(MSUM), Jamestown College, a private four-year liberal arts college, and Fort Berthold. Community ..... Jacksonville, FL: Center for the Advancement of Teaching and Learning. ... Institute for the Learning Sciences, Technical Report #94-34.
Teaching with Immersive Virtual Archaeology Brian M. Slator, Jeffrey T. Clark, James Landrum III, Aaron Bergstrom, Justin Hawley, Eunice Johnston, and Shawn Fisher Departments of Computer Science, Sociology/Anthropology, English North Dakota State University Fargo, ND 58105 Abstract We describe an immersive 3D virtual reality environment for Archaeology education.
1. Introduction The Virtual Archaeologist is designed to give students an authentic experience that includes elements of a) exploration of a spatially oriented virtual world, b) practical, fieldbased decision making, and c) critical thinking for scientific problem solving. The objectives of the project include assessment of student performance, evaluation of instructor feedback, and incorporation of that information into the continuing design of the system. The larger objective is the distribution of this experience to archaeology students around the world. We have started to develop an immersive multi-user 3D virtual environment that faithfully reproduces an archeological site: Like-a-Fishhook/Fort Berthold (LF/FB). The site is rendered as two discrete models, the first representing the site in 1954 (just prior to its destruction by the Garrison Dam flooding), and the second being a mirror of the first, but representing how it was in 1854. This mirroring will support "time travel" that will enable students to visit both times, and to visualize the relationships between a "dig" and a village a century earlier. The 1954 world is built from “distribution maps” of archaeological features and floor plans (or bird’seye views) of those features. These archaeological features include linear trenches with wooden post remnants, circular depressions where earth lodges stood (20 excavated) with a series of stains from structural posts, and a variety of soil discolorations from pits, fireplaces, and other features. In the 1854 world, the archaeological traces are seen as timber palisades, “remarkable” earth and timber lodges, cache pits, scaffoldings, etc.
2. Background: The Like-a-Fishhook Story. Prior to the coming of European Americans, the Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara tribes of the Middle Missouri River resided in sedentary earth-lodge communities. Despite a basic similarity of economic and social life, these peoples differed remarkably in language and customs; the Mandan and Hidatsa speak a Siouan dialect, while the Arikara, related to the Pawnee, are members of the Caddoan linguistic group. One of the most important historic sites of the Northern Plains was Like-a-Fishhook Village, which was occupied simultaneously by all three, known today officially as the Three Affiliated Tribes. Like-A-Fishhook Village, also called Fort Berthold, was located north of the confluence of the Missouri and Knife rivers in central North Dakota. As the last earth-lodge settlement of the Northern Plains, the site documents an extraordinary episode of cultural transformation [1]. The village was initially founded in the aftermath of a devastating smallpox epidemic in 1837. The Mandan population was most heavily affected by the epidemic, being reduced to fewer than 200 individuals. Though not as severely struck by this terrible disease, the Arikara and Hidatsa populations shrank as well. Ethnohistorical evidence suggests that the first permanent residents of Like-a-Fishhook Village were Hidatsa who arrived in 1845 [1:4-5]. They were joined shortly thereafter by a smaller group of Mandan. At about the same time as the Hidatsa built their first earth Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Virtual Systems and Multimedia (VSMM’01) 0-7695-1402-2/01 $17.00 © 2001 IEEE
lodges, a white trading company (the American Fur Company), established a post at the site, with log structures and a stockade, which eventually became known as Fort Berthold (dubbed Fort Berthold I by G. Hubert Smith). By 1862, a new trading post (Fort Berthold II), by a different trading company, had replaced the first, which had burnt to the ground. Also around 1862, the Arikara arrived, establishing themselves in a new section of the village, building on the site of the first fort. Over the decades, more European Americans moved into the region and the area surrounding Like-A-Fishhook/Fort Berthold Village changed significantly. In the 1860s, Fort Berthold (by then a mixed community of Native Americans, European Americans, and mixed bloods), “was a base for Federal military units campaigning in the Dakota Territory against fugitive remnants” of Native American tribes in the region [1:17]. In the late 1880s the village was abandoned, as native residents were forced to leave the site and take up occupation on new areas of the then Fort Berthold Indian Reservation. Data recovery projects (archaeological salvage excavations) were carried out at the site in 1950-52 and 1954 by the State Historical Society of North Dakota, under contracts with the National Park Service (NPS) and by the River Basin Surveys of the Smithsonian. Rising waters from the Garrison Dam and Reservoir project ultimately inundated the site, which now rests about a mile offshore under the waters of Lake Sakakawea (Garrison Reservoir). Although many individuals were involved in that work, the final report was written by G. Hubert Smith and published by the NPS, U.S. Department of the Interior in 1972 [1]. In the preface to his book, Smith wrote of this important site: “The former earth-lodge settlement of the Hidatsa, Mandan, and Arikara Indians, known both as Like-a-Fishhook Village and as Fort Berthold Indian Village, was one of the important historic sites of the upper Missouri Valley. … The abandonment of Like-aFishhook Village marked the close of a decisive era of Indian history in the Northern Plains” [1:v]. 2.1. Background: Historical and Anthropological Significance of the Site. The unification of these three tribes tells of the significant impact that the coming of the European American white man had upon Native American cultures. Peoples with similar but distinctive Native American heritage closed ranks and banded together, setting aside their differences in response to increasing pressures brought upon them by contact with the white man. The sites of Like-A-Fishhook Village and Fort Berthold I and II, though no longer extant, have, historically, held a significant role in the discipline of anthropology. The roll call of explorers, archaeologists, ethnographers, ethnologists, historians, and artists who have visited, studied, and recorded the lifeways of the Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara is impressive, and testifies to the wealth of information available for use in development of the virtual LF/FB project. Among the first explorers to encounter and record the Mandan and Hidatsa was Pierre Gaultier La Vérendrye (journals 1738-43), followed by Henry Alexander the Younger (journals 1798-1814), and Meriwether Lewis and William Clark (and by extension Thomas Jefferson) during their historic explorations 1804-5); George Catlin (artist 1830s); Maximillian, Prince zu Weid (explorer, scientist) and Karl Bodmer (artist) during 1830s; Rudolph Freiderich Kurz (explorer/artist 1848-1852), Lewis Henry Morgan (anthropologist, kinship systems 1860s), J. V. Brower (ethnology and ethnography collections 1896), George F. Will and H.J. Spinden (excavation 1905), Gilbert L. Wilson (numerous studies 1907 until his death in 1930), Edward S. Curtis (film and photography), George Gustav Heye (Founder of the National Museum of the American Indian; ethnology 1906 forward), Robert H. Lowie (numerous studies 1912- early 1920s), Frances Densmore (ethnomusicology 1923, ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology 1973), Edward Kennard (linguistics 1936), Mary Warren Beckwith (ethnography, ceremonial organization, mythology 1937), Alfred L. Bowers (social and ceremonial organization 1950;
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archaeological excavation 1929-1930), G. Hubert Smith (NPS excavations, 1950-1954), Raymond W. Wood (excavations 1954), Sol Tax and numerous students (1948-1952), John Canfield Ewers (numerous ethnology, ethnography, and ethnohistorical works 1930s1990s), Edward M Bruner (ethnography 1940s- 1950s), Douglas R. Parks (ethnography 1970s-1990s), and Stanley Ahler (1970s to present). In some ways the story of LF/FB is a mirror of the study of Anthropology in America. We have compiled an extensive bibliography of manuscripts and publications online at http://vcell.ndsu.nodak.edu/fishhook/ 2.2. Context: The Digital Archive Network for Anthropology (DANA). The Archaeology Technologies Laboratory (ATL) of North Dakota State University (NDSU) is collaborating with the State Historical Society of North Dakota (SHSND), to develop a digital database for the LF/FB collection. This database differs from other anthropological databases in several ways. Most notably, it contains three-dimensional (3D) models of material objects that are sufficiently precise to allow for a wide range of measurements through the application of specially created “virtual tools.” Along with serving as a tool for information management, the database will be used to enhance the display of artifacts recovered from LF/FB. Furthermore, the database will ultimately be part of a larger, Internet-based network of interoperable databases forming a global Digital Archive Network for Anthropology (DANA) that will link researchers, students, and the general public to realistic, accurate, visual representations of a variety of objects of interest to anthropologists [2]. The LF/FB database, and the larger DANA, will improve the ability of researchers and preservationists to generate, communicate, organize, store, and analyze material culture data. The project described here draws on the digital models and associated database of the LF/FB collection. Artifacts from the collection are transported to NDSU for scanning and 3D model construction at the ATL. The database structure has been developed by ATL in collaboration with Fern Swenson, Chief Archaeologist and Deputy Director of Historic Preservation for the SHSND, and her staff. The ATL is equipped with a Minolta Vivid 700 Non-Contact Laser Digitizer, a Kodak 260 digital camera, a Dell 610 dual-processor workstation, Polyworks Modeler software, DeepPaint3D with the Texture Weapons plug-in, and Photoshop 5. This digitizing equipment and software allow the lab to produce full-color digital 3D surface models of physical objects. The digitizing process emits a laser beam that is reflected off a mirror causing the laser beam to spread out from a point reflection to a horizontal line reflection. As the mirror rotates the laser beam reflects back from the artifact. This process can be referred to as "painting" the artifact. As the reflected laser beam returns to the digitizing lens, the Vivid 700 calculates the 3D location of each point at which the laser began its return trip to the machine’s data capture lens. Once the laser beam line reaches the bottom of its reflecting range, the laser and mirror are returned to their original states, ready to paint the artifact again if necessary. Then, the digitizing lens takes a digital photograph of the artifact. The 3D point data (and its associated digital photograph), are then compiled by the Vivid 700. Once in the Vivid data-capturing software, the completed scan is turned into a 3D polygonal mesh. This mesh models the contour of the surface area of the artifact and also has associated mapping coordinates so that the digital photograph generated by the capture lens can be viewed as if it were reflected as light from the actual physical object. After one area of the artifact has been digitized, the artifact is rotated so that a second area can be digitized. The process is continued until the total of the completed scans digitally recreates the entire surface contour of the physical artifact.
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2.3. Context: The NDSU World Wide Web Instructional Committee (WWWIC). WWWIC (http://www.ndsu.edu/wwwic) is a multi-disciplinary group of NDSU faculty engaged in developing virtual/visual worlds for science education that communicate both the scientific method and discipline-specific content. These worlds are role-based, goal-oriented, learner-oriented, immersive, and exploratory [3]. These worlds employ consistent elements across disciplines and foster the sharing of development plans and tools. The goal of this research is to evaluate the use of active synthetic environments on student learning of scientific, problem-solving skills, such as those that would be learned on a virtual archeological "dig." The objective is to produce a software product to be distributed nationally. With this distribution, we hope to teach current curriculum better and to add curriculum not taught before. This project is being undertaken through collaboration between the Department of Computer Science and the Department of Sociology/Anthropology at North Dakota State University, in cooperation with teachers at a comprehensive four-year public university, Minnesota State University Moorhead (MSUM), Jamestown College, a private four-year liberal arts college, and Fort Berthold Community College, a two-year institution.
Figure 1: Archeological drawing of Hidatsa Lodge #1 floor plan, based on 1950s excavation
3. The Virtual Environment. To achieve these goals, we have begun to construct a highly interactive virtual environment (on two levels: 1954 and 1854) that provides "live" simulations for exploration and discovery that will engage learners while treating them to a plausible synthetic experience. Within this context, the student makes decisions similar to those of an archaeologist, using simulated tools and the techniques of archaeology in conjunction with actual data from a real excavation. We have implemented similar systems to teach in a "learn by doing" manner the scientific method and the strategies of deductive problem solving, along with fundamentals of geology [4] and biology [5]. The 1954 level is being constructed using an engineering drawing tool (AutoCAD 2000; See Figure 1), to precisely replicate the site according the archeological record. This gives us a "to the inch" model of the location of structural features; wooden posts, underground Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Virtual Systems and Multimedia (VSMM’01) 0-7695-1402-2/01 $17.00 © 2001 IEEE
caches, etc. The 1854 level is being constructed by loading these AutoCAD models into an architectural modeling program (we are currently using Form-Z; See Figures 2 and 4), and then "extruding" the architectural features to give a faithful-as-possible rendering of the village as it is likely to have looked. We have accomplished one such extrusion of Hidatsa Lodge #1, and we are in the process of creating more (see http:// atl.ndsu.edu/ props/ fishhook/ slide.htm for a 2D view of this preliminary work). We propose eventually to capture the entire 40-acre site in this manner, using the archeological and topographical data as recorded in 1954. This includes the village site, the fort, an associated cemetery, and the flood plain where crops were grown. This "mirroring" of time levels is needed to support the "time travel" that we propose. To maximize the authenticity of the 1800s site, we employ detailed renderings of the structural and non-structural features of the site. For this detail we are using a variety materials: excavation notes and maps; photographs, paintings, and drawings (e.g., by Bodmer, Catlin, de Trobriand) depicting the village or other earth lodge and/or forts in the Middle Missouri from the mid and late 19th century; photos and plans of earth lodges already reconstructed by the State Historical Society at other sites; and numerous publications.
Figure. 2: A JPEG image of a Form-Z model extruded from an AutoCad representation of the floor plan in Figure 1. Note the support beams are irregularly spaced and doubled up in some places. In addition to the landscape and structural recreation, we envision one further innovation: archaeological artifacts in context. In other words, we have begun to create 3D renderings of artifacts from the site and to "salt" the environment with them. Students will not only explore two faithful reproductions of an archeological site, they will "discover" faithful reproductions of artifacts authentic to the site, and in the locations they were unearthed. For some examples of these 3D artifact models, including a bell with sound, see http://atl.ndsu.edu/props/ fishhook/main.htm, and Figure 3 below. It is on this foundation that we are building a system to teach students how to think and act like archaeologists: by "doing" archaeology in an accurately and faithfully re-produced virtual context. To accomplish this, we have secured access to the original materials (documents, photos, artifacts, etc.) stored at the North Dakota State Society Historical Museum, and we have begun to create 3D digital models of selected artifacts. These artifacts are also being added to the DANA database (described above). Further, we have already developed the first version of a VRML "salting" tool (one could think of this as a sort of "level editor") Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Virtual Systems and Multimedia (VSMM’01) 0-7695-1402-2/01 $17.00 © 2001 IEEE
that allows us precisely to place small VRML objects into the context of a larger VRML view. Lastly, during the 2001-2002 academic year, we plan to embark on a small experimental detour by making the virtual environment available to the faculty and students of the new NDSU Writer’s Program as a platform for developing authentic historical fiction. In brief, student writers will be invited to explore the simulation and asked to write short “fictions” about the site or artifacts they find. These fictions will be revised and edited, first under the direction of English department faculty and later according to critiques from our anthropology and history consultants. If, after all this, these fictions are judged to be of sufficient quality and authenticity, they will be included in the simulation as “fiction points” that archaeology students can click on and experience as part of their explorations. We are hopeful these will serve to “enliven” the simulation in pedagogically sound ways. However, we will proceed cautiously at first, and will keep the fiction points “hidden” from archaeology student eyes until we have solid data supporting their value.
4. Implementation Detail. The Archaeology Explorer is designed on the client-server model with client software implemented primarily in Java and server processes hosted on LambdaMOO [6]. This is the usual technique for WWWIC projects and one with which we have a great deal of experience. The client software will be delivered over the Internet using standard browser software. The Archaeology Explorer will most closely resemble the Virtual Cell [5], which is a educational simulation for Biology education using the Virtual Reality Modeling Language (VRML) to render the interior of a cell and allowing students to study cellular organelles and processes first hand. The NDSU Digital Archive Network for Anthropology (DANA) is another project we draw on heavily, both for code and content. As with all WWWIC projects, this one leverages software and design experience from previous efforts. This is a conscious decision on our part, and allows us to re-use software and build on earlier work. 4.1. Client Detail. The client applet is a wrapper for three main components: 1) a telnet application for connecting to the Archaeology Explorer MOO server; 2) Java3D libraries for supporting the VRML rendering and navigation control; and 3) additional code and data for interfaces, interactivity, and so on. The student will have access to a set of virtual tools, such as the virtual calipers we have developed for the DANA project, for taking a variety of object measurements. They will store their measurements and record other observations in a password-protected "personal logbook" that will persist between sessions. The NDSU Virtual Cell has proven to be successful and well accepted in user testing over the last two years [7], and we only plan modify the model as our user group demands.
Figure 3: 3D artifact models from Fort Berthold (pipe, bottle, bell).
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The principal innovation necessary for the client side interaction is the development of an “utterance constructor” to allow students to make statements in their logbooks about their findings. These statements need to be coherent and interpretable by the system so they can be automatically evaluated for accuracy. We have developed a prototype of such an interface, which is mainly a set of sequential menus of word choices allowing the student to select vocabulary from lists and compose sentences from them. This has the advantage of requiring the student to generate their statements rather than selecting from predetermined choices, while being tractable to implement (note also that a large number of choices are available to a student at any point, as they choose from a sequence of lists of nouns, then verbs, the prepositions and so forth; the "space" of possible statements can be quite large, which is good, and not limiting). Similar interfaces have been implemented elsewhere (e.g. [8]), although ours will differ somewhat in being contextual and server-loaded. 4.2. Server Detail. The Virtual Archaeology server is built on a LambdaMOO core, as with all WWWIC projects. The server database hosts the simulation environment, manages student logins and history records, synchronizes the interactions between multiple simultaneous users, and effectively stores everything necessary for maintaining a consistent and coherent immersive experience. In particular, the server maintains the different time levels of the archeological site, stores the descriptions and orientations of the geography and structures, and the locations of the embedded artifacts we will “salt” throughout the environment. Thus, the server will contain the information necessary for the client to know which VRML elements to load for a player’s current state and what information a student is requesting or recording.
5. Agents in Virtual Worlds WWWIC systems focus on developing and employing intelligent agents to help provide effective learning experiences. From the perspective of intelligent tutoring systems, the agents of interest must fundamentally support models of the knowledge of a domain expert and an instructor. However, it is desirable that the agents have a number of additional capabilities as well. A common problem with simulations is that, like the real world, students can foul things up and not know why. Unlike the real world, though, all the information for the simulation is readily available, and can be used to generate explanations or warnings. Tutoring agents are based on the design and information in the model, and are triggered by user actions. Here the "utterance constructor" plays a critical role. Students will use this device to express their conclusions and their findings. Happily, the utterance constructor insures that all these statements are well formed. The challenge is to develop the server-side knowledge structures necessary to interpret them. This mechanism will take the form of string and concept matching, and will allow the system to determine which statements are accurate, which are close to correct, and which are flat wrong. We have experience with a similar mechanism in the Geology Explorer [4]. The idea is that intelligent tutoring agents are looking over your shoulder as you play. They should be there when you need them, but when you know what you're doing (or when you think you know), you can ignore the agent. These tutors work from knowledge of the archaeological site, knowledge of the "experiments" needed to confirm or deny an assertion or interpretation, and the student's history; all of which is encoded or recorded and available to the tutoring agents.
6. The Educational Game It is 1954 and a Native American site is about to be inundated by floodwaters caused by the construction of a hydroelectric dam. This site is a potential source of invaluable Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Virtual Systems and Multimedia (VSMM’01) 0-7695-1402-2/01 $17.00 © 2001 IEEE
anthropological and archeological knowledge, and so an emergency team has been dispatched to conduct a high intensity, high-speed (3 year!) excavation. Work has proceeded at a furious pace, and much of the site has been excavated. However, while the excavation has largely been completed, the documentation and interpretation of the site has lagged far behind. An emergency message is posted nation-wide, "Report to Fort Berthold, and help us save the site. History depends on it".
Figure 4: Form-Z model of Hidatsa Lodge #1 showing excavation boundaries visible in Figure 1 and Figure 2. Students journey to Fort Berthold from far and wide. When they get there, they are greeted by a robotic presence, a software guide, who greets them and says "Go north and west from here until you find the XU5 excavation site, which is one of the remarkable earth and timber lodges in the Mandan/Hidatsa section of the site. It is clearly marked, but you've been given a map to help you find it, just in case. Once you are there, try to determine where the entrance was. This should be fairly easy … look for a well-defined set of puncheons" (students check a glossary for definitions). Note: instructions from the guide are chosen semi-randomly so that students at each level get slightly different goals, but of equal rigor; also note: at this point the student is exploring the modern-day site, which is somewhat barren looking to the unpracticed eye. The guide continues by pointing out what sources of help and information are available in the system, and describes the virtual tools and instruments the students have at their disposal, including a “time arcing device” allowing them to visit the site as it was 100 years earlier. In addition to locating the feature or artifact they’ve been assigned, the student is asked to describe and interpret what they have found (in this example, to give an explanation for why the puncheons are angled towards the southeast). Students are instructed on how to use their “utterance constructor” to form sentences from lists of wordchoices and phrases; these score points for the student and are stored in their electronic Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Virtual Systems and Multimedia (VSMM’01) 0-7695-1402-2/01 $17.00 © 2001 IEEE
logbook, which is the portfolio they accumulate as they progress through the simulation. Students are also advised that software tutors will visit them if they are stuck or need help providing their answers. Once the students complete their first goal they are immediately assigned another one (this is a hallmark of WWWIC systems, students always have a goal assigned), in this case to go back to the XU5 excavation site where they are to locate a likely cache pit, then use the digital calipers to record the precise measurements of this cache in their logbook. They must also make a list of the contents of the cache. Following that, students are told to choose one of the items in the cache and write an explanation of its use in the Native American culture. They can then travel back in time to check their interpretation against the virtual site. In some instances students will also be provided with interpretations of similar features or artifacts published by an eccentric archaeologist many years previously. The students will asked to assess the validity of those interpretations against their interpretation of the archaeological data, as well as their observations back in time. The interpretive goals will increase in complexity as the game progresses, eventually leading to interpretations of more abstract socio-cultural phenomena (e.g., region). So the experience goes on. Students will be able to visualize artifacts in context using a 3D viewer built into our client software, inspect them from all angles, and use digital calipers to take measurements, and then use an utterance constructor to record their findings; from two different time frames. In addition, students will have access to the DANA digital archive for networked anthropology, from which they will be able to search and retrieve similar artifacts, along with their provenience data, in order to compare them with their object of study. Please note the following features of the preceding scenario: the student is given an active role in the environment and a sequence of goals requiring they engage in archaeological reasoning, and also places them in an immersive context that we can show promotes role-based learning [9].
7. Conclusion: Integrating Digital Libraries with Education This project differs significantly from previous efforts in that we will be creating an immersive, 3D virtual-reality environment of an actual site, significant in American history. That site is the Like-a-Fishhook Village, also known as Fort Berthold. This is a dual-level environment representing the identical place at different times. One level will be circa 1954, at the time when the site was being excavated. For pedagogic convenience, all excavation, which actually took place over a three-year period, will be condensed into a single season of work. The second level will be the virtual recreation of the site (as it existed) a century earlier (ca. 1854). Student users will be able to do what probably every archaeologist has dreamed of: to travel back in time and see how artifacts were really used, what soil features really represent, what activities really took place at some location, and much more. Through the use of authentic immersive environments, students can jump back and forth through time, from excavation evidence and lab analysis to the past where they can check their conclusions. They will be able to interact with these objects in their cultural--albeit virtual--context. While we fully intend to teach archaeological methods, the Virtual Archaeologist will teach scientific methods and critical thinking in a way that is much more broadly applicable. In other words, this learning experience is designed to go beyond teaching domain-specific content. At the same time, we decided to base the immersive environment on an actual site rather than invent a site. First, and foremost, we strive to make the immersive experience as authentic as possible. Experience shows that students find the assignment more enjoyable, or fulfilling, when they know they are working on an actual site and with actual data. Thus, while it would be easier in many respects simply to create a
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site, unfettered by the constraints of reality that would, we believe, be less satisfying to students. Second, even though we are designing the game explicitly to teach students how to “think like an archaeologist,” there are other domains of learning that will be incorporated through the use of an actual place and time. Virtual Archaeologist will also provide a learning environment for cultural anthropology, as students come to understand, for example, how a tobacco pipe or house altar fit into, and informs us about, the belief system of a group of people. We are also creating an environment in which students will virtually experience a significant period of American history. Along with archaeology, anthropology, and history, students will be exposed to information and techniques in ethnohistory, Native American Studies, and culture change. We further seek to teach students not just about the process of archaeology, but also about Native American studies. References 1. Smith, G. Hubert. 1972. Like-A-Fishhook Village and Fort Berthold, Garrison Reservoir North Dakota. Anthropological Papers 2. National Park Service. US Department of the Interior. Washington, D.C. 2. Clark, J. T., A. Bergstrom, J. Landrum III, F. Larson, and B. Slator (in press). Digital Archiving Network for Anthropology, in Proceedings of the Virtual Archaeology Between Scientific Research and Territorial Marketing Conference, Arezzo, Italy, November, 2000. Edited by F. Niccolucci. BAR International Series: Oxford. 3. Slator, Brian M., Paul Juell, Phillip E. McClean, Bernhardt Saini-Eidukat, Donald P. Schwert, Alan R. White, Curt Hill 1999. “Virtual Environments for Education.” In Journal of Network and Computer Applications, 22(4), pp. 161-174. 4. Schwert, D.P., B.M. Slator, B. Saini-Eidukat, 1999. “A Virtual World For Earth Science Education In Secondary And Post-Secondary Environments: The Geology Explorer.” International Conference on Mathematics/Science Education &Technology, March 1-4, San Antonio, TX, pp. 519-525. 5. White, Alan R., Phillip E. McClean, and Brian M. Slator 1999. “The Virtual Cell: An Interactive, Virtual Environment for Cell Biology.” In World Conference on Educational Media, Hypermedia and Telecommunications (ED-MEDIA 99), June 19-24, Seattle, WA, pp. 1444-1445. 6. Curtis, Pavel 1998. Not Just a Game. High Wired: on the Design, Use, and Theory of Educational MOOs. University of Michigan Press. 7. McClean, Phillip, Bernie Saini-Eidukat, Donald Schwert, Brian Slator, Alan White 2001. Virtual Worlds in Large Enrollment Biology and Geology Classes Significantly Improve Authentic Learning. In Selected Papers from the 12th International Conference on College Teaching and Learning (ICCTL-01), Jack A. Chambers, Editor). Jacksonville, FL: Center for the Advancement of Teaching and Learning. April 17-21, pp. 111-118. 8. Kass, A., R. Burke, E. Blevis, M. Williamson 1994. “The GuSS Project: Integrating Interaction and Practice Through Guided Simulation. Institute for the Learning Sciences, Technical Report #94-34.” Northwestern University: Evanston, IL. 9. Brown, John Seely, A. Collins, and P. Duguid. 1989. “Situated Cognition and the Culture of Learning.” In Educational Researcher, 18(1), pp. 32-42. Acknowledgements The NDSU World-wide Web Instructional Committee (WWWIC) research is currently supported by funding from the National Science Foundation under grants DUE-9981094 and EIA-0086142, and from the US Department of Education under grant P116B000734. The NDSU Archaeology Technologies Laboratory research is currently supported by funding from the Northwest Academic Computer Consortium under the grant heading of Technology Dissemination, and the NDSU Grants-in-Aid Program grant #1126.
Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Virtual Systems and Multimedia (VSMM’01) 0-7695-1402-2/01 $17.00 © 2001 IEEE