Sustainable Development and Environment

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Editors Dr. Rajendra Singh Assistant Professor Department of Zoology Bareilly College, Bareilly

Dr. Somesh Yadav Associate Professor Department of Botany Bareilly College, Bareilly

EXCEL INDIA PUBLISHERS NEW DELHI

First Impression: 2015 © Bareilly College, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh Environmental Issues for Socio-ecological Development ISBN: 978-93-84869-35-9 No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the copyright owners. DISCLAIMER The authors are solely responsible for the contents of the papers compiled in this volume. The publishers or editors do not take any responsibility for the same in any manner. Errors, if any, are purely unintentional and readers are requested to communicate such errors to the editors or publishers to avoid discrepancies in future. Published by EXCEL INDIA PUBLISHERS 91 A, Ground Floor Pratik Market, Munirka, New Delhi–110067 Tel: +91-11-2671 1755/ 2755/ 3755/ 5755 Fax: +91-11-2671 6755 E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.groupexcelindia.com Typeset by Excel Publishing Services, New Delhi–110067 E-mail: [email protected] Printed by Excel Printing Universe, New Delhi–110067 E-mail: [email protected]

Foreword Sustainable development is related to find out a balance between economic development and environmental protection and also between the requirements in present time and in future time. It is therefore there exists a dire need to collaborate socio-cultural, techno-scientific, economic and ecological areas to work together to reach growth and developmental aims in recent time with a vision for tomorrow. It could be inferred through evolved framework of sustainable development that in spite of the prominent endeavours long way of challenges are ahead to effectively dealt and address with the issues like eradication of poverty and sustainable economic and ecological development to keep the pace for standing in the list of developed nations by 2020. Willful implementation of policies, through good governance and awareness about green development by masses has been a prominent need of the time the nation may lay the emphasis persistently, today and tomorrow. I am indebted to the scholars who took the time to write the papers for this book. These papers will provide strong bases to evolve sustainable strategies for improving current environmental conditions. I hope this book will be beneficial for all segment of society and to make them conscious for safer and healthier environment. I appreciate the efforts of editors of this book for their work. I wish them all success.

Surendra P. Singh Chair of Excellence in Biodiversity and Ecology Forest Research Institute, Dehradun, Uttarakhand

Contents Foreword

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1. Global Concern for Biodiversity Conservation Ravi Parkash

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2. Sustainable Development and Environment G.C. Pandey, Sandeep Kumar and Pradeep Kumar Sharma

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3. Water Pollution, an Environmental Issue of Global Concern: A Focus on River Ramganga Neelima Gupta

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4. Climate Change and its Consequences on the Rivers of Ganga Plain Dhruv Sen Singh

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5. A Study on E-waste Awareness in Higher Educational Institutes of Kangra Region: A Case Study Manoj K. Saxena and Ravi Raj

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6. Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture and its Various Aspects Mukesh Sehgal and Ravendra Singh

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7. Environmental Effects on Herbal Medicines Vipin Saini, A. Pandurangan and Ravdeep Saini

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8. Environmental Protection in India: Quality Management by Institutional Collaboration and Coherence Sandhya Gihar and Sanjeev Bhardwaj

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9. Plant Parasitic Nematodes: The Hidden Enemies of Farmers Rajendra Singh and Swastik Phulera

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10. Safety Evaluation of Food Additives and Contaminants on Human Health Beenam Saxena

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11. Cynobacterial Diversity of North-West Sub-Himalayas Mukesh Kumar, A.B. Bhatt and G.S. Paliwal

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12. Genetically Modified Food with Special Reference to BT Brinjal Adarsh Pandey

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Contents

13. Estimation of Sodium and Calcium in Cymbopogon Species by Flame Photometry Archana Srivastava and Naina Srivastava

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14. A Qualitative Analysis of the Impacts of Green Economy on Social, Environment and Economy Sector Beena Yadav

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15. Global Environmental Strategies for the Protection of our Global Commons Shalini Saxena and Somesh Yadav

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16. Fungal Infection on Cucurbits and Climatic Factors Rajeev Kumar Yadav, Shalini Saxena, Somesh Yadav and B.N. Pandey AUTHOR INDEX

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Global Concern for Biodiversity Conservation Ravi Parkash Department of Genetics, Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak–124001, Haryana E-mail: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION All over the globe, human beings are dependent upon natural resources (wild and domesticated plants and animals, fossil fuels and mineral wealth) for food, clothes, medicines shelter, air, water, climate modifications. These processes which help sustain human life on earth are called ecosystem services. However, due to human population boom, we have physically altered half of earth’s land surface as well as aquatic resources. In the oceans, stocks of most major fisheries are shrinking because of overharvesting. Some of the greatest concentrations of biodiversity are found in the tropics. Unfortunately, tropical forests are being cleared at an alarming rate to support increasing human populations. The rates of deforestation in the tropics are among the highest in the world. Some of the most productive and diverse aquatic areas (coral reefs and estuaries) are being severely stressed. Humans are in the process of doing more damage to the biosphere and pushing more species toward extinction than the large asteroid that may have triggered the mass extinctions at the close of Cretaceous period (65 million years ago). At present, the rate of species loss may be 1000 times higher than at any time in the past. Many species that are threatened could potentially provide crops, fibers and medicines for human use, making biodiversity a crucial natural resource. Many researchers are enthusiastic about the potential bioprospecting for the development of new medicines, foods, petroleum substitutes, industrial chemicals and other products. However, because many million species may become extinct before we even know about them, we stand to lose irretrievably the valuable genetic potential held in their unique libraries of genes.

MAJOR THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY Four major threats to biodiversity include–habitat destruction, introduced or invasive species, overexploitation and disruption of interaction networks such as food webs.

HABITAT DESTRUCTION Massive destruction of habitats has been brought about by agriculture, urban development, deforestation, mining and pollution. When no alternative habitat is available or a species is unable to move, habitat loss may mean extinction. Forest fragmentation is occurring at a rapid rate in the tropics, leaving small forest islands. During the last few decades, habitat fragments have lost 10 to 60% of their plant species. Habitat loss is also a major threat to marine biodiversity, especially along continental coasts and around coral reefs. About 90 % of coral reefs (earth’s most |1

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species rich aquatic communities) have been damaged by human activities. At the current rate of destruction of coral reefs, one third of marine fish species could be lost in the next 30 years.

INVASIVE SPECIES Introduced species (also called invasive, nonnative or exotic species) are those that humans move (either intentionally or accidentally) from the species native locations to new geographical areas. The modern ease of travel by ship and airplane has accelerated the transplant of species across continents. Such transplanted species spread through a new regions at exponential rates because these lack predators and pathogens in the new territories. Introduced species proliferate quickly in their new locales and disrupt their adopted community often by preying on native organisms or outcompeting them for resources. For example, the brown tree snake was accidentally introduced to the island of Guam through a military dump up operation after World War II. Since then, 12 species of birds and 6 species of lizards on which these snakes prey have become extinct on Guam. Another accidental introduction is the zebra mussel which was introduced in the Great lakes of North America in 1988 through ships arriving from Europe. In the U.S., zebra mussels have attained high population density and disrupted freshwater ecosystems, thereby threatening native aquatic species. Further, humans have deliberately introduced many species with good intentions but disastrous results. For example, a Japanese plant called Kudzu was introduced in the southern U.S.A. to help control soil erosion. However, this plant has taken over vast expanses of landscape and has eliminated several native plant species. Introduced species are a worldwide problem, contributing to about 40 % of extinctions recorded so far.

OVEREXPLOITATION Overexploitation refers to human harvesting of wild plants or animals at rates exceeding the ability of populations of these species to rebound. This process includes commercial fishing, hunting, collecting and trading of animals. It is possible for overexploitation to endanger plants or animals which produce valuable commercial products. The African elephant is a classic example of the impact of overhunting largely because of the trade in ivory, elephant populations have been declining in most of Africa during the last 50 years. Species with restricted habitats, such as small islands, are vulnerable to overexploitation. Humans had hunted great auk to extinction on the islands in the Atlantic oceans. This flightless seabird was hunted for its feathers, eggs and meat.

DISRUPTION OF INTERACTION NETWORKS Ecosystem dynamics depend on the networks of interspecific interactions within biological communities. Extinction of one species can doom other species of a community particularly when extinction involves a keystone species or an ecosystem engineer species i.e. species which have a highly specialized relationship with other species. Foundation species or ecosystem engineers exert their influence not through their trophic interactions but by causing physical changes in the environment that affect the structure of the community. Foundation species act as facilitators that have positive |2

Estimation of Sodium and Calcium in Cymbopogon Species by Flame Photometry

effects on the survival and reproduction of some of the other species in the community. For example, the black rush Juncus species help prevent salt build up by shading the soil surface which reduces evaporation. This was shown experimentally by removal of Juncus from study plots in the salt marsh which led to death of three other plant species. In another field experiment in U.S.A., Albizzia procera, a nonnative plant that thrives on nitrogen poor soils was used to improve roadside area after removal of original forests. The rapid buildup of organic material from dense strands of Albizzia procera enabled indigenous plants to recolonize the area and overgrow the introduced plant in a relatively brief time.

LOSS OF GENETIC DIVERSITY IN SMALL POPULATIONS A species is designated as endangered when its populations are small. A small population is prone to inbreeding and genetic drift that draw a population to extinction vortex. The key factor driving the extinction vortex is the loss of genetic variation necessary to enable evolutionary responses to environment change such as new strains of pathogens. In a case study of greater prairie chicken in the U.S.A., researchers observed that population collapse were mirrored in a reduction in fertility as measured by the hatching rates of eggs. Comparisons of DNA samples from the collapsing population with DNA from feathers in the museum specimens showed that the genetic variation had declined in the study population. In 1992, researchers began experimental translocations of prairie chicken from distant populations in an attempt to increase genetic variation. After translocation, the viability of eggs rapidly improved and the population rebounded. The study showed that lack of genetic variation had started the prairie chicken population down the extinction vortex.

LOSS OF GENETIC DIVERSITY DUE TO MODERN AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES To increase food production, the Green Revolution fostered the development of inbred strains of high–yield varieties (HYV) of crop plants. This approach was very successful and it is estimated that over one billion people worldwide now derive all or part of their food supply from these new crops (HYV). However, this program has a dark side. In many countries, as farmers switched to HYV, they abandoned the traditional varieties or cultivars of crop plants which contained a high degree of genetic diversity. For example, 50 years ago farmers in our country used to grow more than 30,000 varieties of rice. Now it is estimated that 50–75 % of all rice fields are planted with just 10 varieties. This dramatic loss of genetic variation has generated some controversies. Accordingly, Green Revolution represents short–term gains but long–term losses. It is not clear whether climate change will adversely affect high yielding varieties and may perhaps reduced the food supply. In the U.S.A., about 7100 apple varieties used to be grown in 1900 but only 15 % of these varieties can be found now. Just fifteen varieties of apples account for 90 % of apples now sold in the U.S.A. Modern varieties may be better adapted for current horticultural practices but many old varieties contained useful genes that can still play a vital role in survival functions such as resistance to disease, cold or drought.

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PROTECTED AREAS FOR BIODIVERSITY Conservation biologists have applied their understanding of community and ecosystem dynamics in establishing protected areas to slow the loss of biodiversity. Currently, governments have set aside about 7% of the world’s land in various forms of reserves. Biodiversity hotspots are good choices for nature reserves. A biodiversity hotspot is a relatively small area with an exceptional concentration of endemic species and a large number of endangered and threatened species. Designating an area as a biodiversity hotspot is often biased towards saving vertebrates and plants, with less attention paid to invertebrates and microorganisms.

EFFECT OF POLLUTION ON BIODIVERSITY Humans release an immense variety of synthetic toxic chemicals in the environment without realizing its ecological consequences. Organisms acquire toxic substances from the environment along with the nutrients and water. Some chemicals are metabolized or excreted while others accumulate in specific tissues such as fat. For example, in the decade after World War II, use of DDT grew rapidly but its ecological consequences were not understood. DDT had been used to control insects such as mosquitoes and agricultural pests. By 1950’s scientist learned that DDT persists in the environment and is transported by water to areas far from where it is applied. One of the first sign that DDT was a serious environmental problem was a decline in the populations of several bird species such as pelicans and eagles which feed on the top of food web. The accumulation of DDT in the tissues of these birds interfered with the deposition of calcium in their egg shells. When the birds tried to incubate their eggs, the weight of the parents broke the shells of affected eggs, resulting in massive declines in the bird’s reproductive rates. Rachel Carson’s book Silent spring brought this problem to public attention and DDT was banned in U.S.A. in 1960’s. In the subsequent decades, a dramatic recovery in the populations of the affected bird species followed. The history of DDT illustrates the importance of understanding the ecological connections between diseases and communities i.e. malaria versus bird communities. Despite this fact, DDT is still used in much of the tropics to control mosquitoes that spread malaria and other diseases.

CLIMATE WARMING AND ITS EFFECTS ON BIODIVERSITY Human activities release a variety of gaseous waste products to the environment. People once thought that the vast atmosphere could absorb these materials indefinitely. However, we now know that such additions can cause fundamental changes to the atmosphere and its interactions with the rest of biosphere. Rising concentrations of long – lived greenhouse gases such as CO2 are changing the earth’s heat budget. Much of the solar radiation that strikes the planet is reflected back into space. Although CO2 and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere are transparent to visible light, they intercept and absorb much of the infrared radiation emitted by earth, followed by re – reflecting some of it back towards the earth. This process retains some of the solar heat which is known as greenhouse effect. The marked increased in the concentration of atmospheric CO2 over the past 150 years concerns scientists because of its links to increased global temperatures. Fossil fuel burning also contributes to the warming. Most scientists ate convinced that such warming is already occurring and will increase rapidly during the current century. |4

Estimation of Sodium and Calcium in Cymbopogon Species by Flame Photometry

Global warming is making hot days hotter, rainfall and flooding heavier, hurricanes stronger and droughts more severe. This intensification of weather and climate extremes will be the most visible impact of global warming in our everyday lives. Climate warming is also causing changes to the landscape of our world, adding stress to wildlife species and their habitat. Since many types of plants and animals have specific habitat requirements. Climate change could cause disastrous loss of wildlife species. A slight rise or drop in the average rainfall will translate into large seasonal changes. Hibernating mammals, reptiles, amphibians and insects are likely to be harmed and disturbed. The ecosystems where the largest warming has already occurred are those in the far north, particularly northern coniferous forests and tundra. As snow and ice melt and uncover darker more absorptive surfaces, these systems reflect less radiation back to the atmosphere and warm further. Arctic sea ice in the summer of 2010 covered the smallest area on record. Climate models suggest that there may be no summer ice within a few decades, thereby decreasing habitat for polar bears, seals and seabirds. Higher temperatures also increase the likelihood of fires. In the boreal forests of North America and Russia, fires have burned twice the usual areas in recent times. Global models predict that by the end of the 21st century, the atmospheric CO2 concentration will be more than double, increasing average global temperature by about 3 °C. Supporting these models is the correlation between CO2 levels and temperatures in the prehistoric times. One way climatologists estimate past CO2 concentration is to measure CO2 levels in bubbles trapped in glacial ice. Prehistoric temperatures are inferred by several methods i.e. (a) chemical isotopes in the sediments and corals; (b) analysis of past vegetation based on fossils. A warming trend would also alter the geographical distribution of precipitation making agricultural areas drier affecting food supply.

DEPLETION OF ATMOSPHERIC OZONE Life on earth is protected from the damaging effects of ultraviolet (UV) radiation by a layer of ozone located in the stratosphere 17–25 km above earth’s surface. However, satellite studies on the atmosphere show that the spring time ozone layer over Antarctica has thinned substantially since mid 1970’s. The destruction of ozone results primarily from the accumulation of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) chemical used in manufacturing and refrigeration. In the stratosphere, chlorine atoms released from CFCs react with ozone, reducing it to molecular O2. Subsequent reactions release the chlorine, allowing it to react with other ozone molecules in a catalytic chain reaction. The ozone levels have decreased 2 to 10 % during the last two decades. The consequences of ozone depletion for life on earth may be severe for plants, animals and microorganisms. Scientists expect effects on crops and natural communities such as phytoplankton that are responsible for a large proportion of earth’s primary production. To study the consequences of ozone depletion, ecologists have conducted field experiments in which they used filters to decrease or block the UV radiation in the sunlight. One such experiment performed on a scrub ecosystem near the tip of South America showed that when the ozone hole passed over the area, the amount of UV radiation increased, causing more DNA damage in plants that were not protected by 5|

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filters. Scientists have shown similar DNA damage and a reduction in phytoplankton growth when the ozone hole opens over the southern ocean each year. The partial destruction of earth’s ozone shield is one more example of how much humans have been able to disrupt the ecosystem dynamics and the biosphere.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION Ecologists have used the concept of sustainability as a tool to establish long term conservation priorities. We need to understand the interconnections of the biosphere if we are to protect species from extinction. By sustainable development, we mean economic development that meets the needs of people today without limiting the ability of future generations to meet their needs. There is need to define and acquire the basic ecological information needed to develop, manage and conserve earth’s biological resources as responsibly as possible. This includes studies on interaction between climate and ecological processes and biodiversity and the ways in which productivity of natural and artificial ecosystems can be sustained. For this, we must connect life sciences with social sciences, economics and the humanities. Ecological footprint is a method to estimate the human carrying capacity of earth by calculating the aggregate land and water area in various ecosystem of a nation. People living in developed or wealthier nations have a larger ecological footprint than do people living in developing or poor nations. By reducing our orientation towards short – term gain, we can learn to value the natural processes and biodiversity that sustain us. Several studies indicate that the functioning of ecosystems, and hence their capacity to perform ecological services is linked to conservation of Biodiversity. As human activities reduce biodiversity, we may be reducing the capacity of earth’s ecosystems to perform processes critical to our survival. Perhaps, it is because we do not attach a monetary value to the services of natural ecosystems. Ecologists have estimated the dollar value of earth’s ecosystem services at $ 33 trillion per year which is nearby twice the gross national product of all the countries on earth (i.e. $ 18 trillion). We must work out the trade–off between cost and benefit of several development works such as building a dam or clearing forests. Thus, a combination of scientific and people’s (shareholder of that region) efforts can make a significant difference in creating a truly sustainable world.

REFERENCES Baker, C.S. and Palumbi, S.R. 1994. Which whales are hunted? A molecular genetic approach to monitoring whales. Science 265: 1538 – 1539. [2] Dobson, A and Lyles, A, 2000. Black-footed ferret recovery. Science 288 – 985. [3] Dobson, P. et al 1997. Hopes for the future restoration ecology and conservation Biology. Science 277: 515 – 522. [4] Frankham, R 1995. Conservation Genetics. Ann. Rev. Genet. 29: 305 – 327. [5] Hedrick, P.W. 2001. Conservation Genetics? Where are we now? Trends. Ecol.16: 629 – 636. [6] Johnson. W.E. et al 2010. Genetic restoration of the Florida Panther. Science 329: 1641 – 1644. [7] Krebs. C.J. 2001. Ecology. Benjamin Cummings. [8] Myers, N. et al 2001. Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature 403: 853 – 858. [9] Westermeier R. L. et al 1998. Tracking the long term decline and recovery of an isolated population. Science 282: 1695 – 1698. [10] Wilson, E.D. ed. 1988. Biodiversity. Washinton, D.C., National Academy of Sciences. [1]

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Sustainable Development and Environment G.C. Pandey1, Sandeep Kumar2 and Pradeep Kumar Sharma 3 Dr. R.M.L. Avadh University, Faizabad–224001, U.P, India E-mail: [email protected]

Most developed countries are economically more advance. They not only exploited their own natural resources rapidly, but also used the natural resources of developing countries to grow even larger economies. So as development progressed, the rich countries got richer while the poor nations got poorer. However, even the developed world has begun to realize that their lives were being seriously affected by the environmental consequences of development based on economic growth alone. This form of development did not add to the quality of life as the environmental condition had begun to deteriorate (Air, Water Pollution, waste Management, deforestation, ill effects and Human health). The disparity in life styles between the rich and the poor was made worse by these unsustainable development strategies. Many decades ago, Mahatma Gandhi envisioned a reformed village community based on sound environmental management. He stressed on the need for sanitation based on recycling human and animal manure and well ventilated cottages built of recyclable material. He envisioned roads as being clean and free of dust. His main objectives were to use village made goods instead of industrial products. All these principles are now considered part of sound long-term development. Gandhiji had designed a sustainable lifestyle for himself when these concepts were not a part of general thinking. A growing realization of the development strategy that Mahatma Gandhi had suggested many decades earlier is now accepted by experts on development across the world. This is based on his concept that the world good support peoples need but not their greed. It has taken the path of short term economic growth and now suffers the consequences the environmental degradation as the cost of loss of quality of human life. Society must thus change its unsustainable development strategies to a new form where development will not destroy the Environment. This form of SD can only be brought about if each individual practices a sustainable life style based on caring for the earth. Large Dams, major highways, mining industries etc. can seriously damage ecosystems that support the ecological health of a region. Forests are essentially for maintaining renewable resources, reducing CO2 levels and maintaining O2 levels in the earth’s atmosphere. The loss of forest depletes biodiversity which has to be preserved to maintain life on earth. The Industrial activities in various industrialized countries in world got tremendous boosting. This resulted into the degradation of the Environment, because fossil fuels 7|

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were the major sources of Energy. There were evidences of Acid Rain and precipitation resulting into Soil and Water acidification. This was the cause of reduction in the productivity in Agriculture and Aquaculture, immediately. The international community was concerned about this development. The UNEP was given the responsibility of arranging an International Convention on ‘Human Environment’. This Convention was held at Stockholm, Sweden, in Sept. 1972. At the Convention, the participating Nations were unanimous in suggesting for the monitoring of the Air and Water Pollution, by setting up of National Pollution Control Boards (NPCB). At the same time it was pointed out that the major cause of the Air pollution was the burning of the Fossil Fuels for Energy production. This debate of Economic Development, Energy production and Environmental degradation continued for more than a decade.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT (SD) This vicious triangle of triple E’s (Economy, Energy and Environment) was very seriously deliberated and it was concluded that, for the protection of the Environment, reduction of the Fossil Fuel usage means downtrend in the Economic development. In the Stockholm convention of 1972 it was decided that this group will again meet after ten years in 1982. The Second convention was held at Nairobi, Kenya. In the Nairobi meet the members tried to find a way out to combat this impasse. They suggested that the Economic development is essential for the society; it should not be decelerated in any way. At the same time Environment must be protected from degradation. This will only be possible if we can tag two wards Development and Sustainability.

STRATEGIES FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT The term ‘Development’ is generally described as the method of m improving the living condition in the human society, utilizing the available natural resources and adoption of appropriate technologies. The term ‘Sustainability’ was for the first time used in 1972, |8

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by the ‘Club of Rome’ in their famous report of ‘Limits of Growth’ written by a group of scientists of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA. The authors used the word ‘Sustainable’ to mean ‘State of Global Equilibrium’. In their words, “We are searching for a model output that represents a world system that is... (a)Sustainable without sudden and un-controlled collapse, and (b) Capable of satisfying the basic material requirements of all of its people.’’ Subsequently, in 1987, the ‘United Nations World Commission for Environment and Development’ released a report, “Our Common Future’’, now commonly known as ‘Brundtland Report’, which defined the most widely accepted meaning of Sustainable Development as “The development that meets the needs of the present, without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs.’’ In 1992 ‘UN Conference on Environment and Development’’(UNCED), at Rio-deJehnero, Brazil, ‘The Earth Charter’, outlining the building of a just sustainable and peaceful Global Society in the 21st. Century, has been proclaimed. An Action Plan called ‘Agenda 21’ was prepared, keeping in view the Sustainable Development (SD) and identified; Information, Integration and Participation as key building blocks to help countries to achieve this goal. Development becomes Sustainable if it is integral in conserving the Economy, Environment and the Society in totality.

AGENDA-21 Agenda 21 is a voluntarily implemented action plan of the United Nations with regard to SD. The word 21 refers to 21st. century. It is a 300 pages document divided into 40 chapters that have been grouped into four sections. Section I: Social and Economic dimensions. Section II: Conservation and management of Resources for Development. Section III: Strengthening the role of major groups—Women, Children, Youth, Indigenous People etc, Section IV: Means of implementation. Section II is the section in which Environmental problems are dealt with. The major areas in which attention is drawn are : 1. Control of Pollution. 2. Conservation of biodiversity. 3. Energy production. 4. Deforestation. 5. Waste Management.

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6. Agriculture. 7. Renewable Resources. 8. Recycle, re-use and conservation of Non-renewables. 9. Ecological balance.

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS Environmental condition is intensely related to Industrial and Agricultural productivity and also the domestic waste generation. The basic natural resources are Air, Water, Soil, Energy and Minerals. These natural resources can be classified as Renewable and Nonrenewable resources. While Air, Water and Soil are renewable resources; Minerals on the other hand are Non-renewable. Some of the Energy Resources are non renewable, which are being used now, like Coal, Petroleum and Natural Gas. But there are renewable Energy sources also, for example, Hydro-Power, Solar, Wind, Biomass, Tidal, Geothermal etc. SD requires increased use of renewable resources. Pollution in Air, water and Soil hampers the productivity in Agriculture, Horticulture, Pisciculture, Animal Husbandry, and Forestry etc. Therefore, to keep productivity in these sectors high, Environmental Sustainability is highly desirable.

SOURCES OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION The Major sources of Environmental Pollution are: 

Population Explosion.



Chemical Agriculture.



Energy production using Fossil Fuels.

Population explotion can be the single major cause of Environmental degradation, if protective measures are not taken properly. Large population creates larger amount of wastes. The non-degradable part of the waste creates disposal problem. Both solid and liquid waste disposal has to be tackled properly; otherwise it will create water and soil pollution. To feed the increased population, productivity in the agriculture and aquaculture sectors has to be enhanced. To do this, chemical fertilizers, chemical pesticides etc are being used. These chemicals are harmful water and soil pollutants. Increased population also needs increased energy requirements in the form of fuel and electricity. As the present-day technologies are concerned, the production of electricity and Fuel are prone to Air pollution, including the emission of Greenhouse Gases in the atmosphere. The presence of Greenhouse gases like Carbon-di oxide, Methane etc. is the cause of rise in Atmospheric temperature. Another serious environmental problem as identified in 1980s, was the Ozone Layer Depletion in certain parts of the Southern Hemisphere. The harmful Ultraviolet radiation was detected in alarming quantities in certain areas of Southern Australia, | 10

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Southern Chile & Argentina, and also in the South Polar Region. The cause of this ‘Ozone Hole’ was found to be the use of certain Ozone depleting chemicals like Chloro-flurocarbons (CFC’s). The International Scientific community immediately jumped upon this problem and through the ‘Montreal Protocol’ alternative technological pathways were researched out. This problem is now waning out.

GLOBAL WARMING The tendency of rise in the average Global temperature is popularly known as ‘Global Warming’. Global warming is caused by the trapping of heat radiation of the Sun by the anthropogenically produced Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. This rise in Temperature of the atmosphere is the root-cause of the Ecological Imbalance of the Hydrosphere and Biosphere. It also creates serious threats to the Human society and also to the wild life. Climate Change is a direct consequence of global warming. Evidence of the adverse effects of this phenomenon are already at our hands, these include, Sealevel rise, Melting of glaciers, Changes in precipitation pattern, Intensification of cyclonic wind, Soil moisture loss, Deforestation etc.

ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY As per the Section II of the Agenda-21, the causes of the degradation of the Environment have been identified. For the Sustainability of the Environment, steps must be taken to combat these serious problems. The components of the Environment which are to be addressed are the Natural Resources, Human Habitat, Biological diversity and Population growth. The endeavor should be to develop environment safe technologies for application in the development of the society. Renewable natural resources like water, agricultural, horticultural, and aqua cultural products etc. are sustainable. Similarly, Renewable sources of Energy are pollution-free and environmental friendly. Increasing population in the human society produce enhanced amount of various types of wastes. These wastes need proper 11 |

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treatment and reuse where possible. Industries create solid, liquid and gaseous wastes, and only technological intervention can rescue us from the menace of the harmful wastes. The long term result of this Environmental degradation, if not corrected immediately, may eventually result in the increase in human death. If this degradation of environment continues beyond a critical point it would certainly cause extinction of the human civilization on Earth.

CONSUMPTION OF RENEWABLE RESOURCES AND SUSTAINABILITY Consumption of Renewable Resources More than Nature's Ability to Replenish Equal to Nature's ability to Replenish Less than Nature's Ability to Replenish

State of Environment Environmental Degradation Environmental Equilibrium Environmental Renewal

Sustainability Not Sustainable Steady STATE Economy Environmentally Sustainable

Consumption of Renewable Resources and sustainability Consumption of State of Sustainability Renewable Resources Environment More than nature’s Environmental Not ability to replenish degradation Sustainable Equal to Nature’s Environmental Steady state ability to replenish Equilibrium Economy Less than Nature’s Environmental Environmentally ability to replenish Renewal Sustainable. Be have to ensure that be change development from is present mended for its rapid economic growth with out a thought for future ecological integrity, to a more sustainable ecologically appropriate strategy. SD is the ultimate need for the survival of the Human Society. Therefore all the activities of the society should be planned, keeping in mind the question of sustainability, in every sector of the economy, e.g., agriculture, industry, business, urban planning, transport sector development, energy usage, habitat development, civic infrastructure development etc. Economics, Ecology, Society and culture are now considered as the four pillars of sustainable development. Since the triple bottom line dimensions (Economy, Ecology and Society), as was thought earlier, do not seem to be enough to reflect the complexities of the contemporary Society. In the Agenda 21, Culture was also included in the Policy Statement as, ‘‘Culture: Fourth Pillar of Sustainable Development’’. Though, this proposal of adding ‘Culture’ as the fourth dimension has not been accepted by all the agencies and organizations. Some of them still argue that ‘culture’ be included into the ‘Society’ dimension. Only with informed decision would be able to make an impact. Whether the present of the future. Finally in keeping with the sprit of the seminar, the following quote says, it all: | 12

Sustainable Development and Environment

“Whether the weather be fine, Whether the weather be not, Whether the weather be cold, Whether the weather be hot, We’ll weather the weather, Whatever the weather, Whether we like it or not”

REFERENCES Towards Sustainable Development Concepts, Methods and Policy, Van der Stvaaten and J.C. Van der Beng: Island Press (1994). [2] Economic Development, 2nd edition, Smith Chartes Ress Gareth, Basingstoke Macmillan (1998) [3] ‘Sustainable Growth Renewable Resources and Pollution’, Ayong Le Kana A.D., Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control 25(12) (2001). [4] The Idea of Sustainable Development’, Dasgupta, P., Sustainability Science 2(1)5-11 (2007). [5] Our Uncertain Future: Can Good Planning Create Sustainable Communities? Donovan Finn., Univ. of Illinois (2009). [6] Pandey, G. C. (2012).Global warming and its impact on soil fauna, In: Proc. Environmental pollution and its impact on human health, Sarat Impressions Pvt. Ltd., Kolkata. 1-9. (Review article). [7] Global Public Health: Ecological Foundation, White. F., L. Stallones and J.M. Last, Oxford University Press (2013). [8] Climate Change 2014: Imcacts, Adoptation and Vulnerability, IIPC Fifth Assessment Report (2014). [9] Pandey, G. C., Sharma, Pradeep Kumar, Upadhyay, V. K. and Kumar Sandeep (2014). Current Global Environmental Issues: causes and mitigation technologies. IJART, 2(2):32-51. (Review article). [10] Pandey, G. C. and Sharma, Pradeep Kumar (2014). CO2 Sequestration and Its Technology, Proc.II International conference. Environica 1:394-405. (Review article). [1]

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Water Pollution, an Environmental Issue of Global Concern: A Focus on River Ramganga Neelima Gupta Centre of Excellence Laboratory, Department of Animal Science, MJP Rohilkhand University, Bareilly–243006, U.P., India E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Rivers in India have been regarded sacred from times immemorial. People bathe in river with the faith that the water washes away their sins. Water pollution is a major environmental issue of global concern which requires ongoing evaluation and revision of water resource policy at all levels. It has been suggested that water pollution is the leading worldwide cause of deaths and diseases, and that it accounts for the deaths of more than 14,000 people daily (West, 2006). An estimated 580 people in India die of water pollution related illness every day (CHNRI, 2010). Around 90% the water in the cities of China is polluted, half a billion Chinese had no access to safe drinking water. In addition to the acute problems of water pollution in developing countries, developed countries also continue to struggle with pollution problems. For example, in the most recent national report on water quality in the United States, 45 percent of assessed stream miles, 47% of assessed lake acres, and 32 percent of assessed bays and estuarine square miles were classified as polluted (USEPA, 2007). According to the head of China's national development agency, one quarter the length of China's seven main rivers were so poisoned that the water harmed the skin (Wachman, 2007). Recently, great concern has been universally voiced regarding environmental pollution arising as a side effect of rapid industrialization and subsequent urbanization. Today, the main concern with environmental pollution is with its impact on the health of the present generation and the future ones. Our culture is completely river oriented and most of our important towns and urban areas are located on the bank of major rivers. During the past years, pollution has rapidly been increasing due to effluents of industries, tanneries, city sewage and detergents. This has resulted in pollution, unwarranted growth of microbes and other parasites, culminating in adverse effects on the beneficial creatures, the fishes inhabiting these waters. Under extreme conditions, there have been cases of mass mortality of fishes. Water is typically referred to as polluted when it is impaired by anthropogenic contaminants and either does not support a human use, such as drinking water, or undergoes a marked shift in its ability to support its constituent biotic communities, such as fish. Natural phenomena such as volcanoes, algae blooms, storms, and earthquakes also cause major changes in water quality and the ecological status of water. Ramganga is an important river of Uttar Pradesh. It is rapidly getting polluted due to rapid industrial growth and untreated domestic wastes that find their way into the rivers through sewage, outfalls, drains etc. and increases the water pollution. The highly polluted water contains phenols, nitrogenous compounds, pesticides, fertilizers, excess salts, organic matter and sulphates. These substances change physical, chemical and biological characteristics of water and cause harmful effect on aquatic biota and also on human health. 14 |

Water Pollution, an Environmental Issue of Global Concern: A Focus on River Ramganga Many festivals are associated with the bathing in Ramganga. A dip in Ramganga river is believed to wash away all sins. Being obsessed by such faith, people bathe in this river especially on auspicious occasions like Somwati Amawasya, Purnima. Scientifically such mass bathing may result in pollution. During Kartik Purnima, people from all over the state gather at Chaubari, Ramganga, Bareilly to take a bath, the number of bathers on such occasion runs in lakhs and contamination of bathing waters becomes critical from the health point of view. Keywords: Environmental Issue, Water Pollution, River Ramganga

RIVER SYSTEM AND WATER BODIES IN AND AROUND BAREILLY The main rivers of Uttar Pradesh are the Ganga and its tributaries, viz., the Yamuna, Ramganga, Gomti and Ghagra. All of them except Gomti emerge from the Himalayas. The state fisheries department classifies the water bodies in the state based on the area. Accordingly, total areas under small (5000 ha) reservoirs are 162000 ha, 31840 ha and 271000 ha, respectively. Thus, the state has 4,64,840 ha of water bodies (individual units above 10 ha in size). Reservoirs of Uttar Pradesh have a relatively low fish yield. Examination of thirty one small reservoirs covering 11,475 ha, under ten districts showed yields ranging from 1.1 to 227.3 kg ha-1. The widest range of 3.2 to 227.3 kg ha-1 is observed in Hamirpur, which has a high district average of 19.8 kg ha-1. Bahraich district with 28 kg ha-1, Allahabad with 17.4 kg ha-1 (13.6 to 30.9 kg ha-1) and Jhansi with 21.2 kg ha-1 (5.8 to 34.8 kg ha-1) also have high yields.

RIVER RAMGANGA The main river of the district Bareilly (Plate I) is the Ramganga river, the first major tributary joining Ganga, flowing from the West to the South-East, separating Tehsil Aonla from the rest of the district. The length of the river from the source to the confluence with the Ganga is 596 km. and the catchment area of the basin is about 32,493 sq. km. It originates from Doodhatoli ranges in the district of Pauri Garhwal,Uttarakhand state of India and flows to south west from Kumaun Himalaya. It is a tributary of the river Ganga, originates from the high altitude zone of 800m - 900m. During its course, the river flows through a mountainous terrain and has a number of falls and rapids. Ramganga flows by the Corbett National Park near Ramnagar of Nainital district from where it descends upon the plains. The river enters the plains at Kalagarh near the border of the Garhwal district, where the famous Ramganga dam has been constructed. Beyond Kalagarh, the river flows in a south-easterly direction and finally joins the Ganga on its left bank near Kannauj in the Fategarh district (Fig. 1). During its course of flow, it traverses through Moradabad, Bareilly, Jalalabad (Shahjehanpur) and finally merges at Fatehgarh. The river flows entirely in the states of Uttaranchal and Uttar Pradesh. Thus, it an important river of Uttar Pradesh. 15 |

Environmental Issues for Socio-ecological Development

Bareilly city is situated on its banks (Plate I). An annual festival of Ganga Dusshera is organised on its banks annually during the months of September and October at Chaubari village near Bareilly. The other rivers - the Siddha, the Dojora, the Bahgul (west), the Sankha, the Deoranian and the Nakatia, and their tributaries, which mostly rise in the Tarai, generally run through the district in Southern and South-Eastern direction to join the Ramganga river.

TOPOGRAPHY OF BAREILLY WITH RESPECT TO THE RIVERINE SYSTEM Bareilly is situated in Uttar Pradesh, North India. It is located at 28.35° N 79.42° E and the city has an elevation of 166 meters. The climate of the district is influenced by its proximity to the hills and the tarai swamps in the North. The temperature of the district varies from a maximum of 44ºC in the months of May-June to a low of 4ºC during the cool months of December-January. During the summers, the air is dry and during the rest of the year it faces a humid climate.

INDUSTRIES Bareilly boasts of many large and small-scale industries. It is an excellent commercial center that has many infrastructures to support the growing industrial activities. Parsakhera is a famous industrial area of Bareilly. Camphor Factory, which is one of Asia’s biggest camphor manufacturing factory, is also located here. IFFCO Factory is located in Aonla, Bareilly district. Bareilly is known for its vivid skills in manufacturing of various types of handicrafts, especially cane furniture, zari zardozi, wooden furniture, surma and kite majha.

ENVIRONMENTAL AND CLIMATIC CHANGES It is well evident that the climate is undergoing a global change and it is now irrefutable that the average global temperature anomalies have increased over the past 80 years with a consistent and faster rise over the past 25 years. It is emerging as the latest threat to the world's fast declining fish stocks, which could affect millions of people who depend on fish farming. Interest in the potential role of climate in generating diseased condition in fish has rapidly aroused interest in fish agriculturists, fish farmers, fish technologists and fish scientists. Fish being poikilothermic are directly subjected to changes in the environment consequently affecting the disease agent and manifestation of diseased condition in fish. Today, fish face a changing thermal world and they may influence the natural changes in transmission dynamics of different disease agents. The potential impacts range from primary, temperature-related effects to insidious secondary and tertiary possibilities culminating in qualitative and quantitative loss of fish fauna. Understanding climatic patterns of disease incidence can help to identify mechanisms such as the demography of hosts and vectors which influence parasite transmission dynamics. | 16

Water Pollution, an Environmental Issue of Global Concern: A Focus on River Ramganga

The influence of seasonal and climatic changes on the emergence of diseased fish is of dual nature: they can directly affect the host animal changing its living condition or indirectly through the change of trophic conditions of the biocoenosis. Parasites are an important group of disease agents affecting the health of aquatic organisms. The entire physiology of the fish is affected due to climate variance and the manifestation of disease and consequently health of the fish does not escape its effects. We may expect long term increases in temperature which increase the force of infection in the parasite’s basic reproduction number.

SOURCE OF POLLUTANTS There are about 50 industries in district Bareilly itself and about 600 export units and 5000 industries in district Moradabad. Moradabad is one of the seven industrial corridors declared by the State Government in Industrial Policy 1999-2002. A new Industrial Area for Export Oriented Units at Pakbara to Dingarpur Road is being established in 450 acres. There are about 44 units of medium and large scale industries, which include Distillery, Sugar Mills, Pulp & Paper, Pharmaceutical & Chemical Industries. The city is famous for its huge export of brass handicrafts and is also thus called "Brass City". With all this industrial development along Ramganga coast, the wastes, effluents and by products are increasingly finding their way into the river thereby increasing the pollution level. According to the Pollution Control Board, approximately 60 to 65 lac litre of polluted water is discharged into Ramganga per day. From the past 37 years, the city sewage is mercilessly poured into river Ramganga. Medical wastes of medical college and city sewage are discharged into river Deorania, a tributary of Ramganga. It has been estimated that about 20 varieties of chemicals/pollutants have intermingled with these waters. The sewage and chemicals have threatened the very life of fauna inhabiting these waters. The local people are ignorant of the pollutants being discharged into these rivers and are unhesitatingly using the river water for various domestic purposes and also consume fish inhabiting these waters unaware of the possible consequences. Fishes not only serve as an excellent food item but also maintain equilibrium in the biosphere. However, pathogens often deteriorate the nutritive value of fish rendering them less effective for human consumption and sometimes, diseases may assume the magnitude of epidemics. Therefore, the current problem demands immediate attention.

WATER POLLUTION AND FISH HEALTH There is a lack of well documented research on most etiological groups of diseases and treatments for them. Fish health monitoring is performed only to a limited extent at the field level. This situation indicates a serious lag in data on diseases and their prevention. In contrast to the situation in developed countries and in some developing countries, India does not yet excel in diagnostics of fish diseases and therefore, treatment protocols trail far behind. Although there is much hue and cry about fish pathogens, 17 |

Environmental Issues for Socio-ecological Development

little attention has been focused at the micro level. Thus, attention should be focused on the influence of seasonal variations and pollution load on pathogen invasion and bionomics at the micro level for the sustenance of valuable fishery resources and to strengthen aquacultural practices.

PRESENT SCENARIO AT THE INSTITUTION The surroundings of the sponsoring institution are rich in water bodies and offer unique opportunities for observing the impact of climate change and pollution on the aquatic fauna. During the past, attempts have been made to analyze the hydrobiological profile of rivers Ramganga and Deorania by the research group (Gupta et al., 2006). Pollution of the aquatic environment led to an increase in haemoparasitic infection in some freshwater fishes of Rohilkhand thereby affecting their growth pattern (Gupta, 2007). Water quality parameters at different sampling stations on river Nakatia and Deorania were determined by Gupta and Singh (2012). Heavy metals were found to induce clastogenic effects on the karyotype of Heteropneustes fossilis (Verma et al., 2010) and Clarias batrachus (Gupta et al., 2013).

INDIA India being a developing country, the number of industries are expanding and the growing population of the country are adding dimensions to the study as the rivers are increasingly being polluted. This has resulted in adverse effects on the biota dwelling therein and has instigated workers to make further contributions on these lines. At present, research on climate change, expertise and knowledge in the fisheries area are limited and patchy. Sharma et al. (1981) observed that discharge of fly ash by Barauni thermal power plant resulted in high concentration of arsenic, chromium, lead, nickel, and cadmium in river water. Along the Bombay coast, Anadara granosa displayed strong seasonal variation in bioaccumulation of Hg, the highest concentration being recorded during monsoon and lowest in pre-monsoon period (Patel and Chandy, 1988). Information on the Hg, Cu, and Zn in the water and prawns from Indian ocean was provided by Sanzigri et al. (1988). Panda et al. (1991) conducted a comparative study on the diurnal variation of physico-chemical characteristics of river, well and pond water at Raurkela industrial complex of Orissa. The toxic elements present in the undigested fly ash have been observed to be well attenuated into harmless forms besides being fully compensated for all nutrition deficiencies. Fender and Kharat (1992) observed trace metals like Cu, Pb, Zn, Ni, Co, Cd, and Mn in the wastewater of Koradi thermal power plant near Nagpur district of Maharastra. Desai (1995) analysed the physico-chemical characters of the river water and found river polluted in specific periods of the year due to the high concentration of sulphates and nitrates. Sahu et al. (1995) conducted studies on some physico-chemical characteristics of the Ganga river water (Rishikesh-Kanpur). Sarkar (1998) investigated the impact of temperature on the feeding rate of some | 18

Water Pollution, an Environmental Issue of Global Concern: A Focus on River Ramganga

commercially important species of fish exposed to some agricultural chemicals. Gopalswami et al. (2003) reported high pollution in Bhavani river water due to industrial effluents, industrial waste water, agriculture run off and sewage into the stream. As a result, water-borne diseases have become common in this area and the water cannot be used as such for industrial purposes. Mumtazuddin et al. (2011) assessed physico-chemical parameters and heavy metals during pre-monsoon at Muzaffarpur, Bihar and recorded arsenic to be above the maximum permissible levels. Attempts to analyse physico-chemical parameters of river Tons (Uttarakhand) were made by Mamgain and Negi (2013). Accumulation of heavy metals in fish have been analysed by Maiti and Banerjee (2011) and Shaikh (2013) from Kolkata wetland and Maharashtra respectively. Household detergents influenced biochemical parameters of Channa punctatus (Choudhary and Jha, 2013). Tandale and Dabhade (2014) reported eutrophication of the lake, Lonar crater due to pollution. Thus, the country is gradually becoming aware of the grave situation concurrent to industrialization and climate change and it is high time that we focus our attention on the rich aquatic fauna abounding our water bodies in order to safeguard the interest of our resources.

ABROAD The control of chemicals discharged to the surface water of the United States is an important objective of the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) as specified by the Clean Water Act. The requirements for toxicity testing and whole effluent toxicity limitations in NPDES permit are based on the narrative toxicity, water quality standard and in some cases, numerical toxicity standards that are present in EPA regulations (U.S.EPA, 1991). Foyn (1965) observed that additional quantities of the heavy metals are being added in estuaries from industrial, agricultural and domestic wastes. The back ground values of zinc in natural inland, surface water may vary from 0.001-0.2mg zn/l or even higher ('O' Connor, 1968). Additional quantities of heavy metals are being added in the environment from agricultural, industrial, domestic sewage and from polluted environments (Ackefors, 1971; Feriberg et al., 1971). Extensive studies have been carried out in Europe and America to determine toxicity and bioaccumulation of these metals in fish and other marine flora and fauna (Nickless et al., 1972; Peden et al,.1973; Hardisty et al., 1974). Metals such as zinc, manganese and copper are toxic only when present in high amounts but at low levels they are considered essential as micronutrients (Sarkka et al., 1978). Buggiani and Vannucchi (1980) recognized that pollution of the marine environment by inorganic and organic chemicals is one of the major factors posing serious threat to the survival of marine environment including fish. Johnson and Landahl (1994) reported the impact of chemical contaminants on the English sole. Observation on the blood chemistry of Clarias gariepinus (Van Varen et al. 1994) and Mozambique tilapia (Nussey et al., 1995) exposed to copper have also been made. Bio-markers were used as a powerful tool to detect the exposure of sub-lethal concentration of xenobiotics to fish (Ewald, 1995). 19 |

Environmental Issues for Socio-ecological Development

Effects on fish growth due to toxicity have been statistically analysed by Koojiman and Bedaux (1996). Kock and Bucher (1997) observed a higher degree of pollution in Austrian river, where very high total zinc concentration in the water and sediment occurred. Robertson et al. (1998) studied the behavioural and pigmental responses of Catla catla (Ham) to phosphetic fertilizers. An increased opercular movement, jerk and vertical movement, loss of equilibrium and dermal pigmental changes found were directly proportional to phosphatic fertilizers and were regarded to be the best indices for detecting any change in aquatic ecosystem and for pollution monitoring. Yusuff and Sonibare (2004) characterized effluents of textile industries from Nigeria and discussed their pollution implications whereas Adewoye et al. (2005) evaluated the toxicity of waste water effluents to Clarias gariepinus. C. lazera exposed to dyes and chemical wastewater revealed physiological and histopathological changes in the fish (AbdelMoneim et al., 2008). Li et al. (2011) identified the current state and challenges facing the aquaculture industry in China and provided suggestions for sustainable development with reference to aquatic pollution, disease, genetic degradation, decline of comparative profitability and financial crisis. Thus the problem has acquired global attention and requires further deep research inputs to overcome the grave situation arising from climate change and pollution.

POLLUTION IN RIVER RAMGANGA Water quality changes `arising during Ramganga snan on Kartik Purnima at Chaubari were investigated. Three sampling stations viz., Station A- pre bathing area, Station Bbathing area and Station C-post bathing area were selected for the collection of water samples. Monitoring of water of river Ramganga included estimation of physicochemical parameters (temperature, pH, TDS, DO, BOD, alkalinity, chloride, total hardness). The findings revealed that the physicochemical parameters were affected by Ramganga snan at Kartik Purnima. Further studies along the banks of river Ramganga from Kalagarh to Kannauj are being conducted. The deteriorating water quality, the depleting biota in river Ramganga has become an environmental issue of great concern warranting immediate attention in order to save the riverine system of the country. It is a call for the day that The Pollution Control Board, policy makers, NGO and GO representatives should join hands to maintain a socio-ecological equilibrium in the country.

FUTURE PROSPECTS Inland Water resources of India include rivers and canals; reservoirs; tanks and ponds; beels, oxbow lakes, derelict water; and brackish water. Other than rivers and canals, total water bodies cover all area of about 7 M.Ha. Of the rivers and canals, Uttar Pradesh occupies the first place with the total length of rivers and canals as 31.2 thousand km, which is about 17 percent of the total length of rivers and canals in the country. Although the state is richest in inland water resources in the country, but we lag behind in research inputs. The prospects of the proposed study being high demands deeper research in the subject. | 20

Water Pollution, an Environmental Issue of Global Concern: A Focus on River Ramganga

The Uttar Pradesh Fisheries Act was enacted in 1948 with a view to ensure adequate utilization of fishery potential and conservation of fish fauna in the available water bodies. The information made available through the research findings will contribute towards promotion of aquaculture, especially in rural areas where people are ignorant. The studies will assist in utilization of available water resources for fisheries development, will stimulate optimum production of fish from water bodies, will create employment opportunities and will make protein rich food available to the masses. Ramganga is an important river of Uttar Pradesh and is rapidly being victimized by increasing pollution. The aquatic fauna is at great risk due to the threat thus imposed and it is high time that attention of scientists of Uttar Pradesh be directed in this direction in order to achieve the goals set forth for “Blue Revolution”. In our state, fish farming with respect to seasonal variations and climatic changes has been neglected which requires proper analysis and future prediction in order to propose a suitable line of action. The research-based study can be further incorporated into technology. Studies should be focused on building the capacity of the fisheries sector to adapt to climate change in ways that allow them to moderate potential damage. Such studies will not only conserve fish diversity in the state but will also assist in devising suitable protocols for fish farmers to boost quantitative and qualitative fish production, not only for the state but also for the country at large.

PLATE-I

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Environmental Issues for Socio-ecological Development

Plate I: Map showing district Bareilly and perennial rivers of Bareilly merging with river Ramganga

Fig. 1: Map of Uttar Pradesh Showing the Course of River Ramganga | 22

Water Pollution, an Environmental Issue of Global Concern: A Focus on River Ramganga

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thanks are expressed to the Uttar Pradesh Council of Agricultural Research (UPCAR), Lucknow for sanctioning a research project under Revolving Fund vide its sanction order no. 750/NG&AK/AHF/RF/2014 dated 30.7.2014.

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Environmental Issues for Socio-ecological Development [26] Nickless, G., Stenner, R. D. and Terrille, N. (1972). Distribution of heavy metals in Bristol channel. Mar. Poll. Bull. 4 : 4-7. [27] Nussey, G., Van-Vuren, J.H.J. and Du-Preez, H.H. (1995). Effect of copper on the haematology and osmoregulation of the Mozambique tilapia, Oreochromis mossambicus (Cichlidae). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. (Pharmacology Toxicology and Endocrinology). 111: 369-380. [28] O’ Connor, J.T. (1968). Fate of zinc in natural surface waters. Univ. IIIrd Bull. Dep. Civ. Engg Sanit. Engg Ser., 49. [29] Panda, P.D., Sahu, B.K. and Nayak, A. (1991). A comparative study and diurnal variation of physico-chemical characteristics of river, well and pond water at Rourkela Industrial Complex of Orissa. J. Ecotoxicol. Env. Mon. 1: 206-217. [30] Patel, B. and Chandy, J. P. (1988). Mercury in the biotic and abiotic matrices along Bombay coast. Indian. J. Mar. Sci., 17 : 55-58. [31] Peden, J.D., Crothers J. H., Waetrfall, C.E. and Beasle, J. (1973). Heavy metals in Somerset mirine organism. Mar. Poll. Boll. 4: 4-7. [32] Robertson, A, Pande, P.N., Masih, B.P., Dean, R.A. and Lall, A. (1998). Behavioural and pigmental responses of Catla catla to phosphatic fertilizers. Proc. Acad. Environ. Biol. 7 (2) : 133-138. [33] Sahu, B.K., Rao, R.J., Bohera, S.K. and Pandit, R.K. (1995). Diel fluctuations of some water quality parameters of the river Ganga (Rishikesh-Kanpur). Poll. Res. 15(1): 61-65. [34] Sanzigri, S., Mesquita, A.M. and Kureishy, T.W. (1988). Total mercury in water, sediments and animals alongs the Indian coast. Mar. Poll. Bull. 19: 333-343. [35] Sarkar, S.K. (1998). Enfluence of temperature on the feeding rate of fish exposed to some agricultural chemicals. Proc. Acad. Environ. Biol. 4: 63-65. [36] Sarkka, J., Hatulla, M.L., Passivitra, J. and Janatuinen, J. (1978) Mercury and chlorinated hydrocarbon in food chain of lakes Paijnne, Finland. Holorctic, Ecol., 1: 326-332. [37] Shaikh M.J. (2013). Analysis of heavy metals in water and fish Cirrhina mrigala of river Godavari at Nathsagar dam in Maharashtra, India. The Bioscan 8: 1303-1305. [38] Sharma, K.D., Lal, N. and Pathak, P.D. (1981). Water quality of sewage drains entering Yamuna at Agra. Indian J. Environ. Hlth. 23: 118-122. [39] Tandale M.R. and Dabhade D.S. (2014). The physico-chemical parameter status of Lonar crater Lake, India. Biosci. Biotech. Res. Comm. 7(1): 50-56. [40] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1991). Technical support document for water quality-based toxic control. Office of Water, Washington DC, EPA/505/2: 90-01. [41] U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (2007).Washington, DC. The National Water Quality Inventory: Report to Congress for the 2002 Reporting Cycle – A Profile. October Fact Sheet No. EPA 841-F-07-003. [42] Van-Varen, J.H.J., Van-Der-Merwe, M. and Dupreez, H.H. (1994). The effect of copper on the blood chemistry of Clarias gariepinus (Clariidae). Ecotoxicol. Environ. Safety. 29 : 187-199. [43] Verma, V.K., Gupta, Neelima, Gupta, D.K. and Krishna, G. (2010). Chromosomal aberration in Heteropneustes fossilis due to lead intoxication. In: Bioresources for rural livelihood Vol. II. (Kulkarni, G.K., Pandey, B.N. and Pandey, P.N. Eds.) Narendra Pub. House, N. Delhi. 247-254. [44] Wachman R. (2007). Water becomes the new oil as world runs dry. The Observer 8. [45] West, Larry (2006). "World Water Day: A Billion People Worldwide Lack Safe Drinking Water" [46] Yusuff, R.O. and Sonibare, J.A. (2004). Characterization of textile industries effluents in Kaduna, Nigeria and pollution implications. Global Nest. Int. J. 3: 212-221.

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Climate Change and its Consequences on the Rivers of Ganga Plain Dhruv Sen Singh Centre of Advanced Study in Geology, University of Lucknow–226007, U.P, India E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Rivers are important water resource and one of main constituent of fresh water due to its perennial nature. The Ganga Plain which is drained by numerous river is one of the most densely populated regions of the world due to its fertile soil and availability of water. The rivers are the lifeline for millions of people living on this alluvial plain. However, increasing population and rapid urbanization are continuously posing tremendous pressure on water and land and have led to the intensification of settlement even into the peril zone of the rivers. The demand for water and land is becoming acute which is changing the land use, natural recharging system of water resources, re-shaping the landscapes and affecting the environment never witnessed so far. All the rivers of Ganga Plain are characterized by very wide valley confined within narrow channel. The wide valley was carved by the river in the past when the discharge was very high and the climate was humid. Due to change in the climate from humid to arid due to reduced discharge, the valley started shrinking. The valley beyond the channel is used for settlement and is frequently affected by flooding during high discharge period and by lateral erosion during low discharge period. Therefore the river born hazards are increasing due to climate change. Flooding in east Ganga Plain region, is a recurring disastrous natural hazard which causes huge loss of life and property. Heavy rainfall during south-west summer monsoon, narrow channel due to construction of artificial levee and silting of river bed are the main reasons for severe flood in this region. Moreover, no attention has been paid to demarcate the flood prone area and to mitigate this natural hazard. Keywords: Ganga Plain, River, Flood, Natural Hazard

INTRODUCTION The Indo-Gangetic Plain is one of the main physiographic regions of India lying between the Himalaya in the north and Peninsular Plateau in the south. It is one of the biggest alluvial tracts of the world and is one of the most densely populated areas because of its fertile soil and availability of water. The Ganga plain foreland basin was formed due to thrust loading of the Himalaya on the Indian plate during middle Miocene period. The initial filling of this foreland basin was carried out by numerous alluvial fans (Parker, 2000) and the present landscape is carved by fluvial processes operated under different tectonic and climatic regime (Singh et al., 2009). Ganga Plain is about 1000 km long and 200–450 km wide. The thickness of alluvium in the Ganga Plain is about 3000–5000 m towards Himalaya and 200-300 m towards Peninsular Plateau. Older 25 |

Environmental Issues for Socio-ecological Development

alluvium (Bhangar) and newer alluvium (Khadar) are the two-morphostratigraphic units in the classical literature of the Ganga Plain (Pascoe, 1917 and Pilgrim, 1919). On the regional scale, Singh (1996) identified following six geomorphic surfaces in the Ganga Plain. I-Upland terrace surface-the highland interfluve areas (older alluvium). II-Marginal plain upland surface-These are north and northeasterly sloping surfaces occurring south of the axial river and derives sediment from the cratonic source. III-Megafan surface-Cone surfaces (Megafan) in northern and central part of the Ganga Plain (Geddes, 1960). IV-River valley terrace-Major rivers show development of broad river valleys in which the present day active river channels, are entrenched. V-Piedmont fan surface-This is 10–30 km wide belt of coalescing fans developed along the foothills of Himalayas. VI-Active flood plain surface-Active flood plains of most of the rivers of Ganga Plain are rather narrow and entrenched in the river valleys. The flood plains are poorly developed. Rivers are, one of the most sensitive natural agents which keep on modifying the landscape and preserve the changes in its geometry and sediments. In most part of the Ganga Plain areas upland terrace surface, river valley terrace, and present day river channel made up of older and newer alluvium can be identified (Singh et al., 2009). All the rivers of Ganga Plain are having very wide valley with extensive channel bar deposits (Table 1). Due to decrease in discharge under direct control of climate the valley started shrinking with time. As a result most of the present day’s rivers are entranced into the older channel bar deposits (Singh and Singh, 2005). The valley beyond channel within the valley is used for settlement. These settlement located into the peril zone of the rivers are prone to river born hazards. Due to urbanization and increase in population, people are forced to live into the peril zone. Encroachment of man on the natural cycle of the river has polluted the water, disturbed the ecosystem, changed the transporting capacity, increased the bed load, suspended load, and enhances lateral erosion during low discharge period (Singh and Awasthi, 2011) and flooding during high discharge periods. Thus climate change and unplanned expansion constructs and enhances the calamities. Table 1: Showing Valley and Channel Width in Proximal, Middle, and Distal Part in Case of Ganga Plain Rivers Sl. No. 1 2 3 4 5

River Ganga Yamuna Ghaghara Great Gandak Kosi

Proximal Part (km) Channel Valley 0.11 5.9 0.13 8.97 0.06 3.83 0.24 3.16 0.24 6.45

Middle Part (km) Channel Valley 1.05 21.82 0.11 19.37 0.77 17.31 1.08 26.34 1.08 31.91

Distal Part (km) Channel Valley 3.05 16.63 .94 6.17 1.44 21 1.25 17.40 1.32 21.18

With consequent mounting of demographic pressure and developmental activities, the risks of loss of life and property have increased. In addition to natural phenomena, there are other causative factors such as population growth, ill-planned human settlements, imprudently located developmental projects which give rise to increasing | 26

Climate Change and its Consequences on the Rivers of Ganga Plain

occurrence and intensity of river-born disasters. People located at the bank of Ganga, Ghaghara, Gandak, and Kosi are living within the valley of the rivers and are affected by fluvial hazard. Natural disasters have occurred throughout the world since the origin of the earth, but increase in population, rapid urbanization, and lack of resources intensify their effect each year. The settlements located in the peril zone of the rivers are under continuous threat due to flooding and lateral erosion during high and low discharge periods respectively.

DRAINAGE SYSTEM OF GANGA PLAIN Ganga is the most important and sacred river of India having drainage area more than 20,000 km2. It reflects the culture and civilization of our country from ancient times. The area of the Ganga river basin covers seven states and is slightly more than one fourth (26.3%) of India’s geographical area. The Ganga, a major river 2525 km long originates in the Himalayas by the confluence of the Bhagirathi, and Alaknanda headstreams at Devaprayag in the Uttaranchal state. The Bhagirathi is held to be the source stream originating at the Gangotri Glacier at an elevation of 4500 m. The streams are fed by melting of snow and ice. It is held sacred by Hindus and is worshipped in its personified form as the goddess Ganga. The Ganga and its tributaries (Fig. 1) drain a large and fertile basin with an area of about one million km2 that supports one of the world's highest density of human populations. The major tributaries of the Ganga River are Yamuna, Ramganga, Gomati, Ghaghara, Great Gandak, Burhi Gandak, and Kosi from west to east.

Fig. 1: Ganga River and its Tributaries 27 |

Environmental Issues for Socio-ecological Development

RESULTS Rivers respond to major changes in its energy primarily by channel pattern. The geometry and pattern of the river channel adjust according to the water discharge and sediment load supplied to the channel. The water budget increases in direct response to the rainfall in the basin, so its discharge is mainly controlled by climate. Therefore a comparison between present and past-channel would reflect the changes in its discharge over time and so the climate. Comparison of the channel width with valley width at regular intervals along entire length of the river reveals that river was carrying much higher bank full discharge in the past and the wide valley was carved by the river during the humid climate. High discharge is also attributed to large catchment area and enhanced precipitation in the basin. Due to climate change and decrease in discharge, channel became narrow. Fig. 2, 3, 4, and 5 shows the relationship of the valley and channel width for the Ganga, Yamuna, Ghaghara, and chhoti Gandak Rivers respectively.

Fig. 2: The Valley and Channel Width of Ganga River

Fig. 3: The Valley and Channel Width of Yamuna River

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Climate Change and its Consequences on the Rivers of Ganga Plain

Fig. 4: The Valley and Channel Width of Ghaghara River

Fig. 5: The Valley and Channel Width of Chhoti Gandak River

The loss of life and property in the Ganga Plain are increasing year after year, the increase in damage due to the floods can be attributed to the urbanization and settlements in areas liable to floods. In general flood plains are the flat lands consisting of alluvium, subjected to recurring floods and situated adjacent to the rivers. The wide valley occupied by the narrow channel provides an unsuitable place for settlement. The flood plains and channels bars are used for settlement and cultivation of zayad crops. The interference of man in the natural cycle of the river has polluted the water and disturbs the ecosystem. 29 |

Environmental Issues for Socio-ecological Development

The river valley is narrowed by constructing artificial levees to provide the land for settlements for continuously increasing population. The authorities have made the artificial levee. These levees have been constructed during least discharge period without studying the fluctuation of discharge of the river. The narrowed valley is not capable of holding the water during peak discharge period, and then either the levee breaks or the water overtops its banks and results in the flooding of the adjacent area. Bursting of levee causes flood in the region and alters the entire surface configuration. Flooding by Rapti River in Gorakhpur area in 1998 is the classical example of this type of erosion and inundation. The rivers are entrenched in the channel bar deposits during the low discharge periods to maintain its hydraulic gradient. The villages located at within the valley and narrowed valleys of the river are facing continuous threat every year by flooding during monsoon and by lateral erosion during dry period.

FLOODING Floods are the most frequent stirring natural hazards that affect the society and physical environment. Severe floods occur almost every year causing incredible loss of life and huge damage to property. Although Floods cause less loss of life than earthquakes, drought, and cyclone but are responsible for a high incidence of injuries and have a significant impact upon homelessness in comparison with other natural hazards (Foster 2000). The main reasons of flooding are high snow melt, and mass movement in the upper reaches and poor drainage, blockade, and high rain fall in the catchments area, and dam/levee failure. The river valley is narrowed by constructing artificial levees to provide the land for settlements for continuously increasing population. When discharge exceeds the capacity of the channel, flooding occurs on adjacent areas and can have destructive effects. It originates in two ways: a-logging and spreading of water due to heavy rains, and b-breaking of levee due to rise of water level in the river channel. Flooding is a common disaster and has been studied extensively for many rivers of the world. The great floods of Huang Ho in China; 1931, in Bangladesh; 1987, and 1988, in US; 1993, of Yangtze in China; 1998, in Mozambique; 2000 are all well known. Next to Bangladesh, India is the most flood affected country in the world. In India, north Bihar, Brahmaputra, and Sikkim Himalayan rivers have been described for flooding (Kale, 1998). India is the most flood affected country in the world, next to Bangladesh. In India studies have been carried out on north Bihar, Assam, and Sikkim Himalayan Rivers for flooding. The Uttar Pradesh is one of the most flooded states in India, the other four being Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, and Orissa. Uttar Pradesh has experienced massive flooding in 1998, 2000, 2001, and 2008. It is estimated that 30 districts of this state are seriously prone to flooding. The incidence of flooding is frequent in eastern Uttar Pradesh, which is broadly the result of spilling of rivers such as Kuwana, Rapti, Chhoti | 30

Climate Change and its Consequences on the Rivers of Ganga Plain

Gandak, Ghaghara, and Great Gandak (Singh 2007). The Ganga plain rivers such as Ganga (Singh 2007), Gandak (Singh and Singh 2005), and Sarda (Mitra et al. 2005) had been analyzed for geomorphology, sedimentology and flood characteristics. Channel migration has been described in the middle Ganga basin (Philip et al. 1989) and along Ghaghara River (Agarwal and Mishra 1987).

LATERAL EROSION The analylis of the lateral erosion by river is of both social and scientific interest. It originates because of its alluvium content made up of sand, silt, and clay in different proportions. The (sand and silt) sediments are non-cohesive and unconsolidated so they can undergo weathering, transportation, and sliding. The geomorphological, facies and granulometric analyses indicate that the lower and middle part of the channel banks and sand-bar deposits are made up of sand and silt. And are prone to erosion, scouring, and mass movement, leading to lateral erosion. The abandoned channel of the river consists of sandy substrate that also initiates the lateral erosion (Fig. 6,7). The wide valley occupied by the narrow channel provides an unsuitable place for settlement. The interference of man in the natural cycle of the river has polluted the water and disturbs the ecosystem. The river valley is narrowed by constructing artificial levees to provide the land for settlements for continuously increasing population. The authorities have made the artificial levee. These levees have been constructed during least discharge period without studying the fluctuation of discharge of the river. The narrowed valley is not capable of holding the water during peak discharge period, and then either the levee breaks or the water overtops its banks and results in the flooding of the adjacent area. Bursting of levee causes flood in the region and alters the entire surface configuration.

Fig. 6: A and b Showing Lateral Erosion in the Chhoti Gandak River at Many Places in Deoria District 31 |

Environmental Issues for Socio-ecological Development

Fig. 7: Showing Lateral Erosion in the Ghaghara River Near its Confluence with Rapti at Barhaj in Deoria District

MITIGATION Nature creates flood, and lateral erosion, and man makes it hazards. Although there is no known way to prevent flood and lateral erosion, much can be done to minimize the damage. Protection, not prevention, therefore, is the real solution. Disasters are often ignored until they strike, when the damage has been done and relief is the only response. There should be a noticeable change in policy, with more emphasis on loss reduction through mitigation, preparedness, and recovery programme. The impact of flooding and lateral erosion can be minimized with structural and non-structural controls. The structural control includes the construction of embankments, vegetation, lateral dams to control the direction of river, dumping of the boulders, sand and cement bags, and raising of villages. Plants are used for stabilizing and reducing stream banks erosion. Vegetation reduces stream bank erosion by reducing stream flow velocity, and trapping of sediments. The only way to tackle stream bank the growing menace of flood is to control deforestation, denudation, and soil erosion. Construction of artificial levee, dumping of boulders and sand/cement bags are very common methods for the mitigation of flooding and lateral erosion. Such a task must be undertaken on most urgent basis to avoid the disaster. The non-structural factors include the forecasting, warning system, emergency security, delimitation of flood and lateral erosion zone, and land use planning. Further, while making the levee/embankments, palaeocurrent and fluctuation of discharge should be taken into consideration. Policy should be made so that people do not make their settlements in the peril zone of the river. GIS and Remote Sensing techniques are extensively used in non structural mitigation measures. The real time flood forecasting system can be formulated for flood warning in order to prepare the evacuation plan during the flood. It is argued that internal factors such as disaster related science and policy are also responsible for the inability to stem or reverse the upward trend in disaster damage. | 32

Climate Change and its Consequences on the Rivers of Ganga Plain

CONCLUSION The Ganga Plain is made up of alluvium and has been formed by the deposition of sand, silt and clay by various river systems during high and low discharge periods. At many places in the Ganga Plain due to the above mentioned factors the human population is facing natural hazard in the form of inundation and lateral erosion. Therefore, the trend of the river channel shifting within the valley should be analyzed to save the human population and settlement form river born hazards. Damage impacts can be minimized by better flood plain management, flood control measures, improved disaster preparedness and flood fighting including the setting up of forecasting and warning systems. There should be strong scientific flood plain management techniques. Forecasting and warning network should be increased for flooding. Human misery can be reduced through emergency action, effective relief and rehabilitation measures and by providing appropriate types of insurance covers. Rather than to keep hazards away from people there is need to keep people away from the hazards. In semi-arid to sub- a humid region there is much variability in the channel width. In the case of Ganga River the proximal part shows narrow valley, the middle portion is quite fluctuating and again in the distal part it is narrow. The channel is confined between 0.11 km to 5.38 km from proximal to distal part. In the Yamuna river the valley in narrow in proximal part and in mid stream it is very wide in comparison to channel width where as in distal part the valley is again narrow in which channel is confined. In the case of the Ghaghara river the valley is very narrow in proximal part and very wide in distal part where as in the mid part the valley width is intermediate in between two distinct heads of the river. The channel width also shows fluctuation in the width, it is narrow in proximal head and again wide in mid stream where as it is wide in distal part. In the Great Gandak river, valley is narrow in proximal part, very wide in the middle part whereas again narrow in the distal part. The channel width varies between 0.24 km and 1.43 km from proximal to middle and distal part. In the case of Kosi river the valley width varies between 6.45 km to 39.41 km in proximal and midstream of the river in which channel is confined between 0.24 km to 1.08 km. Valley is wide in mid part where as it is less in distal part and the channel width is also intermediate in distal part as compared to mid stream of the river. The narrow channel is confined within wide valley. Part of the valley beyond the channel is used for settlement by increasing population. Due to increase in population, man has started living in the peril zone of the river. This makes lateral erosion a devastating hazard. Therefore the valley is shrinking due to climate change and providing space for settlement which is being affected during high discharge period by flooding and during low discharge period by lateral erosion. It is observed that changes in sediment load and water discharge of the river is in direct response to seasonal to decadal climatic variations.

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Environmental Issues for Socio-ecological Development

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The financial assistance from the Higher education, Government of Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow in the form of Centre of excellence is highly acknowledged. Head, Centre of Advanced Study in Geology, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, India is thankful for providing the working facilities. Thanks are also expressed due to Dr. Bhanu Convener, UP CSA for inviting this paper.

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Agarwal CS, Mishra AK, 1987. Visual interpretation of F.C.C. satellite data for channel migration and water logging conditions along Ghaghra and Terhi rivers in part of district Gonda and Bahraich, U.P. J. Ind. Soc.R.S. 15 (1): 19-28. Awasthi A. and Singh D S, 2011. Shallow Subsurface Facies of Chhoti Gandak River Basin, Ganga Plain, India. Geological Processes and Climate Change edited by Singh and Chhabra, Macmillan Publishers India Ltd., pp. 223-234. Bhardwaj V., Singh DS and Singh AK, 2010a. Water Quality of the Chhoti Gandak River using Principal Component Analysis, Ganga Plain, India. Journal of Earth System Sciences., v. 119 (1), pp. 117-127. Bhardwaj V, Singh DS, and Singh AK, 2010b. Environmental repercussions of cane-sugar industries on the Chhoti Gandak river basin, Ganga Plain, India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment., v. 171, pp. 321-344, DOI 10.1007/s10661-009-1281-2. Bhardwaj V and Singh DS, 2011. Surface and groundwater quality characterization of Deoria District, Ganga Plain, India. Environmental Earth Sciences., v. 63, pp. 383-395. Foster IDL, 2000. The Oxford Companion to The Earth, Oxford University London, 349-353. Geddes A, 1960. The fluvial morphology of the Indo-Gangetic plain: Its mapping and geomorphic significance. Trans. Inst. Brit. Geogr. Publ., 28: 253-276. Kale VS, 1998. Monsoon floods in India: A hydro-geomorphic perspective. Geological Society of India, Memoir 41: 229-256. Mitra D, Tangri AK, Singh IB, 2005. Channel avulsions of Sarda River System, Ganga Plain. Inter. J. R. S. 26: 929-936. Parker G, 2000. Progress in the modeling of alluvial fans. J. Hydraul. Res., v. 37 (6), pp. 804-824. Pascoe EH, 1917. A manual of Geology of India and Burma- III. Govt. of India Publ., Delhi. Philip G, Gupta RP, Bhattacharya A, 1989. Channel migration studies in the middle Ganga basin, India, using remote sensing data. Inter. J. R. S. 10: 1141 – 1149. Pilgrim GE, 1919. Suggestions concerning the history of northern India. J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal (NS) 15: 81-89. Singh DS, 2007. Flood mitigation in the Ganga Plain. In: Rai N, Singh AK (ed) Disaster Management in India, New Royal Book Company, pp. 167-179. Singh DS, 2009. Rivers of Ganga Plain: Boon/Bane. E-Journal Earth Science India, October, 2009. pp. 1-10. Singh DS and Awasthi A, 2011a. Implication of Drainage Basin Parameters of Chhoti Gandak River, Ganga Plain, India. Jour. Geol. Soc. India., v. 78 (2), pp. 370-378. Singh DS and Awasthi A, 2011b. Natural Hazards in the Ghaghara River Area, Ganga Plain, India. Nat. Hazards., v. 57, pp. 213-225. Singh DS Awasthi A and Bhardwaj V, 2009. Control of tectonics and Climate on Chhoti Gandak River Basin, East Ganga Plain, India. Himalayan Geology., v. 30(2), pp. 147-154. Singh DS, Kumar S, Kumar D, Nishat, Awasthi A and Bhardwaj V, 2013. Sedimentology and channel pattern of the Chhoti Gandak River, Ganga Plain, India. Gond. Geol. Mag., V.28(2), pp171-180. Singh DS, Prajapati SK, Singh P, Singh K, Kumar D, 2015. Climatically Induced Levee Break and Flood Risk Management of the Gorakhpur Region, Rapti River Basin, Ganga Plain, India, Journal Geological Society of India, 85, 79-86. Singh DS and Singh IB, 2005. Facies Architecture of the Gandak Megafan, Ganga Plain, India. Paleontological Society of India. Spl. Pub No,-2, v. 2005, pp. 125-140. Singh IB (1996). Geological evolution of Ganga Plain- An Overview. J. Palaeontol. Soc.Ind., v. 41, pp. 99-137.

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A Study on E-waste Awareness in Higher Educational Institutes of Kangra Region: A Case Study Manoj K. Saxena and Ravi Raj School of Education, Department of Teacher Education, Central University of Himachal Pradesh, TAB Shahpur, Kangra, Himachal Pradesh E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT In developing countries like India, technology was Gifted by developed, gifted which provided the universal access to education, equity in education by modifying the arena of teacher – learner interaction and behavior with shaping process of learning, teaching, professional and vocational development in tertiary education. There was widespread use of electronic products contributing to universal and equity in education in globalized economy. The lack of awareness caused unrestrained resource consumption and an alarming waste generation particularly of e-Waste. Awareness and understanding provides a basis and rationale for commitment and meaningful action towards sound and sustainable development. This paper deals with awareness and generation of e-waste in higher educational institutions of district Kangra, Himachal Pradesh. Keywords: E-waste, Environment, Higher Education, Kangra

INTRODUCTION E-waste refers to discarded electrical and electronic equipment Guptha, N. & Sekhar, G. L. (2009). The electronic equipment which is of no longer use comes in the category of e-Waste. “e-Waste" is a popular, informal name for electronic products nearing the end of their "useful life”. e-Waste includes waste cathode ray tube (CRT) televisions, desktops, laptops, CRT monitors, liquid crystal display (LCD) monitors, cell phones, keyboards, computer mice, printers, and copier Gupta, S. (2011 e-Waste might seem to be a “buzz” in the walks of waste to the common man and might look like a scar if categorized as one of the major results of globalization and education. The quantification of the e-waste along other waste is one of the major problems in its quantitative generalization. The e-waste is generally collected along with the other wastes and comes in the market with foreign indirect inflow The main hindrance in generalizing the e-Waste is inflow of electronic waste into the domestic market. Moreover each economy (some countries have different categorization due to the variation of electronic products being consumed per capita.) has its own categorization and nature for e-waste; leaving apart to hindrances created by differences in definitions of e-Waste constituents which create disparity. 35 |

Environmental Issues for Socio-ecological Development

Asia (our continent/ Indian sub-continent) is a fast growing e-Waste market as it is privileged with the technology from developed countries. The mounting amount of eWaste generation is a concern for developing countries (this is because the e-waste is generated in the countries itself also and also imported for recycling). The flow of the electronic waste from the developed countries can be seen in the figure

Fig. 1: Source Global Impact of e-Waste ILO

Asian nations are the final destination of the electronic wastes. The term “bridging the digital divide” safeguards the United Nations and European Union in transferring the e-waste to developing countries from their nation. India and China both being unaware of e-Waste hazards and also thickly populated are serving as good market of e-Waste. Asian countries are serving as a tertiary user of electronic products. India shares the chair of third largest stake holder nation in the field of higher education all around the globe Atlen, (2010). Recently, a report from Toxics Link reveals that 70 percent of Waste Electric Electronic Equipment disposed in New Delhi of India was imported from developed countries Khurrum et al (2011). The cause of undue wastage of electronic items and improper use is main concern in present situation. India sensitized the issue and laid separate regulations and guidelines for electronic waste in 2011. The e-Waste Rules place main responsibility of e-Waste management on the producers of the electrical and electronic equipment by introducing the concept of EPR (Extended Producer Responsibility). EPR is defined as “an environmental policy approach in which a producers’ responsibility for a product is extended to the post-consumer stage of a products’ life cycle including its final disposal” OCED. The producer of the electronic waste must be aware of electronic product being used for the complete success of EPR. The technical awareness of use of product increases the lifespan of the product. With the aim giving relaxing the increasing unemployment in all sectors and enhancing the quality work being done, spectrum of our educational impartation shifted and became more technical, based on ICT knowing the fact that ICT/ electronic products prove to be harmful if not managed properly.

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A Study on E-waste Awareness in Higher Educational Institutes of Kangra Region: A Case Study

Fig. 2

Himachal Pradesh, a rural state, was the first state of India to show its concern to degrading environment by putting the ban on polythene in 2009. The 70 percent area of state is covered by forest. Even then it is accountable for generation of 1595.1 tones of ewaste in 2011 Agnihotri (2011). Regarding e-waste, state follows the guidelines as per laid by The Ministry Of Environment And Forests, Government of India in e-Waste Management And Handling Rules, 2011 which came into effect from May, 2012. Kangra is the district of the Himachal Pradesh where first phase of environment protection programme of polythene ban was initiated, various environment awareness programmes were started in December 2009-10 and eco- monitoring team was also setup. The Kangra region of District Kangra possesses access to many educational institutions. Is the Kangra region similar in context of e-waste awareness, the present study seeks to find the answer?

REVIEW Present developing digital world is enhanced with blessed technology. The lack of knowledge about awareness and management strategies regarding the advanced/ upgraded appliances/ products/ gadgets has made people face problems of electronicwaste. Kurian 2007 in a study on the management and strategy development on eWaste finds that awareness in people regarding health and environmental threat posed by e-Waste is virtually non-existent. The biological effects of e-Waste are highly complex as toxicity contaminates natural resources and bio accumulates through the food chain (Nguyen et al., 2009). Lack of awareness, understanding and hazards of e-Waste poses man to health problems (Liu et al., 2009, Nguyen et al., 2009 and Chan et al., 2010). Awareness and understanding of environmental issues provide the basis and rationale for commitment and meaningful action towards environmentally sound and sustainable development (UNESCO-PROAP 1997, Ballantyne, Connell & Fien 2006). 37 |

Environmental Issues for Socio-ecological Development

OBJECTIVE The present study has the objectives to: 

Asses the awareness of e-Waste guidelines and follow up by the educational institutes



Asses the current practices being followed for e-Waste management.

METHODOLOGY SELECTION AND CATEGORIZATION OF THE SAMPLE As the study relates to assess awareness among students in the area, the educational institutes are chosen where which represents appropriateness of sample. Educational institutes of medical, engineering and general academic institute are taken in consideration in this study. Further the sample of twenty five individuals was further bifurcated among twenty students and five educators. The sample area was decided with accessibility and location of all the categorized institutes. The tertiary institutes that are taken in consideration of Kangra region are:  

General Academic institute (CUHP, Shahpur). Medical Institute (RPMC, Tanda).



Engineering institute (Govt. poly tech institute, Kangra).



Research Student of different universities in workshop.

In order to make the appropriateness of the sample selection both the private and government sectors were selected and get a general overall view or perception regarding e-waste research students of a workshop of were made part of sample.

SURVEY TO ASSESS AWARENESS AND INSTITUTIONAL MANAGEMENT OF E-WASTE The data obtained by using through a self-developed questionnaire which was divided into three parts I-general awareness, ii-institutional awareness and iii-social awareness. The first part of the questionnaire is merely to check the respondents knowledge about e-waste while the second part deals to cover how much does the institute engage itself and how much is the institute in which the respondent is, is sensitized about e-waste. While the third part is the applicative part and tells how the respondent responds to ewaste problems in practical manner. The data is obtained from the respective colleges and then analyzed statistically by percentage method in order to gain insight into the above issue.

THEORETICAL GENERALIZATIONS ACADEMIC INSTITUTE The educators of the general academic college have depicted their concern to the ewaste, and are aware of the rules and guidelines concerning the disposal and management of e-Waste. Students of the institute are comparatively not aware of | 38

A Study on E-waste Awareness in Higher Educational Institutes of Kangra Region: A Case Study

electronic waste. Moreover the absence of computer laboratory and other technical gazettes put them on the back steps of e-waste generators The institutes don’t have collaboration with any government or non-government body regarding the e-waste. There is need to generalize and rationalize the concept of e-Waste among students for creating the e-Waste awareness in economy.

MEDICAL INSTITUTES The medical colleges are too among the generators of e-Waste. Though the numerical quantity of the electronic waste generated low but the equipment replacement and frequent malfunctioning of the appliances brings medical colleges into count of e-Waste generators. The medical college pays no attention to the electronic waste. The medical trainees’ institutes generate a variety of e-Wastes like: patient monitoring equipment (ECG, EEG and body scanning equipment), recording and mapping equipment, equipment used for operation and other equipment used for management activities. The management of medical colleges is unaware of e-Waste and its hazards. There are separate stores for storing solid-biomedical wastes but not for e-Wastes. The official record of equipment serves purpose of verification and inquiry. E-Waste generated get stored with other waste and there is no purposive data of e-Waste i.e. amount of generation in a year, its hazardous content, and year of manufacturing.

ENGINEERING INSTITUTE The educators of the engineering college depicted their concern to the electronic waste, and are aware of the rules and guidelines concerning the disposal and management of eWaste. Students of the institute are not aware of e-Waste terminologically but know electronic waste. They are aware the hazards of e-Waste and reveals that there is no institutional coordination. Comparatively there is high degree of awareness regarding concept of e-Waste, guidelines and hazards than medical, academic institutes.

STATISTICAL GENERALIZATION 

Among the students of higher educational institutes

  

Among the educators of higher educational students Within the students of higher educational institutes Within the educators of higher educational institutes

Awareness level of all Educators = 39%  Academic Degree institute = 34%  Medical institute = 34%  Engineering. Institute = 48% Awareness level of Students = 33%  Academic Degree institute = 24% 

Medical institute =36% 39 |

Environmental Issues for Socio-ecological Development

Engineering institute = 40%



Moreover it is seen that in the first part of questionnaire, relating to government guidelines and rules,

e-Waste awareness (in percentage) POLY.

RGMC

WORK.

CUHP

57 58 62

18 29 33 33

73

a

17 21 29 30

b

c

Fig. 3: (a) General Awareness (b) Institutional Awareness (c) E-waste Awareness in Applicative Context

All the institutes showed high level of awareness i.e. which declined steeply with second part relating to general questions and more declined when led to applicability in social setting like management, use, disposal. The steep decline is clearly seen in all the institutes. It too depicts a picture that the people are not giving serious attention to the issue of e-waste. Per item scoring of all 25 individuals is shown further as below

Graphic Representation of Correct Scores per Item (By Institutes) 25

persons

20 15

a

10

b

5

c

0

d

-5 0

5

10

15

20

item Fig. 4: (a) Poly Technique College, (b) RGMC Tanda, (c) Workshop Students, (d) Central University Himachal Pradesh

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A Study on E-waste Awareness in Higher Educational Institutes of Kangra Region: A Case Study

CONCLUSION The total e-waste awareness of the Kangra is 38.33% (percentage method). It can be concluded that educated i.e. Academic, Medical, Engineering has a low degree of awareness regarding e-waste. The present study reveals that the e-waste awareness increases as we move towards the technical ones than there counterpart medical and academic. But surprising fact is that the more awareness more the generator for ewaste. Secondly there is a steep decline from general to applicability aspect irrespective to kind of institute (academic, medical, general). This indicates the human perception regarding the hazardous nature of e-waste. The study indicates that awareness level of educators regarding e-waste is more than that of students. The variation in streams clearly reflects the effect on the e-waste awareness level of students. There is need to generalize and rationalize the concept among students for creating the e-Waste awareness in economy.

REFERENCES [1] [2]

[3] [4]

[5] [6]

[7]

[8]

Agnihotri, V. K. (2011). Report on E-waste in India 2011.Research Unit (LARRRIDS) retrieved from http://rajyasabha.nic.in/rsnew/publicationelectronic/E-Wastein-india.pdf on dated Aug.5,2014. Guptha, N. & Sekhar, G. L.(2009).Electronic Waste Management System In Bangalore – A Review, JK Journal of Management & Technology, 1(1),11–24. Retrieved from < http://www.mimts.org/JK%20Journal%20of%20Management%20%26%20Technology/10Electr onic%20Waste%20Management%20System%20in%20Bangalore%20%20A%20Reviewpdf. > On dated 2013, August 23. Gupta, S. (2011).Electronic Waste: A Case Study, Research Journal of Chemical Sciences,1(9),4956.retrieved from on dated 2013,September25. Khurrum M., Bhutta S.,Omar A. and Yang X. (2011). Electronic Waste: A Growing Concern in Today’s Environment, Economics Research International, Hindawi Publishing Corporation. Retrieved from< http://www.hindawi.com/journals/econ/2011/474230/>.on dated 2013 August 24. Kumar, S.N. & Jain, A. K. (2014) E-Waste: Health Impacts in Developing Countries, EHS Journal, printed online retrieved from http://ehsjournal.org/http:/ehsjournal.org/shashi-nkumar-and-arun-kumar-jain/e-waste-health-impacts-in-developing-countries/2014/ on dated 2014 January 26. OCED(2004), Guidance Manual on Environmentally Sound Management of Waste, Organisation for Economic CO-operation and Development, Retrieved from < http://www.oecd.org/env/waste/39559085.pdf > on dated January 26, 2015. Toxics Link. (2004). E-Waste in Chennai Time is running out, retrieved from www.toxicslink.org on dated October 15, 2014.

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Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture and its Various Aspects Mukesh Sehgal1 and Ravendra Singh2 1

National Centre for Integrated Pest Management (NCIPM), Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), Pusa Campus, New Delhi–110012, India 2 Department of Mathematics & Statistics, Bansthali Vidypith, Bansthali–228371, Rajasthan, India

ABSTRACT Global Worming is changing our climate and it can have serious implications for our food security through its direct and indirect effects on crops, soils, livestock, fisheries and Pests. At the same time, this is an issue with several social –economic-political implications. In the Developing countries including India, there has been relatively less attention paid to this topic in an integrated manner. Uncertainties and error association with the climate change models, impacts on soil and crop productivity by using crop growth models need to be minimized. The impact on agriculture has been worked out through soil fertility, soil moisture availability, soil biological health, growth and yield of various crops, insects and pests of crops. The interaction among various climatic parameters, mainly temperature, rainfall, radiation and carbon dioxide concentration has been evaluated through growth and yield of crops by using simulation models. Vulnerable regions and options to adopt agriculture Production under climate have been identified. General Circulation models for climate change scene remains. The importance of Climate and Weather events for the distribution of insects and their population dynamics has long been recognized especially in applied studies on pest species. Climate factors and sunshine hours etc can directly influence pests by affecting their rate and indirectly through host plants, natural enemies and inter specific interactions with other insects. The effectiveness of this kind of study is possible only if inter-disciplinary team of researchers work together on a common mission of Climate Change related Studies. Keywords: Environment, Climate Change, Agriculture, Economy, Education

INTRODUCTION Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes, both of which take place on a global scale. Global warming is projected to have significant impacts on conditions affecting agriculture, including temperature, carbon dioxide, glacial run-off, precipitation and the interaction of these elements. These conditions determine the carrying capacity of the biosphere to produce enough food for the human population and domesticated animals. The overall effect of climate change on agriculture will depend on the balance of these effects. Assessment of the effects of global climate changes on agriculture might help to properly anticipate and adapt farming to maximize agricultural production. At the same time, agriculture has been shown to produce significant effects on climate change, primarily through the production and release of greenhouse gases such 42 |

Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture and its Various Aspects

as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, but also by altering the Earth's land cover, which can change its ability to absorb or reflect heat and light, thus contributing to radioactive forcing. Land use change such as deforestation and desertification, together with use of fossil fuels, are the major anthropogenic sources of carbon dioxide; agriculture itself is the major contributor to increasing methane and nitrous oxide concentrations in earth's atmosphere.

IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON AGRICULTURE Despite technological advances, such as improved varieties, genetically modified organisms, and irrigation systems, weather is still a key factor in agricultural productivity, as well as soil properties and natural communities. The effect of climate on agriculture is related to variability in local climates rather than in global climate patterns. The Earth's average surface temperature has increased by 1 degree F in just over the last century. Consequently, agronomists consider any assessment has to be individually considering each local area. On the other hand, agricultural trade has grown in recent years, and now provides significant amounts of food, on a national level to major importing countries, as well as comfortable income to exporting ones. The international aspect of trade and security in terms of food implies the need to also consider the effects of climate change on a global scale. Greenhouse gases trap heat and make the planet warmer. Human activities are responsible for almost all of the increase in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere over the last 150 years (IPCC, 2007). A study published in Science suggest that, due to climate change, "southern Africa could lose more than 30% of its main crop, maize, by 2030. In South Asia losses of many regional staples, such as rice, millet and maize could top 10%". The 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report concluded that the poorest countries would be hardest hit, with reductions in crop yields in most tropical and sub-tropical regions due to decreased water availability, and new or changed insect pest incidence. In Africa and Latin America many rained crops are near their maximum temperature tolerance, so that yields are likely to fall sharply for even small climate changes; falls in agricultural productivity of up to 30% over the 21st century are projected. Marine life and the fishing industry will also be severely affected in some places. Climate change induced by increasing greenhouse gases is likely to affect crops differently from region to region. For example, average crop yield is expected to drop down to 50% in Pakistan according to the UKMO scenario whereas corn production in Europe is expected to grow up to 25% in optimum hydrologic conditions. More favourable effects on yield tend to depend to a large extent on realization of the potentially beneficial effects of carbon dioxide on crop growth and increase of efficiency in water use. Decrease in potential yields is likely to be caused by shortening of the growing period, decrease in water availability and poor vernalization. 43 |

Environmental Issues for Socio-ecological Development

In the long run, the climatic change could affect agriculture in several ways: 

Productivity, in terms of quantity and quality of crops



Agricultural practices, through changes of water use (irrigation) and agricultural inputs such as herbicides, insecticides and fertilizers



Environmental effects, in particular in relation of frequency and intensity of soil drainage (leading to nitrogen leaching), soil erosion, reduction of crop diversity



Rural space, through the loss and gain of cultivated lands, land speculation, land renunciation, and hydraulic amenities.



Adaptation, organisms may become more or less competitive, as well as humans may develop urgency to develop more competitive organisms, such as flood resistant or salt resistant varieties of rice.

They are large uncertainties to uncover, particularly because there is lack of information on many specific local regions, and include the uncertainties on magnitude of climate change, the effects of technological changes on productivity, global food demands, and the numerous possibilities of adaptation. Most agronomists believe that agricultural production will be mostly affected by the severity and pace of climate change, not so much by gradual trends in climate. If change is gradual, there may be enough time for biota adjustment. Rapid climate change, however, could harm agriculture in many countries, especially those that are already suffering from rather poor soil and climate conditions, because there is less time for optimum natural selection and adaption. Shortage in grain production Crops such as these sunflower scan be affected by severe drought conditions in Australia. Between 1996 and 2003, grain production has stabilized slightly over 1800 millions of tons. In 2000, 2001, 2002 and 2003, grain stocks have been dropping, resulting in a global grain harvest that was short of consumption by 93 millions of tons in 2003. The Earth's average temperature has been rising since the late 1970s, with nine of the 10 warmest years on record occurring since 1995. In 2002, India and the United States suffered sharp harvest reductions because of record temperatures and drought. In 2003 Europe suffered very low rainfall throughout spring and summer, and a record level of heat damaged most crops from the United Kingdom and France in theWestern Europe through Ukraine in the East. Bread prices have been rising in several countries in the region.

POVERTY IMPACTS Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute (ODI) have investigated the potential impacts climate change could have on agriculture, and how this would affect | 44

Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture and its Various Aspects

attempts at alleviating poverty in the developing world. They argued that the effects from moderate climate change are likely to be mixed for developing countries. However, the vulnerability of the poor in developing countries to short term impacts from climate change, notably the increased frequency and severity of adverse weather events is likely to have a negative impact. This, they say, should be taken into account when defining agricultural policy.

CROP DEVELOPMENT MODELS Models for climate behavior are frequently inconclusive. In order to further study effects of global warming on agriculture, other types of models, such as crop development models, yield prediction, quantities of water or fertilizer consumed, can be used. Such models condense the knowledge accumulated of the climate, soil, and effects observed of the results of various agricultural practices. They thus could make it possible to test strategies of adaptation to modifications of the environment. Because these models are necessarily simplifying natural conditions (often based on the assumption that weeds, disease and insect pests are controlled), it is not clear whether the results they give will have an in-field reality. However, some results are partly validated with an increasing number of experimental results. Other models, such as insect and disease development models based on climate projections are also used (for example simulation of aphidreproduction or septoria (cereal fungal disease) development). Scenarios are used in order to estimate climate changes effects on crop development and yield. Each scenario is defined as a set ofmeteorological variables, based on generally accepted projections. For example, many models are running simulations based on doubledcarbon dioxide projections, temperatures raise ranging from 1°C up to 5°C, and with rainfall levels an increase or decrease of 20%. Other parameters may include humidity, wind, and solar activity. Scenarios of crop models are testing farmlevel adaptation, such as sowing date shift, climate adapted species (vernalisation need, heat and cold resistance), irrigation and fertilizer adaptation, resistance to disease. Most developed models are about wheat, maize, rice and soybean.

TEMPERATURE POTENTIAL EFFECT ON GROWING PERIOD Duration of crop growth cycles are above all, related to temperature. An increase in temperature will speed up development. In the case of an annual crop, the duration between sowing and harvesting will shorten (for example, the duration in order to harvest corn could shorten between one and four weeks). The shortening of such a cycle could have an adverse effect on productivity because senescence would occur sooner.

EFFECT OF ELEVATED CARBON DIOXIDE ON CROPS Carbon dioxide is essential to plant growth. Rising CO2 concentration in the atmosphere can have both positive and negative consequences. 45 |

Environmental Issues for Socio-ecological Development

Increased CO2 is expected to have positive physiological effects by increasing the rate of photosynthesis. Currently, the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is 380 parts per million. In comparison, the amount of oxygen is 210,000 ppm. This means that often plants may be starved of carbon dioxide, due to the enzyme that fixes CO2, rubisco also fixes oxygen in the process of photorespiration. The effects of an increase in carbon dioxide would be higher on C3 crops (such as wheat) than on C4 crops (such as maize), because the former is more susceptible to carbon dioxide shortage. Studies have shown that increased CO2 leads to fewer stomata developing on plants which lead to reduced water usage. Under optimum conditions of temperature and humidity, the yield increase could reach 36%, if the levels of carbon dioxide are doubled. Further, few studies have looked at the impact of elevated carbon dioxide concentrations on whole farming systems. Most models study the relationship between CO2 and productivity in isolation from other factors associated with climate change, such as an increased frequency ofextreme weather events, seasonal shifts, and so on. In 2005, the Royal Society in London concluded that the purported benefits of elevated carbon dioxide concentrations are “likely to be far lower than previously estimated” when factors such as increasing ground-level ozone are taken into account."

EFFECT ON QUALITY According to the IPCC's TAR, the importance of climate change impacts on grain and forage quality emerges from new research. For rice, the amylose content of the grain--a major determinant of cooking quality--is increased under elevated CO2. Studies using FACE have shown that increases in CO2 lead to decreased concentrations of micronutrients in crop plants. This may have knock-on effects on other parts of ecosystems as herbivores will need to eat more food to gain the same amount of protein. Studies have shown that higher CO2 levels lead to reduced plant uptake of nitrogen (and a smaller number showing the same for trace elements such as zinc) resulting in crops with lower nutritional value. This would primarily impact on populations in poorer countries less able to compensate by eating more food, more varied diets, or possibly taking supplements. Reduced nitrogen content in grazing plants has also been shown to reduce animal productivity in sheep, which depend on microbes in their gut to digest plants, which in turn depend on nitrogen intake.

AGRICULTURAL SURFACES AND CLIMATE CHANGES Climate change may increase the amount of arable land in high-latitude region by reduction of the amount of frozen lands. A 2005 study reports that temperature in siberia has increased three degree Celsius in average since 1960 (much more than the rest of the world). However, reports about the impact of global warming on Russian agriculture indicate conflicting probable effects : while they expect a northward extension of farmable lands, they also warn of possible productivity losses and increased risk of drought. | 46

Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture and its Various Aspects

Sea levels are expected to get up to one meter higher by 2100, though this projection is disputed. A rise in the sea level would result in an agricultural land loss, in particular in areas such as South East Asia. Erosion, submergence of shorelines, salinity of the water table due to the increased sea levels, could mainly affect agriculture through inundation of low-lying lands. Low lying areas such as Bangladesh, India and Vietnam will experience major loss of rice crop if sea levels are expected to rise by the end of the century. Vietnam for example relies heavily on its southern tip, where the Mekong Delta lies, for rice planting. Any rise in sea level of no more than a meter will drown several km2. of rice paddies, rendering Vietnam incapable of producing its main staple and export of rice.

EROSION AND FERTILITY The warmer atmospheric temperatures observed over the past decades are expected to lead to a more vigorous hydrological cycle, including more extreme rainfall events. Erosion and soil degradation is more likely to occur. Soil fertility would also be affected by global warming. However, because the ratio of carbon to nitrogen is a constant, a doubling of carbon is likely to imply a higher storage of nitrogen in soils asnitrates, thus providing higher fertilizing elements for plants, providing better yields. The average needs for nitrogen could decrease, and give the opportunity of changing often costly fertilisation strategies. Due to the extremes of climate that would result, the increase in precipitations would probably result in greater risks of erosion, whilst at the same time providing soil with better hydration, according to the intensity of the rain. The possible evolution of the organic matter in the soil is a highly contested issue: while the increase in the temperature would induce a greater rate in the production of minerals, lessening the soil organic matter content, the atmospheric CO2 concentration would tend to increase it.

POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE ON PESTS, DISEASES AND WEEDS A very important point to consider is that weeds would undergo the same acceleration of cycle as cultivated crops, and would also benefit from carbonaceous fertilization. Since most weeds are C3 plants, they are likely to compete even more than now against C4 crops such as tomatoes. However, on the other hand, some results make it possible to think that weedkillers could gain in effectiveness with the temperature increase. Global warming would cause an increase in rainfall in some areas, which would lead to an increase of atmospheric humidity and the duration of the wet seasons. Combined with higher temperatures, these could favor the development of fungal diseases. Similarly, because of higher temperatures and humidity, there could be an increased pressure from insects and disease vectors.

47 |

Environmental Issues for Socio-ecological Development

GLACIER RETREAT AND DISAPPEARANCE The continued retreat of glaciers will have a number of different quantitative impacts. In areas that are heavily dependent on water runoff from glaciers that melt during the warmer summer months, a continuation of the current retreat will eventually deplete the glacial ice and substantially reduce or eliminate runoff. A reduction in runoff will affect the ability to irrigate crops and will reduce summer stream flows necessary to keep dams and reservoirs replenished. Approximately 2.4 billion people live in the drainage basin of the Himalayan rivers. India, China, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Nepaland Myanmar could experience floods followed by severe droughts in coming decades.[23] In India alone, the Ganges provides water for drinking and farming for more than 500 million people. The west coast of North America, which gets much of its water from glaciers in mountain ranges such as the Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada, also would be affected.

OZONE AND UV-B Some scientists think agriculture could be affected by any decrease in stratospheric ozone, which could increase biologically dangerousultraviolet radiation B. Excess ultraviolet radiation B can directly effect plant physiology and cause massive amounts of mutations, and indirectly through changed pollinator behavior, though such changes are simple to quantify. However, it has not yet been ascertained whether an increase in greenhouse gases would decrease stratospheric ozone levels. In addition, a possible effect of rising temperatures is significantly higher levels of ground-level ozone, which would substantially lower yields.

ENSO EFFECTS ON AGRICULTURE ENSO (El Niño Southern Oscillation) will affect monsoon patterns more intensely in the future as climate change warms up the ocean's water. Crops that lie on the equatorial belt or under the tropical Walker circulation, such as rice, will be affected by varying monsoon patterns and more unpredictable weather. Scheduled planting and harvesting based on weather patterns will become less effective. Areas such as Indonesia where the main crop consists of rice will be more vulnerable to the increased intensity of ENSO effects in the future of climate change. University of Washington professor, David Battisti, researched the effects of future ENSO patterns on the Indonesian rice agriculture using [IPCC]'s 2007 annual report and 20 different logistical models mapping out climate factors such as wind pressure, sealevel, and humidity, and found that rice harvest will experience a decrease in yield. Bali and Java, which holds 55% of the rice yields in Indonesia, will be likely to experience 910% probably of delayed monsoon patterns, which prolongs the hungry season. Normal planting of rice crops begin in October and harevest by January. However, as climate change affects ENSO and consequently delays planting, harvesting will be late and in drier conditions, resulting in less potential yields.

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Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture and its Various Aspects

IMPACT OF AGRICULTURE ON CLIMATE CHANGE The agricultural sector is a driving force in the gas emissions and land use effects thought to cause climate change. In addition to being a significant user of land and consumer of fossil fuel, agriculture contributes directly to greenhouse gas emissions through practices such as rice production and the raising of livestock; according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the three main causes of the increase in greenhouse gases observed over the past 250 years have been fossil fuels, land use, and agriculture.

LAND USE Agriculture contributes to greenhouse gas increases through land use in four main ways: 

CO2 releases linked to deforestation



Methane releases from rice cultivation



Methane releases from enteric fermentation in cattle



Nitrous oxide releases from fertilizer application

Together, these agricultural processes comprise 54% of methane emissions, roughly 80% of nitrous oxide emissions, and virtually all carbon dioxide emissions tied to land use. The planet's major changes to land cover since 1750 have resulted from deforestation in temperate regions: when forests and woodlands are cleared to make room for fields and pastures, the albedo of the affected area increases, which can result in either warming or cooling effects, depending on local conditions. Deforestation also affects regional carbon reuptake, which can result in increased concentrations of CO2, the dominant greenhouse gas. Land-clearing methods such as slash and burn compound these effects by burning biomatter, which directly releases greenhouse gases and particulate matter such as soot into the air.

LIVESTOCK Main ting a constant stock of environmental resources is necessary to meet both the present and future needs o population (Rena, 2015). Livestock and livestock-related activities such as deforestation and increasingly fuel-intensive farming practices are responsible for over 18% of human-made greenhouse gas emissions, including: 

9% of global carbon dioxide emissions



35-40% of global methane emissions (chiefly due to enteric fermentation and manure)



64% of global nitrous oxide emissions (chiefly due to fertilizer use. 49 |

Environmental Issues for Socio-ecological Development

Livestock activities also contribute disproportionately to land-use effects, since crops such as corn and alfalfa are cultivated in order to feed the animals. On the basis o above discussions it can be said that agriculture and human wellbeing will be negatively affected by climate change. Crop yields will decline, production will be affected, crop and meat prices will increase, and consumption of cereals will fall, leading to reduced calorie intake and increased child malnutrition (Nelson, et. al. 2009).

REFERENCES IPCC,2007. Summary for Policymakers. In: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M. Tignor and H.L. Miller (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. [2] IPCC Third Assessment Report (2001). Too much Imagination Block, The Third supplementary submission to the Joint Standing Committee on Treaties Inquiry into The Kyoto Protocol by RJ Foster. [3] Nelson, G. C. Nelson, Rosegrant, M. W., Koo, J. Koo, Robertson, R., Sulser, R., Zhu, T. Ringler, C., Msangi, S., Palazzo, S., Batka, M., Magalhaes, M., Valmonte-Santos, R. Ewing, M. and Lee, d., 2009. Climate Change Impact on Agriculture and Cost of Adaptation, IFPRI, International Food Policy Research Institute Washington, D.C. [4] Rena, R., 2015. Environmental Protection and Sustainable Development-A Further Update, Gihar & Saxena (eds.) Environmental Protection & Sustainable Development, Anamika Publishers, New Delhi, Page 138. [1]

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Environmental Effects on Herbal Medicines Vipin Saini1, A. Pandurangan2 and Ravdeep Saini3* 1

MM College of Pharmacy, MM University, Mullana-Ambala, Haryana , Mewar University, Rajasthan E-mail: [email protected] 23

INTRODUCTION Medicinal plants are widely distributed throughout the world but most abundantly in tropical countries. It is estimated that about 25% of all modern medicines are directly or indirectly derived from higher plants. Over 80% of the world population depends on herbal medicines and product for healthy living. The quality of an herbal ingredient can be affected by environmental factors like climate changes, altitude and other conditions under which it was cultivated. It is a very important part of traditional knowledge that the herbal medicines provides health care for more than half of the world's population, but no one has really looked at how the environment affects herbal medicines. A traditional medicine utilizes plants and animals to make natural remedies. Although a lot of these species being under threat due to ongoing climatic changes and other human effects on the environment, the effect that these changes can have on traditional medicine is not thoroughly understood. Due to ongoing environmental changes we are observing across the globe, we might lose certain plant species which will lead to changed ecosystems, loss of secondary metabolites like alkaloids, glycosides, flavonoids etc. and an overall poorer natural environment. This will then affect the various medicinal plants that the people can use around them. In this study is concerned about the destiny of the traditional knowledge of these cultures. Herbal medicine is the stronghold of about 75-80% of the world population, mostly in the emergent countries, for major healthcare because of enhanced cultural adequacy, enhanced compatibility with the human body and less significant side special effects. Conventional medicines, mostly herbal medicines, have been more and more used worldwide throughout the last two –three decades. India is sitting on a gold excavation of well-recorded and well-practiced acquaintance of traditional herbal medicine. The effectiveness of these drugs mainly depends upon the proper use and continued accessibility of authentic raw materials. Comparatively, the number of information of patients experiencing negative health consequences caused by the use of herbal medicines has also been increasing. Studies have revealed a variety of reasons for such problems. One of the most important causes of reported adverse events is directly associated to the poor quality of raw material plant materials. Quality control unswervingly impacts the safety and effectiveness of herbal medicinal yield. 51 |

Environmental Issues for Socio-ecological Development

CONSERVATION PRACTICES Good agricultural practices (GACP) and collection practices for medicinal plants is the first step in quality assurance, on which the safety and efficiency of herbal medicinal yield directly depend upon, and will also play an significant role in the fortification of natural resources of medicinal plants for sustainable utilize. The safety and quality of raw medicinal plant materials and complete products depend on factors that may be classified as intrinsic (genetic) or extrinsic (environment, collection methods, cultivation, harvest, post-harvest dispensation, transport and storage practices). Medicinal plants collected from the wild population may be contaminated by other species or plant parts through misidentification, fortuitous contagion or deliberate defilement, all of which may have unsafe consequences. The collection of medicinal plants from wild populations can give rise to additional concerns related to global, regional and/or local over-harvesting and protection of endangered species.

LEGAL ISSUES This is obvious from the preparation of unenthusiastic list of plants by The Ministry of Environment & Forest, Government of India. In 1992, 52 species included in the ‘Negative List’ that was proscribed for export. In 1998 the list was abridged to 29 species. In 2000, the negative List was appended with a list of 114 species for adaptable their undomesticated harvest. Medicinal plants should be harvested during the optimal season or occasion period to ensure the construction of medicinal plant materials and finished herbal products of the best excellence. The time of harvest depends on the plant part to be used. Detailed in sequence regarding the appropriate timing of harvest may be obtainable in National Pharmacopoeias, published standards, official monographs and major reference books. However, it is well known that the concentration of biologically active constituents varies with the stage of plant growth and improvement.

CURRENT SCENARIO The best time for harvest (quality peak season/ time of day) should be resolute according to the superiority and magnitude of biologically active constituents rather the total vegetative yield of the targeted medicinal plant parts. After harvesting, the medicinal parts should be subjected to appropriate processing, such as selection, washing, cutting, or trimming, drying, packaging and transportation. Quality should be maintained in all the processing measures. The World Health Organization has recognized the significance of traditional medicine and has fashioned strategies, guidelines and standards to sustain the quality of botanical medicines. Despite such guidelines, there is still considerable discrepancy between knowledge and achievement. For paradigm, it is easier said than done task to train farmers and other relevant persons as producers, handlers and processors of medicinal plant materials. While pharmaceutical and other companies are striving to meet the requirements for the quality control of herbal medicines, they cannot force farmers, producers, handlers and producers to follow good collection practices for | 52

Environmental Effects on Herbal Medicines

medicinal plants. The training of farmers and other relevant persons is therefore one of many imperative events to be taken to ensure that good collection practices are adopted in order that medicinal plant materials of high quality are obtained. Keeping these facts in mind our plan is intended to identify the appropriate methods and specified time from collection to transportation of crude drugs. We are focusing principally on collection because there is nonentity to do with farming for the undomesticated full-grown plants.

BIOLOGICAL AND ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE Conducting Phytochemical, Pharmacological and stability studies parallel could do this. Ever since each plant is like a chemical factory skilled of synthesizing unlimited number of highly extraordinary chemical substances it is obligatory to demeanor both the studies at the same time by collecting the drugs from season to season. Secondary metabolites that are used as marker may change due to environmental factors and therefore correct in sequence of botanicals is thorny task. So the excellence of drug should be determined only from the therapeutic effectiveness fashioned by any given drug. Chromatographic fingerprints obtained for any plant serene from season to season would be correlated its biological action. From the consequences a monograph would be urbanized purely stating the methods from collection to transportation. Also we have aimed to train the local medicinal plant collectors regarding the collection and dispensation practices using these monographs and our laboratory will serve as a crude drug identification center for the samples bought by the collectors. This produces a consistently strong invention with convinced uplifting bustle. Plants have been interconnected with the human health from time immemorial and they are the significant foundation of medicines since the down of human civilization. In malevolence of amazing developments in the field of allopathic medicines during the 20th century, plants still stay put one of the most important sources of drugs in modern as well as in conventional systems of medicine. The medicinal plants are affluent source of secondary metabolites like alkaloids, glycosides, steroids and flavonoids, which are potential source of drugs. Approximately, one third of all pharmaceuticals are plant derivation.

MEDICINAL ASPECTS In current years, there has been upward curiosity in the field of herbal medicines research and search for talented prospective area of investigating of anticancer, Hepatoprotective and Immunomodulatory, Anti-inflammatory, Anti TB, Analgesic, AntiMalarial, Antipyretic agents from natural products. The immune system is designed to protect the host from invading pathogen and to eliminate disease. Plants are the essential and fundamental part in harmonizing and eccentric medicine and due to this they extend the aptitude for the development of secondary metabolites like proteins, flavonoids, alkaloids, steroids and phenolic 53 |

Environmental Issues for Socio-ecological Development

substances which are in turn used to restore health and heal many diseases. Herbal drugs are supposed to augment the natural battle of the body against infections/various diseases etc. Herbal medicines are popularizing more and supplementary at the present time. Amongst the whole flora of herbs 35,000 to 70,000 species have been used for medicinal purposes. Stipulate for medicinal plants is increasing both developing and developed countries. Due to increasing demand of medicinal plants various countries have revealed a sprouting fashion towards alternate medical systems in recent years. Due to growing gratitude of natural products, being harmless, having no side effects, straightforwardly obtainable at reasonably priced prices and at times the only source of health care existing to the underprivileged. The widespread utilize of herbal medicines has led to concerns relating to its wellbeing, superiority and effectiveness. Studies have exposed a diversity of reasons for such tribulations. One of the foremost causes of reported adverse effects is directly associated to the poor quality of raw plant materials. In quality pledge the first step are Good agricultural practices and excellent collection practices for medicinal plants.

CONCLUSION The collected works of medicinal plants from undomesticated populations is able to give mount to concerns related to contamination due to misidentification and defilement universal, regional and/ or local over-harvesting and protection of endangered species. Quality should be maintained in all the processing events preliminary from assortment to haulage. So the personnel involved in these steps should be an educated one. Our scheme was proposed to overcome these difficulties and to make out the proper methods and specified time, from collection to haulage of crude herbal drugs. Analyzing the single herb collected at different time intervals using phytochemical and pharmacological studies will set the desired standard parameters as far as these handing out methods are concerned. We are using these two studies side-by-side because Ayurveda does not agree to assay a solitary marker by phytochemical methods. Chromatographic fingerprints obtained for the plants composed from season to season would be interrelated with its biological activity to fix collection and harvesting practices. A monogram would be developed purely stating the methods from collection to haulage. Using this monograph we have designed to instruct the local medicinal plant collectors concerning the collection and processing practices. This produces an over and over again strong manufactured goods with all the desired parameters i.e., less toxicity and high efficacy.

REFERENCES [1] [2]

M Taghizadeh, S Shahnazi, M Ahvazi, 2004. Application of techniques in collection and harvesting of herbal medicine, 3 (2): 66-66. WHO Guidelines on Good Agricultural and Collection Practices (GACP) for Medicinal Plants, 2003: 1-80.

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Environmental Effects on Herbal Medicines Ranjan R. Pradhan, Shweta Rout, Sasmita Rout, Bandita Dash, and Shailja Rout, 2014. Evaluation of post harvest quality for aflatoxin and microbial loads on the leaves of Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni cultivated in Odisha, International Journal of Innovation and Applied Studies. 9 (2): 835-840. [4] Leung PC and Cheng KF, 2008. Good Agricultural Practice (GAP) -Does It Ensure a Perfect Supply of Medicinal Herbs for Research and Drug Development? International Journal of Applied Research in Natural Products, 1(2): 1-8. [5] Divya Kajaria, Jyoti Shankar Tripathi, Shri Kant Tiwari, Bajrangi Lal Pandey, 2013. Immunomodulatory effect of ethanolic extract of Shirishadi compound, Pharmacological Study, 34 (3) : 322-326. [6] Rokeya Sultana, Salma Khanam and Kshama Devi, 2011. Immunomodulatory effect of methanol extract of Solanum xanthocarpum fruits, International Journal of Pharma Sciences and Research, 2 (2): 93-97. [7] Vipin Saini, Kinger HK, A Middha, S Rathore and SG Rathore, 2006. Antibacterial and Antifungal Activity of Solanum xanthocarpum Leaf, International Journal of Plant Sciences, 1(2): 367-368. [8] V.Saini, Midhha A., Rathor M.S., A.Taleasara, RS Rangaldale and M. Baser,A New HPLC Method for Determination of Solasodine from Solanum xanthocarpum Capsule Formulations, a research paper was published in published in Plant Archives, Volume 7,No., 2007,Page No.223-224. [9] V. Saini, Edwin E, Sheeja E, Gupta V B, 2008. Anti inflammatory, Anthelmintic Activity of Solanum khasianum Clark,Natural Product Research, 22 (3) : 269-274. [10] V. Saini R. Rangadale, J.K. Bhatt and R.K. Goel, 2007. Good Agriculture Practices for Medicinal Plant, International Journal of Green Pharmacy, 1(1): 7-11. [3]

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Environmental Protection in India: Quality Management by Institutional Collaboration and Coherence Sandhya Gihar 1 and Sanjeev Bhardwaj2 1

MM College of Education, MM University Campus, Mullana-Ambala (Haryana) Aggarwal College of Education, Palwal (Haryana)

2

ABSTRACT Being signatory to various constitutional and legislative frameworks India need to employ collaboration, coherence, and cooperation from all quarters for protecting its biodiversity, natural resources and ecological systems. Various policies and laws need endorsement from good governance of government appropriate awareness of masses to manage quality of air, water, noise levels, radiation, energy and other areas, at all strata. Present paper deals with significance of ecological protection and sustainable development in light of Rio SD 2 and pivotal role played by all institutions like MOEF, CPCB and SPC. The paper throws light on importance of environmental sustainability to cater socioeconomic needs of present India and various collaborative assessment and monitoring efforts made to minimize ecological degradation. Keywords: Environment, Protection, India, Quality Management, Coherence

INTRODUCTION India’s economic development fuelled by fast pace of industrialization, urbanization, commercialization is giving rise to environmental problems which bear local, national and/ or global significance. In the root of the problematic ecological degradation lie Deforestation, soil erosion, water pollution and land depletion. Furthermore, the development path of economic growth in India has been devoid of resource management efficiency and ecological security concerns. Review of UNDP country program for India, acknowledges the population and economic growth in the context of weak regulatory mechanisms that has resulted in further increase in environmental concerns. In 2006 Government of India announced the National Environmental Policy with emphasis on main-streaming environment in all the developmental activities. The UNDP Country Program for India with an aim to promoting human development and gender equality; capacity development for decentralization; poverty eradication and sustainable livelihoods; and vulnerability reduction and environmental sustainability showed numerous issues and concerns regarding quality management by primary Institutions (UNDP, 2009). The conditions reveal persistent depletion and barring the economic development of India particularly in rural India. On the other hand alarming state of privatization, industrialization and urbanization in urban India is posing serious threat to ecological quality management. More than 20 cities in India have populations 56 |

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of over one million, and some of them, including New Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, and Kolkata, are among the worlds most polluted. Assuming continued economic liberalization and increased urbanization, the damage to environment and health could be enormous if precautionary measures are not taken. The challenge, therefore, is to maintain the quality of air, water and land and protect the environment by reconciling environmental, social and economic imperatives. The deteriorating environmental conditions lack of effective endorsement of legislative measures is further worsening the situations causing serious climatic changes across the globe. Global climate change presents serious health implications leading to many countries to endorse to uncertain climatic conditions due to ecological degradation and global warming (UGC, 2004).

CONSTITUTIONAL OBLIGATIONS AND NEED OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY FRAMEWORK According to Sankar (1998) the evolution of legal protection for environmental protection took place in three periods: 

First period is the Pre-independence period



Second period is from Independence to Stockholm conference (1947–1972)



Third period from Stockholm conference to Bhopal Disaster(1972–1984)

Munasinghe (1993) distinguished two types of economic policies that affect the environment: economy wide policies (whose effects on the environment are often indirect or unintended) and targeted environmental policies that deal directly with environmental problems and natural resource use. Further, economy wide policies interact with the environment and significant inference drawn are like, the removal of price distortions and the promotion of market incentives are generally good for both economic growth and the environment. Such policy reforms may cause unintended side effects when other policy, market, or institutional distortions persist. These policies aimed at stability are generally good for the environment, because instability undermines sustainable resource use and therefore adjustment programs can have negative effects on the environment. Economy wide policies are likely to have longerlasting effects on the environment through employment and income distribution changes (World Bank, 1994a). To bring control, collaboration, governance and coherence India employed numerous national policies keeping in view quality environmental management. These include the National Policy on Pollution Abatement (NPPA, 1992) and the National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement on Environment and Development (NCS/ PSED, 1992). National Environment Policy (NEP) of 2006 is the most recent pronouncement of the government’s commitment to improving environmental conditions while promoting economic prosperity nationwide. This policy founds on the basis of the previous commitments India made to its people to cooperate and collaborate for environmental quality management. The NEP’s key environmental 57 |

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objectives include conservation of critical environmental resources, intra-generational equity, and livelihood security for poor, integration of environment in economic and social development, efficiency in environment resource use, environmental governance, and enhancement of resources for environmental conservation. This policy promotes mainstreaming of environmental concerns into all development activities, advocating important environmental principles and identifying regulatory and substantive reforms (OECD, 2006). It is important to acknowledge that views about the interaction between environmental policy and economic growth frequently fall into two camps. On one side, there are those who point to the finite nature of many of the earth’s natural resources on which much economic activity depends, the seemingly inexorable rise in human consumption of those resources, and consequent inevitable shortages. Ever increasing rates of exploitation of natural resources could lead to the depletion of non-renewable resources such as oil or industrial metals, to high levels of biodiversity loss and a subsequent reduction in the quality of life, as this also depends on the natural environment and species diversity. India possess extensive legal framework comprising more than two hundred laws to meet objectives of environmental protection. Some Key national laws for the prevention and control of industrial and urban pollution include the following: 

Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1974, amended in 198



Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act of 1977, amended in 1991



Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1981, amended in 1987



Environment (Protection) Act of 1986 (EPA)



Public Liability Insurance Act of 1991



National Environmental Tribunal Act of 1995



National Environmental Appellate Authority Act of 1997

SUPERVISING AGENCIES There is utmost need of cooperation and collaboration of supervising agencies to meet aims of quality management in environmental protection in India. Since they transpire to be primary regulators and whistle blowers. The primary institutions responsible for the formulation and enforcement of environmental acts and rules include the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MOEF), the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), State Departments of Environment, State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) and Municipal Corporations. What has been acknowledged so far by scholars is these agencies are working in partisan and isolation which though not watertight compartment yet not allowing free flow of cooperation and collaboration vital for quality environmental security management. The details of these primary regulators are as follows: | 58

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CENTRAL POLLUTION CONTROL BOARD (CPCB) The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) performs functions as laid down under the Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, and The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981. It is responsible for planning and executing comprehensive nationwide programmes for the prevention and control of water and air pollution, for advising the Central Government on matters concerning prevention and control of water and air pollution and for coordinating activities of State Pollution Control Boards/ Pollution Control Committees besides providing technical assistance & guidance to them. The Central Pollution Control Board has been playing a vital role in abatement and control of pollution in the country by generating environmental quality data, providing scientific information, rendering technical inputs for formulating national policies and programmes, training and development of manpower and organizing activities for promoting awareness at different levels of the Government and public at large. The Central Pollution Control Board also co-ordinates enforcement and implementation of Rules framed under the Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986 with State Pollution Control Boards/ Pollution Control Committees. It also provides support to various committees and authorities constituted by the Government of India such as The Environmental Pollution (Prevention and Control) Authority for the National Capital Region.

CPCB’S ACTIVITIES 

Coordinating activities of State Pollution Control Boards/ Pollution Control Committees for prevention & control of pollution.



Development of industry specific national minimal effluent and emission standards;–Development of industry specific environmental guide lines and comprehensive documents.



Development of charter/ requirements for Corporate Responsibility for Environmental Protection (CREP) for 17 major polluting industrial sectors and monitoring their implementation through EIGHT task forces and steering committees.



Action plans for improvement of environment in 88 critically polluted areas/ clusters and monitoring their implementation.



Action plans for monitoring air quality in most polluted cities.



National water quality monitoring and publishing annual water quality reports.



National ambient air quality monitoring and publishing annual air quality reports.



Carrying out and sponsoring research activities relevant to environment protection.



Publishing material relevant to environment protection 59 |

Environmental Issues for Socio-ecological Development

RECENT EFFORTS OF CPCB During year 2012–2013, four quarterly Vapour phase and particulate phase samplings have been completed at remaining identified critically polluted areas. During year 2012–2013, three rounds of monitoring have been undertaken by National Reference Trace Organics Laboratory of Central Pollution Control Board in ground and surface water locations at Most Critically Polluted Areas of country. The assessment of PCBs levels in water and bottom sediments of river Yamuna in Delhi have been undertaken on quarterly basis by National Reference Trace Organics Laboratory of Central Pollution Control Board during the year 2012–2013. Projects related to Vehicular Pollution Control & Air Quality Management undertaken by Central Pollution Control Board are as follows: 

Assessment of vehicular pollution problems and development of air quality management plan in religious (Haridwar) & tourist (Mussorie) places” was taken up in collaboration with Pollution Control Research Insitute (PCRI), Bharat Heavy Electrical Ltd. (BHEL), Haridwar.



Assessment of Aldehydes, Ketones and Methane emissions in Vehicle exhaust, using different fuels (Petrol, Diesel, LPG, CNG, Ethanol in Petrol, Biodiesel and Hythane.



Development of Comprehensive Industry Document (COINDS) for Automobile Manufacturing Industries.



Inventorization of Railway sidings and Guidelines for their Environmental Management.



Status of the pollution generated from road transport sector in 6 cities.



Development of guidelines for the Environmentally sound Recycling/ disposal of ELVs (End of Life Vehicles).



Auditing of Pollution under Control (PUC) Centers in various cities/ towns.



Action plan for Controlling Air Pollution in Polluted cities

SIGNIFICANCE OF AGENDA 21 TO PROPOUND CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT The collaboration of all agencies need to base on central pivot of Agenda 21 being the primordial source to bring forth the notion of sustainability in environmental quality management. Agenda 21 (and the original Rio Earth Summit more generally) brought the concept of sustainable development into common parlance if not making it a household phrase. It had a strong influence on the language of subsequent international agreements and documents (such as WTO preamble, the Cairo agenda on population (1994), the Social Summit outcome (1995), the Beijing Women’s Conference (1995), the Habitat agenda (1996), the Rome Food Summit (1996). Overall, one clear and positive | 60

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impact of Agenda 21 has been to help put the concept of sustainable human development at the heart of development, as opposed to more technology-oriented “solutions” in the so-called “development decades” of the 1960s and 1970s (for example, strategies based on rapid industrialisation and large-scale agricultural projects). Arguably, Agenda 21’s biggest success has come through driving ambition on what sustainable outcomes are achievable on a sector by sector basis. For example, our understanding of biodiversity, of the contribution that agriculture makes to development or of the role of indigenous peoples in society, has been advanced in no small part through Agenda 21. Rio not only produced Agenda 21 and the Rio Declaration, it also produced international law instruments that dealt with specific sector issues, such as the Forest Principles, the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Furthermore, Rio also caused the creation of the UN Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD), the UN Convention to Combat Desertification and the Straddling Fish Stocks Agreement. As an event it is one of the most important examples of the delivery of international law, both hard and soft, that the UN has managed in its history (UNDSD, 2012).

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT The collaboration and coherence of various agencies for quality environmental management may apply significant implement of Impact assessments. The Environmental Impact Assessment has been used as a management tool to minimize adverse impacts of the developmental projects on the environment and to achieve sustainable development through timely, adequate, corrective and protective mitigation measures (MOEF, 2013).

ENVIRONMENT IMPA T ASSESSMENT NOTIFICATION 2006 The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) has used Environmental Impact Assessment Notification 2006 as a major tool to regulate rapid industrial development of the country for minimizing the adverse impact on environment and reversing the trends which may lead to climate change in long run.

AMENDED EIA NOTIFICATION 2009 AND CLEARANCE TO DEVELOPMENTAL PROJECTS With a view to further simplify the procedure for obtaining the environmental clearance without compromising or diluting the regulatory framework, the EIA notification has been amended in December, 2009. It exempts the biomass based power plants up to 15 MW, power plants based on non hazardous municipal solid waste and power plants based on waste heat recovery boilers without using auxiliary fuel from the EC process.

ENVIRONMENTAL CLEARANCE, APPRAISAL AND POST CLEARANCE MONITORING TO DEVELOPMENTAL PROJECTS Environmental Clearance (EC) was accorded to Four Hundred eleven projects. (between April, 2012 to January, 2013). The objectives of Post Project Clearance Monitoring are (i) to ensure that actions have been taken to incorporate the environmental safeguards 61 |

Environmental Issues for Socio-ecological Development

during the project cycle in accordance with the conditions stipulated in the Environmental Clearance letter; and (ii) to take appropriate corrective measures to check adverse impact on environment during operation of the respective projects. The Category ‘B’ projects which have been accorded environmental clearance by the SEIAAs/ SEACs are also monitored for compliance of the conditions (MOEF, 2013). The appraisal is performed as per the provisions of the Environmental Impact Assessment Notification, 2006 based on the EIA/ EMP Reports prepared by the project propagators. It is therefore registration is must under the scheme of Accreditation and Registration of the National Accreditation Board of Education and Training (NABET) and the Quality Council of India (QCI) by 30th June, 2011.

THE SCHEME OF ASSISTANCE FOR ABATEMENT OF POLLUTION The scheme of Assistance for Abatement of Pollution was conceptualized in 1992 during the 7th Five-Year Plan with the objective inter alia to strengthen the CPCB and SPCBs for enforcing statutory provisions for pollution abatement. The scheme is now a part of a centrally sponsored umbrella scheme of ‘Pollution Abatement’. The scheme has been approved by the Standing Finance Committee in the Ministry. The salient features are as follows: 

Grant for lab up-gradation/ purchase of equipment would be provided to the weaker SPCBs/ PCCs only as identified in SFC memo.



Salary support will be restricted to scientific and technical staff of the SPCBs of North-Eastern Region and all PCCs.



Grant for construction of office cum laboratory building would be restricted to SPCBs of North Eastern Region and the weaker PCCs as identified in SFC memo.



Capacity Building of SPCBs/ PCCs including other environmental organisations by imparting training and education through State Department of Environment and Autonomous Institutions/ Statutory Bodies under the Central and State Government.



Awareness and education generation, compliance assistance amongst SMEs should be done through CPCB/ SPCBs and State Department of Environment and Autonomous Institutions/ Statutory Bodies under the Central and State Government.



Technical Studies for R&D, survey and documentation for creation of environmental database and consultation in the area of pollution abatement will be expedited through State Department of Environment and Autonomous Institutions/ Statutory Bodies under the Central and State Government.



Seminars/ Workshops/ Conference in the area of pollution abatement through State Department of Environment and Autonomous Institutions/ Statutory Bodies under the Central and State Government. | 62

Environmental Protection in India: Quality Management by Institutional Collaboration and Coherence



No support will be extended to the NGOs under this scheme. – During this year (2012-13), an allocation of ` 7.00 crore in the BE was made for providing financial assistance to the on-going/ new projects. Against this allocation, expenditure is ` 1.42 crore. The assistance has been extended to six State Pollution Control Boards/ Pollution Control Committees during 2012–13.



The approved XII Five Year Plan allocation for this scheme is `60.

ENERGY NEEDS AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION India currently ranks as the world's seventh largest energy producer, accounting for about 2.49% of the world's total annual energy production. It is also the world's fifth largest energy consumer, accounting for about 3.45% of the world's total annual energy consumption in 2004. Since independence, the country has seen significant expansion in the total energy use in the country with a shift from non-commercial to commercial sources. As of February 2008, India has power generation capacity of 141,500 MW (MOP, 2008). 52.5% of the capacity is owned by state, 34% is owned by the central sector and private sector owns the remaining 13.5%. Concerning capacity by resources of generation, coal and natural gas account for respectively about 75300MWand 14700MW.

POLICIES AND PROGRAMS OF ENERGY SUPPLY 

Rapidly growing economy, with a need for dependable and reliable supply of electricity, gas, and petroleum products;



Inncreasing household incomes, with a need for affordable and adequate supply of electricity, and clean cooking fuels;



Limited domestic reserves of fossil fuels, and the need to import a vast fraction of the gas, crude oil, and petroleum product requirements, and recently the need to import coal aswell; and



Indoor, urban and regional environmental impacts, necessitating the need for the adoption of cleaner fuels and cleaner technologies (UNDP, 2009).

Concern for Environmental Quality and Development of Environmental Standards through Collaboration and Coherence The concern for environmental quality management has become the top most issue in the present scenario of rising population, increasing urbanization, industrial pollution, shipping, aviation and vehicular emission as well as pollution of water courses due to discharge of industrial effluents and sewage without conforming to the environmental norms and standards apart from agriculture run-off. Realising this trend of pollution in various environmental media like air, water, soil, etc., the Government earlier adopted Policy for Abatement of Pollution in 1992, which provides multi-pronged strategies in the form of regulations, legislations, agreements, fiscal incentives and other measures to 63 |

Environmental Issues for Socio-ecological Development

prevent and abate pollution. To give effect to various measures and policies for pollution control, various steps have been initiated which include stringent regulations, development of environmental standards and periodical revision therein, control of vehicular pollution, control of air and water pollution, abatement and prevention of noise pollution, spatial environmental planning, revisit and revision in the list of critically polluted areas and improvement plans therein, etc. The Government also adopted National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement on Environment and Development, 1992. Afterwards, the Government adopted the National Environment Policy (NEP-2006) which seeks to extend the coverage, and fill in gaps that still exists, in light of present knowledge and accumulated experience. This policy does not displace, but builds on the earlier policies of the Government. It lays emphasis on a number of new issues. For control of air pollution, with a view to initiate policy measures and to prepare ambient air quality management plans, 560 ambient air quality monitoring stations are operational covering 223 cities, towns and industrial areas in 26 States and five Union Territories. Presently, three out of five criteria pollutants namely; sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxides (NO2) and fine particulate matter having size less than 10 micron (PM10 ) are monitored under National Ambient Air Monitoring Programme (NAMP) by the Pollution Control Boards, Pollution Control Committees, Universities and Research Institutes. A total of 37 manual monitoring stations covering 8 new cities and towns have been added in the network under NAMP during the 2012-13. The Government has published the Revised National Ambient Air Quality Standards, 2009 (NAAQS-2009) in the official Gazette on 16th November, 2009. These ambient air quality standards/ limits provide a legal framework for the control of air pollution and the protection of public health.–Standard monitoring protocol to monitor 12 pollutants as per NAAQS has been developed during the year. – In furtherance of these Standards, the CPCB is in the process of drawing a road-map for the creation of required infrastructure, operation and maintenance of network and handling of data.–The monitored ambient air quality data during the year while comparing with revised (NAAQS-2009) indicates that the annual average levels of Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) are within the prescribed air quality norms across the country and that of Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) are within norms in most of the cities. However, the levels of fine particulate matter (PM10) exceed the prescribed norms in many cities including Delhi. PM10 and NO2 are the emerging air pollutants. Environmental Standards refer both to the acceptable levels of specified environmental quality parameters at different categories of locations, i.e., ambient standards for air, noise and water quality criteria as well as permissible levels of discharge of specified waste streams by different classes of activities, i.e., effluent standards and discharges of gaseous pollutants, i.e., emission standards. Environmental standards cannot be universal, and each country should set standards in terms of its national priorities, policy objectives, and resources, as stated in the National Environmental Policy, 2006. These standards, may, of course, vary (in general, become more stringent) as a country develops, and has greater access to technologies and | 64

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financial resources for environmental management. Within the country different States, UTs and local bodies may adopt stricter standards, based on local considerations. The source specific emission standards have been notified for Petrochemicals Plants in 2012. During the year, Standards in respect of following category of industries / equipments have been evolved and are being finalized for notification such as

Effluent & Emission Standards for Dye & Dye Intermediate.



Emission Standards for Cement Plants.



Emission Standards for Generators (Diesel).



Emission Standards for Generators (Petrol)

To control community noise, Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000 were notified in February, 2000 and amended from time to time. The recent amendments to the Noise Rules, 2000 have been published in the official Gazette on 11th January, 2010. The CPCB has been advised for revisiting the national ambient noise standards The collaborative efforts made are such as: 

A road map has been drawn by CPCB for national ambient noise monitoring network.



First phase of National Ambient Noise Monitoring Network has been commissioned in accordance with NEP- 2006 during the year, starting from seven cities, namely, Delhi, Lucknow, Bengaluru, Kolkata, Hyderabad, Chennai and Mumbai to monitor ambient noise on day night basis.

It is quite pertinent to mention that, these mentioned concerns on isolated efforts of various agencies need collaborative and coherent efforts to meet objectives of ecological degradation and sustainable development.

DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS Present study was directed to find out concerns related to collaboration and coherence of all stack-holders including various agencies and common men to meet the aims of ecological quality management for both short and long term national and international goals. The concern for environmental quality management needs emphasis on issue like population explosion, increasing urbanization, industrial pollution, shipping, aviation and vehicular emission as well as pollution of water courses due to discharge of industrial effluents and sewage without conforming to the environmental norms and standards apart from agriculture residues. The collaborative efforts of various agencies, government will power, all levels efforts made by common man across the country and various watch agencies may bring, input for quality environmental management. The effective collaboration may help in harnessing constitutional and legislative framework to meet the desired socioeconomic, health and environmental security aims. Further, the output of economic systems depend on both the quantity of inputs these use and the 65 |

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efficiency with which these inputs are used: typically, the greater the quantity of inputs and the more efficient the use of these inputs, the greater the amount of output. Most forms of production also generate pollution. That is, on top of the primary output produced for the market, they also produce waste, a public bad, in the form of air or water pollution, or other forms of liquid or solid waste, which are typically released into the environment (air, water, soil), unless waste-management systems have been put in place. Indian efforts on environmental science are scattered among various organizations. However, a good proportion of the output comes from a few organizations. Contribution of educational institutions is more than the research institutions. Indian environmentalists are mainly engaged on the problems related to health and toxicology, ecology, wastes, and forestry and environment (Karki, 1990). The efforts at all levels are needed for quality management towards environmental protection. This further needs collaboration, co-production, coherence, and continuity as some of the organizing principles to protecting and enabling environment (Patra and Kantaria, 2014) and abiding and follow up of varied levels of policy and legislative measures. It may be envisaged to be of vital importance that awareness of common man regarding his duties towards protection of his environment need to be cultivated. The awareness and willingness of common man can be collaborated to channelize and materialize policies and legislative framework of environmental protection in India. Good governance, application of techno-scientific and economic instruments can further strengthen the input, process and product of ecological sustainability and protection. Conservation of natural resources can be made on foundations of judicious application of resources and which will seek the collaboration, coherence and inclusion of all quarters to bring quality management and effectiveness in protection of Ecosystems, its flora and fauna and other abiotic components. Further the seeds of which can be sown through classrooms at all levels and cultural tools available in our social structures. India has constitutional and legislative obligations being signatory to various programmes and policies it is therefore quality management of air, water,noise, radiations, energy and all other areas arise several issues and concerns which in mid of this decade need strong dealing to accomplish the desired aims. Innovations in Nanotechnology and Biotechnology can provide great instruments and tools to protect ecological systems through sustainable development counteracting advance processes of urbanization, industrialization, and deforestation causing varied levels of pollutions.

REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4]

Karki, M. M. S. (1990). Environmental Science Research in India: An Analysis of Publications. Scientometrics, 18 (5-6), 363-373. Munasinghe. M. 1993. Environmental Economics and Sustainable Development, World Bank Environmental Paper 3. Washington, D.C. OECD. (2006). Environmental Compliance and Enforcement in India: Rapid Assessment. Presented at the AECEN annual forum in Hanoi, Vietnam on 4-5 December 2006. Patra, J and Kantariya, K. 2014. Science–policy interface for disaster risk management in India: toward an enabling environment. Current Science, 107, 1.

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Environmental Protection in India: Quality Management by Institutional Collaboration and Coherence [5]

[6] [7]

[8] [9]

Sankar, U. 1998. Laws And Institutions Relating To Environmental Protection In India. Paper Presented in Conference on ‘The Role of Law and Legal Institutions in Asian Economic Development’, held at the Erasmus University Rotterdam, on November 1-4, 1998. UGC. 2004. Text Book for Environmental Studies. Distributed by University Grants Commission, New Delhi. 2004. UNDSD. (2012). Sustainable Development in the 21st century (SD21) Review of implementation of Agenda 21 and the Rio Principles,Synthesis. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Division for Sustainable Development. UNDP. (2009).Analysis of Existing Environmental Instruments in India. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), New Delhi. World Bank. (1994a). Economywide Policies and the Environment: Emerging Lessons from Experience. Washington, D.C.

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Plant Parasitic Nematodes: The Hidden Enemies of Farmers Rajendra Singh1 and Swastik Phulera2 1

Plant Nematology Research Lab, Department of Zoology, Bareilly College, Bareilly-243005, UP, India 2 National Centre for Cell Biology, University of Pune Campus, Ganeshkhand, Pune–411007 E-mail: [email protected]/ [email protected]

INTRODUCTION Nematodes commonly known as “Round Worms”are the most numerous multicellular animals on the earth. It has been estimated that one gram of field soil habitats about 108 bacteria, 105 fungi, 103 micro algae, 103 protozoans and 101 nematodes. Nematodes are known to cause severe diseases in both plants and animals. Animal nematodes like common round worms, hook worms, pin worms, eye worm, guinea worm and filarial worms are well known to affect human health. Some scientists estimate that there are over 1 million kinds of nematodes, making those second only to the insects in numbers. However, few people are aware of nematodes or have seen any, because: Most nematodes are very small, even microscopic, and colorless; most live hidden in soil, under water, or in the plants or animals they parasitize; and relatively few have obvious direct effects on humans or their activities. Of all of the nematodes known, about 50 percent are small animals living in marine environments, and 25 percent live in the soil or fresh water and feed on bacteria, fungi, other decomposer organisms, small invertebrates or organic matter. About 15 percent are parasites of animals, ranging from small insects and other invertebrates up to domestic and wild animals and man. Some of the parasites of animals are the largest nematodes known: some from grasshoppers can be several inches long, and one from whales can reach lengths of more than 20 feet. Plant parasitic nematodes are recognized as potentially serious constraints to crop productivity. Being underground and of microscopic size these are not visible to farmers, but these worms enter in crop roots and hamper the plant growth and overall yield, that’s why these are considered as hidden enemies of farmers. Rarely is any crop free from nematode attack, whether in the field, the orchard, the kitchen garden or polyhouse. They cause farmers and nurserymen millions of dollars in crop loss annually, but also can cause problems in the urban world by damaging field crops, ornamentals and home gardens. We are often unaware of losses caused by nematodes because much of the damage caused by them is so subtle that it goes unnoticed or is attributed to other causes. 68 |

Plant Parasitic Nematodes: The Hidden Enemies of Farmers

THE HISTORY OF NEMATODES Nematodes (round worms) are in existence for an estimated one billion years, making them one of the most ancient and diverse types of animals on earth (Wang et al. 1999). They are thought to have evolved from simple animals some 400 million years before the "Cambrian explosion" of invertebrates able to be fossilized (Poinar 1983). The two nematode classes, the Chromadorea and Enoplea, have diverged so long ago, over 550 million years, which it is difficult to accurately know the age of the two lineages of the phylum. Nematodes are multicellular animals in the group Ecdysozoa, or animals that can shed their cuticle. Also included in this group with nematodes are insects, arachnids and crustaceans. In contrast to some of their relative invertebrates, nematodes are softbodied. Thus, very few nematodes have been fossilized (22 species from 11 genera) and exactly what ancestral nematodes looked like remains unknown. While we do not know the morphology of the first nematodes, it is probable that they were microbial feeders in the primordial oceans. The oldest known fossil nematodes are only 120-135 million years old; by then nematodes had diversified to feed on microbes, animals and plants (Poinar et al. 1994, Manum et al. 1994). The oldest fossil nematodes are found in amber and are commonly associated with insects. This is probably due to the fact that tree sap, which fossilizes to make amber, captures and preserves insects and their associated nematodes much more easily than an animal- or a nematode-infested portion of a plant. Much of what we know about the evolution of nematodes is inferred from the comparative anatomy of existing nematodes, trophic habits, and by the comparison of nematode DNA sequences (Thomas et al. 1997, Powers et al. 1993). Based upon molecular phylogenic analyses, it appears that nematodes have evolved their ability to parasitize animals and plants several times during their evolution (Blaxter et al. 1998). One point is clear; nematodes have evolved to fill almost every conceivable niche on earth that contains some amount of water. Most nematodes are free-living and feed on bacteria, fungi, protozoans and other nematode (40% of the described species); many are parasites of animals (invertebrates and vertebrates (44% of the described species) and plants (15% of the described species). Nematodes were noted early in human history because some serious human diseases are caused by relatively large vertebrate-parasitic nematodes. Some of these nematodes were first described in the ancient Chinese scientific literature as early as 2700 B.C. (Maggenti 1981). Since plant parasitic nematodes often are small and subterranean, there are not many ancient references to plant parasitic nematodes. One interesting observation suggests that plant parasitic nematodes were known in antiquity (235 B.C.) because the ancient Chinese symbol for a soybean root-infesting organism resembles in shape an adult female soybean cyst nematode (Noel, 1992). The first described plant parasitic nematodes were discovered in wheat seeds by Needham (1743). Not until the identification of root-knot nematodes on cucumber by Berkeley (1855) and cyst nematodes causing “beet-tired” disease on sugar beets by Schacht 69 |

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(1859), did plant nematology begin to emerge as an important scientific discipline. Nathan A. Cobb, the “father of US nematology,” pioneered agricultural nematology as a USDA scientist in the early 1900’s. The use of soil fumigation to reduce nematode populations and increase crop yields in the 1940’s (Carter) demonstrated that nematodes were significant crop pathogens and ushered in the “chemical era” for nematode management in production agriculture. Anguina tritici, perhaps the first plant parasitic nematode was seen and reported by John Turbevill Needham (1743, published in 1744). During middle of the 19th century, Tylenchids (a group of nematodes) were beginning to receive attention. In England, Berkeley (1855) observed ‘Vibrios’(root knot nematode) in galls of a glassehouse cucumber. An Introduction to Nematology (joint contribution of B.G. Chitwood and his wife M.B. Chitwood, 1950) is a milestone in the history of nematology. T. GOODEY’S (1933) book Plant Parasitic Nematodes and the Diseassethey cause aroused great interest in the study of plant nematology. In India Barber (1901) reported root knot nematode infesting tea for the first time. Professor Abrar Mustafa Khan of Aligarh Muslim University explored the plant nematology in India and considered as Father of Indian Nematology. He publishes more than 225 full length research paper and produced 36 Ph.D students. Butler (1919) reported ditylenchus angustus causing ‘Ufra disease’of rice. Ayyar (1926) was also among early nematologists as he reported root knot nematode infesting vegetable and other crops. Dustur (1936) reported ‘white tip’disease of rice caused by Aphelenchus besseyi. All these workers made an important landmark in evolution of plant nematology in India.

MORPHOLOGY AND ANATOMY OF NEMATODES Plant nematodes are tiny worms usually 0.25 mm to 3 mm long (1 / 100 " to 1 / 8 ") and cylindrical, tapering toward the head and tail. Females of a few species lose their worm shape as they mature, becoming pear-, lemon- or kidney- shaped. Plant parasitic nematodes possess all of the major organ systems of higher animals except respiratory and circulatory systems. The body is covered by a transparent cuticle, which bears surface marks helpful for identifying nematode species. The study of nematode biology has led to a dramatic increase in understanding of how all animals function. In fact, the bacterial-feeding nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans is one of the best-understood animals on earth. The fate of every cell in C. elegans development has been carefully mapped. It was the first animal to have its DNA sequence completely deciphered, and it is amenable to detailed genetic analysis. The reason nematodes are so useful for biological research is due to their simple anatomy and transparent bodies. Nematodes are simple animals, often only containing 1000 cells or less. Nematodes in all or part of their life cycle are worm-shaped (vermiform), although some species become swollen and rounded in later life stages. The basic body plan of a nematode is a tube within a tube. They have an outer skin or cuticle that is secreted from an inner hypodermis. The muscles are attached longitudinally to the | 70

Plant Parasitic Nematodes: The Hidden Enemies of Farmers

nematode’s hypodermis, allowing them to move only in the dorsal ventral direction (snake-like movement). Inside the nematode there is an inner tube, the alimentary canal, which runs inside the nematode from head to tail. Between the alimentary canal and the body wall is fluid that provides pressure against the wall to maintain body shape and allow movement. At the head of a plant-parasitic nematode is a hollow mouth spear (like a hypodermic needle) called a stylet (Figure 1). The nematode uses this stylet to puncture plant cells, to withdraw food and also to secrete protein and metabolites that aid the nematode in parasitizing the plant. The stylet is connected to the pharynx that, in turn, is connected to the intestine. The intestine ends at the rectum in the female nematode and the cloaca in the male. Attached to the pharynx are three - five salivary glands which produce secretions that may be emitted from the stylet and that assist the nematode in plant invasion and parasitism.

Fig. 1: Stylet: The Piercing Apparatus of Plant Parasitic Nematodes

The nematode pharynx is muscular and specialized areas can contract and expand the esophageal lining. The expansion and contraction of the pharynx muscles allow the nematode to pump food into its intestine through its stylet or eject secretions from its salivary glands into and around plant cells. In the middle to posterior of the nematode are the reproductive organs. Nematode species often have both males and females, but it is not uncommon for plant nematodes to reproduce asexually by parthenogenesis. In females the reproductive organs are used as traits for identification because the number of ovaries and the position of the vulva in the female nematode's body are easily seen under the light microscope. Male nematodes have one or two testes and they are easily identified by the presence of spicules. Spicules are copulatory structures that are used during mating to guide the sperm into the vagina of the female nematode. Common morphological features used in nematode identification include the mouth cavity (presence or absence and shape of a stylet), the shape and overlap of the pharyngeal glands with the intestine, size and shape of the nematode body at the adult stage, size of the head, tail, and number and position of ovaries in the female. Developmentally, nematodes are triploblastic, containing three body layers (ectoderm, 71 |

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mesoderm and endoderm) in the embryo. Higher organisms are tripoblastic and have a coelom, a body cavity surrounded by mesoderm. Nematodes have a body cavity that is not totally surrounded by mesoderm, so they are pseudocoelomic. Nematodes do not have a skeleton, but they do have a hypodermis which functions as a flexible support for their muscles. Nematode muscles are arranged along the longitudinal axis of the worm, thus allowing the body of the nematode to move only in a sinusoidal (snake-like) motion. Nematodes have no defined respiratory or circulatory systems; they depend on diffusion of water, gasses and metabolites in and out of their semi-permeable body walls and internal transport by mixing of the pseudocoelomic fluid as the nematode moves. This lack of respiratory/ circulatory systems prevents nematodes from becoming larger in cross sectional area, but does not limit their length. The largest nematode found thus far was more than 7 meter long and 1 cm in diameter. Nematodes have a sophisticated nervous system and sensory organs to help them find their host plant, to locate specific plant cell types, and to mate and reproduce.

LIFE CYCLE AND REPRODUCTION Nematodes are evolutionarily related to insects, and one feature they have in common is the requirement to molt between juvenile stages. All nematodes undergo four molts from the juvenile to the adult phase of their life cycle. The life cycle of a plant-parasitic nematode has six stages: egg, four juvenile stages and adult (Fig. 2). Male and female nematodes occur in most species, but reproduction without males is common, and some species are hermaphroditic. Egg production by the individual completes the cycle. Most species produce between 50 and 500 eggs per female, depending on the nematode species and their environment, but some can produce more than 1,000 eggs. The length of the life cycle varies considerably, depending on nematode species, host plant, and the temperature of the habitat. During summer months when soil temperatures are 80 to 90°F, many plant nematodes complete their life cycle in about four weeks (Singh, 2000).

SURVIVAL STRATEGIES: FEEDING AND HOST-PARASITE RELATIONSHIPS Plant parasitic nematodes feed on living plant tissues, using an oral stylet, a spearing device somewhat like a hypodermic needle, to puncture host cells. Many, probably all, plant nematodes inject enzymes into a host cell before feeding to partially digest the cell contents before they are sucked into the gut. Most of the injury that nematodes cause plants is related in some way to the feeding process. One might think of soil as a safe environment, but to a microscopic nematode it is a hostile world filled with danger. A nematode must contend with voracious predators, changes in soil temperature and moisture, and the death of its host plant. For a nematode population to survive, it must be able to circumvent these obstacles. Nematodes evade these biotic and abiotic obstacles by employing a combination of behavioral and physiological survival strategies. While all nematodes feed on other organisms, the soil is filled with bacteria, fungi and other nematodes that would gladly consume a nutrient-rich plant-parasitic nematode. In fact, the study of nematode predators and pathogens is an important area | 72

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of study in nematology because nematode predators can be used (in theory) to control populations of plant-parasitic nematodes. While nematodes do possess a thick cuticle that may provide some protection from predation, this type of defense is easily breached by specialized nematode pathogens.

Fig. 2: Life Cycle of Root Knot Nematode

The most common method plant nematodes use to evade predation is by living inside plant tissue or by limiting their mobility in the soil environment. By spending less time moving in the soil, a nematode can reduce its chance of "running into" a predator or pathogen. Some plant nematodes spend most of their time in the soil (ectoparasites) and others are mostly contained within the plant tissue (endoparasites). Nematodes that live inside plants have some degree of protection from predation, but they risk death if their host plant succumbs to disease. In contrast, nematodes that move from host to host reduce the risk of perishing with their host, but have a greater chance of encountering a predator or pathogen. Nematode survival is not impacted only by biotic factors, but also by abiotic ones such as temperature and water availability. The onset of winter or the drying of the soil can be disastrous for a nematode. Interestingly, many nematodes are well adapted to abiotic stress and are capable of cryptobiosis (hidden life): the ability to enter a state of suspended metabolic activity during unfavorable environmental conditions (Wharton, 1986). Nematodes with a broad host range can feed upon weeds and wild plants making their eradication virtually impossible. By using a complex network of behavioral and biochemical protections nematodes are able to survive and prosper in what would seem to us to be hostile environments. 73 |

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HOST-PARASITE INTERACTIONS Nematodes feed on all parts of the plant, including roots, stems, leaves, flowers and seeds. Nematodes feed from plants in a variety of ways, but all use a specialized spear called a stylet. The size and shape of the stylet is used to classify nematodes and also can be used to infer their mode of feeding. Belonolaimus and Longidorus feed deep within the roots using their long stylets, while Helicotylenchus feeds on the exterior of the root or partially burrows into the root to feed using its short stout stylet. Often nematodes withdraw the contents of plant cells, killing them. When this type of feeding occurs, large lesions are formed in the plant tissue. Some nematodes do not kill the plant cells they feed upon but “trick” the plant cells to enlarge and grow, thus producing one or more nutrient-rich feeding cells for the nematode. Many plantparasitic nematodes feed on the roots of plants. The feeding process damages the plant's root system and reduces the plant's ability to absorb water and nutrients (Table 1). Typical nematode damage symptoms are a reduction of root mass, a distortion of root structure and/or enlargement of the roots. Nematode damage of the plant's root system also provides an opportunity for other plant pathogens to invade the root and thus further weakens the plant. Direct damage to plant tissues by shoot-feeding nematodes includes reduced vigor, distortion of plant parts, and death of infected tissues depending upon the nematode species. There are seven major types of nematode feeding strategies used by plant parasitic nematodes. Table 1: Feeding Strategy of Plant Parasitic Nematodes Feeding Strategy Ectoparasite

Semi-Endoparasites Migratory Endoparasites Sedentary Endoparasites

Stem and Bulb Nematodes Seed Gall Nematodes Foliar Nematodes

Example Genera Belonolaimus Xiphenema Trichodorus Rotylenchulus Tylenchulus Pratylenchus Radopholus Meloidogyne Heterodera Naccobus Bursaphelenchus Ditylenchus Anguina Aphelenchoides

Infective Stage 2nd stage juvenile (J2) 2nd stage juvenile (J2) 2nd stage juvenile (J2) 4th stage juvenile (J4) 2nd stage juvenile (J2) 2nd stage juvenile (J2) and adult 2nd stage juvenile (J2) 2nd stage juvenile (J2) 2nd stage juvenile (J2) 4th stage juvenile (J4) 4th stage juvenile (J4) 2nd stage juvenile (J2) 2nd stage juvenile (J2) and adult

DIAGNOSING NEMATODE INFECTION Determining if nematodes are involved in a plant growth problem is difficult because few nematodes cause distinctive diagnostic symptoms. A sound diagnosis should be based on as many as possible of: symptoms above and below ground, field history, and laboratory assay of soil and/or plant samples.

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ABOVE-GROUND SYMPTOMS It is rare that above-ground symptoms give sufficient evidence to diagnose a nematode problem in the roots. However, they are important because they are almost always the reason that nematode problems are first noticed. Since most plant nematodes affect root functions, most symptoms associated with them are the result of inadequate water supply or mineral nutrition to the tops: chlorosis (yellowing) or other abnormal coloration of foliage, stunted top growth, failure to respond normally to fertilizers, small or sparse foliage, a tendency to wilt more readily than healthy plants, and slower recovery from wilting. Woody plants in advanced stages of decline caused by nematodes may exhibit dieback of progressively larger branches. Plantings stunted by nematodes often have worse weed problems than areas without them because the crop is less able than it should be to compete with weeds.

BELOW-GROUND SYMPTOMS Below ground observation may be more useful than top symptoms for diagnosing nematode problems. Galls caused on roots by root-knot nematodes, stunted root growth, necrotic lesions in the root cortex, and root rotting may all be symptoms of nematode problems. An experienced observer can often see cyst nematodes (Heterodera, Globodera and Cactodera spp.) on the roots of their hosts without magnification. The young adult females are visible as tiny white beads. After a female cyst nematode dies, her white body wall is tanned to a tough brown capsule containing several hundred eggs.

LABORATORY ANALYSIS Laboratory assay of soil and/ or plant tissue samples is often necessary to complete a diagnosis. In the lab, nematodes are extracted from soil and plant tissues, identified, and counted. Those results can be compared with research and field observations to determine whether or not the crop is likely to be injured by the population under those conditions. In some cases, specific steps to reduce the numbers and/ or effects of a particular nematode species are recommended only if the population density exceeds some predetermined level felt to represent the threshold for economic loss of that crop.

NEMATODE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES Plant parasitic nematodes are major pests of agricultural crops and are responsible for yield losses up to the 50% (Abbasi et al., 2008). Among these, root knot nematode, the genus Meloidogyne is distributed worldwide. They are known to have a wide range of host plants including monocotyledons, dicotyledons, herbaceous and woody plants (Sirca et al, 2004). Root knot nematodes, Meloidogyne arenaria, Meloidogyne incognita and Meloidogyne javanica are reported to cause 13.7- 60% losses in chickpea (Sharma and McDonald, 1990, Ali, 2009). Infection of four races of M. incognita (R1, R2, R3, and R4) and one race of M. arenaria (R2) was found to be prevalent in Uttar Pradesh (Mohiddin and Khan, 2014). 75 |

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There are several methods commonly used to control plant-parasitic nematodes. These methods can be divided in to three main types: biological control, cultural control and chemical control. Management of plant parasitic nematodes hinges on detection and population density estimation. Soil analysis for presence and quantity of plant parasitic nematodes from a lab with a trained nematologist is the first step prior to selecting a field for vegetable production.

CULTURAL PRACTICES Tillage: Exposure of the root systems will reduce nematode populations by exposing them to drying and temperature extremes. Sub-soiling can be used in some areas to aid in deeper plant root penetration. Water Management: Irrigation reduces crop moisture stress in fields with nematode populations. Clean Equipment: Wash all equipments agriculture use to remove soil and root debris before moving from infested to non-infested fields. Rotation: Rotation of a non-host crop with cotton for one or more years reduces nematode populations. Check with your state specialist to for the best rotations in your area.

CHEMICAL CONTROL For the past 50 years nematodes have been effectively controlled using chemical nematicides. Since nematicides are expensive to develop, new ones are rarely released on the market today. While nematicides are effective in controlling nematodes, they are only practical for use on high-value crops. The goal is to protect plants early in the growing season allowing them to produce deep, healthy root systems. The availability and conditions for using these materials vary from state to state. Chemical agents for nematode control are of following types:Fumigants: These are non-selective materials that vaporize when applied in the soil. As gases, they move up through air spaces in the soil, killing nematodes and other microorganisms. After applying most fumigants, a waiting period is required before planting. Non-Fumigants: These are available in liquid or granular forms. They are applied either in a band or in the seed furrow at planting. These materials move down through the soil killing nematodes directly, or by interfering with feeding and reproduction. Seed Treatments: These are products are applied to the seed coat. They may kill nematodes directly or interfere with feeding and reproduction. These have increased in popularity due to ease of application. Foliar Applications: These are post plant applications that have efficacy on nematodes and insects. | 76

Plant Parasitic Nematodes: The Hidden Enemies of Farmers

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL In the past 20 years three developments have occurred which have had significant effects on the prospects and opportunities for the biological control of plant-parasitic nematodes. First, several nematicides have been withdrawn from the market because of health and environmental problems associated with their production and use (Thomason, 1987). As a result of this, and increasing public concern over the use of pesticides in food production, there has been increased interest in the development of alternative methods of control, including the use of biological agents. Second, it has been demonstrated in several soils that nematophagous fungi and bacteria increase under some perennial crops, and under those grown in monocultures, and so may control some nematode pests, including cyst and root-knot nematodes (Stirling, 1991). Such nematode-suppressive soils have been reported from around the world and include some of the best documented cases of effective biological control of nematode pests. Finally, a number of commercial products based on nematophagous fungi and bacteria have been developed, but all so far have had only limited success. Their use has been based on empirical research, and it is instructive to consider what might be the key factors for a successful biological control agent for nematodes in order to identify the reasons for the general failure of the products that have been developed.

Use of Nematode-Resistant Plants The most practical form of biological control is the use of nematode-resistant plants. In this control method, plant breeders cross natural nematode resistance genes into cultivated plant species to improve their resistance to nematodes. The benefit of this method is that it is a very inexpensive way for growers to control their nematode problems. The main disadvantage is that it takes years to screen for resistant plant varieties and more time to breed resistance traits into commercial varieties. Further complications are that natural sources of nematode resistance do not exist for all cultivated species and some species of nematodes are able to grow on resistant plants. However, when "good" resistant plants are available, they are an effective method of nematode control. Biotechnology has the potential to produce nematode resistance genes that would be effective against many types of nematodes and would function in many different plant species. However, at the present time there are no plants with bioengineered nematode resistance available for commercial use.

Exploitation of Natural Enemies The biology, ecology and potential of biological control agents for nematodes have been extensively reviewed in recent years (Kerry, 1987; Stirling, 1991; Sayre and Walter, 1991; Sikora, 1992). Nematologists have identified natural enemies with a range of modes of action similar to those currently studied by plant pathologists for the control of soil-borne diseases. It must be stressed that several organisms that are effective natural enemies of nematodes in the field, may have limited potential as biological control agents for application by growers. For example Nematophthora gynophila is a 77 |

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causal agent of cereal-cyst nematode decline in many soils, but its limited host range, complex requirements for in vitro culture, and need for soil moisture levels to be at field capacity to ensure infection, mean that its potential use is too limited to warrant further development as a biological control agent. The stage in the nematode life cycle attacked by the control agent has a profound effect on the damage to the crop and the level of population control. Therefore, trapping fungi and rhizosphere bacteria that attack the second-stage juveniles of cyst and rootknot nematodes may significantly improve crop growth but is unlikely to prevent nematode populations increasing, especially those species that have more than one generation in a growing season. In contrast, those parasites that attack developing females and eggs act like a partially resistant cultivar in that initial nematode invasion and plant damage is not prevented but multiplication of the nematode is significantly reduced. Root colonizing fungi such as the mycorrhizae and endophytic species such as Fusarium spp. may reduce both nematode invasion and development. Soil amendments may also reduce nematode infestations and, by providing an energy source, help to increase numbers of facultative parasites; pre-colonized substrates are most effective in establishing nematophagous fungi in soil. Soils that are naturally suppressive to some nematodes may be used to shorten rotations of susceptible crops and improve the performance of nematicides and resistant cultivars (Kerry, 1990). The use of crop cultivars which are tolerant of nematode attack is likely to be very important for the successful deployment of biological control agents that provide less effective nematode control than most nematicides. Agents such as rhizosphere bacteria and rhizosphere competent fungi depend on root exudates for their proliferation on roots; exudation from roots differs markedly between plant species and cultivar and affects the efficacy of these agents (Kerry and de Leij, 1992; Sikora, 1992).

Botanical Biopesticides Use of synthetic nematicides is one of the fast and most effective methods to control such parasites, but the injudicious and indiscriminate use of chemical pesticides resulted in contamination of food chain. In search of alternative methods to control the plant parasitic nematodes, the application of botanical biopesticides is a better option. Due to plant origin these botanicals are cheap, biodegradable and eco-friendly and are not harmful to non target fauna including human being. In the past years, intregated pest management strategies have been practised worldwide to maximize crop production while maintaining and contributing to agriculture sustainability.

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Plant Parasitic Nematodes: The Hidden Enemies of Farmers Table 2: Chemical Characterization of Botanical Nematicidals Chemical class Aldehydes and Ketones Alkaloids

Glycosides Glucosinolates and Isothiocyanates Limonoids, Quassinoids, and Saponins

Organic Acids Phenolics, Flavonoids, and Quinones

Piperamides Polyacetylenes and Polythienyls Terpenes

Source Plants Melia azedarach, Eucalyptus meliodora, Ailanthus altissima Loncocarpus, Derris, Tithonia diversifolia, Chromolaena odorata, Ageratum houstonianum, Borago officinaliss, Senecio bicolor, Tagetes patul, Acacia gummifera, Peganum harmala Cassava flour, Dioscorea deltoidea, Arisaema erubescens, Brassica juncea, Raphanus sativus, Sinapis, Limnanthes alba L.), Eruca sativa Azadirachta indica, Melia azedarach, Quassia amara, Cassia camara,, Picrasma excels, Hannoa undulate, Quillaja saponaria, Medicago sativa L, Madhuca indica, Sapindus mukorossi, Aster sedifolius Lantana camara, Mucuna spp Tagetes patula L, Lantana camara, Magnolia tripetala, Chromolaena odorata, Acacia gummifera, Ononis natrix, Ceratonia siliqua, Gochnatia barrosii Capsicum frutescens, Mil, Piper geneus Tagetes species Carum carvi, Foeniculum vulgare, Mentha rotundifolia, Mentha spicata, Kadsura heteroclite, Ocimum basilicum, Chrysanthemum coronarium, Chenopodium ambrosioides

Target Nematode Fauna Root knot nematode, Meloidogyne species Root knot nematode, Meloidogyne species

Root knot nematode, Meloidogyne species Pratylenchus penetrans, Steinernema spp, Root knot nematode, Meloidogyne species Rotylenchulus reniformis, Xiphinema index, Globodera rostochiensis and Root knot nematode, Meloidogyne species Root knot nematode, Meloidogyne species Heterodera zeae, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, Panagrellus redivivus, Caenorhabditis elegans, Root knot nematode, Meloidogyne species Root knot nematode, Meloidogyne species Soil nrmatodes, Root knot nematode, Meloidogyne species Root knot nematode, Meloidogyne species

Biopesticides and specifically bionematicides constitute a desirable component of pest management technology and practices. Ntalli and Pierluigi (2012) have framed a review on natural nematicides of botanical origin, for their candidate nematicidal compounds (Table 2). Till now many of the plants, plant parts and their active components have been evaluated for their nematicidal properties worldwide and positively these were found potent in reducing the nematode infection on plants (Singh, 2000; Sarvanpriya and Sivakumar, 2005; Wiratno et al., 2009; Rehman et al., 2012; Wondimeneh et al., 2013). Saxena and Singh (2001) also reported effectiveness of certain plant extracts for their nematicidal potentialities where they observed significant mortality of second stage juvenile of root-knot nematode. Botanical biopesticides release various active ingredients which have nematicidal properties (Trifonova and Atanasov, 2009; Du et al., 2011; Ojo and Umar, 2013). Combinations of botanical biopesticides with some known chemical nematicides were also found to be effective against plant nematodes (Sayeeda and Ahmad, 2005; Mervata et at, 2012). Overall, the approaches to integrated pest management have changed dramatically. While the botanical nematicides can be promising tools in Meloidogyne sp. control, the delineation of the targets or the mechanisms of action 79 |

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together with the practical application in the field are the challenges still to be overcome. New knowledge is required for the production of novel nematicidal compounds, and plant secondary metabolites can play a major role in finding leading compounds for chemical synthesis. A plant metabolomic approach that allows one to study plant metabolites as end products of cellular processes can be a potent tool for this scope. The biochemical understanding of the interaction between semiochemicals and root-knot nematodes, as well as the hostparasite interactions, is crucial in developing new and environmentally benign nematode control strategies.

PROSPECTIVE OF PLANT NEMATOLOGY In the most developed parts of the world where attempts have been made at commercial production of biocontrol agents, its use is not without challenges. Growers do not generally use biocontrol products due to lack of rapid and adequate control. Inconsistent performance of applied biocontrol agents has been reported as a primary obstacle in exploring this mode of management. Giving the existing scenario in the tropics the prognosis for the tropical farmer assessing biocontrol as a part of nematode disease management is very poor. However, there is no alternative to this environmental friendly management procedure. Botanical pesticides presently play only a minor role in crop protection; increasingly stringent regulatory requirements in many jurisdictions have prevented all but a handful of botanical products from reaching the marketplace in North America and Europe in the past 20 years (Isman, 2008). Developing an indigenous technology to cater for the need of the tropical farmer in the context of his environment is a necessity. Government and other research funding bodies must be committed to investing in manpower development and funding of research in this area.

REFERENCES Abbasi, WM., Ahmed, N., Zaki, N. and Shaukat, S.S (2008). Effect of Barleria acanthoides Vahl. on root-knot nematode infection and growth of infected okra and brinjal plants. Pakistan Journal of Botany 40 (5): 2193-2198. [2] Ayyar, P.N.K., 1926. On root knot nematodes infesting vegetables and other crops in south India. Madras Agric. J., 49: 113-118 [3] Barner, C.A., 1901. A tea eel worm diseases in south India. Madras Agric. Branch J.Bull, 45: 227-234. [4] Berkeley, M.J., 1855.Vibrio forming excrescences on the roots of cucumber plants. Gard. Chron.14: 220. [5] Blaxter, M.L., P. De Ley, J.R. Garey, L.X. Liu, P. Scheldeman, A. Vierstraete, J.R. Vanfleteren, L.Y. Mackey, M. Dorris, L.M. Frisse, J.T. Vida, K.W. Thomas, K.W. 1998. A molecular evolutionary framework for the phylum nematoda. Nature 392:71-75. [6] Butler, E.J., 1919. The rice worm (Ditylenchus angustus) and its control. Mem. Dept. Agr., India 10 (1): 1-37. [7] Chitwood, B.G. and Chitwood, M.B., 1950. An Introduction to Nematology. Monumental Printing, Baltimor. [8] Dastur, J.R., 1936. A nematode disease of rice in the central provinces. Indian Acad. Sci., 4 (2): 108-122. [9] Du, S.S., Zhang H.M., Bai, C.Q., Wang, C.F., Liu, Q.Z., Liu, Z.L., Wang, Y.Y and Deng, Z.W. (2011). Nematocidal Flavone- C-Glycodise against the root knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita) from Arisaema erubescens tubers. Molecules 16, 5079-5086. [10] Goodey, T., 1933. Plant Parasitic Nematodes and the Diseases they Cause. E.P. Dutton and Co. Inc. Landon, pp. 306. [11] Isman, M.B. (2008). Botanical insecticides: for richer, for poorer. Pest Manag. Sci., 64: 8-11. [12] Kerry, B.R. 1987. Biological control In R.H. Brown & B.R. Kerry, eds. 92 Biological control of nematodes: prospects and opportunities Principles and practice of nematode control in crops, p. 233-263. Sydney, Australia, Academic Press. [1]

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Plant Parasitic Nematodes: The Hidden Enemies of Farmers [13] Kerry, B.R. & de Leij, F.A.A.M. 1992. Key factors in the development of fungal agents for the control of cyst and root-knot nematodes. In Biological control of plant diseases, p. 139-144. London, Plenum. [14] Maggenti, A. 1981.General Nematology. Springer-Verlag, New York, NY. [15] Manum, S.B., M.N. Bose, R.T. Sayer, R.T., S. Bostrom. 1994. A nematode (Captivonema-Cretacea Gen ET SP-N) preserved in a clitellate cocoon wall from the Early Cretaceous. Zoologica Scripta. 23: 27-31. [16] Mervata, A.A., Shawky S.M. and Shakera, G. S. (2012). Comparative efficacy of some bioagents, plant oil and plant aqueous extracts in controlling Meloidogyne incognita on growth and yield of grapevines. Annals of Agricultural Sciences. 57 (1), 7–18. [17] Ntalli, N.G. and Pierluigi, C. (2012). Botanical Nematicides: A Review. J. Agric. Food Chem. 60, 9929−9940. [18] Noel, G.R. 1992. History, Distribution, and Economics. Pages 1-13 in: Biology and Management of the Soybean Cyst Nematode. R.D. Riggs and J.A. Wrather, eds. American Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, MN. [19] Ojo, G.T. and Umar, I (2013). Evaluation of some botanicals on root knot nematode (Meloidogyne javanica) in tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum, Mill) in Yola Adamwa State, Nigeria. Biological forum, 5 (2), 31-36. [20] Poinar, G.O., A. Acra, and F. Acra. 1994. Earliest fossil nematode (Mermithidae) in Cretaceous Lebanese amber. Fundamental and Applied Nematology 17:475-477. [21] Poinar, G.O. 1983. The Natural History of Nematodes. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. [22] Powers, T.O., T.S. Harris, and B.C. Hyman, B.C. 1993. Mitochondrial DNA sequence divergence among Meliodogyne incognita, Romanomermis culicivorax, Ascaris suum, and Caenorhabditis elegans. Journal of Nematology 25:564-572. [23] Rehman, B., Ganai, M.A., Parihar, K., Siddiqui, M.A. and Usman, A. (2012). Management of Root Knot Nematode, Meloidogyne incognita affecting Chickpea, Cicer arietinum for sustainable production. Bioscience International, 1 (1):01-05. [24] Sarvanpriya, B and Sivakumar, M. (2005). Management of root knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita on tomato with botanicals. Natural Product radiance 4 (3), 158-161. [25] Saxena, R. and Singh, R. (2001). Effectiveness of certain plant extracts for their nematicidal potebtialities. J.Appl. Zool. Res. 12 (1) 27-30. [26] Sayeeda Fatema and Ahmad, M.U. (2005). Comparative efficacy of some organic amendments and a nematicide (Furadan-3G) against root-knot on two local varieties of groundnut. Plant Pathology Journal, 4: 54-57 [27] Sayre, R.M. & Walter, D.E. 1991. Factors affecting the efficacy of natural enemies of nematodes. Ann. Rev. Phytopathol., 29: 149-166. [28] Sikora, R.A. 1992. Management of the antagonistic potential in agricultural ecosystems for the biological control of plant-parasitic nematodes. Ann. Rev. Phytopathol., 30: 245-270. [29] Singh, R. 2000. Evaluation of some plant extracts against root knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita infecting cucurbitaceous crops. Ph.D Thesis, MJP Rohilkhand University, Bareilly, pp 94-99. [30] Sirca, S., Gregor, U & Gerrit, K (2004). The incidence of the root-knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita and Meloidogyne hapla in Slovenia. Acta Agriculture Slovenia 83 (1): 15-22. [31] Sharma, S.B and McDonald, D (1990). Global status of nematode problems of groundnut, pigeonpea, chickpea, sorghum and pearl millet and suggestions for future work. Crop Protection 9: 453-458. [32] Stirling, G.R. 1991. Biological control of plant-parasitic nematodes. Wallingford, UK, CAB International. pp 282. [33] Thomas, K.W., J.T. Vida, L.M. Frisse, M. Mundo, J.G. Baldwin. 1997. DNA sequence from formalin-fixed nematodes: integrating molecular and morphological approaches to taxonomy. Journal of Nematology 29: 250-254. [34] Thomason, I.J. 1987. Challenges facing nematology: environmental risks with nematicides and the need for new approaches. In JA. Veech & D.W. Dickson, eds. Vistas on nematology, p. 469-476. Hyattsville, USA, Society of Nematologists. [35] Trifonova, Z. and Atanasov, A (2009). Investigation on the nematicidal effects of some plant extracts on the mortality and hatching of Meloidogyne incognita and Globodera rostochiensis. Plant Science. 46, 548-554 [36] Wang, D.Y.-C., S. Kumar, and B.S. Hedges. 1999. Divergence time estimates for the early history of animal phyla and the origin of plants, animals and fungi. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 266: 163-171. [37] Wharton, D.A. 1986. A Functional Biology of Nematodes. The John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD. [38] Wiratno, D., Taniwiryono, H., Van den Berg, J.A.G., Riksen, I.M.C.M., Rietjens, S.R., Djiwanti, J.E., Kammenga and Murk, A.J. 2009. Nematicidal activity of plant extracts against the root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita. The Open Natural Products Journal. 2: 77 – 85. [39] Wondimeneh Taye, Sakhuja P.K. and Tadele Tefera (2013). Root knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita) management using botanicals in tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum). Academic Journal Agricultural Research 1 (1): 009-016.

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Safety Evaluation of Food Additives and Contaminants on Human Health Beenam Saxena Pest and Parasite Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, Bareilly College, Bareilly–243005, UP, India E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT This article is focused on the influence of food additives which causes serious disorders in human beings when present in exceeded limit in food items and act as adulterants. Food additives may induce clinical symptoms including first of all dermatitis, rhinitis and asthma, utricaria and angioneurotic edema etc. Food additives are suspected to stimulate hyperactivity and psychoneurotic reaction too. Keywords: Adulterants, Food Additives, Contamination, Human Health

INTRODUCTION An adulterant is a substance or non food item which is added with food items although not allowed for legal and other reasons. The addition of adulterants is called adulteration. An adulterant is distinct from food additives. The food additives are substances added to food in order to enhance or retain quality attributes such as texture, physical properties, taste, flavour etc. The food additives are not adulterants, if present within specific limits and once exceeded the limit they may also become significant adulterants. These days rarely any food item is spared from the malicious practice of food adulteration. Almost every food item from milk to fruits and from vegetables to grains are added with adulterants. The increasing number of food producers and the outstanding amount of import food stuffs enables the producers to mislead and cheat consumers. In India as well as in other developing countries food accounts for a large part of the family budget. Every consumer wants to get the maximum quantity of a commodity for as low a price as possible. Probably this attitude of the consumers being coupled with the intention of the traders as well as manufacturers to increase the margin of profit, so food adulteration is increasing daily. Normally food adulteration is done either for financial gain or due to carelessness and lack in proper hygienic condition of processing, storing, transportation and marketing. This ultimately results that the consumers become victim of diseases. So it is important for the consumers to know the common adulterants and their effect on health. It is not possible to ensure wholesome food only on visual examination when the toxic contaminants are present in ppm level. However visual examination of the food 82 |

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before purchase makes sure to ensure absence of insects, visual fungus , foreign matter etc. The label declaration on packed food is very important for knowing the ingredients and nutritional value. It also helps in checking the freshness of food items. The consumer should avoid taking food from an unhygienic place and food being prepared under unhygienic conditions. However the science activists from various voluntary organisations have in recent years started building awareness amongst the people by way of demonstrating detection of food adulteration. The mass media like television, radio and newspapers have taken up the issues to build a public awareness. Several agencies have been set up by the government of India to remove adulterants from food stuffs like AGMARK organisation certifies food products for their quality. But Government or the concern department can not fully solve the problem of food contamination and adulteration unless the consumer himself becomes conscious on such consumption and the law which are protecting him under such circumstances. Consumers must know the provision of the food laws and regulation and how they are protected under the said law.

REASONS FOR ADULTERATION Adulteration has been done for following reasons. 

When supply is less than demand.



To cut down the cost of product to meet the market competition.



To increase the margin of profit.



Shortage of authentic ingredient at affordable prices.



Lack of awareness and updation of the information on the adulteration related food safety outbreaks.



Adulteration is done to increase the value of a commercial attributes of the product.

ADULTERATION OF COMMON FOOD 

The vegetable oils are adulterated by adding argemone oil, mineral oil and castor oil.



Ghee or butter is adulterated by addition of synthetic coloring matter .



Milk adulteration has been done with detergent , fat and urea.



Honey adulteration has been done by adding water and jaggery.



Sugar is adulterated with chalk powder.



Red chilli powder is adulterated with brick powder or talcum powder. To obtain the required color, addition of sudan dye has been done.

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Turmeric is the basic ingredient of all our Indian cooking. Any Indian dish is not complete without it. It may be adulterated by lead chromate, metanil yellow dye or any starch based items like flour or rice powder. Except flour of rice powder, other adulterants are health hazardous.



Coriander powder is also the basic ingredient of all our Indian cooking. It may be adulterated with dung powder.



Black pepper may be adulterated by mixing dried seeds of papaya fruit with it. It can also be coated with mineral oil.



Mustard seeds may be adulterated by mixing argemone seeds.



Pulses like arhar dal is coated with metanil yellow to provide good texture and to make it shiny. It is also adulterated by khesari dal , stones and gravel etc.

FOOD ADDITIVES AND THEIR TOXIC RESPONSE Food additives are used for various purposes including preservation, coloring and sweetening etc. In industrialized nation , the last 50 years have seen a significant increase in the number of preservatives and additives introduced to food before they go into the market. A wide range of adverse reaction is associated with food additives when they are used in exceeded amount with food items. Certain food additives may be the cause of different health disturbances such as allergies, migraines, hyperactivity in children and several other adverse reactions. There are many ways in which an organism may respond to food additives and the type of response depends upon numerous factors. Although many of the toxic effects of foreign compounds have a biochemical basis but the expression of the effects may be different. The interaction of a food additive with normal metabolic processes may cause a physiological response such as muscle paralysis or a fall in blood pressure, or it may cause a tissue lesion in one organ. The covalent interaction between a toxic food additive and a normal body protein may in some circumstances cause an immunological response , in other a tissue lesion. Macann et al. (2007) showed that food additives like artificial colours and sodium benzoate preservative in the diet increase hyperactivity in 3 years old and 8-9 years old children in the general population. Food toxicity may be detected in a variety of ways. 

Pathological Changes: This could be the development of a tumour or destruction of tissues.



Biochemical Changes: This might involve an effect on an enzyme such as inhibition or alteration in a metabolic pathway.



Physiological Changes: This could be measured in whole conscious animal as changes in blood pressure, in temperature or in a response to a particular stimulus. | 84

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Changes in Normal Status: Changes in body weight, food and water intake, urine output and organ weight all may be sensitive indicators of either general or specific toxicity. Thus the person often consume less food and lose weight after exposure to toxic compounds and increase organ weight may be due to fluid or triglycerides accumulation, hypertrophy or enzyme induction. These changes may of course be confirmed by chemical, biochemical or histopathological measurements.

Due to exposure of food additives childhood hyperactivity have been observed in both medical and psychiatric literature including genetic factor, implications of the central nervous system dysfunction, improper embryological development and birth complications (Kuntsi and Stevenson, 2001; Tanaka et al., 2008 ). Benzamin Fringold, M.D., was the one of the first physicians to speak out against food additives (Young, 1997; Schab and Trinh, 2004). His observation was on the effect on food chemicals on children’s behaviour and the role of nutrition in treating their learning disabilities. In 1973 he announced that salicylate, artificial colors and artificial flavours caused hyperactivity in children. Studies taken out since a long time pointed out to the still controversial problem of health consequence of food additives. The most popular substances added to food and some health problems associated with them are described below.

FOOD COLORS Any substance that is added to food and imparts color to the food is a color additive. The color influences directly the perception of both the flavour and quality of a food product and improves its sensory properties, especially when processed food loses an attractive appearance due to high temperature or enzymatic modification. Any color additive in food is deemed unsafe unless its use is either permitted by regulation or exempt by regulation. In 1960 the US Congress passed the Color Additive Amendment (Burrow, 2006). Today some color additives are approved by the FDA but others are used by traders illegally. Some artificial food colorants are used frequently in some common food items. The following are brief summary of reviews or studies conducted on use of food colors and their hazardous effect.

Tartrazine Tartrazine is used as the yellow and orange colorant for food and drugs. It is used to color drinks, sweets, jams , cereals , snacks , canned fish and packaged soups. Firstly in 1959 it was observed that asthma, hypersensitivity and urticaria caused by the tartrazine which pointed out to the influence of artificial food colorants as factor which may also initiate clinical health problems including migraine, blurred vision, itching and rhinitis (Rangan and Barceloux, 2009 ). When tartrazine and sunset yellow given in diet of rat, marked retardation in growth was observed by Ershaff (1977). According to him, both tartrazine and sunset yellow at 5% in the diet resulted in retardation in growth, an unthrifty appearance of the fur and death of 50% or more of the rats within an 85 |

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experimental period of 14 days. Neuman et al. (1978) found that an oral administration of 50 mg of tartrazine to 122 patients evoked some problems like feeling of suffocation, weakness, heat sensation, palpitations, blurred vision, rhinorrhoea and urticaria. Rowe and Rowe (1994) reported behavioural changes in 2-14 years old children by ingestion of tartrazine. Tartrazine and erythrosine was given in the diet in different doses from 5 weeks of age of F0 generations to 9 weeks of age of the F1 generation and several reproductive and neurobehavioral parameters were significantly changed in the high dose group (Tanaka 2001, 2005). Amin et al. (2010) studied serum and tissue sample for determination of urea, creatinine, total protein, albumin, lipid profile and fasting blood glucose in male albino rat after administration of tartrazine and carmoisine in oral dose and concluded that both azodyes affect adversely and alter biochemical markers in vital organs like liver and kidney not only at higher dose but also at low dose. Mehedi et al. (2013) studied toxicity of tartrazine in swiss mice and concluded that different doses of tartrazine induce weight depression and adverse effects on brain, liver and kidney.

Sunset Yellow Sunset yellow is an orange coal tar-based food dye. It is used in cereals, bakery, sweets, snacks, ice-cream, drinks and canned fish. Ryan and Wright (1961) injected sunset yellow in rat intravenously and collected bile for 6 hrs. to analyse it. He recovered 22% colour of the administered quantity in bile juice. Mathur et al. (2005) studied changes in lipid profile induced by sunset yellow and its administration causes liver necrosis and liver damage. Sunset yellow is capable of causing allergic reaction such as abdominal pain, hyperactivity, nasal congestion and broncho-constriction as well as kidney tumours, chromosomal damage and distaste for food. It has also been found to be carcinogenic when fed to animal (Rangan and Barceloux, 2009).

Metanil Yellow Metanil yellow is used to color the arhar dal and also being extensively used for coating the turmeric. Metanil yellow has been shown to cause alteration in haemopoietic system in rats (Mehrotra et al. 1974). Studies of Vaidya and Godbole (1982) show that metanil yellow increases chromosomal break in human leukocyte, indicating the likely genotoxic potential of metanil yellow. In a survey report published by Khanna et al. (1985) about 50% sweets and 61.3% namkin in samples in rural areas were found to contain non permitted colours. Metanil yellow has been shown to cause testicular damage in gametogenic elements to arrest spermatogenesis in guinea pig, rats and mice (Khanna and Das 1991). Toxic effect of metanil yellow, orange II and their blend, induce the level of cytosolic GST and quinine reductase of rats (Ramchandani et al. 1994). The degradation pattern of nonpermitted food dyes i.e. metanil yellow, orange II, malachite green and rhodamine B has been reported in rat caecal microflora (Singh et al. 1994, 1995). Ramchandani et al. (1997) investigated the effect of oral administration of metanil yellow on hepatic and intestinal biochemical parameters and observed significant depletion of hepatic and intestinal glutathione level (33-52%) with a concomitant increase in lipid peroxidation (49–121%). Gupta et al. (2003) investigated | 86

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tumour promotion by metanil yellow and malachite green during rat hepatocarcinogenesis. Both textile dyes have promoter effects on the development of hepatic preneoplastic lesions induced by N-nitrosodiethylamine (DEN). Sarkar and Gosh (2012) studied histopathological and ultrastructural changes induced by metanil yellow in albino rat.

Erythrosine Erythrosine is a cherry- pink coal tar based food dye and used in cherries, canned fruit, custard mix, sweet, bakery, snacks etc. It has been found to cause all possible clinical forms of allergic reactions, sensitivity to light and also learning difficulties, increase thyroid hormone level and lead to hyperthyroidism. Jennings et al. (1990) showed that lipid soluble formulation of erythrosine cause thyroid cancer in rats. Erythrosine has been found to act as a potent neuro-competitive dopamine inhibitors of dopamine uptake by nerve endings when exposed in vitro on rat brain. Erythrosine also has been found to act as carcinogenic agent when exposed to animals (Tourmaa, 1994)

Brilliant Blue Brilliant blue is used in dairy products , sweets, drinks, candies, cereal, drug and other products. This colorant was banned in Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Norway, Spain, Sweden and Switzerland. Zillich (2000) reported a case of a 11 years old girl who developed pseudocyanosis after consumption of food containing brilliant blue.

Fast Green Color Fast green color is a synthetic dye approved for use in food and cosmetics except for the area of the eye. It can be used in tinned green peas and other vegetables, jellies, sauces, fish, desserts etc. Although it is certified for use in foods, it may cause chromosomal aberration and inhibit the release of neurotransmitters when tested in animals (Von Hoff J.A. 2002) Similarly malachite green is used to color the green vegetables. Indigo carmine is widely used to color beverages, candies, pet food and many other food and drugs. Schab and Trinch (2004) conducted a meta-analysis of findings from previously conducted clinical trials that attempted to show a definitive relationship between consumption of artificial food colors and behavioural changes in children.

PRESERVATIVES Benzoate belong to the most commonly chemicals used as food preservatives to prevent the growth of microbes. Benzoic acid and sodium benzoate are most commonly used as food preservatives. The dose of sodium benzoate capable of inducing adverse effect on human health is 250 mg/ kg body weight upto 500 mg/ kg daily for several years . Benzoate have been found to provoke urticaria, angioedema and asthma. The use of benzoate as preservative is also responsible for childhood hyperactivity (Pacor et al. 2004). 87 |

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Sulphite is added to food as preservatives and sometimes is formed during natural fermentation in beverages, beer and wine. Sulphite-induced hypersensitivity is the most well established adverse response to a food additive. The frequently occurring reactions to sulphites are urticaria, angioedema, hypotension and bronchospasms (Simon 1992 and Habenicht et al. 1983) and anaphylactic shock (Lester 1995).

ANTIOXIDANTS At the time of processing and packaging, the oxidation makes the food unfit for human consumption. To check or reduce the oxidation of these food products, chemical antioxidants which commonly used by food industries are butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT). These are phenol derivatives used as common antioxidants protecting food lipid from spoilage by inhibiting lipid peroxidation and preventing the disintegration of lipid soluble vitamins. High doses of BHT and BHA can cause human toxicity. According to Shlian (1986) acute gastroenteritis with epigastric pain , vomiting and weakness are reported after ingestion of BHT. BHA was found to be an animal carcinogen as it induced tumour in rats (Ito et al. 1989).

FLAVOUR ENHANCER The specifically desired flavour and taste is the first prerequisite of food products to attract large number of consumers. Monosodium glutamate (MSG), the sodium salt of amino acid glutamate, is a food additive, popularly used all over the world as flavour enhancer. It is most commonly used in China and Japan and added to soups and meat preparation products. Kwok (1968) described Chinese Restaurant Syndrome due to consumption of MSG. Ahluwalia and Malik (1989) reported disruption in the levels of carbohydrates, lipids and protein in MSG treated rats. Alteration in the levels of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) and antioxidants like reduced glutathione, catalase and superoxide dismutase were reported in adult mice during MSG treatment (Ahluwalia et al. 1996). Yang et al. (1997) reported numbness, burning sensation, tingling, chest pain, headache, nausea, palpitation, drowsiness and weakness due to consumption of MSG. MSG ingestion produced hyperglycemia and increase level of serum protein in rats (Singh et al. 2011). It also play a critical role in the development of several hepatic disorders (Ashry et al. 2012).

SWEETENERS The industrialists use certain synthetic chemical sweeteners which are cheaper and 100 times sweeter than sugar. Aspartame E 951 is a low calorie, intense sweetner approximately 200 times sweeter than sucrose (EFSA, 2006). Saccharin is a byproduct of coal- tar distillation and was developed during World War II by Germans and is chemically o-sulphobenzimide. It is about 700 times sweeter than sucrose. Many adverse reactions and side effects were reported due to consumption of sweeteners.

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Safety Evaluation of Food Additives and Contaminants on Human Health

CONTAMINANTS Apart from food additives which are intentionally added to different food items, incidental contaminations also occur which can cause severe allergic reactions. A food can contain traces of chemicals like nickel, chromium and cobalt etc as a result of contact with these substances at the time of production, processing and packing. Food may pick up these chemicals from a wrapper or a container in which they are packed. Various studies indicates that accidental ingestion of high dose of these chemicals may cause acute renal failure characterized by proteinuria, hematuria and anuria, nausea, vomiting, cyanosis, gastrointestinal symptoms and weakness etc.

CONCLUSION The nature of food is responsible for the uniqueness of food toxicology. Food occupies an important position in virtually all culture and because most food cannot be commercially produced in a definable environment under strict quality control, food generally cannot meet the rigorous standards of chemical identity and purity. Food also acquires uniqueness from its essential nutrients. The evaluation of food ingredient often must rely on reasoning unique to food science in the sense that such substances may be normal constituent of food or modified constituent of food. The basic concept that forms the foundation for the safety evaluation of direct food and color additives is the recognition that the safety of any added substance to food must be established on the basis of the intended conditions of use in food. Factors that need to be taken into account include:

The purpose for use of the substance.



The food to which the substance is added.



The concentration level used in the proposed food.



The population expected to consume the substances.

The problem of the presence of food additives and some contaminants in an everyday diet leads their influence on human immune system and other systems of body. The general conclusion is an important recommendation: when buying food products, it is necessary to be vigilant and always check labels. If there are any doubts we should discard such product since this is the only safe way to avoid allergens.

REFERENCES [1] [2]

Ahluwalia P. and Malik V.B.T. 1989. Effect of MSG on serum lipids, blood glucose and cholesterol in adult male mice. Toxicol. Lett. 45:195-198 Ahluwalia P., Tewari K. and Choudhary P.1996. Studies on the effect of MSG on oxidative stress in erythrocyte of adult male mice. Toxicol. Lett. 84: 161-165

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Amin K.A., Abdel H. and Elsttar A.H. 2010. Effect of food azodyes tartrazine and caramoisine on biochemical parameter related to renal hepatic function & oxidative stress biomarker in young male rat. Food and Chemical Toxicology 48(10):2994 -2999 Ashry M.A., Hala F. A. and Gheth E.M.M. 2012.. The possible ameliorative effect of propolis in rat’s liver with MSG. Nature and Science 10:12 Burrows A. 2006. The palette of our palates: A brief history of food coloring and its regulation. EFSA 2006. Journal opinion of the scientific panel on food additives, flavouring, processing aids and material in contact with food on a request from the commission related to a new long term cacinogenecity study on aspartame. 356:1-44 Ershoff B.H. 1977. Effect of diet on growth and survival of rats fed toxic level of tartrazine (FD & C yellow No. 5) and sunset yellow FCF ( FD &C yellow no 6). J. of Nutrition 107(5):822-828 Habenicht H.A., Preuss L. and Lovell R. G. 1983. Sensitivity to ingested metabisulfites: Cause of bronchiospasm and urticaria. Immunol. Allergy Prac. 5:25 Ito N., Hirose M., Shibata M.A., Tanaka H. and Shirai T. 1989. Modifying effects of simultaneous treatment with butylated hydroxyanisole on rat tumour induction by 3,2-dimethyl-4-aminobiphenyl, 2,2-dihydroxy-di-npropylnitrosamine and N-methylnitrosourea. Carcinogenesis 1:2255-2259 Jennings A.S., Schwartz S.L., Balter N.J., Gardner D. and Witorsch R. J. 1990. Effects of oral erythrosine on the pituitary- thyroid axis in rats .Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 103:549-556 Khanna S.K. and Das M. 1991. Toxicity, carcinogenesis, potential and clinical epidemiological studies on dyes and dyes intermediates. J. Sci. Ind Res. 50:964-974 Khanna S.K., Singh G.B. and Dixit A.K. 1985. Use of synthetic dyes in eatables of rural area. J. Food Sci. Technology 22:269-273 Kuntsi J. and Stevenson J. 2001.Psychological mechanism in hyperactivity , the role of genetic factors. J.Child Psychol. Psychiatry 42:211-219 Kwok R.H. 1968. Chinese restaurant syndrome. N.Engl. J. Med. 278:796 Lester M.R. 1995. Sulphite sensitivity significance in human health. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 14:229-232 Macann D.,Barrett A. and Cooper A. 2007. Food additives and hyperactive behaviour in 3 years old and 8-9 years old children in the community: a randomized, double blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 370 ( 9598): 1560-1567 Mathur N., Chaudhary V., Mehta M. and Krishnatrey R. 2005. Effect of sunset yellow on testis in rat. J. Ecophysiol Occup Hlth.5:1-3 Mehedi N., Mokrane N., Alami O., Tabet S.A., Zaoui C., Kheroua O. and Saidi D. 2013. A thirteen week adlibitum administration toxicity study of tartrazine in swiss mice. Academic Journal 12(28): 4519-4529 Mehrotra N.K., Khanna S.K. and Singh G.B. 1974. Heamatological studies in rat fed with metanil yellow . Env. Physiol. Biochem. 4:232-235 Neuman I., Elian R., Nahum H., Shaked P. and Creter D. 1978. The danger of yellow dyes to allergic subjects. Clin Allergy 8:65-68 Pacor M.L., Lorenzo G., Martinelli N., Mansucto P. Rini G.B. and Corrocher R. 2004. Monosodium benzoate hypersensitivity in subjects with persistent rhinitis. Allergy 59:192-197 Ramchandani S., Das M., Joshi A. and Khanna S.K. 1994. Effect of metanil yellow , orange II & their blend on hepatic xenobiotic metabolizing enzyme in rats. Food Chem. Toxicol.32:559-563 Ramchandani S., Das M., Joshi A. and Khanna S.K. 1997. Effect of oral and parenteral administration of metanil yellow on some hepatic and intestinal biochemical parameters. J.of Applied Toxicology 32:559-563 Rangan C. and Barceloux D.G. 2009. Food additives and sensivities. Disease a month, food borne and microbial toxins, Part I . Chem Cont. Additiv. 55:292-311 Rowe K.S. and Rowe K.J. 1994. Synthetic food colouring & behavior: A dose response effect in a double blind placebo-controlled trial. J. of Pediatrics 135:691-698 Ryan A.J. and Wright S.E. 1961. The excretion of some azodyes in rat bile. J. Pharm 13:492 Sarkar R. and Ghosh A. R. 2012. Metanil yellow- an azo dye induced histopathological and ultrastructural changes in albino rat. The Bioscan 7(1): 427-432 Schab D.W. and Trinh N. H. 2004. Do artificial food colors promote hyperactivity in children with hyperactive syndrome: a meta-analysis of double- blind placebo- controlled trials. J. dev. Behave. Pediatr.25:423-434 Shilan D. M. and Goldstone J. 1986. Toxicity of butylated hydroxytoluene. N. Engl. J. Med. 314:648-649 Simon R.A. 1992. Pulmonary reactions to sulfites in foods. Pediatr. Allergy Immunol. 3:218-221 Singh K., Sharma J., Kaur A. and Ahluwalia P. 2011. Alteration upon oral ingestion of MSG in various lipid and lipoprotein fractions in serum of adult male rat. J Life Sci. 3(1): 17-21

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Safety Evaluation of Food Additives and Contaminants on Human Health [32] Tanaka T. 2001. Reproductive and Neurobehavioural toxicity study of erythrosine administered to mice in the diet. Food Chem. Toxicol. 39(5):447-454 [33] Tanaka T. 2005. Reproductive and Neurobehavioural toxicity study of tartrazine administered to mice in the diet. Food Chem. Toxicol. 39(5):447-454 [34] Tanaka T., Takahashi O., Oishi S. and Ogata A .2008. Effects of tartrazine on exploratory behavior in a three generation toxicity study in mice. Repr. Toxiol. 26:156-163 [35] Tuormaa T.E. 1994. The adverse effect of food additive on health:a review of literature with special emphasis on childhood hyperactivity. J.Orthomolec. Med. 9:225-243 [36] Vaidya V.G. and Godbole N.N. 1982. Genetic toxicity of some industrial dyes often detected as food adulteration. Indian J. Publ. Health. 26: 16-24 [37] Van Hoff J.A. (2002). Fast green inhibits synaptic activity in rat hippocampal interneurons. Neurosci. Lett.318:163-165 [38] Yang W.H., Drouin M.A. Herbert M., MaoY. and Karh J. 1997. The MSG symptom complex: assessment in doubleblind, placebo- controlled, randomized study. J. aller. Clin. Immunol. 99:757-762 [39] Young E. 1997. Prevalence of intolerance to food additives. Environ. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 4:111-114 [40] Zillich A. J., Kuhn R.J. and Petersen T. J. 2000 . Skin discoloration with blue food coloring. Ann. Pharmacother. 34:868-870

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Cynobacterial Diversity of North-West Sub-Himalayas Mukesh Kumar 1, A.B. Bhatt2 and G.S. Paliwal3 1

Department of Botany, Sahu Jain P.G. College, Najibabad–246763, U.P, India Department of Botany, HNB Garhwal Central University, Srinagar–246174, U.K, India 3 Agricultural Finance Corporation, B1/9, Janakpuri, New Delhi–110058, India E-mail: [email protected] 2

ABSTRACT The Cynobacteria constitute a group of micro-organisms which synthesize chlorophyll 'a' and necessary phycobilins, that furnish in them capacity of modulation of photosynthetic infrastructure coupled with adjustment of the pigment ratio as well as the different transport systems. These are also efficient nitrogen fixers, especially their filamentous species which possess characteristic cells called the heterocysts, surrounded by thick walls impermeable to oxygen, thereby furnishing anaerobic (oxygen-free) environment, necessary for the operation of nitrogen fixing enzymes. As regards their preponderance at the global level, these comprise 2,500 species belonging to 150 genera. The present work which has been carried out in different seasons (i.e. summer, winter and rainy) included epilithic, epipelic, terrestrial, epiphytic, planktonic and miscellaneous habitats, It reports for the first time 329 species belonging to 05 orders, 56 genera, 14 families from 19 localities of the states of Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir, differing in altitude, pH of the soil, season and topography. The overall picture shows dominance of Nostocales (66%), followed by Chroococcales (29%), Chemosiphonales and Pleurocarpales (both 2% each) and Stigonematales (1%). Keywords: Cynobacterial Diversity, Sub-Himalayan Foot-hills, Autotrophic Prokaryotes, Blooms, Taxonomic Studies

INTRODUCTION Throughout the ancient Indian literature, Himalaya has been considered as a source of attraction, curiosity and challenge to human-beings in multiple approaches and innovations. The Himalayan system is formed of four, roughly parallel mountain ranges in a northwest-southeast configuration- the Sub-Himalaya, Lesser Himalaya, Greater Himalaya and Trans-Himalaya. Of these, the Sub- Himalaya (also called Outer Himalaya or Shiwalik Hills), is the southernmost range that forms the foothills of the Lesser Himalaya. The fluvial deposits have subsequently uplifted to become the foothill range geologically referred to as the Shiwalik formation which is composed of fine-grained sandstone with deposits of clay, shale, limestone, and conglomerate. Shiwalik soils are shallow and the region is much prone to erosion. Immediately south of the SubHimalayan foothills is a narrow belt characterized by the boulder deposits. This belt, known as Bhabhar region, experiences a gentle slope southwards and is typified by boulder-laden seasonal streams called ‘raos or sots’. The elevation of the Bhabhar belt 92 |

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ranges between 300-400m asl (Wadia 1939). The Bhabhar tract has well drained and relatively deep soils that are superficially dry but have subterranean water flow. Between the Sub-Himalayan foothills and the Lesser Himalaya are longitudinal, elevated valleys called ‘duns’ which comprise higher elevation than the outer plains. These are covered with boulders and gravel originating from the erosion of the Himalaya and the Shiwalik uplands that flanks the ‘duns’. Several major rivers including the Ganga and the Yamuna drain through the Uttarakhand Sub-Himalaya. Amongst several natural assets, the vegetation of a country provides an everlasting and interesting field of investigation. As far as the Himalayan region is concerned, its diversity, copiousness as well as uniqueness of the plant components coupled with various habitats present a sound and aesthetic environment. The region is believed to possess about 58 per cent forest cover, being the highest in North India. However, in the past couple of decades excessive exploitation of vegetation, unplanned landuse, natural disasters and several developmental processes, accelerated deterioration of vegetation or loss of individual species has been witnessed. This is all the more bewildering, since we do not possess the detailed botanical records for several localities or regions in the context of the vegetation including the algal flora, particularly the cyanobacteria. One such a botanically interesting and littleknown region is the Sub-Himalayan belt (foothills) of North-West Himalaya (Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir), which sustains unique and rich cyanobacterial growth in a wide range of habitats from Taraibhabar tracts of lesser Himalaya. This part of Himalayas has been only sparsely explored by the botanists. Therefore, a detailed survey of cyanobacteria of the Sub-Himalayan tract of Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir has been considered important to add well documented information pertaining to the members of this group. The present endeavor is, therefore, an attempt to record the cyanobacterial wealth of Northern India, especially from the foothill regions of these three states. The Sub- Himalayan tract forms a belt roughly oriented in northwestsoutheast direction where it represents two main physiographic units i.e. (1) the SubHimalayan foothills (Shiwaliks) and (2) the Bhabhar Belt. The study area experiences a distinct monsoonal climate with an average annual rainfall of ca. 2000 mm. There are three major seasons: (a) the monsoon or rainy season, extending from mid- June till September, when the region receives most of its annual rainfall; (b) cool season lasting from November until mid-February during which the months of December-January exhibit peak winter and the ambient temperature can go down to 0°C accompanied by occasional frost; (c) warm season that lasts from lateMarch to mid-June, with peak summer being in May-June when temperatures may exceed 40°C. Cyanobacteria are autotrophic prokaryotes which carry out oxygenic photosynthesis and accumulate glycogen as the major form of stored carbon and may have originated mainly 3.45 billion years ago if fossil evidence from that time is reliable. They certainly occurred from billion years ago as judged from molecular fossils. These 93 |

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are sometimes called blue-green algae even though they are prokaryotes. Constituting a diverse phylum of bacteria capable of carrying out photosynthesis, and are gramnegative having two cell membranes. They also contain a peptidoglycan cell wall, which is thicker than in other gram-negative bacteria, and which is located between their two cell membranes. These oxygenic phototrophs contain chlorophyll ‘a’ and phycobilins and are identified by a variety of names, including blue-greens, blue-green algae, myxophyceans, cyanophytes, cyanophyceans and cyanoprokaryotes. Blue-green algae constitute the Division Cyanophyta in of the Kingdom Monera, which comprises about 1,500 species of prokaryotic organisms. There is no agreement on whether or not this. Division should be considered algae or bacteria. Cyanobacteria differ from other types of bacteria in that they possess chlorophyll a, which other photosynthetic bacteria lack. Another characteristic that supports the algal conformity is the fact that free oxygen is released during photosynthesis of blue-green algae but not in the photosynthesis of other bacteria. Several bacteria split H2S instead of H20 as a source of electrons during their photosynthesis, which is why they do not produce free O2. These forms (the other bacteria) have bacteriochlorophyll instead of chlorophyll a as their main photosynthetic pigment. Evidence supporting the bacteria argument has to do with blue-green algae’s cellular organization. They are prokaryotic (no membrane-bound organelles), have only a haploid life cycle (whereas all algal life cycles have an alteration of generations), reproduce through fission, these do not have cellulose in their cell-walls and their DNA is not associated with histone proteins in their chromosomes (unlike algae and other plants). Cyanobacteria get their common name from the blue-green pigment, phycocyanin, which alongwith the chlorophyll ‘a' gives them, a blue-green appearance. Phycocyanin is a protein that functions as the photosynthetic pigment in photosystem II, whereas in plants chlorophyll ‘b' is the pigment in photosystem II. These are single-celled, colonial or filamentous organisms that naturally inhabit in fresh or salt waters and use sunlight to make their food. Some of their species can fix atmospheric nitrogen in a free-living state or in symbiosis with other plants, for example, Azolla. In the tropics, rocky shores are usually dominated by primary producers such as cyanobacteria. These also commonly occur naturally in warm-calm lakes and waterways where there is an abundance of light and nutrients. When plenty of nutrients are available in water, these grow rapidly or form “blooms”, a visible film or carpet scum on the surface of the water, giving it a green or blue-green hue, although these can sometimes also be red or brown. They are known to be tolerant to extreme conditions and have an ability of forming macroscopic, coloured, vertical, stratified microbial communities known as microbial mats, which may vary from a mucilaginous coating to a well-developed, thick ‘carpet’ on soil, mud or the organic debris. The microbial mats are usually dominated by filamentous Oscillatoria spp., Spirulina spp. and Microcoleus spp. Cyanobacteria are capable of having photoautotrophic growth, performing oxygenic photosynthesis similar to those of eukaryotic algae and other plants. | 94

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Cyanobacteria are interesting due to a number of reasons: these are photoautotrophs which use CO2 as their sole carbon and light as energy source, and follow the same photosynthetic pathway as eukaryotic cells such as algae and higher plants (the “C3” or “Calvin Cycle”) in contrast to the other photosynthetic bacteria which use different light-harvesting pigments-bacterio-chlorophyll- and metabolic pathways). Even more interesting is that we now know from DNA sequencing that eukaryotic chloroplasts evolved from cyanobacteria, presumably after millions of years of symbiotic association. These are oxygen-evolving, and often nitrogen fixing (diazotrophic) prokaryotic autotrophs which have competitive advantages and may also constitute the energy base of intertidal benthic food-webs in the biosphere, being amongst the main groups of primary producers, closely related to bacteria. Cyanobacteria appeared, between 3,500 and 2,700 million years ago, in the coastal waters of the primitive continents and constituted a very important part of the marine planktons. Even today, in the warm and tropical seas, unicellular cyanobacteria, minuscule but abundant, up to 100 million of them live in a liter of water, are the principal generators in the net production of organic matter, At times, in symbiosis with other microorganisms in coastal mud flats, these form a compact mass, and create calcareous rock-like mats, some centimeters thick, called ‘stromatolites’. Cyanobacteria are the pioneer oxygenic phototrophs on the earth, whose distribution, around the world is surpassed only by bacteria. Fossil evidence points to their presence in geographically diverse regions during the Precambrian (more than 2 to 3.5 billion years ago), and which is still variable alongwith their morphologically diverse nature. They also constitute among the first colonizers of bare rocks and soils and various categories of associations take place between them and other organisms. Certain species, for example, grow in a mutualistic relationship with fungi, forming composite organisms, the lichens. This relationship between plants and cyanobacteria is believed to have first begun during the Precambrian Era. Cyanobacteria abound in the roots of some plants such as legumes and provide nitrogen directly to the plants for their use. These also form symbiotic associations with animals and plants. Symbiotic relations also exist for example, with the species of fungi, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms. Cyanobacteria were originally considered as algae because of their microscopic morphology, pigmentation and oxygen-evolving photosynthesis in which photosystems, PS II and PS I are connected in series. They are known to occur in both oxic and anoxic environments. Several species can switch to the typical bacterial anoxygenic photosynthesis using suiphide as the electron donor; other species assimilate sugars and organic compounds in the presence of light. In dark, cyanobacteria gain energy by respiring endogenous carbohydrates, which are accumulated in the light. However, under anoxic conditions some species maintain this requirement by fermentation whereas in a few instances chemo-organotrophy is found. They can grow under very low water potential; such species can resist desiccation and grow in arid environments (deserts) and I or can tolerate high salinity to grow in hypersaline ponds. 95 |

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The chief activities of cyanobacteria include: (i) Increase in soil pores due to filamentous structure and production of adhesive substances, (ii) Excretion of growthpromoting substances such as hormones (auxins, gibberellins), vitamins, amino acids) (iii) Increase in the water-holding capacity through their jelly structure (iv) Increase in soil biomass after their death and decomposition, (v) Reduction of soil salinity, (vi) Preventing weed growth and (vii) Increase in soil phosphates by excretion of organic acids. It is, therefore, all the more beneficial that most paddy soils have a natural population of cyanobacteria which provides a potential source of nitrogen fixation at no cost. The paddy field ecosystem provides a favorable environment for the growth of cyanobacteria with respect to their requirements for light, water, high temperature as well as nutrient availability. This could be the reason for more abundant cyanobacterial growth in paddy soils as compared to the upland soils. The adaptability of cyanobacteria to different environmental conditions is ascribed to the plasticity of their genome. The bacterial chromosome (whose DNA is not associated with the histone protein) is called a genophore, during fission it is attached to the plasma membrane and gets replicated. Cell division then occurs, separating the bacterium into two identical entities. Since the cyanobacteria are prokaryotic, they have no nuclei, which mean that they cannot undergo meiosis and fertilization. This limits genetic recombination among them, although yet they do have three ways of genetic exchange. They can exchange genetic material through a conjugation channel, which physically connects two adjacent cells. Secondly, transformation can occur through the absorption of free DNA, which is then expressed in the host.

EARLIER WORK A survey of the literature in respect to three different phases: 

Between the span 1920-1960,



During 1961-2000 and



2001 onwards.

On the research work related to the blue-green algae has allowed us to derive three important conclusions: During the first phase majority of the studies cater to biodiversity, systematics and enumeration of the various species of the blue-green algae from different localities covering the varied regions of the country. There are also reports of some new forms/species based on morphological features and these also carry comments on the impact of the ecological parameters. Undoubtedly, these are limited in their scope and hardly represent any diversification or analysis of the impact of more than one ecological parameter, but the researchers deserve credit for having continued studies on this group at different centers/ University Botany Departments which formed the basis for a detailed monumental work by Desikachary (1959). This volume is a synthesis of | 96

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the studies on biodiversity of blue-green algae carried out during the past 4-5 decades by different workers and covers almost the entire geographical area of the country as well as the neighbouring countries like Sri Lanka, Burma and Pakistan. On account of its precision and details of morphological features coupled with variability in size, colour, and dimension of cells and nature of the filaments, it continues to form till date, even after a span of more than five decades, the basis for identification and demarcation of the species. The cyanobacteria like Anabaena, Aulosira, Cylindrospermum, Haplosiphon, Nostoc, Nostochopsis, Plectonema, Scytonema, Westiellopsis and Wollea were investigated from salt affected soils of Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra by Singh RN* (1961) who also outlined the role of blue-green algae (e.g. Anabaena, Aulosira, Cylindrospermum, Nostoc, Plectonema, Tolypothrix etc.) in augmenting the fertility of the paddy fields in the same year. Subsequent to the year 1960, a new era was heralded which during the next 40 years, although still continuing to report on the taxa of this group from different regions, has also diversified to furnish information on the impact of bluegreen algae on toxicity. Their physiology as well as the influence of various ecological parameters such as altitude, light, conductivity, etc. has also been analyzed. Happily enough, techniques for their culture were perfected during this period and it was revealed that several forms show variability under different treatments of temperature and cultural conditions. Analysis was also made of their impact on drinking water and the related harmful effects due to their excessive proliferation in the ponds, lakes and other categories of water bodies. Their corrosive impact on monuments was also examined. An important approach was to collect data on their role in enriching the soil fertility as well as soil reclamation, a work which was begun by Singh RN (1961) and continued for the rice fields for various categories of soils particularly the rice fields in different states. Some related uses of the blue-green algae coupled with the seasonal diversity on their assemblage were also brought out. The period after 2001 shows a marked shift in the pattern of studies related to the group which include: (a) Electron microscopic investigation; (b) Genetic behavior of the blue- green algae; (c) Production of secondary metabolites, amino acids, like hormones, etc.; (d) Molecular basis of their diversification; (e) Regulation of akinete and heterocyst formation; (f) Transfer of nif genes to other plants useful to man, particularly cereals, vegetables, fruits and medicinal plants; (g) Biofuels and release of hydrogen, and (h) As food, feed, medicine, and growth hormones.

METHODOLOGY With a view to study the ecology, diversity and taxonomy of the cyanobacterial flora, the entire program of research has been outlined in several, well-defined and self-contained aspects, and following parameters have been analyzed:

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THE RESEARCH SITES In view of multiple stress and depletion of vegetation and habitat, today’ s foremost concern of the globe in general and Himalaya in particular is the conservation of diversity, for which detailed taxonomic aspects of biological entities (plants and animals) are essential. Keeping in view: (i) the lack of earlier botanical records, (ii) diversity and richness of cyanobacteria in vast and varied stretch of land, (iii) the deterioration of mountain ecosystem and (iv) the present day concern of biodiversity, an attempt is made to present the cyanobacterial account of the foothill regions of Garhwal and Kumaon regions of Uttarakhand, and Sirmaur region of Himachal Pradesh which cover one of the most fascinating segment of North Indian Himalaya. Many floristic studies have been carried out for this region but no one has extensively studied and documented the cyanobacterial diversity of the foot-hills of Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh. The present studies have therefore been conducted to survey, identify, enlist and document the cyanobacterial forms of common occurrence in various habitats and seasons, in some little known foot-hill regions of both the states.

METEOROLOGICAL STUDIES The climate of various research sites was determined by recording the different climatic or meteorological factors such as temperature, rainfall, relative humidity and intensity of light etc. variation in climatic conditions has a direct co-relation with the variability of vegetation types. The following features have emerged as a result of analysis of various parameters.

Temperature The climatic conditions of the foothills of Himalayas are subtropical, as such the temperature play a very important role. It regulates the major biological activities taking place in the body of organisms. It primarily affects the role of photosynthesis, respiration, reproduction and other metabolic activities in plants. The maturation of sex cells and liberation of gametes take place at a particular temperature, which vary from species to species. The low temperatures (desiccation, chilling and freezing) cause dehydration due to rapid transpiration and slow absorption. Contrarily, high temperatures may cause the death of plants due to adverse effects on respiration, transpiration, etc. The temperature variation is quite evident in Himalayas so much so that these present a distinct zonation of vegetation form lower to the higher altitudes, as tropical, sub-tropical and alpine. Nevertheless, there are practically no sharp boundaries between these vegetation zones due to differences in topography, soil and geology. Thus the temperature together with altitude and other factors become quite important in respect of diversity and distribution of vegetation. The atmospheric temperature of different research sites was determined with the help of a mercury glass thermometer in different seasons. | 98

Cynobacterial Diversity of North-West Sub-Himalayas

Rainfall (Precipitation) Precipitation plays a crucial role in the development and growth of vegetation of a particular area and is the chief source of soil water available to the plants. It occurs as an interchange of water between the earth’s surfaces and the atmosphere forming the water cycle. The rainfall of each site of the present research work was observed with the help of a rain-gauge during different seasons of the year.

Relative Humidity Atmospheric moisture in the form of invisible vapour constitutes the humidity and is expressed in terms of “Relative Humidity” or the amount of moisture in the air as percentage of the amount, which the air can hold at the saturation tolerance at the existing temperature. The high temperature increases the capacity of air to retain moisture and causes lower humidity, whereas, the low temperature causes higher relative humidity by decreasing the holding capacity of air and moisture. Various processes such as transpiration, absorption of water, etc. are influenced by the atmospheric humidity to a considerable extent. The effects of moist air are more or less similar to those of reduced light intensity. The relative humidity of various research sites was calculated with the help of a ‘thermo-hygrograph’ in different seasons, during the span of the study period.

Intensity of Light Light is well-known for its effects on the basic physiological processes of plants and thus plays an important role in the species composition and development of vegetation. It affects the nature and distribution of vegetation through its effects on photosynthesis, chlorophyll production, number and position of chloroplasts or photosynthetic lamellae. The intensity of light was measured under sun and shade conditions during the different seasons of year with the help of Digital Lux-meter (Guarda FX- 01 Ltd., India).

PEDOLOGICAL FEATURES Each type of soil has its own physical and chemical characteristics, which affect the vegetation on it, leading to a distinct flora. Consequently, it becomes very important to analyze the physical and chemical parameters of the soil. For pedological studies, the soil samples from different research sites, with or without visual plant community/blue-green algae were collected from surface as well as from different depths of about 1 0.00 cm (Singh RN 1961). The instruments used for collection were sterilized before and after exercise. The samples were stored in sterile plastic bottles (2.5 x 5.5 cm) at 4°C and transported to the laboratory for physical as well as chemical analysis. The physical and chemical characters of the soil present at different sites have also been studied.

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Physical Parameters The following physical parameters of the soil have been analyzed during the present study: 

Texture and profile



pH



Electrical conductivity

Chemical Parameters The following chemical parameters have been included into the study: Total Nitrogen (as N): The soil nitrogen is present in various forms like nitrate, nitrite, ammonia and organic nitrogen in nature. All these forms are biologically interconvertible and constitute the component, of the Nitrogen Cycle. The total nitrogen has been calculated according to the Kjeldahl’s method (Khare and Kumar, 2009). Available Phosphorus: Available phosphorus can be calculated from soil by Sodium bicarbonate. The phosphate solution reacts with solution of ammonium molybdate and forms phosphomolybdate, which reacts further and produces blue colour, whose intensity is proportionate to the phosphorus amount present. It has been measured by colorimeter at 620nm wavelength. The overall estimation of phosphorus has been carried out by the method outlined by Olsen & Sommers (1982). Available Potassium: The potash concentration in the Indian soils ranges from 0.05-3.5% out of which 95% being present in a complex form, 1-10% part in relatively non-available form, and 2% in the available form. The term available includes both exchangeable and water soluble forms of the element present in the soil and usually determined in neutral normal ammonium acetate extract of the soil. In the extract, the available potassium changes to potassium acetate and then can be estimated through a photometer.

Parameters of Water Water plays an important role in various metabolic pathways e.g. photosynthesis, respiration etc. Thus, it becomes very important to carry out testing of the water samples collected from their - natural environments. Water samples from streams, rivers, and ponds were collected under aseptic conditions in sterile plastic containers (2.5 x 5.0 cm) and stored at 4°C, subsequently; these were transported to the laboratory for further study. These samples were then filtered through Whatman filter paper No. 42 and finally passed through G-2 grade glass filter. The physical characters of the water samples collected from different sites have been examined for the following parameters:

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Cynobacterial Diversity of North-West Sub-Himalayas

pH: The pH of the water body directly affects the life cycle of Cyanobacteria. It was determined in the field and also in the laboratory with the help of a Digital pH Meter equipped with soil state combination electrode. Temperature: Water temperature affects the structure of proteins/enzymes taking part in various biological pathways. The temperature has been determined by using the Mercury Glass Thermometer.

TAXONOMIC STUDIES The study area includes the foot-hills of the states of Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh. Based on the specific ecological features, several research sites had been identified in different localities of these states. Identification and documentation of various genera and species had been carried out as per the following scheme:

Identification of Research Sites The Himalayan region includes several altitude and climatic systems i.e. tropical, subtropical, temperate and alpine. The mighty rivers and water falls exert tremendous influences on the climate of the foot-hill regions of Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh. Keeping this point, in mind 14 important sites has been selected for the present study. Depending upon the habitats, each research site includes many sub-sites. In order to present a vivid picture with regard to the coverage of the different sites a detailed list has been given in Table- 1.

Collection of Samples The blue-green algal samples were collected under aseptic conditions from different habitats i.e. lithophytes, aquatic, epiphytic, epileptic, terrestrial, etc. For this purpose, the instruments employed for collection were sterilized prior to and after completion of this process. Since the growth of the algal vegetation depends on various climatic factors such as temperature, rainfall, moisture, etc., the research sites were visited several times in different seasons i.e. winter, summer and rainy seasons to collect the samples. The spots with visible growth of blue-green algae were marked; samples collected into sterile plastic bottles (2.5 x 5.0 cm) and brought to the laboratory.

Preservation of Samples The cyanobacterial samples were washed thoroughly in water, transferred to airtight glass containers, and preserved in a 4% formalin solution for further studies.

Preparation of Micro-s1ides The slides from the fixed as well as fresh algal materials were prepared for observations, using general laboratory methods and stored in slide boxes. Cyanobacterial materials having thick mucilaginous sheath were stained with methylene blue while other with aqueous saffranin solution. The fresh materials however needed no staining. 101 |

Environmental Issues for Socio-ecological Development

It is fully realized that this methodology is suitable and emploiy for the specimens growing under natural conditions, in various habitats. As also no claim is made for their morphological features under pure and isolated conditions for which new detailed methodologies have been employed (see among others Rippka 1988). Specified BG-11 culture medium is one of such most suitable growth supporting substratum.

Observation of Micro-slides The microscopic slides were observed for various characters of genera and species. The measurements were recorded with the help of occular micrometer fitted in Olympus Trinocular Research Microscope. Each taxon was either photographed or its cameralucida drawings were sketched, elaborating various morphological features.

Identification and Taxonomic Enumeration The drawings were analyzed on the basis of morphological observations and consulting the pertinent literature in the field (Anand 1989, Desikachary, 1959, Fogg et al. 1973, Geitler 1932 and Rippka et al. 1979 and Gupta 2005), the cyanobacterial specimens have been identified at the level of class, order, family, genus and species and morphological variations of different specimens have been recorded. The outdoor photography of the natural habitats of the Cyanobacteria and microphotography of different taxa, identified during investigation, has been carried out as and where required.

Localities Covered Cyanobacterial samples were collected from 19 localities spread over various habitats of the sub-Himalayas of three north-west states of India i.e. Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir. The detailed description of these research sites has been furnished in the following tables and map: Table 1: Description of Research Sites Sr. No. 1

Sites (Districts) States Haridwar (Haridwar) Uttarakhand

Geographical Location

Soil Texture

Localities of Collection of the Samples

Longitude: 78° 15’ E. Latitude: Loam, clay 29° 97’ N. Altitude: 310m asl and Situated at Shiwalik range of conglomerate Western Himalayas at the basin of river Ganga

Chandi Devi Ropeway Station, Chandighat Chowk, Chandi Devi Temple, Railway Station Road, Birla Ghat, Har Ki Pauri, Mansa Devi Road, etc. Table1 (Contd.)...

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Cynobacterial Diversity of North-West Sub-Himalayas ...Table1 (Contd.)

2

Laldhang (Haridwar) Uttarakhand

Longitude: 78°30’ E. Latitude: 29° 81’ N.Altitude:342m aMSL Situated at foot-hills of Western Himalay-as at the banks of river Rawasan Longitude: 78° 28’ E. Latitude: 300 10’ N. Altitude: 356m aMSL Situated at the inner range of Shiwalik Himalayas at the basin of river Ganga.

Loam and red Gandykhatta Police Check Post, Police Station Road, Mango Garden, Bus Stop, RawasanRiver Road, etc.

3

Rishikesh (Dehradun) Uttarakhand

4

Dehradun (Dehradun) Uttarakhand

Longitude: 77°75’ E. Latitude: 300 47’ N. Altitude: 895m aMSL Situated at the Shiwalik range of Western Himalayas at the banks of river Yamuna.

Sandy, loam Clay, silt, conglomerate, calcareo-us tuffs gravel and alluvial. Loam, conglomerate sand stones, grits, pseudo conglomerate, gravel, clay and alluvial. Loam, sand and sift, containing gravel or alluvial type, clay humus, sandy, boulders and sand stones Loam and silt

5

Kotdwar Longitude: 78° 38 E. (Pauri-Garhwal) Latitude: 29° 46’ N. Uttarakhand Altitude: 376m aMSL Situated at the foot-hills of Garhwal Himalayas at the banks of river Kho, Malini, and Sukhro

6

Haldwani, (Nainital) Uttarakhand

Longitude: 29°13’ E Latitude: 79°3 1’ N Altitude: 432 aMSL Situated in bhabar belt in the foot-hills of Kumaon Himalaya

7

Ramnagar (Nainital) Uttarakhand

Longitude: 79° 12’ E. Latitude: 29° 40’ N. Altitude: 345m aMSL It is the gateway of Jim Corbett National Park.

Loam containing gravel or alluvial type, clay humus, sandy, boulders and sand stones.

Kalidhal, Shri Bharat Mandir Inter College, Muni Ki Reti, Someshwar Nagar, TriveniGhat, Ram Jhoola, Luxman Jhoola, Mukerjee Road, Pushkar temple, Dehradun Road, etc. Vikas Nagar, Dakpatthar, Yamuna berrage, etc

Badrinath Road, Jhoola bridge, Gadighat, Vikas Nagar, Siddhabali Temple, Durga Devi Temple, hunadhara, etc.

Haldwani Bus Stand, Sheetala Mata Mandir, Gola River, Kaladhungi Road

Garjiya Devi Temple, Ramnagar Bus Stand

Table1 (Contd.)...

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Environmental Issues for Socio-ecological Development ...Table1 (Contd.)

8

Kashipur (US Nagar) Uttarakhand

9

Rudrapur (US Nagar) Uttarakhand

10

Khodri Majri (Sirmaur) Himachal Pradesh

11

Nahan (Sirmaur) Himachal Pradesh

12

Ponta Sahib (Sirmaur) Himachal Pradesh

13

Solan (Solan) Himachal Pradesh

14

Una (Una) Himachal Pradesh

15

Jammu (Jammu) Jammu & Kashmir

Longitude: 78° 95’ E. Latitude: 29° 22’ N. Altitude: 2 1 8m aMSL Located in Kumaon Himalaya near Jim Corbett National Park famous for tigers and elephants Longitude: 29°40’ B Latitude: 79°31’ N Altitude: 244 aMSL Situated at the foot-hills of Kumaon Himalaya Longitude: 8l054 E Latitude: 22°42’ N Altitude: 460 aMSL Situated at the boundry of UK and HP Himalaya

Longitude: 77° 30’ E. Latitude: 300 55 N. Altitude: 932m aMSL Situated on an isolated ridge in the Shivalik hills. Longitude: 77° 62’ E. Latitude: 300 45’ N. Altitude: 3 89m aMSL Situated on the western extreme of Doon valley, 44 km from Dehradun. Longitude: 76° 28’ E. Latitude: 3 10 49’ N. Altitude: 1467m aMSL Situated in the South West of HP, circumscribed by the beautiful Shivalik ranges of Himalaya. Longitude: 77° 12’ E. Latitude: 300 92’ N. Altitude: 369m aMSL Situated 46km South of Shimla, the mushroom city of India. Longitude: 74° 87’ E. Latitude: 32° 73’ N. Altitude: 327m aMSL It is situated on the banks ofTawi river.

Loam, clay and silt

Awas-Vikas Colony, Nagarpalika, Kashipur Bus Stand and Railway Station

Sandy, loam and silt

Rudrapur Bus Stand, Danpur Village, Pattarchata

Loam fairly rich in minerals like limestone and gypsum Sandy loam soils

Khodari Power House, Khodari waterfall, Khodari - Majari road, Guptsahasradhara, DropadiKund, Shiv temple, Nahan Bus Stand, Shiv Temple, Renuka Lake, Gurudwara

Loam soils Ponta Sahib Gurudwara, with Yamuna River, Bus Stand, boulders and Industrial Area sand stones

Sandy loam soils

Solan Bus Stand, Kanda Ghat, Bus Stand, Railway Station, Rajgarh Road

Loam, clay and silt

Una Bus Stand, Railway Station, Gurudwara, District Hospital, Bapu Asha Ram Ashram

Loam, clay, sandstones conglomerat e, gravel, clay and alluvial.

Manda Zoo, Panjtirthi, Kacehi Chawni, Rani Park, Karan Nagar, Tawi River, Har-KiPairi, aloura, Roop Nagar, Bus Stand, Railway Station and Trikuta Nagar. Table1 (Contd.)...

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Cynobacterial Diversity of North-West Sub-Himalayas ...Table1 (Contd.)

16

Akhnoor (Jammu) Jammu & Kashmir

17

Katra (Reasi) Jammu & Kashmir

18

Mansar (Udhampur) Jammu & Kashmir

19

Billawar (Kathua) Jammu & Kashmir

Longitude : 74° 73’ E. Latitude: 32° 87’ N. Altitude: 3Olm aMSL It is situated on the right bank ofChenab river. Longitude: 32° 98’ E. Latitude: 74° 95’ N. Altitude: 369m aMSL It is situated in the foothills of the Trikuta mountains, where the holy shrine of Vaishno Devi is located. Longitude: 75° 14’ E. Latitude: 32°69’ N. Altitude:666 m aMSL The Mansar is situated 60 Km east of Jammu. Longitude: 75° 62’ E. Latitude: 32° 62’ N. Altitude: 844m aMSL Billawar town is situated in the lap of Shiwalik mountains.

Sandy Loam & Silt

Bus Stand, Pandav Cave, Gurudwara, Water Pumping Station, Bank of Chenab river, Radhey Sham Temple. Loam, Clay & Ban Ganga, Charan Silt with Paduka, Bus Stand, Main boulders and Market. sandstones

Sandy Loam with humus

Mansar Lake, Sheesh Naag Temple, Mansar Zoo.

Loam, clay, Silt, sandstones boulders and grits

Bus Stand, Gurunal, Naaj River, Dhunari River, Bhaddu, Dadwara, Mandli, Pamala, Sukrala, Phinter.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS The present approach represents the following aspects: 

A presentation has been made of the cyanobacterial taxa recorded from the SubHimalayan Belt of North-West Himalayas.



Justification of the presence of these taxa in these localities with reference to the related literature from home and abroad.



Pie-Chart of the overall recorded taxa representing order-wise details and their per cent contribution to the cyanobacterial taxa recorded from these localities.

The following important points can be put forward on the basis of the present study: 1.

The study area is spread over five districts of Uttarakhand (Haridwar, Dehradun, Pauri-Garhwal, Nainital and Udham Singh Nagar), Three of Himachal Pradesh (Sirmaur, Solan and Una) and Four of Jammu & Kashmir (Jammu, Reasi, Kathua and Udhampur) which constitute the North-West Himalayan belt.

2.

The soils of Uttarakhand comprise loam, sand, clay and silt categories Loam, clay and sand are common at the research sites of Himachal Pradesh, whereas those of Jammu & Kashmir contain loam, sand, silt and clay.

3.

Topographically, the sites of Garhwal and Kumaon Himalayas range in 310376m and 244-432m altitude, respectively whereas those of Himachal Pradesh range between 396-1494m and Jammu & Kashmir from 301-844m asl. 105 |

Environmental Issues for Socio-ecological Development

4.

For the first time 329 species belonging to five orders, 56 genera, 14 families have been reported from 19 localities of three states of northwest region of India differing in season, altitude and topography.

5.

The samples collected in different seasons i.e. summer, winter and rainy included epilithic, epipelic, terrestrial, epiphytic, planktonic and miscellaneous habitats.

6.

General pH of soil is alkaline. The highest value of it was recorded at Solan (9.4) and lowest at Billawar (7.3). In respect of water pH, highest values have been determined at Rishikesh (7.9) and lowest at Dehradun (6.7).

7.

The members of Nostocales (66%) followed by Chroococcales (29%) dominate the study area. The representatives of Chaemosiphonales (2%) Pleurocapsales (2%) and Stigonematales (1 %) are, however rare in occurrence.

8.

The registered taxa have been co-related in the physical and chemical texture of the soil and nature of the water.

9.

Physical parameters included temperature, light intensities, relative humidity and pH. The chemical parameters encompass nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, -electrical conductivity, ammonical nitrogen and insoluble carbonates. Of all the factors light is significant factor which determines the variability and distribution of the cyanobacterial taxa. This gave an index of dominant taxa and rare ones.

10. l0. All in all, non-heterocystous (43%), heterocystous (25%) and unicellular forms (32%) have been identified. Of these non-heterocystous forms are dominant whereas heterocystous ones are comparatively less in number. The dominance of non-heterocystous form is assigned I attributed to the presence of accessive nitrogen in the soil; it deserves a special mention that no heterocystous forms were recorded from higher altitude of Jammu and Kashmir. 11. Nostocales are in abundance with a record of 216 species from 29 genera and 5 families. 12. Furthermore 16 new species and forms have been proposed, of which five have already been published. For the rest the data is under publication. 13. l3. An analysis of population dynamics throughout the year has shown that the rainy season with high temperature and intense sunlight, coupled with higher relative humidity, favoured their growth and proliferation, in respect to their annual cycle. 14. Certain forms produce water blooms under high nutrient conditions on the water body and thereby cause health hazards in human beings and animals. 15. Applied and economic aspects of cyanobacteria. | 106

Cynobacterial Diversity of North-West Sub-Himalayas

16. The data have been critically analyzed and the following statistics have been employed:



Frequency of cyanobacterial taxa in various habitats.



Descriptive statistics of Pedological and chemical parameters.



Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) in relation to various habitats.



Environmental, pedological and chemical parameters diversity of species



Mean



Standard Deviation



Correlation



Simpson’s Index for diversity



Cluster Analysis

LOOKING AHEAD 1.

In view of the findings accrued from the present work; the following suggestions are being put forward, for future investigations and continuation of the work on this important group of microorganisms:

2.

The soil texture in most of the sites is loam, clay, conglomerate, silt and sand. The soil water pH ranges from 6.5 to 8.2.The dissimilarities in altitudes and ecological features at different sites lead to a varied composition and density of the cyanobacterial species.

3.

The alkaline nature of soil water followed by its range towards neutral support the proliferation of the majority of the cyanobacteria.

4.

With regard to the habitat categories, the present analysis suggests that lithophytic taxa outnumber those of the other categories at all the foothill sites. This is followed by the terrestrial forms whereas those of epiphytic and epipelic habitats constitute the third and fourth positions, respectively. The forms collected from planktonic and miscellaneous habitats represent the remaining categories. This shows the preference of the various species with respect to the habitats or ecological niche, they happen to occupy.

5.

Present studies clearly indicate that the members of Nostocalesdominate the research area followed by Chroococcales whereas those of Stiginematales, Chaemosiphonales andPleurocapsales are of rare occurrence. 107 |

Environmental Issues for Socio-ecological Development

6.

Cyanobacteria dominate the areas deficient of nitrogen contents.

7.

It has been observed during present studies that the numbers of cyanobacterial species are indirectly proportional to the electrical conductivity of soil water.

8.

Evidently, the cumulative influence of the various factors at a site affects the distribution and proliferation of these forms and demarcation of a single factor having an edge over the others is not easy to discern.

9.

The members of the two orders Chemosiphonales and Stigonematales show a comparatively limited distribution of cyanobacterial members, whereas no members of the order Pleurocapsales have been recorded from Haidwani, Ramnagar, Rudrapur, Kashipur, Khodari Majri, Ponta Sahib,Una, Jammu and Mansar.

10. The situation in the sites of the Kumaon region is characteristic due to the

fact that from none of the centers, any members of Pleurocapsales have been recorded. 11. Light and temperature conditions have a distinct effect on the population

dynamics of the cyanobacterial flora. The bright light favours the growth of the members of the order Chroococcales, whereas the dim light enhances the presence of the members of Nostocales. Similarly, a moderate temperature between 20-38 °C has been found to be suitable for the both, the growth and reproduction of the cyanobacterial taxa. 12. The destruction and fragmentation of the suitable habitats and even their

encroachment in various ways is threatening the distribution, multiplication and evolution of the cyanobacteria all over the world. Our country and the region under study in particular, is no exception to this situation. As such, the sooner we embark upon preparing an exhaustive data of these from different regions and habitats, the better it will be for the future understanding and utilization. REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

Anand, N. 1989. Hand book of Blue-Green Algae. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun, pp.1- 77. Desikachary, T.V. 1959. Cyanophyta. Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, pp. 686. Fogg, G.E., W.D.P. Stewart, P. Fay and A.E. Walsby. 1973. The blue-green algae. Academic Press, London. pp. 459. Geitler, L., 1932. Cyanophyceae. – In: Rabenhorst, L. (ed.): Kryptogamen– Flora. – 1196 pp., Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, Leipzig. GUPTA S.L. Ameliorating effects of ATP on Copper Toxicity in Cyanobacterium. In: 97th Indian Science Congress Ahmedabad p. 4. January 3-8, 2005.

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Cynobacterial Diversity of North-West Sub-Himalayas Kumar M. 2014. Cynobacterial Diversity of North-West Sub- Himalayas. D.Sc. Thesis, Submitted to the H.N.B. Garhwal Central University, Srinagar, Pauri, Uttarakhand. [7] Khare, A. and Kumar, M. 2009. Influence of physical and chemical factors on the distributional pattern of Cyanobacteria in Kumaon Region. ELBA Bioflux, 2 (2).71-81. [8] Olsen, S.R and L. E. Sommers., 1982. Phosphorus. p 403-430. In: A.L. Page et al. (eds.) Methods of soil analysis, part 2. Agron. Mongr. 9. 2nd ed. ASA and SSSA, Madison, WI. [9] Rippka, R. 1988. "Recognition and Identification of Cyanobacteria." Methods in Enzymology 167: 28-67. [10] Rippka, R., J. Deruelles, et al. (1979). "Generic Assignments, Strain Histories and Properties of Pure Cultures of Cyanobacteria." Journal of General Microbiology 111(Mar): 1-61. [11] Singh, R.N.1961. Role of Blue Green Algae in Nitrogen Economy of Indian Agriculture. Indian Council of Agriculture Research Pub., New Delhi. [12] Wadia, D.N., 1939. Discrepancies between the chronological testimony the fossil plants and animals. Proc. 25th Ind. Sci. Cogr. IV Discussion. 163. [6]

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Genetically Modified Food with Special Reference to BT Brinjal Adarsh Pandey Department of Botany, S.S. P.G. College, Shahjahanpur–242001, U.P., India E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT With the increasing pressure of population of India, the prime need of our nation is to improve vegetables. As most of the population of India is vegetarian, the consumption of vegetables is enormous here. Among all the vegetables consumed in this country, Brinjal or Eggplant or Aubergine constitute the bulk of it due to its cheaper rate and easy availability. Brinjal is the king of vegetables which comes with its own crown. The Eggplant, Aubergine, or Brinjal (Solanum melongena), is a plant of the family Solanaceae. It bears a fruit of the same name, commonly used as a vegetable in cooking. It is closely related to tomato and potato. BT brinjal is a transgenic Brinjal created by inserting a gene cry1Ac from soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis into brinjal. BT brinjal is marketed in India by MaHyCo (Maharashtra Hybrid Seed Company), and Monsanto, a US-based agricultural company. Six varieties of Brinjal were evaluated in at Kolhapur and Gadhinglaj in Maharashtra and at Kallolli Karnataka and at Brahmavar in coastal Karnataka. To be active against lepidopterans insects (brinjal fruit and shoot borer) the protein must be ingested. In the insect gut, the protein binds to specific receptors on the insect midgut, inserts into the membrane and forms ion-specific-pores. These events disrupt the digestive processes and cause death of the insect. The Cry1AC protein produced in BT brinjal is nontoxic to non-lepidopteran insects. In 2003, nearly 2,500 sheep died after grazing in BT cotton fields. In a study, rats fed with GM tomatoes developed bleeding stomachs. Of the 20 rats, 7 developed stomach lesions; another 7 of 40 died within two weeks. Again, rats fed with Monsanto's GM maize exhibited 'significant changes in their blood cells, livers and kidneys. Matti is a village in the Udupi district of Karnataka state in India, famous for a particular variety of Brinjal, “Mattu Gulla”, which is known for its non-septic nature and special flavour. But the insertion of gene from Bt would remove the flavor of matti gulla and its medicinal properties. Udupi brinjal up for GI status BANGALORE: Is the humble Udupi gulla (a brinjal variety) going to bask in the same fame as Nagpur oranges or Darjeeling tea? What makes these goods famous is their place of origin and unique taste. The specialty of Udupi gulla, which is its place of origin and its unique flavour, will obviously not go exist once its Bt variant is out in the market. Keywords: Bt Brinjal, Eggplant, Aubergine, Bioterrorism, Bacillus Thuringiensis

INTRODUCTION Brinjal (Solanum melongena), is an easily cultivated plant belonging to the family Solanaceae. The brinjal, is a member of the nightshade family, along with the tomato, pepper, and potato. The plant is grown for its purple fruits that are usually baked, boiled, or fried. The common large-fruited forms are believed to have originated in India, with a possible secondary center of origin in China for the small-fruited types. It is one of the most common vegetables grown throughout the Country and contributes 9% 110 |

Genetically Modified Food with Special Reference to BT Brinjal

of the total vegetable production of the country. Brinjal has been cultivated for many centuries in India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, China, Arabia and Philippines. There are several names by which the crop is known in India, but brinjal is the most familiar. Brinjal is also called 'eggplant' or 'aubergine'. Brinjal is grown commonly in almost all the parts of the country and liked by both poor and rich. It is a main vegetable to the plains and is available more or less throughout the year. Used primarily as cooked vegetable, Brinjal is popular for the preparation of various dishes in different regions of the country. Studies of the Institute of Biology of São Paulo State University, Brazil showed that eggplant is effective in the treatment of high blood cholesterol hypercholesterolemia. Production of eggplant is highly concentrated, with 85 percent of output coming from five countries. China is the top producer (56% of world output) and India is second (26%); Egypt, Turkey and Indonesia round out the top producing nations. It is rich in Vitamin A and B. Brinjal is a rather small plant growing up to 1.5 m height. Brinjal is classified as a herb because of its non-woody stem. The simple leaves are oblong to oval, slightly lobed, and have an under surface that is a paler green than the upper surface. Both leaves and stem are covered with fine hairs. The flowers sprout singly or in small clusters from the leaf axils. Individual flowers are star-shaped, light purple in colour and have short stalks. The fruits are berries with many seeds. Fruits are either long or round and vary in colour according to the variety: white, orange, green, purple or black. It is a perennial with fruits growing all year round. In Traditional Chinese Medicine, all parts of the plant can be used to stop intestinal bleeding. The fruit of the plant is used as an antidote in cases of mushroom poisoning. In Indochina, parts of the plant are used as a purgative. For Traditional Malay Medicine, the ashes of the fruit are used in dry, hot poultices to treat haemorrhoids. Arabs have a superstition that the fruit has high "heating" properties which causes melancholia and madness. For this reason, Malay and Indian women do not consume brinjals for the first 40 days after giving birth. It can block the formation of free radicals; help control cholesterol levels and is also a source of folic acid and potassium. Eggplant is richer in nicotine than any other edible plant, with a concentration of 100 ng/g (or 0.01mg/100g). However, the amount of nicotine from eggplant or any other food is negligible compared to passive smoking. Common names of Brinjal are, Eggplant. Scientific name: Solanum melongena. Malay name: Terong manis (sweet brinjal), Terong china (Chinese brinjal), Terong ungu (purple brinjal), Terong rapoh, Terong puteh (white brinjal), Terong biru (blue brinjal), Terong hijau (green brinjal).Chinese name: Qie zi (Mandarin).Tamil name: Katirikai, Hindi-Bangan, Marati- vange,Tamil-Kathirikai.Telugu-venkaya. other names are Hingoli, Ringna, Bataun, Bandane, Guinea squash, Apple-of-love, Garden egg, Gully bean, Melanzana, Melongene, Pea apple, Pea aubergine, Poor-man's-caviar, Susumber, Terong.

BIOTERRORISM Bioterrorism is a planned and deliberate use of pathogenic strains of microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses or their toxins to spread life-threatening diseases on a mass scale in order to devastate the population of an area. Bioterrorism is a major threat to 111 |

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mankind in future. In biological warfare there is a silent release of catastrophic biological agents, resulting in unrest in a population due to largescale sufferings from diseases and disabilities (Syal, 2008).

BT BRINJAL Bt brinjal is a transgenic brinjal created by inserting a gene cry1Ac from soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis into brinjal. BT brinjal is marketed in India by MaHyCo (Maharashtra Hybrid Seed Company), and Monsanto, a US-based agricultural company. Bt Brinjal is a transgenic eggplant which has the gene from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis inserted into it. This variety was designed to give the plant resistance against lepidopteran insects like the Brinjal Fruit and Shoot Borer (Leucinodes orbonalis) and Fruit Borer (Helicoverpa armigera). A transgenic crop, Bt cotton was for the first time introduced in India in 2002. The Genetic Engineering Approval Committee (GEAC), which had been instituted by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, had recommended field experiments of Bt brinjal. The question is why is the Government of India so keen to allow powerful, undesirable and ruthless US corporations like Monsanto (represented within the country by companies like Mahyco) to privatize the basis of our food production system ,the seed? Monsanto has gone on record saying that it is working towards creating a world in which all farmers everywhere will only use Monsanto seed (and naturally pay it fees for doing so). Speed has always been a key element of Monsanto strategy. Before Americans could even know it (and protest), GM foods were upon them. Today, 85-91 per cent of corn, cotton and soybean are planted with Monsanto engineered seed. After BT cotton, they are planning to tamper with lady-finger, rice and 52 other crops with the same methods. The Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Brinjal has been embroiled in a controversy ever since it was cleared by the Genetic Engineering Approval Committee (GEAC) in October 2009. The firms claim that Bt brinjal improves crop yield, thus helping the agriculture sector. However, these claims have divided scientists and activists down the middle. For those who oppose introduction of Bt brinjal in India, the concern is that adequate studies have not been conducted to prove it’s safe for consumption. “Genetic engineering technology is nothing but inserting a gene from the bacterium into the DNA of the vegetable to produce pesticidal toxins in every cell. It has nothing to do with claims of improving the nutritional value or shelf life,” said C Kameshwar Rao, member of Foundation for Biotechnology Awareness and Education (FBAE). Presently, 2,500 brinjal varieties in India have been cultivated for the past 4,000 years. More than 1200 varieties of brinjals have evolved naturally all over this planet. But now the man who is about to clone himself is testing his intelligent designs with animals and vegetation and Poor Brinjal. Six varieties of Brinjal viz. Bt Malapur local (S), Bt Manjari Gota, Bt Udupi Gulla, Bt Rabkavi local, Bt Kudachi local, Bt Go-112 and their non-Bt | 112

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counterparts, along with Aruna as check, were evaluated in three locations at Kolhapur and Gadhinglaj in Maharashtra and at Kallolli Karnataka. Bt Go-112 and Bt Udupi Gulla, along with their non-Bt counterparts, were also evaluated at Brahmavar in coastal Karnataka.

ADVANTAGES The key argument used by those who support Bt brinjal is that it will boost yields while reducing dependence on pesticides. On average, a brinjal crop undergoes between 5080 rounds of pesticide spraying.This is said to give the Brinjal plant resistance against lepidopteron insects like the Brinjal Fruit and Shoot Borer (Leucinodes orbonalis) and Fruit Borer (Helicoverpa armigera). It is reported that upon ingestion of the Bt toxin by the insect, there would be disruption of digestive processes, ultimately resulting in the death of the insect.

DISADVANTAGES Some scientists have been opposing it, arguing that the genes were toxic and would affect the health of the consumers. Several studies on Bt crops in particular and GM crops in general show that there are many potential health hazards in foods bio-engineered in this manner. GM-fed animals in various studies have shown that there are problems with growth, organ development and damage, immune responsiveness and so on.

STATUS OF BRINJAL IN INDIA The Centre of Origin for Brinjal or Eggplant is India. Brinjal has been cultivated in India for the last 4000 years or so and has many historical references in various languages. It is grown all over the country, year-round and is one of the most popular vegetables of India. The area under cultivation is estimated to be around 5 lakh hectares. The total production stands at around 82 lakh metric tonnes. It is mainly grown in small plots as a cash crop by farmers. The average yields of Brinjal in India are reported to be around 200 to 350 quintals per hectare. The main growing areas are in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. There are many local varieties in India, in addition to improved varieties and hybrids. Some of the public sector improved varieties include Pusa Kranthi, Pusa Purple Cluster, Syamala etc. Hybrids include Arka Navneet, Pusa Hybrid 6, Utkarsha, Pusa Hybrid 5 etc. from the public sector in addition to private sector hybrids. It is estimated that the damage caused by the Shoot & Fruit Borer in brinjal [which has been the major pest for the past two decades or so] ranges from 50 to 70% and in economic terms, it is estimated to be around $221 millions. It is to lend tolerance to this pest primarily that the Bt Brinjal has been developed.

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Environmental Issues for Socio-ecological Development Table 1: Chemical Composition of Fruit Tissue of Bt Brinjal and Non-Bt brinjal Entries Entry Bt Brinjal Non-Bt Counterpart Manjari Gota

Moisture % 88.4 88.4 86.8

Protein % 2.2 2.0 2.3

Oil % 0.2 0.3 0.3

Ash % 0.9 0.8 1.0

Carbohydrates % 8.3 8.6 9.7

Kcal/100g 43.6 44.4 50.7

*All values are expressed on fresh weight basis and mean of 4 replications. Table 2: Chemical Composition of Leaf, Stem and Root Tissues of Bt Brinjal and non-Bt brinjal Entries Entry Bt brinjal Non-Bt counterpart Manjari Gota

2.5 2.4 2.7

Nitrogen % 1.3 1.2 1.4 1.2 1.2 1.1

20.8 21.0 21.1

Ash % 10.3 9.9 9.1

11.1 11.5 8.9

Crude Fiber % 16.4 32.9 18.7 15.6 30.9 17.8 16.4 35.3 16.0

*All values are expressed on fresh weight basis and mean of 4 replications.

BT TOXINS UNSAFE Bt toxins are derived from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringenesis. Natural Bt toxins have never been authorized for mammalian consumption and are known to be harmful to health. Seralini’s appraisal also cautions against synthetic and genetically modified Bt toxins such as the hybrid toxin contained in Bt brinjal that mixes two toxins, the Cry1Ab and Cry1Ac engineered sequences together. Another flaw in the Monsanto-Mayhco toxicity tests on non-target insects was that the single toxin Cry1Ac was used because this was easier than the hybrid. If regulators such as the Genetic Engineering Approval Committee (GEAC) had been doing long term research to assess the claims of GM crop companies and taken up the analysis of the company's data itself then the two year large scale trials of Bt brinjal approved in 2007 would not have been allowed to go ahead. In fact, the results only came to light when a Supreme Court battle forced GEAC to put the Monsanto-Mahyco test dossier on Bt brinjal into the public domain.

METHODS FOR DEVELOPING BT BRINJAL Bt Brinjal was developed by transforming the brinjal proprietary line of Mahyco. According to MK Sharma, managing director, Mahyco Monsanto, the Bt brinjal contains three genes inserted via genetic engineering techniques. First, the Cry1AC gene, which encodes for an insecticidal protein Cry1AC, was derived from the common soil bacterium Bacillus Thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki (B.t.k). The Cry1AC gene is driven by enhanced CaMV 35S promoter. Second, the NPTII gene, which encodes the selectable marker enzyme neomycin phosphotransferase II (NPTII), was used to identify transformed cells that contained the Cry1AC protein. It has no pesticidal properties. The NPTII gene is derived from the prokaryotic transposon Tn5. The third one is the AAD gene, which encodes for the bacterial selectable marker enzyme 3”(9)-O- aminnoglycoside adenyl transferase (AAD), allowed for the selection of | 114

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bacteria containing the pMON 10518 plasmid on media containing spectinomycin or streptomycin. The AAD gene is under the control of a bacterial promoter and hence not expressed in BT brinjal. The AAD gene was isolated from transposon Tn7. The Bt Brinjal was produced using Agrobacterium-mediated transformation system. The Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain LBA4404 carrying the vector pMON 10518 (which carries Cry1AC, NPTII and AAD genes) was used in the transformation process. The T-DNA, which includes Cry1AC, NPTII, and AAD genes, was transferred into the genome of the brinjal cells. The seeds of a proprietary line of Mahyco were used as source material for brinjal transformations. After the genes were introduced by Agrobacterium-mediated transformation, transgenic plants were regenerated by tissue culture, using kanamycin as the selection agent. The development of an improved method for Agrobacterium mediated brinjal transformation was done at Mahyco. The plants, regenerated through tissue culture procedures on media containing kanamycin, were analyzed using ELISA for the presence of Cry1AC protein. The plants expressing Cry1AC proteins were carried forward and analyzed in subsequent generations to identify lines, in which the transgene segregated in the expected Mendelian fashion. Selected lines were also analyzed by southern blot. A single line (event EE-1) was introduced into the breeding program. A PCR based event ID was developed by Mahyco for this unique event EE-1. The Cry1AC gene in the transgenic Bt brinjal behaved as a single dominant Mendelian factor indicating stable inheritance of the gene in the plant genome. To be active against lepidopterans insects (brinjal fruit and shoot borer) the protein must be ingested. In the insect gut, the protein binds to specific receptors on the insect midgut, inserts into the membrane and forms ion-specific-pores. These events disrupt the digestive processes and cause death of the insect. “The Cry1AC protein produced in Bt brinjal is non-toxic to non-lepidopteran insects, birds, fish and mammals as these species lack receptors for the proteins on the surface of their gut cells. The acidic medium in gut of these organisms also makes Cry1AC protein inactive. NPTII and AAD proteins are used as a selectable marker and have no pesticidal activity and are not known to be toxic to any species,” said C. Kameswara Rao, founder of the Foundation for Biotechnology Awareness and Education. The Bt brinjal technology, developed by Monsanto, was taken up by Mahyco and two public institutions, the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (TNAU), Coimbatore and University of Agricultural Sciences (UAS), Dharwad, Karnataka. In addition, scientists at Cornell University, U.S., and scientists in the University of Philippines and Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI) were also involved in the development of the technology.

CONTROVERSY REGARDING BT BRINJAL In India much debate about Bt Brinjal has been generated. The promoters say that Bt Brinjal will be beneficial to small farmers because it is insect resistant, increases yields, is more cost-effective and will have minimal environmental impact. On the other hand, concerns about Bt Brinjal relate to its possible adverse impact on human health and biosafety, livelihoods and biodiversity. 115 |

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EFFECT OF GM CROPS Brinjal in its varied shapes and colours is said to have originated in India. Opponents of Bt brinjal, therefore, contend that genetic engineering should not be allowed in the "centre of origin" as it could lead to the loss of original varieties by transgenic crosspollination. Spokesperson of Mahyco, when brushed aside the 'centre of origin' argument saying, "The origin of cultivated brinjal is uncertain, with differing views put forward by scientists . South America and Indo-China are thought to be areas of origin. India is considered a centre of diversity." Since Bt brinjal is fatal to a pest called fruit and shoot borer, some scientists question the premise that the Bt gene acts only in the alkaline environment found in the gut of insects. For, the human digestive system is acidic only in the stomach while the rest of it is alkaline. The study done by Mahyco on rats allegedly does not address possible human dangers such as cancer, infertility and kidney damage. However some believe that the Bt gene breaks down during digestion into common amino acids, which are part of the normal diet and are neither toxic nor allergic. The government's Genetic Engineering Approval Committee has cleared the commercial cultivation of genetically modified (GM) brinjal .This is the first time a GM food crop has been approved by the GEAC, an ad hoc 30-member committee. In another study, rats fed with GM tomatoes developed bleeding stomachs. Of the 20 rats, 7 developed stomach lesions; another 7 of 40 died within two weeks. Again, rats fed with Monsanto's GM maize exhibited 'significant changes in their blood cells, livers and kidneys'. Monsanto challenged the findings with its own 'company study'. But according to expert Gilles-Eric Seralini, 'Monsanto contradicts itself. The first time around, their studies explain that there are "significant effects without a pathological significance", and the second time around, say that the effects observed are no longer significant.' Worse, there's strong evidence that GM crops affect human beings and animals. In Madhya Pradesh agricultural labourers handling BT cotton complained of allergic reactions like 'mild to severe itching'. 'In severe cases, the eyes also become red, swollen', with excessive tears, nasal discharge, and sneezing. In 2003, nearly 2,500 sheep died after grazing in BT cotton fields. Adverse effects have been reported from the Philippines, the US and Germany from GM maize, cotton and soyabeans, including allergies in humans and permanent damage in pigs, cows and chickens. Studies suggest that gene insertion may disrupt the seed DNA, the protein inserted by the BT gene may cause problems, and the foreign protein may be different than that intended. Besides, genes may get transferred to human systems. GM food crops are not the technology of the future. There are only 6 countries in which GM crop production is significant: The US , Argentina, Brazil , Canada , India and China. Losses from BT cotton are one of the main causes for the 150,000 farmers's suicides in India since 1997. Matti is a village in the Udupi district of Karnataka state in India that lies on the shore of the Arabian Sea. The village is also known by name of Mattu. The village is famous for a particular variety of brinjal (eggplant) that is grown only in this village. The | 116

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brinjal grown here is light green in colour and is spherical, unlike the usual purplecoloured variety. The first brinjal harvested is offered to Lord Krishna at Krishna Matha, Udupi for its distinct flavour. The Matti gulla (brinjal) grown here is consumed largely by Shivalli Madhva brahmins. The seeds for growing this type of brinjal is said to be given by Shri Vadiraja swamiji. The origin or the story behind Mattu gulla (Brinjal) goes like this,Shree Vadhirajacharya, a monk ('swamilu' in tulu), was daily offering food to Hayagreeva or Hayavadhana (Narayana in Horse's face). He used to close the door and a horse steps up on his shoulder to eat it. Vadhirajaru used to return empty vessel always. This enraged other brahmanas, and in turn they mixed poison, thinking that Vadhirajaru has eaten it, as usual he offered food, the horse came and ate fully without leaving a trace. But to their surprise, other brahmins saw Shri Krishna, Udupi's Idol turning blue in color. So other brahmnas felt guilty and went to Vadhirajaru for pardon. Vadhirajaru with his divine powers gave some seeds of Brinjal to Mattu Brahmins to sow it. The brinjal grown there is bought and being offered to Krishna as Nayvedhya. Slowly the blueishness vanished away. So even now “Mattu Gulla” is famous for non-septic in nature. But after the insertion of gene from Bt would make this matti gulla without flavour. In India, the Orissa Government has not officially allowed the cultivation of any GM crops. As agriculture is constitutionally a State subject, the State has the constitutional right and competence to implement such a ban. Accordingly besides Orissa, the states like Kerala, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh, have banned Bt brinjal cultivation. Uttrakhand Prohibits Farming of Bt Brinjal. Udupi brinjal up for GI status BANGALORE: Is the humble Udupi gulla (a brinjal variety) going to bask in the same fame as Nagpur oranges or Darjeeling tea? What makes these goods famous is their place of origin and unique taste. The specialty of Udupi gulla, which is its place of origin and its unique flavour, will obviously not go exist once its Bt variant is out in the market.

GI STATUS GI goods are defined as geographical indication, referring to a country or to a place in it, as being the place of origin of that product. Such a name conveys an assurance of quality and distinctiveness, which is attributable to the fact of its origin in that, defined geographical locality, region or country. Examples of GI goods -Basmati rice, Darjeeling tea, Kanchipuram silk saree, Alphonso mango, Nagpur orange, Kolhapuri chappal, Bikaneri bhujia and Agra petha. Udupi Gulla brinjal is an important product for Karnataka because of its uniqueness and the variety of brinjals the state produces. Bt brinjal was the second GM crop to be cleared by the GEAC.

CONCLUSION First introduced 15 years ago, GM crops are still confined to a handful of countries with highly industrialized, export-oriented agricultural sectors. Nearly 90% of the area planted to GM crops in 2007 was found in just six countries in North & South America, 117 |

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with 80% in the US, Argentina, Brazil and Canada. One country alone, the United Uruguay and States, grows over 50% of the world's GM crops. Less than 3% of cropland in India and China is planted with GM crops, almost exclusively Bt cotton. In the 27 countries of the European Union, GM crop cultivation represents a mere 0.21% of agricultural land. Being totally disappointed and frustrated due to the stagnation in area expansion of Bt crops, the US multinationals are ruthlessly and aggressively penetrating in the developing countries like India. The present reality is that the Indian regulatory management with regard to GM crops has never been assessed thoroughly as to whether the right questions are being asked with regard to GM risk evaluation in Indian conditions. As in other parts of the world, the current safety assessments are inadequate to catch most of the harmful effects from GM crops, that too in an early warning system. It is no longer in question that GM technology is erratic and imprecise, that too when released in an open environment situation. Therefore, there are many worrisome issues with regard to Bt Brinjal.

REFERENCES Burkill, I. H.1993. A dictionary of the economic products of the Malay Peninsula (pp. 2081-2082). Kuala Lumpur: Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives. [2] (Call no.: RSING 634.909595 BUR) [3] Kwok, P. K. P. 1986. A guide to the Singapore Science Centre Ecogarden (p. 102). Singapore: Singapore Science Centre. [4] (Call no.: RSING 581.95957 KWO) [5] Polunin, I. 1987. Plants and flowers of Singapore (p. 148). Singapore: Times Editions.(Call no.: RSING 581.95957 POL) [6] Wee, Y. C. 1992. A guide to medicinal plants (p. 140). Singapore: Singapore Science Centre. (Call no.: RSING 581.634095957 WEE) [7] Darbie M. Granberry, D. M. (January, 1990. Commercial Eggplant Production. Retrieved September 13, 2003, from University of Georgia College of Agricultural & Environmental Sciences Web site: www.ces.uga.edu/pubcd/c812-w.html [8] Lindgren, D.T. (April, 1996. University of Nebraska-Lincoln), 1982. Eggplant. Retrieved September 13, 2003, from University of Nebraska, Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources Web site: www.ianr.unl.edu/ pubs/ Horticulture/g603.htm [9] Purdue University. 2001. Solanum melongena]. Retrieved September 13, 2003, from www.hort.purdue.edu/ newcrop/nexus/Solanum_melongena_nex.html [10] Sanders, D. C. (January, 2001). Eggplant. Retrieved from September 13, 2003, from North Carolina State University Web site: www.ces.ncsu.edu/ depts/hort/hil/hil-15.html. [11] Conservation and survey division, genetic engineering approval committee. Decision taken in the 97th meeting of the GEAC held on 14th October, 2009 [Internet]. Ministry of Environments and Forests. 2009 Oct 14 [cited 2009 Nov 27]. Available from: http://www.envfor.nic.in/divisions/csurv/geac/information.html. [12] Syal, S., 2008. Bioterrorism: time to wake up. Current Science. 95(12): 1665-1666 [1]

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Estimation of Sodium and Calcium in Cymbopogon Species by Flame Photometry Archana Srivastava1 and Naina Srivastava2 1

Department of Botany, DGPG College, Kanpur–208002, U.P., India Department of Botany, DAV PG College, Dehradun–248001, U.K., India E-mail: [email protected] 2

ABSTRACT Lemon grass is well known and easily available plant and being used for treatment of various diseases since many decades. It is rich in many minerals that are useful for our body. It is also used to kill germs and as a mild astringent. Present work to determine minerals is based on flame photometry and it is very simple, inexpensive and less time consuming. Present work to determine minerals is based on flame photometry and it is very simple, inexpensive and less time consuming. Result for analysis of sodium, calcium in methanolic and aqueous extract of lemon grass in terms of m. mole/ L, ppm and mg/ 100 gm fresh lemongrass is measured. I have also tried to detect amount of elements in acetone extract, but in acetone flame was not remains stable and intensity of flame was also very high, so it was not possible to analyze with acetone extract. As per analysis sodium and calcium is present in ore amount in aqueous extract than in methanolic extract. Keywords: Flame photometer, Lemon grass, Elements

INTRODUCTION Lemon grass is well known and easily available plant and being used for treatment of various diseases since many decades. It is rich in many minerals that are useful for our body. Now a days many formulation of lemon grass are available in market, but there isno proper method to detect the actual amount of minerals present in formulation. Present work to determine minerals is based on flame photometry and it is very simple, inexpensive and less time consuming. This method is properly validated using standard chemicals and it can be applied to formulation. Scientific reports on nutritional analysis of Lemongrass have been published frequently in various journals. These reports and the chemical analyses undertaken reveal that lemongrass is rich in chlorophyll, minerals like Magnesium, Selenium, Zinc, Calcium, Potassium, Phosphorus, Sodium, Chromium, antioxidants like beta-carotene (pro-vitamin A), vitamin E, vitamin C, anti-anemic factors like vitamin B12, iron, folic acid, pyridoxine and many other minerals, amino acids and enzymes, which have significant nutritious and medicinal value. lemon grass juice has been proven over many years to benefit people in numerous ways: cleansing the lymph system, building the blood, restoring balance in the body, removing toxic metals from the cells, nourishing the liver and kidneys and restoring vitality that lemon | 119

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grass is a safe and effective treatment for ailments such as high blood pressure, some cancers, obesity, diabetes, gastritis, ulcers, anemia, asthma and eczema. Cymbopogon citratus also known as Lemongrass is an herb which belongs to the grass family of Poaceae. It is well known and utilized for its distinct lemon flavor and citrusy aroma. Lemongrass is a tall, perennial grass which is native to India and tropical regions of Asia. It is a coarse and tufted plant with linear leaves that grows in thick bunches, emerging from a strong base and standing for about 3 meters in height with a meter-wide stretch. In addition to its culinary usage, lemongrass offers a wide array of medicinal benefits and is in extensive demand due to its antibacterial, anti-fungal and antimicrobial properties across Southeast Asia, as well as the African and American continents. The genus Cymbopogon comprises of 55 species of grass, two of which are referred to as Lemongrass. Our bodies are complex systems in which there is a delicate chemical balance that keeps everything functioning as it should. Disruptions to the system are going to have consequences with some being more severe than others. Some of these consequences can take the form of disease or irreversible damage. Prevention is always better than trying to cure illness or repair damage. One of the most important parts of prevention is good nutrition. Making sure that you regularly consume the standard recommended daily intake levels of the vitamins, mineral and other nutrients your body needs is the first vital step in keeping a healthy physic and mind. But because of today's lifestyle and diet, it is very hard therefore to intake the proper daily amount of potassium necessary for a normal life. For this concern, nutritional supplements are the solution.

METHODOLGY PREPARATION OF VARIOUS EXTRACT For preparation of methanolic extract, dried powder obtained from 100 gram of fresh lemon grass was crushed thoroughly, using mortar and pestle. The crushed lemon grass was completely exhausted by adding small quantities of methanol and filtering off every time in a successive manner, to yield final volume of 1 liter. Same way for the preparation of aqueous extract, dried powder obtained from 100 gram of fresh wheatgrass was crushed thoroughly, using mortar and pestle. The crushed lemongrass was completely exhausted by adding small quantities of double distilled water and filtering off every time in a successive manner, to yield final volume of 1 liter. Sample of lemon grass extracts were analyzed for calcium and sodium elements detection using standard and double distilled water as a reference. For methanolic extract of lemon grass, mixed standards prepared in methanol was used and for water extract mixed standards prepared from double distilled water was used. Here instrument is giving concentration of elements in m. mole/ liter. Calculate the amount of elements present in terms of mg/100 gm fresh lemon grass. Flame photometry is a | 120

Estimation of Sodium and Calcium in Cymbopogon Species by Flame Photometry

highly empirical, rather than an absolute, method of analysis such as gravimetry. We must calibrate the method carefully and frequently. Many different experimental variables affect the intensity of light emitted from the flame and that finding its way to the detector. Therefore, careful and frequent calibration is required for good results.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Analyses can be made far more rapidly by the flame photometer than by the best gravimetric and volumetric methods when the instrument is properly operated. With flame photometry, results can be produced promptly because of the direct procedure which is impossible with chemical methods. The proposed method was found to be simple, specific, accurate and precise. Table 5: Analysis of Lemon Grass Extract Name of Extract

Sr. No. (In m. mole/L)

Water Extract of Cymbopogon citratus Water Extract of Cymbopogon nardus Water Extract of Cymbopogon flexeous Methanolic Extract of Cymbopogon Citratus Methanolic Extract of Cymbopogon nardus Methanolic Extract of Cymbopogon flexeous

Calcium (Ca+2) Amount Found* (In ppm) mg/100 gm Fresh Lemon Grass

Sodium(Na+1) Amount Found* (In m. (In mg/100 mole/L) ppm) gm Fresh Lemon Grass .4 9.2 9.2

1

.8

32.16

32.16

2

.7

33.14

33.14

.3

6.9

6.9

3

.6

30.12

30.12

.4

9.2

9.2

4

1.6

64.13

64.13

.8

18.4

18.4

5

1.7

68.14

68.14

.7

16.1

16.1

6

1.5

60.12

60.12

.5

11.55

11.55

CONCLUSION The method was successfully used to estimate the amount of sodium, calcium in various extracts of lemon grass. By observing validation parameters, method was found to be specific, accurate, precise, repeatable and reproducible. This method is simple in calculation, hence can be employed for routine analysis of these metals in various marketed formulation of lemon grass. Flame photometry is a highly empirical, rather than an absolute, method of analysis such as gravimetry. That is, you must calibrate the method carefully and frequently. Many different experimental variables affect the intensity of light emitted from the flame and that finding its way to the detector. Therefore, careful and frequent calibration is required for good results. 121 |

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REFERENCES [1]

[2] [3] [4] [5] [6]

Gayathri, K., Jayachandran, K.S., Vasanthi, H.R., & Rajamanickam, G.V. (2011). Effect of lemon grass as evidenced by biochemical and histopathological changes in experimentally induced cardiotoxicity. Hum Exp Toxicol, 30(8), 1073-82. Skoog D.A., West D.M., Holler, F.J and Crouch, S. R: Flame photometric determination of sodium. In Analytic Chemistry: An Introduction. Edition 7, 2005: 594-631. Kazi, T.G., Kandhro, G.A., Afridi, H.I., Kazi, N., Baig, J.A., Arain, M.B., Shah, A.Q., Syed, N., Kumar, S., Kolachi, N.F. and Khan, S. 2010. Interaction of Copper Agriculture. Food Chemistry 41(2): 153-156. Arshad Hussain, Azra Yasmin and Javed Ali, 2010. Pak. J.Bot. 42(4):2497-2502. Shah, G., Shri, R., Panchal, V., Sharma, N. and Singh, B. 2011. Scientific basis for the Therapeutic use of Cymbopogon citratus. J Adv Pharm Technol Res, 2(1), 3–8. Kumar, S., Dwivedi, S., Kukreja, AK., Sharma, J. R. and Bagchi, GD. 2000. Cymbopogon: The Aromatic Grass Monograph. Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow, India.

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A Qualitative Analysis of the Impacts of Green Economy on Social, Environment and Economy Sector Beena Yadav Faculty of Education, Bareilly College, Bareilly–234005, U.P, India E-mail: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION The green economy is defined as an economy that results in reducing environmental risks and ecological scarcities, and that aims for sustainable development without degrading the environment. It is closely related with ecological economics, but has a more politically applied focus. In our attempt to present a qualitative analysis of the concept of “Green Economy”, a term first coined by a group of leading environmental economists namely Pearce, Markandya and Barbier, in 1989; we can formulate working definition of a green economy as one that results in improved human well-being and social equity, while significantly reducing environmental risks and ecological scarcities. In its simplest expression, a green economy can be thought of as one which is low carbon, resource efficient and socially inclusive. Practically speaking, a green economy is one whose growth in income and employment is driven by public and private investments that reduce carbon emissions and pollution, enhance energy and resource efficiency, and prevent the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services. These investments need to be catalyzed and supported by targeted public expenditure, policy reforms and regulation changes. This development path should maintain, enhance and, where necessary, rebuild natural capital as a critical economic asset and source of public benefits, especially for poor people whose livelihoods and security depend strongly on nature. To be green, an economy must not only be efficient, but also fair. Fairness implies recognizing global and country level equity dimensions, particularly in assuring a just transition to an economy that is low- carbon, resource efficient, and socially inclusive. In our paper, we will present how a green economy can reduce persistent poverty across a range of important sectors – agriculture, forestry, freshwater, fisheries and energy. Sustainable forestry and ecologically friendly farming methods help conserve soil fertility and water resources. Also, the paper will provide guidance on policies to achieve this shift by reducing or eliminating environmentally harmful or perverse subsidies, addressing market failures created by externalities or imperfect information, creating market based incentives, implementing appropriate regulatory frameworks, initiating green public procurement and by stimulating investment. | 123

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INVESTING IN NATURAL CAPITAL INVESTING IN AGRICULTURE A transformation of today’s predominant agriculture paradigms is urgently needed because conventional (industrial) agriculture as practiced in the developed world has achieved high productivity levels primarily through high levels of inputs (some of which have limited known natural reserves), such as chemical fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides; extensive farm mechanization; high use of transportation fuels; increased water use that often exceeds hydrologic recharge rates; and higher yielding crop varieties resulting in a high ecological footprint. Agriculture that is based on a green economy vision integrates location-specific organic resource inputs and natural biological processes to restore and improve soil fertility; achieve more efficient water use; increase crop and livestock diversity; support integrated pest and weed management and promotes employment and smallholder and family farms. A greener agriculture has the potential to substantially reduce agricultural GHG emissions by annually sequestering nearly 6 billion tonnes of atmospheric CO2. The cumulative effect of green agriculture in the long term will provide the adaptive resilience to climatechange impacts. Investments are needed to enhance and expand supply-side capacities, with farmer training, extension services, and demonstration projects focusing on green farming practices that are appropriate for specific local conditions and that support both men and women farmers. Investments in setting up and capacity building of rural enterprises are also required.

INVESTING IN FISHERIES Greening the fisheries sector by rebuilding depleted stocks and implementing effective management could increase the overall marine fisheries catch, and raise the economic contribution of ocean fish populations to the global economy. In order to achieve sustainable levels of fishing from an economic, ecological and social point of view, a serious reduction in current excessive capacity is required. Given the wide difference in the catching power, the job creation potential, and the livelihood implications of large scale versus small-scale fishing vessels, it appears that a reduction effort focused on large-scale vessels could reduce overcapacity at lower socio-economic costs to society. Though there have been successful experiences with mechanisms to manage the transition and adjustment within the fishing industry, through vessel buyback programmes, compensation, provision of social security and retraining programmes for fishers, to learn from and build upon. More investment is required to improve fisheries management in most parts of the world. This would enable a more effective implementation of all management tools that have proven to be effective, including stock assessments, monitoring and controlling programs, transferable and nontransferable quota systems, and expanding marine protected areas. In addition, strengthening fishery institutions both in national administrations and regional fishery management organisations would allow a more effective governance and management of resources within and outside nations’ Exclusive Economic Zones. | 124

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INVESTING IN WATER Access to clean water and adequate sanitation services is critical to the future of each and every household. Water is clearly fundamental to food production and providing ecosystem services and vital for industrial production and energy generation. Finding a way to use the world’s water more efficiently and making it available to all at a reasonable cost, while leaving sufficient quantities to sustain the environment are formidable challenges. In an increasing number of regions, affordable opportunities to access more water are limited. But progress has to be made to improve efficiency use and working within scientifically established and common practice limits. Direct benefits to society can be expected to flow both from increased investment in the water supply and sanitation sector, including investment in the conservation of ecosystems critical for water. Research shows that by investing in green sectors, including the water sector, more jobs and greater prosperity can be created. Arguably, these opportunities are strongest in areas where people still do not have access to clean water and adequate sanitation services. Early investment in the provision of these services appears to be a precondition for progress. Once made, the rate of progress will be faster and more sustainable, thus making transition to a green economy possible. Arrangements that encourage the increased conservation and sustainable use of ecosystem services can be expected to improve prospects for a transition to a green economy. Ecosystem services play a critical role in the production of many goods and in many of the services needed by the world’s human population but pressure on them is increasing. By investing in arrangements that protect these services and, where appropriate, enhance them there is opportunity to ensure that the greatest advantage is taken of these services. Another opportunity is the formal allocation of water rights to the environment. Where water resources have been over-allocated, there are significant opportunities to fund restoration at a reasonable cost before changes become irreversible.

INVESTING IN ENERGY AND RESOURCE EFFICIENCY INVESTING IN RENEWABLE ENERGY The challenges posed to the global community and national governments, in terms of energy security, climate change, health impacts, and energy poverty are pressing, making the greening of the energy sector an imperative. The cost effectiveness of renewable energy technologies has evolved considerably in recent decades. Many renewable energy technologies are maturing rapidly and their costs becoming competitive with fossil fuel alternatives. Consequently, the investments in deploying renewable energy increased dramatically in the last decade. A number of governments have supported innovation to help reduce costs, while many more are increasingly putting in place regulations, fiscal incentives and financing mechanisms that mitigate risks and increase returns to investing in renewable energy. At the international level, the formal creation in 2011 of the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) indicates a willingness of governments to work collaboratively in expanding the role of renewable energy. Increasing investments in renewable energy, as part of a green economy strategy spanning all major sectors, can contribute to reducing health and environmental impacts from energy production and use, while ensuring the basis for 125 |

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long-term economic growth. Such a strategy is based on the substitution of fossil fuel energy with renewable energy, savings from energy efficiency in manufacturing, buildings and construction, and transport, and behavioral change. Such an integrated strategy can increase national energy security and reduce carbon emissions while providing new employment opportunities that may, in global terms, more than compensate for jobs that disappear. In order also to play a role as part of an integrated strategy to reduce energy poverty, specific aspects of renewable energy development needs to be tailored to the circumstances in rural areas where the majority of the poor in developing countries live. Mini-grids and off grids may provide a cost-effective means of delivering electricity to the poor, while also reducing growth in GHG emissions. This requires additional financing flows, as well as continued development of new financing models.

INVESTING IN MANUFACTURING Investment strategies for greening manufacturing highlighted investment in cleaner technologies and innovation, associated benefits in efficient use of energy and water, investment in a transition towards green jobs and likely prospects for resource efficient growth in developing markets. Following years of automation and related cuts in manufacturing jobs, the greening of manufacturing will not generate jobs in all sectors. However, recycling and re-manufacturing have considerable potential to create jobs. There will also be more skilled jobs in energy-service companies, in repair and maintenance and in recycling scarce materials. Government training programmes to upgrade skills will be needed in virtually all countries, but the kinds of skills required will vary according to the level of development of the local industry. Results of the simulations indicate that investing in greening the manufacturing industries will help reduce energy consumption and emissions, reduce the upward pressure on prices of fossil fuels and–through avoided energy costs – help boost productivity and profit whilst stimulating GDP and overall employment. From the sectors covered in this chapter, the chemical and plastics industry shows the greatest potential for energy savings. To track progress in how a green investment scenario evolves, governments need to begin to collect improved data on industrial resource efficiency. Overall, there is abundant evidence that the global economy still has untapped opportunities to produce wealth using less material and energy resources. It is important to understand though that increasing resource efficiency is consistent with almost any definition of green, whereas cutting carbon or other GHG emissions per se may not be consistent with increased efficiency. Governments will also need to consider ways ofsupporting the greening of manufacturing through institutional support and soft technology approaches, for example, education and training in areas such as cleaner production and considering smaller, supplier enterprises in particular. Institutional support can vary from the financial, ensuring the provision of green subsidies and loans, to the provision of infrastructure, ensuring appropriate systems for deposit refunding, waste recovery, recycling and distribution. Scaled-up investment in establishing eco-industrial parks can be a key building block in this, an area open for public-private partnership. | 126

A Qualitative Analysis of the Impacts of Green Economy on Social, Environment and Economy Sector

SUPPORTING THE TRANSITION TO A GLOBAL GREEN ECONOMY Undertaken at the global level, this analysis necessarily does not reflect different national or regional circumstances, which should be an area for additional work. Among other aspects, such analysis will need to pay attention to the means and ability of governments to direct investment at the scale envisaged, including necessary international flows. In the green economy scenarios, one observes significant efficiency improvements, resource conservation and carbon mitigation, which contribute to stronger and more resilient economic growth in the medium- and long-term. The sustainable management of natural resources, resulting from a reduction in fishing capacity, a decline in deforestation, the promotion of organic fertilizer and a reduction in fossil fuel use, will allow the restoration of stocks of key natural resources, or greatly mitigate their depletion. For example, fish stocks, forestland and soil quality are estimated to increase by 64 to 106 per cent, 21 per cent and 21 to 27 per cent respectively by 2050, with clear benefits for the productivity of these sectors. In addition, the efficiency improvement of water and energy use in a number of sectors will considerably curb the consumption of these resources and avoid negative consequences arising from their depletion. With increased carbon sequestration from forests, the potential sequestration from conservation agriculture (still to be estimated in detail), and the substitution of traditional energy resources with low-carbon alternatives, CO2 and GHG emissions, will be considerably lower over the next 40 years.

CONCLUSION Even when there is a clear economic case for green investments, enabling conditions a generally needed. This paper has identified five key policy-making area which could feasibly be introduced by government at all levels in the short-to-medium term, with a view to driving the innovative and transformational change which could arise from collaboration between different sectors on the green economy in the longer term. The first of these, public investment and spending, can be important in the short term to attract green investment and promote the development of green markets, especially where alternative policy tools are practically or politically impossible. A second key area of policy-making is the use of environmentally related taxes and other market-based instruments to address environmental externalities and market failures. A number of innovative measures, including tradable permit schemes and feed-in tariffs, have been successfully used by governments in recent years to speed the transition to a green economy. Overall, it is clear that a wealth of policy options exist for governments to enable the greening of key sectors and that implementing strategies for greening the economy will involve a broad suite of measures and appropriate indicators to measure progress. The challenge now is to set priorities at the country level and to identify strategies for how to green key sectors in ways that are aligned with existing commitments to sustainable development and poverty eradication. The need for detailed policy design–based on the lessons of experience, a deep knowledge of local context and full consultation–should not be underestimated, but neither should the breadth of areas for action and the ultimate rewards. 127 |

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REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9]

A handbook of ecology an introduction to environmental management by Dr. Anand S. Bal Himalaya Publisihing House. Baily R.A., et al. 1978. Chemistry of the environment. Academic press. NY. Clarke, G.I.1965.Element of ecology. John. Weily, NY. Edr Sheldon C iso 14001 & beyond, Environmental management systems in the real world, Sheffield England Greenleay publishers 1997. Kormondy, E.J., 1991 concepts of ecology. Prentice Hall of India pvt. ltd., New Delhi. Nebel, B.J., 1981. Environment sciences: The way the world works. Prectice-Hall Inc. Englewood Cliffs. Odum, E.P., 1975. Ecology. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, NY. www.Pubmed. Com. www.Google search .com.

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Global Environmental Strategies for the Protection of our Global Commons Shalini Saxena1 and Somesh Yadav2 Cytogenetics Laboratory, Post Graduate Department of Botany, Bareilly College, Bareilly–243005, U.P, India E-mail: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION Global concern for protection of environmental quality, natural resources and biotic species in biosphere forced the government of various nations to adopt certain policies. The policies and legal framework are characteristic to availability of natural specific social, cultural and economic condition of respective countries. Legal enforcement depends on two different dimensions:

National Legislations and policies



International Law and co-operation

NATIONAL LEGISLATIONS AND POLICIES During the year 1992 with the help of the Ministry of Environment and Forest (MoEF) Govt. of India devised National Legislations and policies to protect environmental quality. The objectives are to integrate environmental consideration into decision making at all levels. To achieve the stipulated objectives it was decided that maximum use will be made of a mix of instruments in the form of legislation and regulations, fiscal incentives voluntary agreements, educational programmes and information campaigns. The emphasis will be laid on the increased use of regulations and an increase in the development and application of financial incentives. The Government seeks to ensure that polices in every sector are based on a set of principles that harmonize economic development and environmental imperatives. 

Article 21 guarantees the right to life, a life of dignity, to be lived in a proper environment free of danger of disease and infection. This is one of our fundamental rights.



Article 51A18 provides: It shall be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life and to have compassion for living creatures.

Thus it is the constitutional obligation of all citizens of India, to protect and improve environment.

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INTERNATIONAL POLICIES AND CO-OPERATION Efforts proposed to be undertaken by a country and formulation of directions to carry out the task of environmental management provides a sound basis for drawing up of policies. The basic elements of concern, for arriving at the frame work are interactions, decision making and future policies regarding environmental concerns. Policies based on these aspects act as guidelines for future action and set the boundaries within which action is to be taken. There must be some basic principles for framing environmental policies. 

The mission of the country/ organization.



Environmental Requirements.



Consideration of cite values and benefits.



Measures to maximize sustainable development.



Efforts to achieve higher environmental. Standards proper management of raw material utilization.



Waste management.



Population of that country.

Developing the international environmental policies has been well recognized as a result of the global effects of pollution. Recognition of adverse global effects as ozone cover reduction, global warming, sea level, rise acid rains and climate changes, ultimately resulted in the consideration of international co-operation. In 1972 the international efforts culminated in organizing a conference of Human Environment at Stockholm, Sweden by the United Nations. This proved to be a major step in the direction of international co-operation towards resolution of global environmental issues. This Stockholm conference was followed by the UN General Assembly resolution which provides basic issues and proposed a framework to the states in USA. It also designated 5th June as World Environment Day and urged to all the UN members to undertake environment related activities including education and creation of public awareness to reaffirm their concern towards the prevention of environmental quality. These specific efforts undertaken by various countries for environmental management and their participation in various international conferences and discussions further enhanced the interaction co-operation related to the environmental issues. A conference, held in 1986 at Paris, was called for saving tress and forests. 36 countries had participated in this conference. In fact international co-operation achieved the real magnitude after the organization of UN conference of environment and development of at Rio de Janeiro in 1992 (UNCED). It was titled as the “Earth Summit”. | 130

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In fact the basic aim of Earth Summit is to bring awareness in common masses about the environmental challenges. A comprehensive document called Agenda 21 was issued at the conference. It contained a comprehensive blueprint for the Governments on everything, starting from population strategy, management of hazardous wastes, recycling energy conservation, removable energy, business strategies and to the role of women in environmental management. Principles of Rio conference carry a strong moral force to ensure their adoption. Agenda 21 encompasses the fact that, humanity has reached a point where the present policies development and economic growth have not been able to tackle the problems of poverty, hunger and living conditions. They continue to cause resource depletion and deterioration of the ecosystem on which life on this planet depends. If the human beings have to be provided with decent living conditions, especially in developing countries, the management of an ecosystem at the local, nation and global levels requires being untaken on a priority basis. A large number of countries, which cover almost 90% of the population, participated in the Earth’s Summit held in Brazil. Agenda 21 document discussed global plan to confront and overcome the economic and ecological concerns. This is the first ever document of its kind that was adopted by representative countries. A specific concern was laid on deepening of gaps between the rich and poor and also effects of droughts and malnutrition. Effect of pollution caused by the developed countries on the economically backward and undeveloped countries was also mentioned. The developing countries of the world also have a very important responsibility in the careful management of their growth and development. An enormous internal effort must be made to increase the ability of these countries to use the technology and knowledge gained in the industrialized world to avoid the mistakes of the past. Environmental concerns must be liked irrevocably with the future development of these countries. International co-operation on all levels will be necessary to successfully manage our planet’s future.

THE AGENDA 21 OF EARTH SUMMIT The comprehensive approach of Agenda 21 provides a blue print for action in all areas of human activity. Virtually every aspect of human civilization is addressed in AGENDA 21. The main programme areas are as follows:-

QUALITY OF LIFE ON EARTH The first major theme of Agenda 21 relates to the quality of life on earth. People in the developing regions of the world need encouragement to achieve sustaining livelihoods which do not destroy the environment or undermine the resource base upon which their life depends. All countries must therefore gear up to assess the environmental impact of their population growth rates and develop and implement appropriate policies to stabilize populations. Achieving primary health care for all humanity requires sustainable social and economic development. 131 |

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SUSTAINABLE ECONOMIC GROWTH The goal of sustainable economic growth is to accelerate the correction of these economic problems on the basis of sustainability. Sustainable development and environmental soundness must be integrated in to all levels of political and economic decision making. Corporate and national accounting practices must be amended to reflect the true impact of development on the environment and the real value of natural resources.

WASTE MANAGEMENT AND UTILIZATION OF CHEMICALS The action programme adopted in this section includes waste generation; recycle of wastes and conversion of waste materials into useful products. We must find safe methods of human and chemical waste disposal and eliminate the illegal trade in hazardous waste. The use of chemicals has no doubt become essential to the development process and to the promotion of human well being. Chemicals are extensively used in all societies, regardless of the stage of development. Their misuse however can have adverse effects on human health and cause extensive damage to the environment. It is extremely important that the properties of chemicals are sufficiently known and that adequate precautions must be taken in their manufacturer handling, use and disposal.

PROTECTION OF OUR NATURAL RESOURCES Natural Resources are distributed globally regional and global agreements therefore must be developed to ensure the fair sharing of global resources, which are outside of national boundaries. Local and regional activities that cause environmental damage to these common areas must be understood and controlled.

THE MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN SETTLEMENTS This section of Agenda 21 offers plans for both the environmental and developmental management of urban areas throughout the world. The quality of human life depends on the physical, social, educational and economic conditions of the settlements. Urban pollution has acquired dangerous dimensions throughout the developing world. A broad preventive approach to environmental protection must be adopted and instituted for the management of both industrialized and developing urban areas.

EFFICIENT USE OF THE EARTH’S NATURAL RESOURCES Earth’s renewable and non-renewable resources are essential to be managed more carefully in order to sustain their yield far into the future generations. The protection of global resources of land, freshwater, biological and genetic resources and energy must be paramount. The finite resource base of our world is being depleted and degraded at | 132

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an increasingly rapid rate. Altering consumption patterns and containing population growth may lead to reduce some of the demand for these resources. It is essential however, that more efficient and environmentally sound methods for utilizing our precious resources need to be developed.

REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4]

An Introduction to Environmental Management by Anand S. Bal. Himalaya Publication. A Handbook of Ecology by E.P. Odum. www.pubmed.com. Constitution of India by D.D. Basu

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Fungal Infection on Cucurbits and Climatic Factors Rajeev Kumar Yadav1, Shalini Saxena2, Somesh Yadav3 and B.N. Pandey4 Department of Botany, Bareilly College, Bareilly–243005 E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Cucurbits (cucurbitaceae) are among the important plant families providing edible products to human worldwide. It is known fact that various pathogenic fungi can attack the plants and cause diseases during favorable environmental conditions, which results yield loss. The aim of this survey and study was to identify the plant pathogenic fungi from cucurbits and evaluate their pathogenic intensity during variable environmental conditions. A total of 59 cucurbits samples infected with disease were collected from different localities of Bareilly. From these samples pathogenic fungi were isolated and identified through morphological characters. All fungal pathogens Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium pallidoroseum, Curvularia lunata, Alternaria alternata, and Aspergillus fumigatus were recovered from collected samples. Fusarium pallidoroseum, Fusarium oxysporum were recorded from the samples of collected from irrigated fields, while Curvularia lunata, Alternaria alternata from early and mature stage of infected plants. All these pathogenic fungi were evaluated to study their pathogenesity on Ash gourd (Benincasa hispida), Bottle gouard(Momordica charentia), Bottle gourd(Lagenaria siceraria). The Alternaria alternata, Curvularia lunata caused the blight and rotting within 10–20 days on plants tested. The fruit rot symptoms were observed on the 6th days after inoculation of Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium pallidoroseum on cucurbits. The inoculated fungi were re-isolated from the diseased plants to prove the Koch,s postulates. The study were conducted at the vegetable growing and storage area of Bareilly city to identify, isolation of pathogenic fungi causing diseases during favourable climatic conditions on cucurbits. Keywords: Rots, Pathogenisity, Cucurbits

INTRODUCTION Cucurbits belong to the family cucurbitaceae and consist of about 118 genera and 825 species according to the last taxonomic treatment of JEFFERY(1990). Cucurbits present in both the new and old world and are among the most important plant families that supply human with edible products and useful fibers. These have originated mostly in Africa, tropical America and Asia, especially south-east Asia. In India, 36 genera and around 100 species have been described (seshadri, 1993). The total area under cultivation of major cucurbits (ash gourd, bitter gourd, bottle gourd, cucumber, long melon, Luffa, muskmelon, pumpkin, round guard, water melon and other gourds) in the country is 8.45 million hectares with an annual production of 4.6 million tons (Gill and Tomar, 1991). Most of them are seed propagated. The fruits are used as cooked vegetables, dessert vegetables, salads, pickling and as candied, preserved. Seeds kernels are also edible containing high oil percentage and are a good source

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Estimation of Sodium and Calcium in Cymbopogon Species by Flame Photometry

of Energy. Eastern states consume the young branches and leaves of some cucurbits as cooked green vegetable. Cucurbits are attacked by a large number of fungal diseases depending upon the locality and agro climatic conditions. The most important that causes blight and rotting are Fusarium, Aternaria species. The genus Fusarium is serious threat for vegetables, particularly cucurbits and plants belong to the solanaceae, it infects many species of Lycopersicon esculentum, many species of Capsicum and other agronomic, ornamental crops of solanaceae and cucurbitaceae families (Sati, sc., G.S. Mer 1988).

Fig. 1: Primary and Secondary Fungal Infection on Cucurbits Stem, Leaf, Fruits

Fig. 2: Primary Infection of Alternaria Alternata on Cucurbits Leaves, Causes Blight

Fusarium species caused mainly rotting in cucurbits, due to which entire crop, fruits may damaged and get crop failure. The most common species of Fusarium infect and cause rotting, wilt of cucurbits in different climatic conditions are Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium pallidoroseum, Fusarium solani. Curvularia lunata and pathogens caused infection frequently on the cucurbitaceous plants. 135 |

Environmental Issues for Socio-ecological Development

Fig. 3: Rotting of fruits and Blight of Leaves After Infection of Fungal Pathogen in Field Conditions

MATERIAL AND METHOD The present investigation conducted through 2008-2009 in the Department of Botany, Bareilly College. Bareilly lies in the foot hills of Himalaya and surrounds by Pilibhit, Budaun, Sahajhanpur, Rampur and Udhamsingh nagar(Uttrakhand). The average rainfall is about 40-60 cm per year. The average temperature varies from minimum 4° to maximum 43° . Although it reaches sometime 44-45° but very rarely. A change in weather conditions in himalyan/sub himalyan ranges immediately affects the weather conditions in Bareilly due to its situation at foot hills of Kumaun, Garhwal hills. The fluctuation in the environmental conditions is the most single significant abiotic factor governing the initation, development and spread of diseases on cucurbits in particular and other crops in general. To carryout present study, four localities were selected from adjoining the city with Nariyawal Subjimandi in the centre. The localities selected were (1) Nariyawal (2) Delapeer Subzimandi (3) River side vegetable fields of Nakatiya rever (4) Izzatnagar vegetable growing region. Samples were collected from the selected sites in sterilized bags. At lab these samples were also sorted out, cleaned and the preserved in separate three categories viz, leaf, stem and fruits for further studies. Following information were also recorded for references:- (1) Name of site (2) Name of farmer (3)cropping season (4) type of soil (5) caused disease. A thorough observation for diseased plants was made to find out various diseases of seedling, vegetative, flowering and fruiting stage around the year. Stem of diseased samples were washed and cut into small blocks (1.5cm) for further analysis.

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Estimation of Sodium and Calcium in Cymbopogon Species by Flame Photometry

Isolation and identification of fungal pathogens: P.D.A(Riker and Riker, 1936), oat meal agar (Jhonson and Curl, 1972) media were used for the obtaining of pure culture of fungal pathogens. The removed inoccullum from infected cucurbits was transferred for pure culture. Thus pure culture of individual pathogen was obtained and were kept for further studies.

Fig. 4: Pure Culture of Fusarium pallidoroseum on Agar Medium in Culture Plate

Fig. 5: Pure Culture of Curvularia Lunata on Agar Medium in Culture Plate

Meterological data was collected from government meteorological Department of Bareilly and Lucknow to co-relate the occurrence of disease and forecasting purposes. For pure culture the near about 1mm agar pieces with fungal hyphae were taken out and transferred to sterilized culture tubes containing medium. For identification of pathogen, the help of books viz, Hyphomycetes-C.V Subramanian, 1971, A mannual of soil fungi-Gilman, 1959, were taken. Pure culture of pathogens also deposited at Indian type culture collection identification/culture supply services, Division of plant pathology, I.A.R.I, New Delhi, Ref. I.D- 1088/09. 137 |

Environmental Issues for Socio-ecological Development

Fig. 6: Conidial Attachment with Conidiphore in Aspergillus Fumigatus

Fig. 7: Conidial Attachment of Conidia of Curvularia Lunata

RESULT Bareilly, which shows much variation in temperature, relative humidity and rainfall during the crop season of the year 2008-2009. As table indicates the latter part of June accompanied with July-August receive maximum rainfall followed by September. The rest of the months get little rainfall. Average rainfall for Bareilly has been recorded to nearly 100cm. The average relative humidity and temperature ranges between 62-94%, 22° − 43° which is sheldom encouraging for fungal growth.

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Estimation of Sodium and Calcium in Cymbopogon Species by Flame Photometry Table 1: Average Meteorological Data of Year 2007 Months July August September October November December January February March April May June

Min. Temp. 28.60 26.50 24.28 19.80 15.11 10.28 10.00 19.00 17.46 22.00 25.30 27.13

Max. Temp. 43.80 43.34 33.86 31.20 27.00 23.85 25.00 22.00 32.50 35.69 36.60 33.41

RH% 86 86 91 81 81 93 94 80 78 60 62 88

Rain fall (in m.m) 358.5 218.6 154.4 0.0 0.7 0.7 0.0 1.1 0.0 9.4 10.2 302.9

Monthly occurrence of Fungi on cucurbits recorded in Table 2. This table indicates that environmental conditions do not support always to the growth of fungi. Maximum survival showed by Alternaria alternata, which was present during all 12 months in a year. In November month of 2007, its intensity was high 60%. Curvularia lunata has shown maximum intensity(60%) in October and November. Meteorological data indicate that low rainfall and high humidity increases the growth. Fusarium sps. were found in high intensity 60% during July to November months. Aspergillus fumigatus was maximum 60% in July and August. The meteorological data of Table 1 shows that March, April and May were not very favourable for the growth of different fungi in the fields. Table 2: Atmospheric Factors and Intensity of Fungal Pathogen Months July August September October November December January February March April May June

Fusarium oxysporum ++ ++ ++ +++ +++ + ++ + + + +

Fusarium pallidoroseum

+++ +++ +++ +++ +++ + ++ + + + + Intensity + = 20%, ++= 40%, +++= 60%

Curvularia lunata + + ++ +++ +++ ++ + ++ + +

Alternaria alternata + + ++ ++ +++ ++ ++ ++ +++ ++ + +

Aspergillus fumigatus + + + + ++ + + ++ ++ + -

Pathological observations of various pathogens on cucurbits from field and storage:

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FUSARIUM OXYSPORUM Symptoms of infection depend upon environmental conditions. A moderate temperature during mansoon season favours infection and disease development. Symptoms first appear in older portions of the plants and fruits.

FUSARIUM PALLIDOROSEUM Initial symptoms of infection occur in the form of irregular spots on fruits and leaves. Lesions expand and become bigger than one cm. on fruits and turned to brown in colour. Plants show a stiff appearance and suffer from poor growth and reduced fruit size.

CURVULARIA LUNATA The infected leaves showed wilting symptoms which become severe within 2-4 days. Initially the normal and green areas of leaves were interrupted by some pale grown spots. These spots gradually turned into big prominent spots through the passing days. The spots were confined by the veins and veinlets giving some angular appearance. The spots become yellow to orange on the older leaf surface, which further turned purple black results the leaves fully dry. The infection spreads vigorously on leaves as well as fruits when temperature is suitable and atmosphere is humid. Sometime infection also occurs on stem which become very weak due to infection and finally die. The high intensity was found during October and November month when temperature was suitable for fungal growth.

ALTERNARIA ALTERNATA The early symptoms of disease appear in the form of small yellowish spot on leaves, developed from the leaf tips and along the margins of the leaves including petiole. Blighted area covered most part of the leaves. Some times entire leaves were found blighted and fall on ground. In severe condition of infection entire lamina, petiole and stem is badly damaged. Alternaria is found in high intensity in early November and February when temperature and relative humidity favour the development of the disease. During the middle of growing season, this pathogen also cause fruit injury. In primary conditions, small, circular and water soaked spots appear which expand upto ½ inch in diameter with dark concentric rings in the spots. Sometimes small necrotic spots are also found on immature fruits. The lesions also show secretion of pulpy fluid from the infected area. One or more lesions developed on whole or entire fruit which penetrate deep in the surface of the fruits. Sometime it also infects the flower and flower buds. Under moist conditions it causes severe loss in fruit storage.

ASPERGILLUS FUMIGATUS Leaf blight was observed on old as well as young plants of few weeks. The blight starts from margins and progresses towards the middle region with a rapid rate resulting in the blight of almost entire leaf which turns brown to black. Old leaves show these | 140

Estimation of Sodium and Calcium in Cymbopogon Species by Flame Photometry

symptoms near or after the harvest. Sometime disease also affects petiole and stem also. The spots on the stem often occur in form of purple greenish patches. They enlarge rapidly and turn dark purple grrenish colour, as these spots increase in size they quickly destroy the stems. The fungus is capable of growth at 37° but can also grow as more than 37°c on May, June.

DISCUSSION Cucurbits are cultivated as commercial crop throughout the district fields situated nearby the city along the radius of 15 km. The crop yield suffers heavy loss due to infection of pathogens in the fields and stored ripe fruits. Five pathogens were found on the crop during survey of present study:Fusarium oxysporum was present on fruits and stems. This pathogen often rotted the fruit and disease symptoms developed during mansoon season. It reached on its maximum intensity, when Relative humidity was 91%. Some workers also investigated it. Pachkhede, A.U, 1987., reported that Fusarium oxysporum caused wilt on muskmelon in Rajasthan. Mathur, K, and Shekhawat, K.S, 1992 observed varietal infection on muskmelon. 400 300

Intensi ty Min. Temp Max. Temp

200 100 0 July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan FebMarch Apr May Jun Fig. 8: Intensity of Fusarium Sps. Infection on Cucurbits in Relation to Atmospheric Factors 2007

Fusarium pallidoroseum infected mainly fruits of cucurbits. Its severity increased during mansoon season and maximum, when R.H was 91%. Toussoun et al, 1961 reported that Fusarium solani and Fusarium cucurbitae infection became more severe with increase in temperature of the atmosphere. Adams et al, 1987 also studied the root rot of cucurbits caused by Fusarium, they stated Fusarium was found from July to November month in maximum intensity. Gerlagh et al., 1988 worked on Fusarium oxysporium. He observed that Fusarium species rotted the fruits up to 80% at room temperature. Reddy 1988 reported different species of Fusarium causing fruit rot of cucurbitaceous vegetables and observed that the favorable temperature was 22°- 26° for the development of different species of Fusarium in lab and field conditions.

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400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0

Instensity Min. Temp. Max. Temp. Jul

Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June

Fig. 9: Intensity of Alternaria Alternata Infection on Cucurbits in Relation to Atmospheric Factors 2007

Alternaria alternata was present on the leaves of the crop and sometime it also invaded the fruit, it appear round the year when humidity and temperature ranged between 62-88%, 22° − 30℃. Many workers have investigated the effect of weather on this fungus. Ramgiry and Tomar (1997) reported that Alternaria solani was present on fruits in March- April at Hissar. Ruchi sood and Sharma (2004) reported in Himachal that Alternaria species were present on stored vegetables at about 30℃. Dabar and Mayee(1982) worked on conidial dispersal of Alternaria solani and found that the relative humidity and rainfall determined the daily variation in spore dispersal and progress of disease in field. Retes et al, (1983) worked on Alternaria species and its relation to the climate. 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0

Intensity Min. Temp Max. Temp July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Fig. 10: Intensity of Curvularia Lunata Infection on Cucurbits in Relation to Atmospheric Factors 2007

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Estimation of Sodium and Calcium in Cymbopogon Species by Flame Photometry

Curvularia lunata was encountered in abundance in Nov. and October months, when temperature was 27°-30℃ and 86-91% humidity. The infection of the Curvularia lunata has been studied by many workers on various crops. Mishra et al, 2009, reported the presence of Curvularia lunata in September to Nov. months in cereal crops fields, which accordance with present study. Muthuswamy et al, 2007 reported that Curvularia lunata were present in stored grain at 27° − 30℃ and maximum growth of the fungus was at 27℃. Mandokhot and Chaudhary 1971 worked on maize and found the relative humidity and rainfall determine the progress of the pathogen in the fields. Rabbe, et al, 1981 worked on the pearl millet and studied its co-relation with the climatic conditions. The pathogen intensity was maximum in a continuous cropping in large acrage. 400 350 300 250

Intensity

200 Min. Temp Max. Temp

150 100 50 0 July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June

Fig. 11: Intensity of Aspergillus Fumigatus Infection on Cucubits in Relation to Atmospheric Factors 2007

Aspergillus fumigatus infected the old as well as young plants of few weeks and it grew at 30–35C, it was also capable of growing at more than 37C. Recorded fungal pathogen isolated from selected cucurbits. Some of these fungi were maximum in intensity, which related to the atmospheric conditions and some fungi showed variations at different crop sites. Cucurbitaceous fruits mainly rotted by Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium pallidoroseum, Alternaria alternata, Curvularia lunata, Aspergillus fumigatus. During September to November cucurbits showed maximum intensity of pathogens. Alternaria and Fusarium were found maximum at the fields. The correlation between disease intensity and climatic conditions has been recorded in table-. It is evident that the disease intensity increases with the favourable climatic parameters.

REFERENCES [1] [2]

Adams, G.c.; Gubler, W.D.; Grogan, R.G.;(1987). Seedling disease of muskmelon and mixed melons in California caused by Fusarium equiseti. Plant Disease, 71:370-374. Aegerter, B.J.; Gordon, T.R.; Davis, R.M.; (2000). Occurrence and pathogenicity of fungi associated with melon root rot and vine decline in California. Plant Diseases 84:224-230.

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Anderson,;(2002). Ecological and pathological characteristics of effected seeds. Acta Horticulturae, 588 : II International symposium on cucurbits. Arya, Chitra; Arya Arjuna; (2007). Black rot of sponge gourd caused by Fusarium pallidoroseum (Cooke) Sacc. J. Mycol. Pl. Pathol. 37, No. 3. Aslam, M,; Hussain, N,;Hussain, Z,: (1978). Fusarium wilt of tomato and its control. Pakistan journal of Sciences, of Pesawar 30(1/2),44. Brookyn,;(1986). Oriental Herbs and vegetables. Vol. 39 no.2, Brooklyn Botanic Garden, pp. 47. Chopra, R.N, ; Nayar, S.L, ; Chopra, I.C, ;(1986). Glossary of Indian Medicinal plasnts. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi, pp.118 Gupta, S.K., Gupta, Amita, Shyam, K.R., Bhardwaj, Ramesh; (2001). Morphological characterization and effect of meteorological factors on development of cucumber powdery mildew. Indian Phytopath. 54(3):311315(2001). Manoharacharay,; C.H, (1974), A note on some pathogenic Fungi from Hyderabad, India, Current Science 43:97. Mishra, Ajay, K,; Mishra, Amita,; Kehri, H.K,; Sharma, Bechan,;Pandey, Abhay, K,;(2009). Inhibitory activity of Indian spice plant extract against Alternata solani and Curvularia lunata, the pathogenic dematiaceous moulds, Thesis of Biochemistry, Department of Botany, University of Allahabad, Allahabad, U.P. Narain, Udit,;Mall, H.P,; Chandra R,; (1985). Curvularia leaf spot of winged bean. Indian Phytopathology. 38(3) :574. Ojha, K.L,; Dubey, G.S.; Singh, R.K,; Yadav, B.P,;(1988). Two new leaf spot disease in betelvine from India.Indian Phytopathology. 41(3) : 503. Ramgiry, S.R,; Tomar, I.S,; Tanwar, M.L.(19970. Studied on mycoflora associated with pre and post harvested tomato fruits. Crop Research (Hissar) 13 (1), 231-233. Retes Cazares, J.E.(1983). Number of spores of Alternaria spp. In the air and its relation to the climate and number of lesions to Alternaria solani, Agricultura Tecnica en Maxico. 9(1). Roy, A.N,; Upadhyaya, G,; Sharma, R.B,;(1983). Two new fruit rots of ashgourd from India. Plant disease, 67:2,227-228;6 ref. Sharma, G,; Roy, A.H,; Gupta, M.N,; (1980). New records of Fusarial rots of petha fruits. Current Science 9India), 49(18), p.708-709.

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Author Index Bhardwaj, Sanjeev, 56 Bhatt, A.B., 92 Gihar, Sandhya, 56 Gupta, Neelima, 14 Kumar, Mukesh, 92 Kumar, Sandeep, 7 Paliwal, G.S., 92 Pandey, Adarsh, 110 Pandey, B.N., 133 Pandey, G.C., 7 Pandurangan, A., 51 Parkash, Ravi, 1 Phulera, Swastik, 68 Raj, Ravi, 35

Saini, Ravdeep, 51 Saini, Vipin, 51 Saxena, Beenam, 82 Saxena, Manoj K., 35 Saxena, Shalini, 129, 133 Sehgal, Mukesh, 42 Sharma, Pradeep Kumar, 7 Singh, Dhruv Sen, 25 Singh, Rajendra, 68 Singh, Ravendra, 42 Srivastava, Archana, 119 Srivastava, Naina, 119 Yadav, Beena, 123 Yadav, Rajeev Kumar, 133 Yadav, Somesh, 129, 133

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