2011), as a feasible technique for deep desulphurization of commercial fuels. The Fe hydrogenases seem to be involved in the catalysis of hydrogen production, as sustainable fuel (Sun et al., 2004). This behaviour has inspired chemists to synthesize close mimics to the active site of the natural systems as to develop active hydrogen production catalysts (Darenbourg et al., 2000; Evans and Picket, 2003; Kleever et al., 2009) (Fig. 7). Sun et al. (2004) analyzed the enzyme and the active sites, which were found to consist of two iron nuclei, linked by a dithiolate bridge. Based o their studies, two biomimetic systems based on a 2-aza1,3-dithiol bridged Fe-dimer complexes have been synthesized and characterized, and then applied for catalytic electrochemical hydrogen production. Development of more resistant synthetic metal – porphyrins, suitable for aqueous media was performed by adding sulphonatophenyl groups to the porphyrin ring. Fontaine (2009) found that this way both water solubility and their redox potential are increased, as well as the resistance to oxidative destruction.

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Iron-porphyrins were applied to declorurate and couple chlorophenols and other organic compounds (Fontaine, 2009; Fukushima et al., 2003; Song et al., 1998; Traylor et al., 1984).

Fig. 7. Hydrogenase on dye-sensitized TiO2 for H2 evolution

Biomimetics is “the science of emulating nature’s design” (George, 2011). In nature, the interactions of biological molecules with mineral compounds and among themselves lead to the synthesis of mineralized tissues, under a strict biological control. Understanding the design principles in nature and mimicking these processes may provide new knowledge for synthesizing biomaterials with unique properties, environmentally friendly and possible to be used in sustainable environmental remediation (Fig. 8). On the one hand, this approach can contribute to the reduction of: toxic chemical waste, use of fossil feedstock, emissions o greenhouse gases. On the other hand, it could strengthen the growth of the eco - innovation market and the exploitation of bio – based products.

Fig. 8. The synergism among synthesis, chemical biology and materials related to biomimetic approach

The environmental benefits and economic prospects can be quantified using Life Cycle Assessment and Life Cycle Costs of the intermediate and final products and processes, taking into account the whole value chain.


4. Metrics in sustainable remediation Sustainable remediation can be evaluated based on sustainability indicators or metrics. They can address the environmental, social and economic aspects of a technology or process and can contribute to move the remediation towards a sustainable one (ITRC, 2011; Gavrilescu, 2010; Gavrilescu, 2011). Although there is no generally accepted set of indicators or metrics for remediation processes, numerous papers and publications discussed, introduced and evaluated various remediation practices based on different metrics. SURF White Paper (Ellis and Handley, 2009) and ITRC (2011), provided a compilation of sustainable remediation metrics. They can be useful for planning of remediation activities, such as: site investigation, feasibility study, remedial design and implementation, process optimization, site closure etc., but some of them are difficult to quantify. Of course, there are numerous innovative alternatives for environmental remediation which heave not been explored in the context of sustainable / green remediation. Their examination and comparison as well as the serious consideration are important parts of SER. 4. Conclusions Sustainability appraisal is generally based on an assessment of the performance of different remediation options against a list of sustainability indicators. The indicators are representative of the range of relevant indicators found in the international peer-reviewed literature on sustainability appraisals and are relevant to land and groundwater remediation activities. Physical/chemical treatment uses the physical properties of the contaminants or the contaminated medium to destroy, separate or contain the contamination. The application of biotechnology that should become an increasing valuable tool for developing sustainable remediation and for preventing excessive pollution through environmentally friendly products and processes across various industry sectors has invariably led to both economic and environmental benefits including less expensive processing, enhanced product quality, entirely new products, and environmentally sustainable processing relative to conventional operations. Bioremediation and biomimetic processes are typically easily implemented at low cost. Through engineered biocatalysis, biotechnology is enabling the use of previously unusable renewable materials and production of novel products. Acknowledgements This paper was supported by the project PERFORM-ERA "Postdoctoral Performance for Integration in the European Research Area" (ID-57649), financed by the European Social Fund and the Romanian Government and POSDRU

CUANTUMDOC “Doctoral Studies for European Performances in Research and Inovation” ID79407 project funded by the European Social Found and Romanian Government and PN-II-ID-PCE-2011-3-0559 Idei Project, contract 265/2011.

References Bar-Cohen Y., (2006), Biomimetics: Biologically Inspired Technologies, Taylor and Francis, Bra Raton, USA. Bardos P., Lazar A., Willenbrock N., (2009), A Review of published sustainability indicators sets: How applicable are they to contaminated land remediation indicator-set development, SURF, Sustainable Remediation Forum UK, London. Bhushan B., (2009), Biomimetics: lessons from nature – an overview, Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Science, 367, 1445-1486. Böhringer C., Jochem P.E.P., (2007), Measuring the immeasurable: a survey of sustainability indices, Ecological Economics, 63, 1-8. Caliman F.A., Gavrilescu M., (2010), Pharmaceuticals, personal care products and endocrine disrupting agents in the environment - a review, Clean – Soil, Air, Water, 37, 277-303. Caliman F.A., Robu B.M., Smaranada C., Pavel V.L., Gavrilescu M., (2011), Soil and groundwater cleanup: benefits and limits of emerging technologies, Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy, 13, 241-268. Crawford R.L., Crawford D.L., (2005), Bioremediation: Principles and Applications, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge – New York. Crestini C., Saladino R., Tagliatesta P., Boschi T., (1999), Biomimetic degradation of lignin and lignin model compounds by synthetic anionic and cationic water soluble manganese and iron porphyrins, Bioorganic and Medicinal Chemistry, 7, 1897-1905. Darensbourg M.Y., Lyon E.J., Smee J.J., (2000), The bio organometallic chemistry of active site iron in hydrogenases, Coordination Chemistry Reviews, 206207, 533-561. Doble M., Kumar A., (2005), Biotreatment of Industrial Effluents, Elsevier – Butterworth – Heinemann. Eadie L., Ghosh T.K., (2011), Biomimicry in textiles: past, present and potential. An overview, Journal of the Royal Society Interface, 8, 761-775. Ellis D.E., Handley P.W., (2009), Sustainable Remediation White Paper - Integrating Sustainable, Principles, Practices and Metrics into Remediation Projects, Remediation, John Wiley, New York. Esty D.C., Levy M.A., Srebotnjak T., de Sherbinin A., (2005), Environmental Sustainability Index (ESI): Benchmarking National Environmental Stewardship, Yale Center for Environmental Law and Policy, New Haven, USA. Evans D.J., Pickett C.J., (2003), Chemistry and hydrogenases, Chemical Society Reviews, 32, 268-275. Fontaine B., (2009), Oxidative coupling between halogenated phenols and humic acids under biomimetic catalysis, PhD Thesis, University Frederic II of Naples, Italy. Fukushima M., Sawada A., Kawasaki M., Ichikawa H., Morimoto K., Tatsumi K., (2003), Influence of humic substances on the removal of pentachlorophenol by a biomimetic catalytic system with a water – soluble iron(III) – porphyrin complex, Environmental Science and Techonolgy, 37, 1031-1036.

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Fresh – water consumption Water reuse Groundwater protection Surface water protection Bioavailability of contaminants Biodiversity Habitat disturbance Ecosystem protection Natural resource protection Nonrenewable energy use Renewable energy use Net energy reduction Greenhouse gas emissions Air pollution (non – GHGs) Contaminant migration Material use Material extraction Waste reduction Reuse of materials Life – cycle cost Use of recycled materials Net environmental benefit Consider cost of the “sustainability delta “, if any Property value Tax base Employment Capital costs Operations and maintenance (O&M) costs Worker risks Community risks Land reuse Local material use Noise Odor Lighting Environmental justice Community impacts Cultural resources Stakeholder involvement Access to open spaces Maximize future land – use potential

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Economic

Community

Waste

Water

Sustainable remediation practices and objectives

Land

Table 2. Green and sustainable remediation metrics (Ellis and Handley, 2009; ITRC, 2011)

Metric description

Volume of fresh water used Volume of water used, percentage of water reused Volume of groundwater protected Volume of surface protected Mass of bioavailable contaminants Assessment of impacts on biodiversity Measure of impact on area impacted or change in ecosystems services Measure of impact on are impacted or change in ecosystems services Measure of impact on natural resources or natural resource quality Measures o use of nonrenewable energy resources Measures of use of renewable energy Percent change from baseline Tons of GHGs emitted Pounds of air pollutants emitted Measure of amount of mass migrated over distance and time, flux is a measure of mass migration through an area cross – sectional and perpendicular to flow Kg of total material use, or mass by category of material Mass of material extracted per mass recovered Measure o water diverted from landfill or wastewater treatment operations Measure of water diverted from landfill; could also use $ for saving aspects or reuse, volume of water reused Costs associated with complete life cycle Mass or volume of material reused in proportion to virgin materials Measure of impact (negative or positive) to ecosystems and human use Normalize impacts of sustainability to a common unit and factor in cost Improvement in property value as a result of implementing remedy Improvement in property value of property Number of jobs created as a result of implementing remedy Capital costs of project Present value of O&M for project life cycle Potential for fatality or injury based on worker – hours and miles Potential for fatality or injury based on miles associated with off – site transportation Acres of land reused for beneficial reuse Percentage of materials procured for project from local sources Noise level of project Olfactory impacts of project Increase of lighting intensity to nearby impacted people Potential for project to disproportionately disadvantage communities Impacts of project on the community Impacts of project on cultural resources Involvement of interested stakeholders in project decision Impacts of project on public access Maximize future land use of property for uses that are beneficial to the local community


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