Integrated Coastal Zone Management - Preview and Evaluation on its Application on the Mediterranean Coast of Cyprus
The 2nd International Symposium on Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) 2011 - Institute of Marine Research, Arendal, Norway JULY 2011
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface
2
1.
Introduction.....................................................................................................
3
2.
Legal Framework.............................................................................................
4
3.
Coastal Pollution Evaluation............................................................................
5
3.1
Urban wastewater and Stormwater.....................................................
5
3.2
Industries.............................................................................................
6
3.3
Aquaculture.........................................................................................
7
3.4
Agricultural Runoffs.............................................................................
7
4.
Coastal Development in Cyprus- Land Uses....................................................
8
5.
The Urban Metabolism Issue............................................................................
9
6.
Conclusions.....................................................................................................
9
7.
References........................................................................................................
Preface This article was prepared in order to define the problems that arise in coastal areas and outline the tools in their management. In view of the overpopulation in coastal areas together with tourism, the situation requires careful management. This is why the EU has adapted the ICZM, which is a powerful tool for the control of coastal areas. In Cyprus we find that there are land use conflicts due to the small size of the country, and policies often do not succeed in reconciling land use conflicts, leading to the loss of agricultural land. Besides the technical issues (coastal mobility problems, overcrowding of beaches, high building densities etc), coastal urbanization and rapid growth of coastal areas have minimized the quality of coastal landscape in many parts of the island. Land ownership is widely distributed among the population giving rise to often legitimate expectations for private building development in both urban and coastal areas. Concern for the environment is limited and this has important consequences in coastal management. Protection of the environment is often weak because the gains from development are not related to the ‘environmental costs’ on society.
2
1.
Dr. Nicholas Kathijotes
Cyprus University of Technology, Limassol, Cyprus Email:
[email protected] 2.
Ms. Athina Papatheodoulou
Sewerage Board of Limassol-Amathus, Limassol Cyprus Email:
[email protected] Abstract Increasing populations on coastal areas generates significant pressure on the supporting ecosystems. The need for a more integrated, long term approach moved certain initiatives on building on the concept of integrated coastal zone management. The EU Legal Framework is emphasized as applicable, together with an evaluation of the ecological degradation of the Mediterranean coasts. The city of Lemesos (Limassol) in Cyprus is evaluated, stating the ecological risks and the possible mitigation measures, resulting from the EU directives and policies. Types of pollution discussed, include urban wastewaters, aquaculture, surface runoff, industries and agriculture. The concept of ‘Urban Metabolism’ is also introduced as a tool used to quantify and assess urban sustainability of coastal cities. Suggestions, measures and good practices are given in the direction of creating model ecological cities, based on an integrated coastal zone management practice. Keywords: coastal cities, nutrient inputs, coastal pollution, coastal mitigation measures, ICZM. 1.
Introduction
Cyprus is the third largest island in the Mediterranean with a total of 772 km of shoreline, only 296 km (38%) of which are within the area the Government exercises effective control. The largest part of the country's territory can be considered as coastal zone and has a dominant influence on many aspects of Cyprus. The island’s coastline has enormous variations, from steep inaccessible cliffs and ragged rocky shorelines with sea caves, to gentle sloping sandy beaches (MANRE, 2005). The vast majority of the island’s coastal waters are being used for bathing and recreational activities. The result of monitoring program verifies that the coastal waters are in conformity to the guideline
3
values set by the Bathing Water Directive 2006/7/EC. Cyprus has been recognised as “star performer”, with 100% of its bathing water sites in compliance to the Directive for 2010 (EEA, 2011). Under the provisions of the European Water Framework Directive, 5 coastal water bodies have been characterised as “Heavily Modified”- due to navigation infrastructure (ports and marinas). Furthermore, the seafront of the 4 coastal cities has been in great extent modified by human activities such as quays, extensive earth filling, reinforcement walls, straightening for flood protection etc. Figure 1 presents the heavily modified coastal bodies of Cyprus (WL Delft Hydraulics et al, 2004).
Figure 1: Heavily modified coastal bodies due to the presence of navigation infrastructure, areas of environmental concern and pollution hotspots in Cyprus (Coastal bodies of the island, in which the Republic does not exercise effective control, are not reported). 2.
Legal Framework
In the island, there is no single legal or functional (planning) definition of the “coastal zone” or “coastal area”. There are three main widely used geographical definitions referring to “coastal zone / area”, each one related to the purposes of a different law and institutional context (MANRE, 2006): - The Foreshore Protection Law defines the “foreshore” as “all lands within 100 yards (91, 44 m) of the high water mark”. The foreshore area is public property falling under the jurisdiction of this Law. - The Tourism Policy of 1990 (under the Hotel Accommodation Law and the Town and Country Planning Law – Countryside Policy) designates a “zone” of 3 km. from the coastline for the purpose of regulating tourism development.
4
- The ‘Coastal Protection Study’ of the ‘Coastal Unit ‘ of the Ministry of Communications and Works has adopted for the purposes of the coastal erosion survey, a definition of the “coastal strip” as the area of 2km from the coastline. The most “popular” definition is the latter, suggesting a width of 2km for the coastal strip. A significant feature of most jurisdictions related to coastal zone management, is thought to be the public ownership of the shore and terrestrial sea bed. The coastal zone that extends 2km inland from the coastline covers 23% of the island’s total area. About 50% of the total population lives and works within the coastal strip, in addition, 95% of the tourism industry of the coastal cities is also located there. Coastal areas generate by far the largest source of household income, as well as other major activities and most of the urban development. Tourism is of most important economic activity of the island whose coastal zone is and has always been the primary destination for tourists. During 2010, 2.172.998 tourist’s arrivals were recorded, exhibiting an increase of 1.5% from the corresponding period of previous year. The tourism industry is contributing more than 10% to the country’s GDP and 29% in the occupational sector (Statistical Service, 2011). 3.
Coastal Pollution Evaluation
3.1 Urban Wastewater and Stormwater Cyprus is being served by more than 220 plants, the majority of which are privately owned plants of hotels and tourist villages (Table 1). The common practice concerning treated effluent is reuse in agriculture for irrigation purposes and aquifer recharge. Discharge to the sea is not generally applied and is practiced only in the cases of Limassol and Larnaca in exceptional cases (i.e. reduced demand during winter months, water tank maintenance, pipe network infrastructure restrictions). In the pursue of full compliance with the European Directive 91/271/EC, the country’s implementation plan, requires the full connection to a sewerage network and subsequent treatment plant of 7 urban agglomerations and 50 rural agglomerations (total PE 860.000) by the 31st of December 2012. At the present, 66% of the urban areas are in compliance to the Directive’s requirements whereas only 8% of the rural areas are (ED and WDD, 2010). It is anticipated that by the end of 2012, 30 new WWTPs will be serving the areas with PE greater than 2000. All new plants have provisions for tertiary treatment,
5
not only signifying the importance of treatment effluent as alternative aquatic resource in the island, but also the environmental concern of disposing treated effluent in the marine environment. In Limassol, the largest coastal city of the island, one of the biggest WWTPs on the island has been in operation since 1995 treating 20.000 m3/d initially and 40.000 m3/d after its expansion in 20008. A new WWTP is under study. The installation of Limassol’s sewerage network has played an essential role for the award of 15 blue flags to its beaches. Storm water runoffs may also exhibit a significant pressure on coastal water quality due to the extended impervious areas in urban sites, industrial areas, highways and airports. According to the land use, the major pollutants may be of different type (heavy metals, oils, nutrients etc). Table 1: WWTPs and effluent application in Cyprus
Category
Number
Effluent Application
Hotels, Apartments, Tourist villages
178
N/A
Industries and Private Hospitals
10
N/A
Refugee housing
3
Landscape irrigation
Hospitals
4
Landscape irrigation
Military Bases
9
Landscape irrigation
Rural (2.000 PE)
6
Agriculture, Landscape irrigation
Urban
7
Agriculture, Aquifer Recharge
3.2 Industries
Even though the industrial sector of the island is not “heavy”, the industries installed do pose a pressure on the coastal ecosystems, mainly in the form of industrial sewage and runoffs. Industries disposing
6
sewage constitute point sources to the adjacent coastal water bodies, whereas each industry comprises a diffuse pollution source, through its controlled or uncontrolled runoffs which contain pollutants from the materials each industry handles, as well as fallouts from its air emissions. Of the 900 large, medium and small industries of the island, 41 have been considered as significant pollution sources for surface waters (WL Delft Hydraulics et al, 2004).
Significant point sources that pose pressure to the coastal environment are the beverage industries (wineries and breweries) in Limassol. Even though their connection to the central sewerage collection network in 2004, has relived the marine ecosystem of the heavy burden of organic wastes, their cooling waters (high in BOD5) are still being discharged to the sea. Due to the ongoing construction of the new Limassol Marina in the general area of beverage industries, it is foreseen that the industries will soon be trans-located.
In terms of Industrial effluents the bay of Vassilikos where factories operate with chemical effluents (cement company, power station, abandoned fertilizers chemical industry), create hot spots with inert materials from industrial activities possibly blanket the bay's sediments and have a negative effect on the benthic community of the area. The thermal effluents from the three power plants serving the energy needs of the island (Moni, Vassilikos and Dekelia) are still reaching the sea.
The Government’s water policy for independency from climatic conditions for the island’s aquatic resources, led to the construction of desalination plants. The first plant operated in 1997. Currently 5 desalination plants are in operation, with a total capacity of 122.000 m3/d. All desalination plants discharge considerable quantities of brine to the sea, resulting in the formation of a stratified system due to density difference. Studies have also shown compositional changes to the macro-benthic communities in the vicinity of discharge points (Karavokiris et al, 2010).
The termination of the operations of the Cyprus Petroleum Refinery in Larnaca, (CPRL) in 2004– which was considered as the main pressure for the waters of the area, ceased the discharge of its treated process waters into the sea (WL Delft Hydraulics et al, 2004). It then was suggested to be converted to a fuel terminal station, a practice that can still have severe impacts on coastal waters due to the washout of the station’s pipes. Delays on the process are observed due to local reactions.
7
3.3 Aquaculture There are 7 offshore aquaculture units in Cyprus, located 1-3 km offshore. The mean annual production of the units ranks between 100 to 500 tons/year, with the exception of tuna ranching farm which produces about 1000 tons/year. Studies have shown that nitrate concentrations near the installations are relatively high to the concentrations of adjacent marine waters. As far as this pressure point is concerned, the district of Limassol experiences the greater pressure (WL Delft Hydraulics et al, 2004). 3.4 Agricultural Runoffs
Eutrophication is very common in sheltered marine water bodies such as harbors and semi-enclosed bays along the Mediterranean coast, mainly in the vicinity of coastal towns. Nutrient or mineral balances provide insight into links between agricultural nutrient use, changes in environmental quality, and the sustainable use of soil nutrient resources. A persistent surplus indicates potential environmental problems; a persistent deficit indicates potential agricultural sustainability problems. With respect to environmental impacts, however, the main determinant is the absolute size of the nutrient surplus/deficit linked to local farm nutrient management practices and agro-ecological conditions, such as soil type and weather patterns (rainfall, vegetation period etc.).
4.
Coastal Development in Cyprus – Land uses
During the last two decades coastal development was characterized by the conversion of formerly agricultural and natural zones to tourist development zones after each revision of the land use planning zones every four years. The situation along the coastline after the revision of the land use planning zones in 1997-98 was as follows: Tourist zones cover 105 km, i.e., 37% of the coastline (in length), Open areas/protected natural or archaeological areas cover 125 km, i.e., 43%, Agricultural zones cover 36 km, i.e., 12%, Residential zones cover 17 km, i.e., 6% and Industrial zones cover 9 km, i.e., 3%. As a result of the policies and the targets of the Cyprus Tourism Organization, the number of beds in the coastal areas of Cyprus has increased seven fold over the last twenty years, i.e. from 12524 beds in 1980 it became 88302 in 2001. At the same time the numbers in inland areas have increased only by 11%, i.e. from 3902 in 1980 to 4358 in 2001(Kathijotes, 2010).
8
5.
The ‘Urban Metabolism’ Issue
Urban Metabolism is a model to facilitate the description and analysis of the flows of the materials and energy within cities, such as undertaken in a material flow analysis of a city. Urban and coastal-city policy makers should be encouraged to understand the urban metabolism of their cities. It is practical for them to know if they are using water, energy, materials, and nutrients efficiently, and how this efficiency compares to that of other cities. They must consider to what extent their nearest resources are close to exhaustion and, if necessary plan appropriate strategies to slow exploitation. Metabolism data have been established for only a few cities worldwide and there are interpretation issues due to lack of common conventions; there is much more work to be done. Resource accounting and management are typically undertaken at national levels, but such practices may arguably be too broad and miss understanding of the urban driving processes. Beyond concerns over the sheer magnitudes of resource flows into cities, there are more subtle imbalances, feedbacks and spatial attributes which threaten the sustainable development of cities. Cities are sucking in resources from global ecosystems at increasing rates.
Urban metabolism is of major significance for the ongoing metabolic transition. We need a better understanding of patterns and drivers of urban metabolism to realize the substantial reduction potentials. Tools and methods are available but they need to be advanced and standardized.
6.
Conclusions
Mediterranean region, which is the most industrialized, there are a priori necessary prevention mechanisms, correction technologies and the appropriate legal framework. However, there is a lack of political willingness from the countries to enforce environmental regulation. The southern Mediterranean region is, however, growing at the expense of the environment since neither the economic conditions nor the required technologies are available. The problem of erratic and fragmented approach of coastal development still exists. The complexity in the decision-making process, the large number of involved authorities, the lack of effective coordination and the huge financial interests involved in the coastal area can been addressed as the main reasons for this situation.
9
As an island, the vulnerability of the coastal strip is extremely high in Cyprus, since all land-based activities have a direct impact on this narrow strip. A well balanced coastal policy supplemented by urban metabolism analysis, which will be based on an integrated approach and will be involving all the stakeholders is a demand of high priority for Cyprus, at least if the target is sustainable development.
7.
References
ED and WDD- Environment Department and Water Development Department (2010), Report on Urban wastewater treatment during 2007-2008. Article 16- Directive 91/271/EEC. Ministry of Agriculture Natural Resources and Environment.
EEA- European Environment Agency (2011), European water quality in 2010. EEA Report No.1 /2011. Copenhagen.
Karavokiris and Associates Engineers Consultants and Kaimaki P. S. (2010) Preliminary program of measures- Report 5. Water Development Department, Nicosia.
Kathijotes N. (2010), Evaluation and control of marine pollution due to land-based activities- A preview of the Cyprus case, Coastal Marine Science 34(1): 195-197.
MANRE -Ministry of Agriculture Natural Resources and Environment (2005) Water Framework Directive, Republic of Cyprus EU -Summary Report Articles 5& 6. Republic of Cyprus, Nicosia.
MANRE -Ministry of Agriculture Natural Resources and Environment (2006). A strategic approach to the management of the Cyprus coastal zones. European Commission.
Statistical Service (2011) Tourism Statistics, January- December 2010. Series II. Republic of Cyprus, Nicosia.
WL Delft Hydraulics, Enveco SA, D. Argyropoulos and Associates (2004) Analysis of PressuresReport on the identification of pressures carried out in accordance of section 1.4 of Annex II of the WFD, Volume 3. Water Development Department, Nicosia.
10
