Sustainable Development of the Built Environment - CiteSeerX

1 downloads 0 Views 131KB Size Report
May 23, 2001 - Lu Aye, Bill Charters, Usha Iyer-Raniga, Mark Langdon, Jon Robinson. The University ... office buildings is to be analysed to establish their environmental performance and footprint. It is ..... Chartered Surveyors, London. Fryer ...
CONSTRUCTION INNOVATION – THE FUTURE CIIA Sixth Annual Conference, 23rd May 2001 BREAKOUT SESSION 2 Sustainable Development of the Built Environment

SUSTAINABLE BUILT ASSET MANAGEMENT Lu Aye, Bill Charters, Usha Iyer-Raniga, Mark Langdon, Jon Robinson The University of Melbourne Construction Industry Institute Abstract A research proposal to investigate sustainable built asset management is described. A sample of office buildings is to be analysed to establish their environmental performance and footprint. It is anticipated that even in many cases of recent property development no appreciable application of sustainable development will be observed. However in some new developments significant environmental improvements may be apparent. These could assist in providing a benchmark environmental footprint against which future sustainable development can be assessed. An innovative component of this research is the post-occupancy evaluation methodology. The buildings are to be monitored to ascertain their actual environmental performance and the occupants are to be surveyed to establish their contribution to and acceptance of the environmental conditions. A guide to the future potential of environmentally sustainable property development may be a prime outcome of this study. Keywords: Environmentally sustainable development (ESD), Environmental footprint, Asset management, Office property, Energy, Life cycle costs INTRODUCTION Sustainable built asset management is an environmental concept. The environment comprises the “surroundings in which an organisation operates, including air, water, land, natural resources, flora, fauna, humans, and their interrelations” (Standards Australia 1999). Management is the “conduct and control of organised human activity” (Calvert et al 1995, p. 3). In this research project, the organisation is taken to be a built asset, i.e., land and buildings, together with the activities of its occupants. Thus sustainable built asset management is defined for this proposal as the conduct and control of urban property within the environment. It includes the impact of the property on the environment and vice versa and thus it subsumes ecology. It “stresses using resources of energy and materials in a responsible way so that future generations can benefit from them too” (Fryer, 1997, p. 152). The process of sustainable built asset management is continuous throughout the life cycle of the property. The life cycle comprises “consecutive and interlinked stages of a product system, from raw material acquisition or generation of natural resources to the final disposal” (Standards Australia 1998). In the context of property and construction, it is a time horizon, which commences with the acquisition of land, includes the design and construction of buildings, and continues with the ongoing operation of the property and it ceases with the ultimate demolition or deconstruction and recycling of the property. A wide range of activities is covered. Broadly, these may be arranged under several classifications. For example (Cooper 1996, p. 112): • The upstream production of the resources and materials used in a project; • The operation of the project through its life cycle; • The downstream use and/or disposal of the project at the end of its life cycle.

A second classification comprises the stages throughout the project life cycle from inception through to disposal: • Inception and design; • Delivery and commissioning; • Operation; • Disposal including demolition, recycling, redevelopment, renewal and upgrading. Life cycle costing methods have been used in decisions about property and construction options for many years (Flanagan & Norman 1984; Stone 1980). Levels of complexity of life cycle costing have been recommended: the experiential, the feasible and the technical (Robinson 1986). Experiential life cycle costing amounts to a statement of good practice wherein for example unsustainable elements are deleted from the designer's repertoire. Feasible life cycle costing combines cost and value analysis procedures in an economic feasibility study. The more detailed technical approach is illustrated elsewhere (Robinson 1996) in which the costs and benefits associated with a series of options is analysed including the effects of taxation, externalities and discounting and inflation. A third classification consists of the environmental issues, which, for example, have been grouped under the following headings by the Construction Industry Research and Information Association (Fryer 1997, p. 151): • Energy use, global warming and climate change • Resources, waste and recycling • Pollution and hazardous substances • Internal environment of buildings • Planning, land use and conservation • Legislation and policy issues While the concept of sustainable development is quite old, (WCED 1987), its application to the construction industry is relatively new (Keeping 2000). Furthermore, there is a lot of confusion about the meaning and interpretation of this term (Iyer-Raniga 2000, Keeping 2000). Keeping (2000) argues that the common confusion is between the terms ‘environmental’ or ‘green’ buildings and ‘sustainable’ buildings, where environmental or green refers only to environmentally sound and resource efficient buildings that are the outcome of an integrated approach to design. ‘Sustainable’ buildings on the other hand, refer to the incorporation of additional parameters such as futurity, equity and public participation. For the research project outlined in this paper, sustainable development, as applied to the construction industry, includes (environmental) issues pertaining to a building’s siting, materials, energy efficiency and efficient resource use (Parnell & Sayce 1999). It also includes “green” initiatives adopted in the building management activity such as resource conservation, energy efficiency, renewable energy and water conservation features. The purpose of this research is to analyse a sample of recent buildings in the context of these issues to establish the sorts of management decisions that have been made at stages in the life cycle of the buildings in order to minimize their impact on the environment. It is proposed to assess the current level of application of environmentally sustainable principles in the life cycle asset management of office buildings. The optimum basis for sustainable environmental management is in the provision of a facility of high environmental design. Environmental modelling is usually undertaken to assist in the design of the building. It is proposed to undertake modelling to measure the likely impact of the buildings and then to monitor them for a sufficient period in order to establish the actual impact. Some research questions to be addressed in this project are stated below: 1. What is the environmental footprint, as measured by carbon emissions, of office buildings?

2. What measures/indicators of environmentally sustainable development are critical to the environmental performance of office buildings? 3. How much reliance can be placed on modelling systems in the design and pre-construction, when these are measured post-construction? 4. To what extent do tenants/occupiers of buildings impact the environmental performance of buildings in the post-construction phase? The holistic nature of environmentally sustainable development is not well understood by the property and construction industry. Many operators in the industry tend to concentrate on a specific component of environmental sustainability. Energy use and heritage conservation have been popular proxies for environmental sustainability for some years. In very recent times, it has become fashionable to market or advertise a proposed building as being environmentally sustainable if it includes a design feature such as a façade containing photo-voltaic cells. The use of such environmental marketing occurs even if the building itself breaks most of the environmental sustainability rules in terms of its configuration, materials and services. Building design and the delivery process is critical to the environmental performance of buildings. A great deal of the research to date has concentrated on the post-construction environmental performance. This is so because of the perception of owners and occupiers of buildings that the greatest impact on environmental sustainability and the environmental performance of a building is in the way in which the building and its services are managed. This research project will examine, in the first instance, the differences between buildings incorporating some energy efficient measures to those that have none at all. Furthermore, it will also investigate how the occupiers of these buildings relate to the energy efficient measures (or lack of them). The incorporation of the views of occupiers into environmental research has not been dealt within the Australian property and construction industry. The significance of this research proposal is in the provision of an environmental design process and procedure to create buildings that have a high degree of environmental sustainability. APPROACH Several international case studies are now available (National Audubon Society 1994; Treloar 1996; Bamford et al 1998;Yeang 1999). This project includes the collection and analysis of relevant property and building details in order to establish the level of application of environmental sustainability principles that has been incorporated into a sample of recent commercial office buildings. An example of the data to be collected and reviewed follows. The example comprises the decisions made by an organisation wishing to occupy premises with a minimum impact on the environment. A building of high environmental design was commissioned. The decisions required to achieve an environmentally sustainable development are classified into land and planning issues, design issues, building delivery and building management, which are outlined below. Land and Planning Issues Location: In respect of the location of the proposed accommodation, it was decided that the building should ideally be centrally located on a site with excellent public transport access. Accordingly, the search for a suitable location is concentrated in localities within walking distance of public transport interchanges.

Transport and Energy: A major requirement is to optimise the use of public transport and minimise energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. Carparking is not to be provided on the site in an effort to encourage the building occupants to travel to work by public transport. Tenure: A preference for freehold ownership has been articulated so that the ethical investor has full control of the building design, configuration and operation, and the opportunity to achieve the benefits of sustainable property development and investment. Embodied Energy: Due to the centrality of the chosen location, the ability to find a suitable vacant site was limited. Thus the decision was made to redevelop a site containing an existing building. This decision makes a significant statement about embodied energy and natural resources in that the recycling of (part of) an existing building creates a substantial saving in embodied energy and resource consumption. In turn, this reduces the amount of waste that would need to be deposited as landfill elsewhere. Heritage: The design includes the preservation of a heritage building and street façade. It is to be incorporated into an office building of modern design. The building has had many alterations and additions during its lifetime and thus has low heritage significance described as remnant architectural merit. Of greater significance is the historical value of the site on which many different activities have taken place. These many past uses justify the changes currently proposed. Design Issues Passive Design: The existing building has three levels and a fourth level is to be added in a lightweight but fully insulated structure. The subject property is constrained by boundary walls on the north and south, a frontage facing west and a rear alignment to a laneway to the east. Therefore, there is very little opportunity for natural light and to use the façade as a source of energy. The features used to provide additional light include a central atrium with solar chimneys to effect ventilation and a series of light and ventilation wells on the northern and southern boundaries to provide light to the lower floors of the building and to assist ventilation throughout. Openings equivalent to 2% of the floor area of the building in the external walls and in the roofs of the solar chimneys are required for effective operation of the passive ventilation system. These openings are to be operated in a night purge system to remove heat that has been built up during the day. Other aspects of passive design include a reinforced concrete structure to provide thermal mass, insulation of all walls and the roof space, low emissivity double glazing, passive solar shading, high efficiency artificial lighting. Each of these measures taken alone provides a marginal improvement in comfort and energy consumption. All together, these measures should provide commercial quality comfort with a substantial reduction in energy use. Active Design: Given the setting of the property in the commercial office market, comfort conditions associated with conventional office buildings have set the design parameters. The proposed plant is an air-cooled heat pump split system. The system is to be operated on demand when the ambient temperatures exceed the design range (19 to 26°C). The control system will enable the switching over from the passive system to the active and it will be done on a multi-zone basis. In other words, zones requiring specific services are to be operated individually. The greater the number of zones, the greater the potential of energy savings consequent with comfort. The control system will also provide for pre-heating and pre-cooling as necessary. Transportation Services: Although an elevator is provided to enable universal access, building occupants are to be encouraged to use open stairways located in the central atrium.

Electrical Services: Connection to the national power supply grid is required. Renewable energy is to be supplied by the retailer (at an additional 33% in price). Limited on-site photovoltaic generation is to be included. PVA sheathed cabling is to be avoided due to its poor fire safety performance. The power density allowance is reduced to 25% of the normal allowance for a building of the type. Hydraulic Services: It is proposed to reuse stormwater on the site but with an allowance for excess stormwater to be reticulated into the infrastructure. Grey water and black water is to be treated on the site and effluent used on landscaping in the atrium and on the roof garden. Fire services: Environmentally sustainable features are provided in the fire services system. Photooptical smoke detectors are to be installed instead of the usual ionization type detectors to avoid radioactive materials on the site. The backup power supply for the emergency lighting is to be fed by solar collectors. The water used in the testing of the sprinkler system is to be discharged into the grey water system. Acoustics: It is conceded that the nature of the atrium and the light courts, together with the existing timber floors in parts of the existing building, mitigate against optimum acoustic conditions. Measures are to be put in place to minimize the acoustic impact between the occupants of the building. Materials: Ecologically sustainable materials are specified including high-mass masonry for the main perimeter walls and lightweight construction in the walls of the atrium and light-wells. The former are to be reinforced concrete or brickwork, some of which is existing, and the latter are to be a mixture of glazing and polycarbonate with perforated pressed metal panels and compressed sheet linings. Floors are to be a mixture of polished concrete, natural timber, carpet and vinyl. Internal partitions are to be glazed or finished in plasterboard. Suspended ceilings are minimised to gain access to the thermal mass. Energy and Greenhouse Gas Emissions: The building configuration and the land and planning issues and design issues establish the life cycle energy use and greenhouse gas emissions. The design details have been adopted in an attempt to optimise the sustainability issues together with the economic and financial issues. Building Delivery Prequalification: The consultants and the building contractor have been selected on the basis of a two-stage process. The first stage consists of a public advertisement requesting expressions of interest from suitably qualified persons or firms to present credentials for consideration by the developer. The factor considered important for the first stage is previous experience, particularly in environmentally sustainable development. The second stage commences with the preparation of a short-list of potential contributors and an invitation to submit a proposal including a scope of services to be provided together with the proposed fee in the case of the consultants or the tender price in the case of the contractors. This stage includes an interview of the firms that submitted a proposal in order to meet the individuals who would be involved in the project and to assess their commitment to the nature of the project. Fee and price are not necessarily the major drivers of the selection of the successful consultants and contractors. Construction operations: The consultants and the contractor are expected to apply sustainable practices to their professional and commercial activities. For example, the consultants are to design and document the project using electronic storage, retrieval and transfer of information. The contractor is expected to provide an environmental management process to enable sustainable site

practices. An environmental auditor is to be appointed to advise and be the final arbiter on the project during the delivery phase and the superintendent is to consult the auditor and accept the auditor's advice. The contract is based on an industry standard with the addition of special conditions to reflect the environmental ethic. Building Management Lease Terms and Building Rules: The building occupants are to be signatories to a lease document that contains requirements, including an environmental management plan and building rules, for the promotion of environmentally sustainable practices. Tenants are expected to operate the building systems for best environmental outcomes. This includes a requirement to commute to the premises by public transport where possible thus keeping vehicular use to a minimum. As has been discussed above, car-parking spaces on the property are not provided. Performance Monitoring: It is proposed to monitor the building to establish that the best possible environmental practice is maintained. This will entail the measurement and recording of basic climatic data including temperature, humidity, wind speed and direction, solar radiation and rainfall. A self-contained weather station is to be installed. The building monitoring will also include the measurement and recording of internal data such as temperatures, humidity, electricity consumption, water consumption, lighting levels and so on. A building automation system is to be installed together with logging devices to monitor the operation of the building in particular the zoned air-conditioning system that is to be controlled by the building occupants and the ventilation controls. DATA In summary, the project will research a sample of office buildings within Metropolitan Melbourne. Initially, the sample comprises buildings under construction in the University Square development at the University of Melbourne. The buildings are designed to investment quality office building standards including, for example, an occupant ratio of one person for every 10 m2 of floor area which impacts on the means of egress and ingress, on internal horizontal and vertical circulation, on internal air quality and environment and on the provision of toilet facilities. Specifically, two buildings that are similar in location, configuration, orientation, structure, specification and use are to be analysed. One of these buildings has some environmental/energy efficiency controls/measures adopted such as a photovoltaic cell array, whereas the other has no specific environmental features. It is also proposed to observe the analysis of the Green Building development at 60 Leicester Street, Carlton (Bamford et al 1998; Aye et al 1999; Aye et al 2000). Depending upon interest in the project and the funds available for this research, other office buildings may be included in the sample. Environmental design These buildings have already been modelled during the design phase of the building. From the sample, the buildings that already have had some modelling for environmental efficiency will be selected and the “designed” and “actual” performances will be compared. An analysis of the differences is expected to reveal the extent to which the models can be relied upon. The analysis will also indicate which measures are critical to the environmental performance of the building. To determine the environmental footprint, the sample will be analysed in terms of the variables outlined above. For example, comparative studies were undertaken in respect of the Green Building development in Carlton covering embodied energy, operational energy, transport energy and the environmental footprint by way of carbon emissions.

Embodied Energy. The total embodied energy of a building may be estimated by summing the embodied energy associated with individual elements of the building. By selecting appropriate building materials, the embodied energy per unit area can be found. A number of studies (Jacques 1996, Yeang 1999) have analysed the total embodied energy of office buildings. They have produced estimates of capital energy invested during construction, demolition and disposal, which sums direct (site electricity, transport) and indirect (extraction, manufacturing and machinery) energy inputs in the range of 5-10 GJ/m2. An embodied energy study of office buildings (Aye et al, 1999) shows that the number of floors has a substantial effect upon embodied energy per m2 as the number of floors is increased from one to three but that there is very little difference once the number of floors exceeds three. The results also show that building aspect ratio has little effect upon embodied energy if the building can be sited optimally for solar access. Operating Energy. The operational energy of a building is that energy it consumes in providing the accommodation it is designed for. For a commercial building there are energy costs associated with the base building (usually borne by the owner) and with the tenancies. These are aggregated to ascertain the total operational energy. On a general level, the range of energy consumption for Australian office buildings is estimated to be between 400-700 MJ/m2 per annum (Anon, 1995). Whilst the scrutiny of accounts can give some indication of the direct operational energy, indirect energies also exist, for example, in power generation and in the mix of energy sources and their consequent respective outputs of CO2. Taking these issues into account, a survey of commercial buildings in Melbourne (BOMA 1996) indicated that every year (2500 working hours) a square meter of office space consumes an average of 268 MJ gas and 313 MJ Electricity; a total of 581 MJ/m2 which lies amid the range earlier noted. A life cycle energy study (Lu Aye et al, 2000) has shown that an average office has operational energy requirements of approximately 5.7GJ/m2 over 25 years. In an ideal location in terms of orientation and ability to optimise building configuration, the operational energy could reduce to 4.7GJ/m2 over 25 years. The refurbishment of existing buildings generally leads to a higher operating energy due to the constraints of the existing structures and the case studies investigated show operating energy of about 6.5GJ/m2 over the 25 years. These figures are based on the design criterion that all options meet the typical energy design target for offices in Melbourne (Building Owners and Managers Association, 1994 & 1996). Transport Energy. An assessment of travel energy analyses the way in which the journey to work affects energy consumption. Allowing for holidays, telecommuting, sick leave and flexible employment, it may be reasonable to assume a 230-day working year, each worker totalling approximately 5,000 km per annum. Over a building life cycle of 25 years, 125,000 km per occupant is attained. Based on an average design guide of 10 m2 per person each m2 of floor area contributes 12,500 occupant-km. Taking into account the various modes of transport (Newman and Kenworthy 1999) and urban vehicle efficiencies (Evans 1992) a consequent carbon allocation per m2 of office area can be calculated. Carbon Impact. There are certainly more than three carbon sources involved in the life cycle of a building an additional one being infrastructure. It is believed that the three sources outlines above account for the majority of carbon and that they are reasonably quantifiable. A carbon budget for a building is established in tonnes of carbon per m2 of gross floor area. This sum is translated into areas and units of plantation trees based on the amount of carbon absorbed by trees (Kirschbaum 1996). The study indicates that for every m2 of built area, an area of approximately 200 m2 of forest

The first part of the study is therefore to calculate the energy requirements and carbon footprint in order to establish average values and therefore benchmarks. The way in which the internal environment is designed to be managed by plant and energy will also be ascertained. Environmental measurement Whilst the wide range of environmental details may be ascertained at the design stage and choices made based on comparisons between the available options, the entire green building and environmentally sustainable development hypothesis needs to be tested. We can hypothesise that in theory certain design features and materials and other property and construction decisions may appear to be preferable to their alternatives, a great deal of the outcome depends upon the way in which buildings are used and managed. Thus the second and major element of the proposed research is to undertake a performance evaluation of the buildings in the sample. Performance monitoring will be used to discover if the environmental modelling provides a true picture of the eventual performance. The building occupants will be monitored to discover if the building is used and managed in an environmentally sustainable manner. Performance monitoring. Some of the buildings have a building monitoring system in place to measure temperature, humidity and other similar variables. Others will require the installation of data-loggers to record the same variables. Either way, the monitoring process will provide a confirmation (or otherwise) of the modelling used during the design phase. The variables to be monitored include external climatic data, indoor air temperature, relative humidity, internal air movement and metered energy use. The results will be compared with the design parameters such as internal air temperature and air changes per hour. The amount of excess and/or shortfall when the actual figures are compared with the design parameters will be recorded. Energy savings and/or excess energy requirements will also be recorded. Survey of occupants. To establish the role that the occupiers play in the environmental performance, a survey will be carried out in each of the buildings and their results will be compared. A sample of occupants in each building from varying user groups will be asked to maintain a diary for a whole year. A year allows sufficient breadth of information accounting for various seasons. On a nominated day each week and at nominated times, the tenants will be asked to fill in questions relating to issues of thermal comfort, visual comfort (colour perceptions), natural and artificial lighting, and noise levels in the immediate environment. The recording of environmental data on a weekly basis is considered sufficiently frequent to allow for varying changes in the weather, whilst at the same time not imposing too much on the participants. The occupancy survey data will be aligned with the performance monitoring data. It is hoped that the result will establish a level of market acceptance of environmental features. In the case of normally service buildings, it is expected that the results will provide a guide as to over-use of plant and energy. In the case of more passively designed buildings, it is hoped that the results will show that a reduction in plant and energy use does not reduce building utility. Alternatively, the results may show the extent to which certain environmental features reduce building utility.

CONCLUSION It is expected that the conclusion to be drawn from a discussion of the environmental management issues is that property development and building construction can play a significant part in the quest for environmentally/ecologically sustainable development. Many measures are available for reducing the impact on resources, in particular natural resources such as energy, water, air and natural building materials. Contamination and pollution both internally and externally can be optimised. However continuing legislation and discussion of policy issues is required for improvement in environmental outcomes. The adoption by many countries of international standards on environmental management should lead to an improved performance by the property and construction sector. The rapid growth of information technology provides opportunities for the management of building performance in the environmental context as well as the financial and economic context. Greater public participation in these issues will see the stakeholders take greater ownership of their activities. The stakeholders include property owners and occupants, consultants, contractors, the community, neighbours, legislators and future generations. The new ethic is permeating across the built environment so that decisions are beginning to be considered which are environmentally effective first and cost effective second. However sight must not be lost of the commercial aspect of property management. All stakeholders must play their part in the improvement of the environment. The community cannot expect property owners to bear all of the responsibility. This may mean that building occupation becomes a higher cost activity as the costs of dealing with at least some of the environmental consequences are absorbed. It is hoped that this study will provide a guide as to suitable benchmarks for both active and passive building design solutions. If these solutions are fully acceptable to building occupants, they should also be acceptable to the property market in general as reflected in the activity of developers, investors and owners as well as occupiers. REFERENCES Anon. 1995. Study into energy efficient renovation of commercial buildings. Canberra: ERDC. Australian Greenhouse Office 1991, Scoping Study for Minimum Energy Performance Requirements for Incorporation into the Building Code of Australia, AGO, Canberra. Aye L., Bamford N., Charters W. W. S., Robinson J. 1999, Optimising embodied energy in commercial office development, COBRA 1999 - the challenge of change: construction and building for the millennium, University of Salford and Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors, Salford, pp. 217-223. Aye L., Bamford N., Charters W. W. S., Robinson J. 2000, Environmentally sustainable development: a life cycle costing approach for a commercial office building in Melbourne Australia, Construction Management and Economics, vol. 18., pp. 927-934. Bamford N., Charters W. W. S., Lacey R., Mills A., Radovic D., Robinson J., Williams P., Yencken D. 1998, Environment and sustainability in commercial office buildings, 14th annual conference, Association of Researchers in Construction Management, Reading, pp. 644-651. Building Owners' and Managers' Association (now the Property Council of Australia) 1994, Energy Guidelines, BOMA, Melbourne. Building Owners and Managers Association (now the Property Council of Australia) 1996, Survey of Office Building Energy Consumption, BOMA, Melbourne. Calvert, R. E., Bailey, G. and Coles, D. 1995, Introduction to Building Management, 6th edition,

Cooper, I. 1996, Emerging issues in environmental management, in Facilities Management: Theory and Practice, ed K. Alexander, E & FN Spon, London. Evans, D. 1992, Transport and greenhouse: what won't work and what might work, Proceedings of the Australasian Transport Research Forum, Canberra. Flanagan, R., Norman G. 1984, Life Cycle Costing for Construction, The Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors, London. Fryer, B. 1997, The Practice of Construction Management, 3rd edition, Blackwell Science, London. Jacques, R. 1996, Energy efficiency buildings standards project – review of embodied energy, in Proceedings of the embodied energy: the current state of play seminar, eds G. Treloar, R. Fay, S. Tucker, Deakin University, Geelong. Iyer-Raniga, U. and Treloar, G. 2000, Participation in Sustainable Development, Environmental Management, vol. 26, no. 4, pp. 349-361. Keeping, M. (2000) What about demand? Do investors want ‘sustainable buildings’? Paper presented at Sustainable Building 2000. Kirschbaum, M. U. F. 1996, The carbon sequestration potential of tree plantation in Australia, in Environmental Management: the Role of Eucalyptus and Other Fast Growing Species, eds K. G. Eldridge, M. P. Crowe, K. M. Old, CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products, Canberra. National Audubon Society 1994, Audubon House: Building the Environmentally Responsible, Energy-Efficient Office, John Wiley, New York. Newman P and Kenworthy J. 1999. Sustainability and cities, Washington DC: Island. Parnell, P. and Sayce, S. 1999, Attitudes Towards Financial Incentives for Green Buildings, Driver Jonas, London. Robinson, J. 1986 Life cycle costing in buildings: a practical approach, Australian Institute of Building Papers, vol. 1, pp. 13-28. Robinson, J. 1996, Plant and equipment acquisition: a life cycle costing case study, Facilities, vol. 14, no. 5&6, pp. 21-25. Standards Australia & Standards New Zealand 1999, Environmental Management – Vocabulary, AS ISO 14050:3, Standards Australia, Sydney. Standards Australia & Standards New Zealand 1998, Environmental Management – Life Cycle Assessment – Principles and Framework, AS ISO 14040:2, Standards Australia, Sydney. Stone, P. A. 1980, Building Design Evaluation: Costs-in-use, 3rd edition, E & FN Spon, London. Treloar, G. 1996, The environmental impact of construction: a case study, Australia and New Zealand Architectural Science Association. World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) 1987, Our Common Future, Oxford University Press, UK. Yeang, K. 1999, The Green Skyscraper, Prestel, London.