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THE EFFECT OF CLASSICAL INSTRUMENTAL BACKGROUND MUSIC VOLUME ON PERFORMANCE IN MATHEMATICS TESTS, SELF EFFICACY, AND TEST ANXIETY OF COLLEGE STUDENTS A DISSERTATION Presented to The Faculty of the Graduate School Southern University and A&M College ________________________________________ In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy In Science Mathematics Education

_________________________________________

By John-Bosco Osimbo Namwamba ___________________________________________ Baton Rouge, Louisiana July 2012

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Abstract

THE EFFECT OF CLASSICAL INSTRUMENTAL BACKGROUND MUSIC VOLUME ON PERFORMANCE IN MATHEMATICS TESTS, SELF EFFICACY, AND TEST ANXIETY OF COLLEGE STUDENTS Name: Namwamba, John-Bosco Osimbo Southern University A & M College Advisor: Joseph Meyinsse, PhD

The goals of this quantitative study were to investigate the effects of volume of background classical instrumental music on algebra test scores of engineering college students, mathematics test anxiety and mathematics self efficacy. Most of the related research findings are based on the comparison of subject test scores between students who had music instruction and those that had not. Some scientists explain that resulting benefits of music could be linked to improvement in reasoning and visualization in space due to development of the brain resulting from stimulation of some senses by music. Previous research suggests that music listening enhanced productivity and morale at work, and that people use music listening to manage their well-being in daily life. To meet the objectives of this research the researcher carried out a study involving a class of thirty students who were divided into five groups, one control and four treatment groups. Six hypotheses were tested. Each group sat for a mathematics test composed of 12 iii

problems. The treatment group took the test while listening to music at different volume levels. The loudness of music varied from minimum (no music) to safe maximum level. Test scores, mathematics test anxiety and mathematics test self-efficacy data was collected. Statistical analysis was then carried out on the results. Results from this study showed that five of the six hypotheses tested in the study were not accepted, The results showed that at low volume of instrumental music, the students’ mean scores in algebra test were lowest. As the volume of music was gradually increased, the corresponding algebra mean test scores increased. This study has shown that music could be used to lower mathematics test anxiety levels of students. The study also shows that mathematics test scores had inverse variations with mathematics test anxiety. Correlations were found between means of students’ algebra test scores; mathematics test anxiety and mathematics test self-efficacy and volume of classical instrumental music exist. The volume of classical instrumental music was found to positively affect performance. The results and conclusions from this study introduced new ideas that previous research had not considered.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Above everything else, the author gives all the glory to God for enabling everything to flow smoothly until the completion of this study and may the Lord Jesus be praised for it is always well. The author expresses sincere gratitude and appreciation to the committee, for the unrelenting guidance, interest, and devotion for the completion of this thesis research. Sincere thanks are extended to the Committee Members; Dr. Juanita Bates, Dr. Luria Young, Dr. Moustapha Diack and Dr. Samuel Ibekwe for their exemplary guidance, unselfish support and endless encouragement. Dr Samuel Ibekwe the author will always remember your prayers and support and precious advice. The author is very grateful to Dr. Joseph Meyinsse, the program leader for the Science Mathematics PhD program, for giving him the chance to pursue further studies and above all for his great input in making this study a success. The author also acknowledges the tireless efforts by Ms Zenobia Washington, Research Associate, PhD Science Mathematics program for ensuring that the author kept up pace according to program plan of study and continual encouragement. The author wishes to acknowledge the love, prayers, patience, encouragement, and trust given by his wife, Judith Namaswa, and their four sons Grazziedio, Benir, Festin, and Louez in completing this thesis research. Special thanks from the author are given Dr. Fulbert Namwamba and Dr. Grace Namwamba for their patience in proof reading of this work, formatting and encouragement. Mr. John v

Magugu, Mr. Shanon Kidombo and Mr. Zolile Ntombela, thank you for your assistance in data collection. God bless will you in a big way. The author is also grateful to colleagues, Mr. Sam Eweni, Gwendolyn Huggins and Mrs. Sundara Ghatty for the encouragement they accorded him during the program. The author is very grateful to Dr. L. Loftin who opened his eyes to visualize statistics as being different from just mere numbers. Statistics is deeper than calculations. Not to be left out are Dr. Raj and Dr. Munoz from the Mathematics Department. They proved that mathematics is among the best food of thought and challenge. Finally, the author would like to thank all who supported this dissertation research from his family, faculty members, and friends who gave him the time, love and the encouragement but have not been mentioned above. The author would like to thank Southern University for the equipment, hardware, software and space that were used to make this dissertation a success. Pastor Chibuike Azuoru and members of CKCC church Baton Rouge, your precious prayers and support will always remain in the memory of the author and his family. God will bless you and you will never lack things that accompany God’s blessings. Lastly, we should always remember that God causes everything to work together for the good of those who love God and are called according to his purpose for them (Romans 8:28).

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................. iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................v

LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................... xi

LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................................... xii

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................1

BACKGROUND OF STUDY .............................................................................................1

STATEMENT OF PROBLEM ............................................................................................2

SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY .............................................................................................2

PURPOSE OF STUDY........................................................................................................3

RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESIS ..............................................................3

ASSUMPTIONS ..................................................................................................................5

LIMITATIONS ....................................................................................................................6

DEFINITION OF TERMS ..................................................................................................6

CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE ..............................................................................7

BENEFITS OF MUSIC.........................................................................................................8

ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT ............................................................................................9

GRADUATION RATES AND MOTIVATION TO STAY IN SCHOOL ........................12

PARTICIPATION IN MUSIC AND COGNITION ...........................................................12

BETTER DECISION MAKERS AND PROBLEM SOLVERS ........................................15

MUSIC AND THE BRAIN .................................................................................................15

MUSIC, NOISE AND AUDITORY DISTRACTIONS ....................................................25

LOUD SOUNDS AND INDIVIDUALS WITH DIFFERENT PERSONALITIES AND NOISE SENSITIVITIES .........................................................................................298

POSITIVE EFFECTS FROM BACKGROUND MUSIC ..................................................30

THE EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF MUSIC ON COGNITIVE ABILITIES ..........................................................................................................................31

EFFECT OF MUSIC TEMPO ..........................................................................................332

MUSIC AND ANXIETY ....................................................................................................33

MECHANISM OF CONTROLLING ANXIETY ..............................................................36

MUSIC AND STRESS .......................................................................................................36

EFFECT OF LISTENING TO MUSIC BEFORE DOING TASK .....................................38

EFFECT OF MUSIC ON BLOOD PRESSURE AND HEART BEAT RATE..................39

EFFECT OF MUSIC ON MOODS.....................................................................................41

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ......................................................................................46

CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................48

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE ....................................................................................51

ANALYSIS OF DATA......................................................................................................55

CHAPTER IV RESULTS ...........................................................................................................58

CHAPTER V DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECCOMENDATIONS .....................73

DISCUSSION ....................................................................................................................74

CONCLUSIONS................................................................................................................76

RECCOMENDATIONS ....................................................................................................77

REFERENCES .............................................................................................................................79

APPENDIX A BRODMANN AREAS .........................................................................................96 ix

APPENDIX B PERMISSION TO CONDUCT RESEARCH .......................................................98

APPENDIX C CONSENT FORM FOR ADULTS .....................................................................100

APPENDIX D DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION...................................................................104

APPENDIX E ALGEBRA ABILITY INSTRUMENT ...............................................................105

APPENDIX F MATHEMATICS TEST ANXIETY INSTRUMET ...........................................110

APPENDIX G PROBLEM SOLVING SELF-EFFICACY INSTRUMENT ..............................111

APPENDIX H PERMISSION TO USE INSTRUMENTS INSTRUMENT ..............................112

VITA ............................................................................................................................................114

APPROVAL FOR SCHOLARLY DISSEMINATION ..............................................................115

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LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 1 Regression Analysis Graph for Volume of Classical Instrumental Music versus Mathematical Self Efficacy Data ........................................................................................60 FIGURE 2 Regression Lines for Volumes of Classical Instrumental Music Versus Mathematical Test Anxiety Mean Score........................................................................................66

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LIST OF TABLES TABLE 1 Linear Regression (Volume of Classical Instrumental Music versus Mathematics Self Efficacy .............................................................................................................59 TABLE 2 ANOVA Table for Mathematics Test Anxiety .............................................................61 TABLE 3 ANOVA Table for Volume of Classical Instrumental Music versus Mathematics Tests Scores ..............................................................................................................62 TABLE 4 ANOVA Table for Volume of Classical Instrumental Music versus Mathematics test scores .................................................................................................................62 TABLE 5 Post Hoc Test for ANOVA for Volume of Classical Instrumental Music versus Mathematics Test Scores ...............................................................................................................63 TABLE 6 Regression Analysis (Volume of Classical Instrumental Music versus Mathematics Test Anxiety) ............................................................................................................64 TABLE 7 Regression Analysis (Volume of Classical Instrumental Musical Versus Mathematics test Anxiety Mean Scores) .......................................................................................65 TABLE 8 Analysis of Mathematics Test Anxiety versus Mathematics Test Scores ....................67 TABLE 9 Regression Analysis of Mathematics Test Anxiety Mean Scores versus Mathematics Test Scores ...............................................................................................................68 TABLE 10 Tests of Between-Subjects Effects ..............................................................................70 TABLE 11 Correlation Coefficients between Variables for Whole Data .....................................71 TABLE 11 Correlation for Means .................................................................................................72 xii

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

Background of study Due to the availability of electronically reproduced music that caters for a wide range of consumers, the presence of background music world wide has risen. Such music is very common to the extent that an individual may not be aware of music in their immediate environment. Background music can be defined as any music played while the listener's attention is focused primarily on a task or activity other than listening to the music (Radocy & Boyle, 1988). Research by Greenberg (1971) showed that background music had a statistically significant effect on psychological test scores. Van Garderen and Montague (2003) stated that: Mathematical problem solving is a complex cognitive activity involving a number of processes and strategies. Problem solving has two stages: problem representation and problem execution. Successful problem solving is not possible without first representing the problem appropriately. Appropriate problem representation is the basis for understanding the problem and making a plan to solve the problem. Students who have difficulty representing math problems will have difficulty solving them. These students either have not acquired problem representation strategies or do not know how to use them appropriately.

In chapter II, the benefits of music in influencing spatial cognition and logical decisions (Rauscher, 2003; Rauscher, 2009), connected to solving mathematical problems are reviewed. Statement of Problem Mathematics anxiety is widespread, with high varying reported rates (Zaslavsky 1994). Negative myths about mathematics may contribute to this anxiety (Preis & Biggs 1

2001) and hence lead to a state of low confidence among students (Zopp 1999). Selfefficacy and mathematics anxiety are also among the variables that affect students’ goals and performances in mathematics (Hall & Ponton, 2005). Recent research has also showed that stressful environments could cause and increase mathematics anxiety, hence affecting their ability in solving mathematics problems (Beilock, 2008). A survey of literature shows that the results from previous studies do not address the use of background music to alleviate mathematics test anxiety and its impact on test scores. This study has been designed to investigate the effect of magnitude of volume of background music on mathematics test anxiety and test scores college students. Significance of study Existing research is inconclusive about the correlation between volume of classical instrumental music, mathematics examination anxiety, self-efficacy and performance on tests and yet it is common to see students studying and doing their college assignments while music plays in the background. The present study shades light on correlation between volume of music, anxiety, self-efficacy and performance in mathematics examination. If this study finds that the volume of instrumental classical music is found to positively influence achievement in mathematics tests (examinations) in the group of students under study, the study could be extended to other mathematics classes to assess its success. This study will attempt to develop models for predicting achievement in mathematics examinations sat by students while background music is played. Colleges could apply the findings of this study to ameliorate performance in mathematics and hence and improve college graduation rates. 2

Purpose of the Study Research shows that music relaxes stressed minds (Hjortseberg, 2009). The purpose of this study is to evaluate the effect of loudness of instrumental classical music on students’ mathematics test anxiety, performance in mathematics tests and self-efficacy score during testing in algebra while listening to music at different volume levels and to compare the results with those of students sitting for same tests under silent conditions. Research Questions and Hypotheses This study addressed the following research questions; 1. Is the loudness of background classical instrumental music played during a class test a significant variable in predicting mathematics self-efficacy? 2. Does loudness of background classical instrumental music played during a class test have differential effects on mathematics test anxiety of college students as compared to no music during testing? 3. Does loudness background classical instrumental music played during a class test have differential effects on students’ mathematics test self-efficacy? 4. Does loudness of background classical instrumental music played during a class test have differential effects on students’ performance in mathematics test? 5. Is there a significant relationship between volume of background classical instrumental music played during a class test and mathematics test anxiety as measured by the MARS? 6. Is the relationship between mathematical test anxiety as measured by the MARS and mathematics test scores significant? 3

In order to answer the research questions in this study, the following hypotheses were tested:

Hypothesis 1H0: Null hypothesis: There is no significant relationship between volume of background classical instrumental music played in test room during test and mathematics self-efficacy.

Hypothesis 2H0: Null hypothesis: There is no significant difference (associated with volume of instrumental classical music played for 10 minutes before algebra test) between experimental groups’’ and the control group mathematics pretest anxiety means scores as measured by the MARS.

Hypothesis 3 H0: Null hypothesis: There is no significant difference between the means of control and experimental groups’ mathematics self efficacy scores.

Hypothesis 4 H0: Null hypothesis: There is no statistically significant difference between the means of algebra test scores collected during the experiment for experimental and control groups.

Hypothesis 5 H0: Null hypothesis: The relationship between volume of background classical instrumental music played during a class test and mathematics test anxiety as measured by the MARS is not significant.

Hypothesis 6 H0: Null hypothesis: The relationship between mathematical test anxiety as measured by the MARS and mathematics test scores during testing is significant. 4

Assumptions In this study the following were assumed. (1)

The students are very honest when filling the surveys

(2)

That students work diligently during the tests

(3)

Participants have similar noise sensitivity level

(4)

That the levels of mathematics of participating students do not have significant effects on outcomes of the experiments.

(5)

The samples drawn for the research are representative of the

population from which they will be drawn from. Limitations of the Study (1) The population and sample sizes. The number of students enrolled in each of the classes offered by the Mechanical Engineering Department was lower than 40. (2) The type of music provided by the experimenter. The students were not allowed to choose music of their preference. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart’s symphony no 40 was used to for background classical music.

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(3) Variation in noise sensitivity levels among different individuals. Actually about 1 out of 5 people are highly sensitive to moderate loud noise disturbances (Luz, 2005). (4) Level of mathematics attained by participants. It was assumed that the number of high school mathematics credits earned and scores by individual students could not significantly influence the collected data. Definition of Terms Some of the terms used in this study are defined as follows. Test anxiety: The definition of test anxiety stems from state and trait anxiety. Spielberger defined test anxiety as a situation-specific anxiety trait (Spielberger & Vagg, 1995). Math test anxiety: Math Anxiety was defined by Anton and Klisch as (1995) anxiety experienced by some individuals only in math exams and not in exams of other subjects. Self-efficacy: people’s judgments of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performance (Bandura, 1997). Noise: Unwanted sound (Harris, 1979). Achievement: the score earned by the students in algebra test during the experiment. Level of classical instrumental music: The volume (loudness) of classical instrumental music.

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CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The literature in this chapter presents the benefits of music to students, institutions and people performing various types of tasks. Also presented is the influence of music on human brain development, effect of background music and noise on performance of academic and non academic tasks. The relationships between music and human mood, anxiety, stress, blood pressure are discussed. The possible influences of these variables on students’ performance in mathematics examinations are also discussed. While there have been many studies done on music and education in general, there is little that has been done on the influence of music on different levels of Blooms Taxonomy during mathematics examination. This literature review presents studies carried out that associate music with educations. Literature on effects of music on factors that could affect cognitive processes of students is also presented.

This review covers the following main subjects; a) benefits of music to students; b) music and the brain; c) effect of background sound (music and noise) on performance on task, d) music and anxiety, e) music and stress, and f) the effect that listening to music before performing a task has on performance.

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Benefits of Music

Historically music has been related to the learning process. Aristotles believed that people became a certain quality in their characters on the account of listening to music (Lelouda, 2002). Blooms (1984) believed that music was the center of education, for giving passions and preparing the soul for peaceful reasoning. Research over several decades has been carried out on possibilities of students benefitting from the presence of music. Gardner (2003) highlights some ways that music could be beneficial to students and institutions. Enhanced brain development, school attendance, and decreased drug abuse are outlined as some of the benefits of music to students. Music training has been linked to mathematics and science achievement. According to Gardiner (2000), involvement in music provides an extremely rich experience to individuals involving cognition, emotion and aesthetics. It develops individual capabilities and performance skills. During the process of learning music, individuals stretch themselves mentally in various ways and the mental capability of the learner develops to learn other things such as academics. A curriculum known as Learning through an Expanded Arts Program (LEAP) helps students learn academic subjects by the method of hands-on experience with art and music (Dean and Gross, 1992). When standardized evaluations of these projects were done, it was shown that of the students that participated in the program, 93.4% had developed better understanding of subject matters. According to the report from their

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teachers, 93% of the students gained self-discipline while 97% showed a positive attitude toward school. Higher IQ The recognition that music makes children smart is supported by behavioral and neurological data. Pre tests in IQ were given by Schellenberg (2004) to children that had been divided into four groups. One group was given keyboard training, the second group was given voice training, the third group had drama training, while the fourth received no training at all. A comparison between pre-test and post-test results of IQ scores on these groups showed that the mean IQ of students that had either keyboard or voice training had the highest increase in IQ compared to those that had drama training or none (Schellenberg, 2004). Students that had musical training were shown to have superior memory than those without such training (Ho et al, 2003; Albers & R. Bach, 2003)). Academic Achievement Children that had music training had significantly higher verbal memory than those that hadn’t. (Ho et al, 2003) Their verbal memory continued to increase as training progressed. The results of this research showed that there was a positive correlation between the duration of music training and verbal memory even after the effects of age and education level were controlled. According to Harris Interactive Poll of Principals (2006), schools having music programs recorded higher rates on standardized tests than the ones without (93.3% as compared to 72.9). 9

The College Board, Profile of College-Bound Seniors National Report for 2006 reported that information from the College Entrance Examination Board indicated that students who were taking music classes had continued to outperform their non-arts peers on the SAT. In 2006, SAT takers with either coursework or experience in music performance scored 57 points higher on the verbal portion of the test and 43 points higher on the math portion than students with no coursework or experience in the performing arts. The report further stated that students who had course work in music appreciation were 62 points higher on the verbal and 41 points higher on the math sections of SAT test than students that did not have course work or experience in music (College Entrance Board, 2006) Studies reported by Johnson and Memmott (2006) demonstrate that students in high-quality school music programs scored higher on standardized tests compared to students in schools with deficient music education programs, regardless of the socioeconomic level of the school or school district. Students at schools with excellent music programs scored higher English (22% better) and math (20% better) test scores across the country than students in schools with low-quality music programs. This study also reported that students in all regions with lower-quality instrumental programs scored higher in English and math than students who had no music at all. A study by Kluball (2000) on music instruction and academic achievement in a high school (measured by statewide standardized tests) showed that there were significant correlations between the duration of instruction in band and higher academic achievement based on the Georgia High School Graduation Test (GHSGT) Mathematics 10

and Science exams. According to Staricoff (2004), after introductory courses of art and music was taught to nursing students, their critical analysis and knowledge of illness greatly improved. Hines (2000) investigated the differences in positive effects of different types of music instruction on academic achievement by comparing music instruction that involves movement (motoric music) and instruction that does not involve movement on disabled students, ranging from kindergarten to grade nine. The results did not show significant differences between the academic achievement scores. More research work also reported that students who trained or got involved in music education attained higher scores in academic standard tests ((Cardarelli, 2003; Cobb, 1997; Frakes, 1984; Linch, 1993; Mitchell, 1994; Schneider & Klotz, 2000; Trent, 1996; Underwood, 2000; Zanutto, 1997). Research also showed that being excused from non music classes in order to attend lessons in musical instruments had no significant effect on the student’s academic performance (Cox, 2001; Kvet, 1982). A curriculum known as Learning through an Expanded Arts Program (LEAP) helps students learn academic subjects by the method of hands-on experience with art and music (Dean and Gross, 1992). When standardized evaluations of these projects were done, it was shown that of the students that participated in the program, 93.4% had developed better understanding of the subject matter. According to the report from their teachers, 93% of the students gained self-discipline while 97% showed a positive attitude toward school.

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Graduation rates and Motivation to stay in school Music has also been critical in reduction of absenteeism. In order to encourage young Hispanic students into academics and deter them from dropping out of school a school district in the state of Washington adopted use of mariachi music successfully (Zehr, 2003). When interviewed, ninety six percent of public school principals agreed that participating in music education encouraged and motivated students to spend longer time in school. While eighty nine percent credited higher graduation rates to music (Harris Interactive Poll, 2006). The “Harris Interactive poll of high school principals, 2006” (2006) also reported that, Schools with music programs have significantly higher graduation rates than do those without programs (90.2% as compared to 72.9%). In addition, those that rate their programs as “excellent” or “very good” had an even higher graduation rate (90.9%). Schools that have music programs have significantly higher attendance rates than do those without programs (93.3% as compared to 84.9%). Students also got interested in school since they had examples of figure people to look up to and hope to be like them as shown by a study on 811 high school students by Hamman and Walker (1993) which reported that the proportion of minority students had their music teachers as role models. Participation in Music and Cognition The research by Compabello et al (2002) aimed to evaluate the enhancement of students’ recall and memory. It involved implementation of musical strategies by 12

application of songs in class instruction in order to enhance and affect student memory and recall. Students from three suburban elementary schools were studied. One group was composed of 32-38 kindergarten students. The second group was composed of five Individualized Education Program (IEP) students and twenty three regular. The third group was made up of fifth grade students. The students had a difficult time in recalling facts and information in various subject areas as was evidenced through an inability to gain mastery of grade level skill areas. The program was a success in strengthening students’ recall because the songs aided in phonemic training, mnemonics, setting desired skills to tunes that students were familiar to and making linkage with cultural themes. Analysis of post-intervention data found evidence of increase in students' memory recall and emotional involvement. These changes were responsible for promotion of the motivational connection that must have encouraged more success. This data indicated further that students learned the material so well to an extent of being able to apply learned skills to other subject areas, and even their personal lives. A study by Rauscher (2003), on 31 children found that the ones who received keyboard instruction for two years commencing at age of three years continued to score higher on spatial-temporal and arithmetic tasks two years after the instruction had been discontinued. According to this research, age at which children began instruction appeared to affect the duration of extra-musical cognitive outcomes. Research over a long time suggested that in order to attain sustained enhancement of spatial abilities, instruction of at least two years of music was (Rauscher, 2003).

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A study on 90 boys aged between six and 15 was carried out by psychologists to determine whether music training had an effect on verbal and visual memory (Ho et al, 2003). The students were divided into two groups consisting of forty five members each, and were given a verbal and visual memory test. One group was made of students that had been participating in playing classical music on western instruments for duration of between one and five years. The second group of students had not undergone any training in playing musical instruments. The results of the tests showed that children with music training had significantly better verbal memory than those without such training, and the longer the training, the better the verbal memory. They also concluded that musical training for duration less than six years was good enough to boost verbal memory. They proposed that more music training could yield better results as a result of increase in the extent of cortical reorganization in the left temporal region and hence improve verbal memory. Ho et al (2003) also showed that students who continued training and beginners who had just started learning to play both showed improvement in verbal learning and retention In a study on the impact of music instruction on other skills, Rauscher (2009) collected data which suggested that rhythmic training is the most important for development of temporal cognition and mathematics. Research by Larkin (2001) showed that music could significantly improve the memory of dementia patients in comparison to either silence or noisy environments. Following this research, Larkin (2001) inferred that auditory stimulation through music heightened arousal and attention, leading to aiding patients to remember life events (Foster, 2001; Larkin, 2001). 14

Better Decision Makers and Problem Solvers According to Eisner (2002) music education enables students to develop competence in, decision-making skills, ability to visualize goals and outcomes, ability to adapt, perception of relationships, being attentive to nuance and multiple approaches to problems’ solving. Information from the Texas Commission on Drug and Alcohol Abuse Report, reported in Houston Chronicle, January 1998 indicated that 21 percent of secondary students who participated in band or orchestra reported the lowest lifetime and current use of all substances except smokeless tobacco. Secondary students who participated in band or orchestra reported the lowest lifetime and current use of all substances (alcohol, tobacco, illicit drugs) (Texas Commission of Drugs and Alcohol and Tobacco, 1998). Music and the Brain

Apart from playing and participating in learning to play musical instruments being enjoyable (Schlitchting & Brown, 1970), it benefits the students in various ways. Some benefits can also be reaped from participation in choral music and even listening to music. Participating in choir helps the students in cultivation of positive mood and social association (Clitt & Hancox, 2001). There have also been debates on whether music is responsible for these benefits or whether it might be possible that students that take interest in musical activities are those with high intelligence. It is argued that if the former were true, then music could have nothing to do with the alleged academic and intelligence benefits. To be able to understand effect of music in the brains of students 15

participating in musical activities or attempting to solve mathematics problems under examinations or relaxed conditions, knowledge of neuroscience becomes handy. This section of literature reviews the research carried out on brain activities and development with relation to music and noise.

Music was stated as one of the seven intelligences (Hatch and Gardner, 1996). Musical Intelligence was hence defined as the abilities to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch, and timbre of music and appreciation of musical forms of expressiveness. According to Gardner (1984), since music makes use of quite a number of attributes, it develops flexibility in thinking. Hence musical training is a way that effectively enhances the conceptual-holistic-creative thinking process, while also to assisting in the molding and integrating of the capabilities of the mind. Musical capabilities seem to be represented initially in the right hemisphere of the brain. However as one’s skills improve, capabilities that had been in the right hemisphere can be increasingly found in the left. Apparently, with musical training, a significant proportion of skills migrate across the corpus callosum into the left hemisphere which is linguistically dominant Gardner (1984). When subjects get engaged in spatial-temporal tasks, such as the Stanford-Binet paper folding task, the same areas of the brain discussed in the preceding paragraph became activated (Muftuler et al. 2004). The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is important in coordination of complex tasks in working memory (Bodner et al., 1996; Fuster, 2000). Interestingly these areas were not always activated when listeners were made to listen to other musical compositions, such as Beethoven’s Fur Elise.

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When a baby is born, most of the neurons used for information storage are present. However, growth of the supporting and connecting cells known as dendrites that enriches the communication between neurons is lifelong (Judy, 2007). Dendrites are the branched projections of neurons, sprouting from the neuron's axons or (Judy, 2007). They increase in number and size in response to experience, learned skills, and information. A study by Schmidt et al (2003) on the development of infants’ regional electrocortical (EEG) and heart rate (ECG) responses to affective musical stimuli during the first twelve months after birth yielded results showing that effective music significantly stimulates activity in the brain during the first year of a human being’s life. The effect of affective music stimuli during the first 12 months caused a clear developmental change on the brain activity of infants. The authors have found that affective music significantly increases brain activity at three months of age and has a calming effect afterwards Research by Azizi (2008) found that music enrichment triggers stimulation of the formation of synapses and the development of dendrites in the brain. Hence, training children in music at an early age activates higher brain functions, including includes complex reasoning tasks. The pathways used for spatial reasoning are the same as music pathways in the brain. Therefore when an individual listens to music, the spatial pathways are activated and ready to be used. New ones grow from neurons that are activated frequently. Proteins known as neurotrophins are responsible for stimulation of growth of dendrites. The concentration of neurotrophins in the brain is highest during 17

childhood, when connecting cells in the brain are in the process of undergoing their greatest growth and development (Azizi, 2008). However continued learning increases the level of neurotrophin activity in the brain region charged with new learning and new memory formation (Kang, 1997). Because of its plasticity, the brain is able to reshape itself and reorganize the networks of dendrite-neuron connections as response to increase or decrease in use of the pathways (Giedd et al., 1999). Evidence of brain plasticity is seen in people who repeatedly practice activities which are controlled by parts of their sensory, visual, coordination or motor systems for specialized learned activities (Willis, 2007). Research carried out by Elbert et al. (1995) shows that stringed musical instruments players that use fingers of their left hands to perform complex movements along the strings manifest increased somatosensory regions (cortex representation) of the brain's parietal lobe which is associated with left hand fingers. In a report on research in neuroplasticity and changes in grey matter resulting from training, Draganski et al (2004) reported that people who learned the art of juggling increased the amount of gray matter in their occipital lobes. However, when they discontinued practicing juggling, the new gray matter disappeared. Draganski et al (2004) explained that this takes place due a process referred to as pruning, which involves the decrease in the connecting dendrites and other connecting cells that are not used. One of the experiences which have been shown to positively affect brain development is music. Music influences the formation of synapses (connections) and growth of dendrites (branching extensions) in the brain and its Processing of music takes 18

place in both the right and left hemispheres of the brain (Green, 1999). Studies by a number of researchers demonstrated that early experiences in life affect the structures in the brain and Cognitive functions in human (Ho et al, 2003). Dawson et al (2000) proposed that the impact of early life experience on the development of the human’s cognitive functions is predictable when an association with the effect of experience on neuro-anatomy is established. They also proposed that cognitive functions were highly localized in the brain and different parts of the brain mediated specific cognitive functions. To study changes in brain as a result of music training, a scan was carried out by Stewart et al (2003) on musically naive participants before and after duration of fifteen weeks of training. During this period, participants were taught to play the keyboard and read music. The researchers saw activation in a cluster of voxels within the bilateral superior parietal cortex when the participants played melodies from musical notation. In a second experiment which had musical notation that was irrelevant for task performance, a subset of these voxels was activated. The participants were selected through advertisements and questionnaires. In a report on this research, the investigator made the following comments: The activation in superior parietal cortex seen in the explicit music reading task, after training, supports the hypothesis that music reading involves a sensorimotor translation in which the spatial characteristics of musical notation are used to guide selection of the appropriate keypress. The activation of the left supramarginal gyrus in the implicit music reading task, in conjunction with the 19

Stroop interference seen after training, suggests that after 15 weeks, musical notation is automatically processed. The common activation of superior parietal cortex across the two tasks reflects an effect specific to the acquisition of music reading skill, and is independent of the particular tasks used. The study serves to illustrate the power that culture has in shaping brain function and illustrates one approach by which neuroimaging can be used to capture and delineate such changes. Musical training leads to cortical reorganization in the left temporal region, boosting memory. Increase on in duration of musical training results in more cortical reorganization in the left temporal region of the brains of the learners (Ho et al, 2003). Hence, providing children with musical training from early age helps in development of their left temporal lobes and hence verbal memory. A study by Fujioka et al (2006) indicated that young children who received a year of musical training for a period of one year showed brain changes and superior memory in comparison with those who did not receive the instruction. The study also showed that the children who took music lessons improved more than the others in non-musical abilities such as verbal memory, literacy, mathematics, visuospatial processing, and IQ. According to Hyde (2009), each of the over 100 billion neurons in the human brain is linked to other neurons creating trillions of connections. Neurons become stronger if they are used; otherwise their death is easy to come by. Children’s brains are constantly building themselves by formation of new connections, or synapses. The ability of the brain to handle new information improves as neuron connections are increased. 20

Musical display in the brain involves effective, auditory, motor, cognitive and visual systems. Both the left and right halves of the brain have parts to play in processing music (Zatorre et al, 2007). According to research by Huttenlocher (2002), spatial tasks and music are both represented in the non-dominant parietal cortex posterior to the postcentral gyrus, which is in the same general cortical region. Huttenlocher brought to the attention of other researchers the possibility of brain activity associated with one task (e.g., music interpretation) initiating another cognitive task performance whose associated brain activity is anatomically close (e.g., spatial-temporal reasoning). According to Michael et al. (2005), brain imaging data from research documents showed correspondences between brain areas activated by certain musical activities and by tasks requiring spatial-temporal reasoning. Imaging studies have given evidence that listening to the Mozart sonata (k. 448), for example, activates a brain network. The network includes the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and specific areas of occipital lobe (Brodmann areas 17, 18 & 19) whose activation has been implicated in visual representation and the cerebellum, implicated in the manipulation of visual representations such as rotation (Appendix A). When subjects engage in spatiotemporal tasks, such as the Stanford-Binet paper folding task, the same areas just discussed became activated (Muftuler et al., 2004). The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is important in coordination of complex tasks in working memory (Bodner et al., 1996; Fuster, 2000). Interestingly these areas were not 21

always activated when listeners were made to listen to other musical compositions, such as Beethoven’s Fur Elise. Music triggers the secretion of the body’s own morphine known as endorphins, hence influencing the brain. As result of this, pain and stress are reduced (Fontaine, 1994). Fenoglio et al (2006) identified another process by which stress affected memory. They found that acute stress activated corticotropin molecules releasing hormones, leading to disruption of the process that the brain utilizes to collect and store memories. According to Davis (1992), when people are faced with threatening challenges or under stress, norepinephrine, cortisol, and adrenaline are released for stimulation of survival assurance activities. However, this could have negative impacts on learning and memory if the presence of cortisol is prolonged, for it interferes with processes of thinking and memory (abilities to think and remember) (Newcomer, 1999). Research by Reichal (2000) explained that once stress chemicals are in the blood circulatory system, a decrease in blood flow to the cortex results. This is very evident in the frontal lobes, which could lead to inhibition of thinking at a high-level. Some of the chemicals released in the human body through stimulation by music, making the body feel good and hence be in good moods, are, dopamine, endorphins and serotonin (Wise 2004). These chemicals, also known as neurotransmitters facilitate quick and easy transmission of neural messages (The brain, 2010). A study on reduction of stress among patients, by use of general background music and preselected music of choice yielded results showing greatest reduction in stress 22

level for the group that listened to music of their choice (Mornhinweg, 1992). Music can distract individuals from pain and hence enhance tolerance to pain (Stevens, 1990). In order to determine and compare the magnitudes of response to stress in presurgical situations, measurements of changes in salivary cortisol were carried out (MilukKolasa, 1994). The level of cortisol in saliva dropped as a result of listening to music. Listening to music resulted in a marked reduction in the levels of this hormone (MilukKolasa, 1994). McEwen and Sapolsky (1995) stated that; “Stress affects cognition in a number of ways, acting rapidly via catecholamines and more slowly via glucocorticoids. Catecholamine actions involve beta adrenergic receptors and availability of glucose, whereas glucocorticoids biphasically modulate synaptic plasticity over hours and produce longer-term changes in dendritic structure that last for weeks. Prolonged exposure to stress leads to loss of neurons, particularly in the hippocampus. Recent evidence suggests that the glucocorticoid- and stress-related cognitive impairments involving declarative memory are probably related to the changes they effect in the hippocampus, whereas the stress-induced catecholamine effects on emotionally laden memories are postulated to involve structures such as the amgydala”. Music triggers the secretion of the body’s own morphine known as endorphins, hence influencing the brain (Fontaine, 1994).

Canadian-based researchers found evidence that young children taking music lessons show different brain development. Furthermore these children improved in 23

memory within one year in comparison to children who did not undergo musical training (Oxford University Press, 2006). Music was stated as one of the seven intelligences is music Hatch and Gardner (1996). Musical Intelligence was hence defined as the abilities to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch, and timbre of music and appreciation of musical forms of expressiveness. Kelly and Lesh (2005) articulated the links between Music Training and Mathematics and Science Achievement. According to research by Huttenlocher (2002), spatial tasks and music are both represented in the non-dominant parietal cortex posterior to the postcentral gyrus, which is in the same general cortical region. Huttenlocher (2002) brought to the attention of other researchers the possibility of brain activity associated with one task (for example music interpretation) initiating another cognitive task performance whose associated brain activity is anatomically close (for example spatialtemporal reasoning). Student attention is very important for effective learning to take place. Hence for successful teaching the instructor should ensure that students focus their attention to the lesson. Application of novelty stimulates their attention (Berns et al., 1997). This works well since anything that the brain perceives as unusual stimulates it to release neurotransmitters and hormones such as norepinephrine and dopamine, which can support attention and learning. Apart from stimulating the process of attentiveness in the brain, norephinephrine also affects the amygdala, the emotional-memory director (Sprenger, 1999). Dopamine on the other hand has great influence on motivation,

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inquisitiveness, learning, and memory too. It additionally triggers the emotional responses of the amygdala, hence encouraging rewards for learning (Fried, 2001). The method of selection for the participants in research by Stewart et al (2003) was based on advertisement and response written on questionnaires. If the participants knew what the researcher was looking for, they could influence the results. Such results may not be used for modeling since they depend on trustworthiness of the participants are. Music, Noise and Auditory Distractions Harris (1979) defined noise as sound which is unwanted. Noise can also be defined as sound that may be present in an environment where it is not appreciated may also be classified as noise. Noise lowers the quality of performance on a given task and is annoying (Harris, 1979). Noise annoyance may be manifested in the form of mild anger and fear (Cohen. 1981). It should be realized that there is no unique level of noise or sound that can be universally stated as the least level required for initiating annoyance since individual listeners vary uniquely in noise perception (Gunn, 1987). Hence loud music can be considered by the listener as noise. Noise has been proven to adversely affect difficult tasks which require high levels of information processing or perception processing (Murthy et al (1995). It is also perceived as an environmental stressor. Noise can cause auditory (pertaining to hearing organs) and non-auditory effects. The former may affect the well-being of the listener or health (Stansfeld, 2003). Generally people should not expose themselves to continuous 25

noise within the range of 85–90 dB, for a long time since it could lead to gradual progressive loss of hearing. This is accompanied by particularly over a lifetime in industrial settings, can lead to a progressive loss of hearing, with an increase in the threshold of hearing sensitivity (Kryter, 1985). Noisy environments caused by loud music have been found to be responsible for hearing loss of disc jockeys. Bray et al (2004) drew this conclusion after carrying out as a noise exposure, hearing loss and associated ontological symptoms study on a group of 23 disc jockeys, using a questionnaire and pure tone audiometry. The magnitude of noise at music halls was determined by use of Ametek Mk-3 audio dosimeters. The study found that on average the noise levels at the venues of study were 96 dB (A), a level higher than the safe level allowed for ear protection. The results showed that, seventy percent of this group had temporary threshold shifts after sessions while seventy four percent had tinnitus (Bray et al, 2004). Any music that is played while listeners are supposed to have their attention focused on other tasks may be considered as background music (Radocy & Boyle, 1988). Research on the effect of noise distraction on study yielded mixed results with some implying that the distractions influence the performance. A study by Dwivedi's (1988) on the arousal effects on recall produced results showing that noise of high intensity had greater significant negative effect on processing and retention than low noise, thus affecting cognitive performance.

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According to Murthy et al. (1995), noise adversely affects difficult tasks which require high levels of information processing or perception processing. Research shows that neurotic individuals may show increased arousal levels during stressful conditions (Eysenck 1977, 1982). However, worrying and anxiety are factors that affect them negatively and could lower their work outputs in noisy environments (Belojevic et al, 2003). In order to study the effects of controlled auditory distraction factor upon the performance of selected students on an oral reading test, Riddle (1961) selected subjects on the basis of grade, achievement), and speech and hearing ability within the normal range for age and grade level. To provide controlled auditory distraction factor, earphones connected to a tape recorder were used. Distractions consisted of a recording of music, verbal description and sound effects. From the results, Riddle (1961) concluded that the controlled auditory distraction factor significantly impaired the performance of selected students on the Gilmore Oral Reading Test in accuracy scores (p