This link between adult physical activity and school PE is illustrated well by ... adults. For such reasons, these two areas of activity, which theoretically fit the defi-.
05fairclough (ds)
10/1/02
12:18 pm
Page 69
EUROPEAN PHYSICAL EDUCATION REVIEW [1356–336X(200202)8;1] Volume8(1):69–84:021502
EPER
The contribution of secondary school physical education to lifetime physical activity
Stuart Fairclough
Gareth Stratton
Liverpool John Moores University, UK Liverpool John Moores University, UK
and
Graham Baldwin
University of Central Lancashire, UK
Abstract The promotion of lifetime participation in physical activity is a major goal of physical education, which this study considered in the context of curricular and extracurricular opportunities. Questionnaires focusing on PE provision were completed by 51 heads of physical education (HoPE). Results showed that team games predominated over lifetime activities in Key Stages 3 and 4 (p < .01), while lifetime activities were more prominent during extra-curricular time (p < .01). Female HoPE offered more lifetime activities than team games as part of their curricular (p < .01) and extracurricular provision. In contrast, male HoPE provided most opportunities for team games (p < .01). Schools place a significant emphasis on team games, often at the expense of lifetime activities. Physical educators must recognize which activities have the greatest carry-over value into adult life, and aim to provide more opportunities for all students to experience these activities. Key-words: carry-over value • curricular activities • extra-curricular activities • lifetime activities • team games
Introduction The aims of physical education are varied and diverse, and may best be illustrated by Zeigler’s (1999) contention that the subject consists of 13 ‘principal principles’. These principles are wide-ranging and include ideas relating to aspects of fitness, aesthetics, citizenship, inclusion and longevity through lifetime physical activity. Thus, it is apparent that PE can be perceived to have varied goals, depending on personal preference and rationale. One goal that has been consistently reinforced over the last decade is PE’s promotion of lifelong physical activity, for the benefit of public health. Physical inactivity has been highlighted as a major risk factor for coronary heart disease (Leon
Copyright © 2002 North West Counties Physical Education Association and SAGE Publications (London, Thousand Oaks and New Delhi)
05fairclough (ds)
70
10/1/02
12:18 pm
Page 70
E U RO P E A N P H Y S I C A L E D U C AT I O N R E V I E W
8(1)
and Norstrom, 1995; Morris, 1994; Whaley and Blair, 1995), as well as promoting premature mortality (Paffenbarger et al., 1986). Furthermore, physical activity can develop and maintain muscular strength, flexibility, balance and coordination, which may prevent back pain and other injuries during adulthood (Jopling, 1988). Moreover, peak bone mineral density can be promoted through weight-bearing physical activity, reducing the risk of fractures in later life (Drinkwater, 1994). Therefore PE programmes have the potential to influence the next generation of adults to lead healthier lifestyles facilitated by regular participation in physical activity. This link between adult physical activity and school PE is illustrated well by Shephard and Trudeau (2000). Their view is that the most important goal of PE is the long-term health of the students through their exposure to a wide range of healthgiving forms of physical activity. Godin and Shephard (1986) have suggested that physical activity during childhood is vital to developing the positive attitudes that make such activities enjoyable, and to sustaining active lifestyles during adulthood. As a consequence of these observations there have been strong recommendations that PE programmes should focus on the promotion of lifetime physical activity, in order to enhance and maintain children’s health later in life (American College of Sports Medicine, 1988; Harris, 2000; Sallis and McKenzie, 1991). The aim of this paper is to consider the relevance of current PE curricular and extra-curricular programmes to the goal of preparing students for participation in lifetime physical activity. Lifetime activities have been defined as ‘those that may readily be carried over into adulthood because they generally need only one or two people’ (Ross et al., 1985: 76). As lifetime activities also require little structure or organization and minimal equipment, many activities fit this definition. For example, such activities could include cycling for the intrinsic pleasure of participation, jogging for health or fitness benefits, attending dance classes for social reasons, or playing tennis as a competitive outlet. Furthermore, lifetime activities have the potential to provide healthenhancing benefits throughout the adult years. If children are attracted to lifetime activities they may be more likely to follow physically active lifestyles during adulthood (Godin and Shephard, 1990). Team games commonly fall into the categories of invasion (e.g. hockey) or striking and fielding (e.g. softball). Volleyball is a net and ball game that is also categorized as a team sport, although most other net and ball games such as tennis or badminton fit the definition of lifetime activities. The purpose of team games is for one team to score more points than their opponents, and so by definition they are competitive. Also, team sports generally require more than two players on each side to make up the teams. These players are often required to attend training or practice sessions in order to improve the cohesion and performance of the team. This commitment can place added time pressures on participants. Moreover, team games require an often large or specialized playing area, while the competitive nature of the activities usually means that at least one person is needed to officiate. Team games have much potential to provide health-enhancing benefits (Stratton, 1996), but in reality tend to be less popular among the adult population (Sports Council and Health Education Authority, 1992).
05fairclough (ds)
10/1/02
12:18 pm
Page 71
FA I R C L O U G H E T A L . : P E A N D L I F E T I M E P H YS I C A L AC T I V I T Y
Some activities that are included within PE programmes are neither truly team games nor lifetime activities. For example, athletic activities (including cross-country running) could be described as competitive team activities that rely on the combined performances of individuals. Gymnastic activities fit the definition of a lifetime activity, but in practice may have limited relevance to adult participation, particularly in females. This is because body shape, strength and power are important aspects of performance, which often undergo change in females as they get older. Also, access and opportunities to take part in these activities may become more restricted for adults. For such reasons, these two areas of activity, which theoretically fit the definition of lifetime activities, are less likely to be continued into adulthood, and so cannot have that definition applied to them. Evidence suggests that lifetime activities have a greater ‘carry-over’ value than team games. Sallis and McKenzie (1991) reported that children who participated in team games tended to take part in more solitary (i.e. lifetime) activities as adults, as opposed to continuing with team pursuits. Also, children who were most active in team sports programmes were more likely to watch sport on television as adults than actually participate in physical activity (Sallis et al., 1989). Findings from the Allied Dunbar National Fitness Survey (ADNFS) (Sports Council and Health Education Authority, 1992) further emphasize Sallis and McKenzie’s (1991) contention. It revealed that the top 10 most popular activities participated in by male and female adults in the UK included lifetime activities such as walking, fitness-oriented ‘exercises’, swimming, cycling, dancing, aerobics, badminton and running/jogging. The national sport of football was the only team game that featured in the male list (ranked eighth), while no team games featured in the female list (Sports Council and Health Education Authority, 1992). Therefore it appears that, in comparison to team games, lifetime activities pursued during childhood are more likely to impact on adult physical activity levels. This is significant because the higher the level of adult participation, the greater the potential health benefits during adulthood. However, the logic that exposure to a sufficiently broad range of lifetime activities will result in students finding one that that they enjoy and subsequently adopt as adults is not so straightforward. Greenwood-Parr and Oslin (1998) contend that exposure to a range of activities is only the start of the process of making students lifelong participants in physical activity. Students are more likely to want to continue their involvement in an activity if their PE lessons allow them to experience self-determination, and feel competent in their own abilities (Greenwood-Parr and Oslin, 1998). This situation may be best achieved through learner-centred ‘teaching for understanding’ approaches, rather than by traditional, skill-based teaching modes, which are more likely to produce a cycle of perceived incompetence. If the latter situation arises consistently, students believe that they cannot do the skills, therefore they think they cannot take part in an activity, which stops them from choosing to take part in that activity out of school and after leaving school (Greenwood-Parr and Oslin, 1998). Thus, it is clear that both the delivery of lifetime
71
05fairclough (ds)
72
10/1/02
12:18 pm
Page 72
E U RO P E A N P H Y S I C A L E D U C AT I O N R E V I E W
8(1)
activities and student exposure to them are important factors in the promotion of lifelong participation. Another issue that affects students’ participation in lifetime activities is that they have historically been marginalized within English PE programmes. National surveys have reported that team games were the most prominent curricular activities in terms of time allocation (Kane, 1974; Mason, 1995; OFSTED, 1995: PEA, 1987). Such findings were consistent across boys’ and girls’ programmes and also have been demonstrated at the local (Fairclough and Stratton, 1997) and international level (Napper-Owen et al., 1999). A reason for this may be that physical educators’ vision of sport is often games-focused, as a result of their own early experiences of sport and PE (Green, 2000). As a consequence of this it is possible that limited opportunities for success are provided for only a minority of students who are more able or talented in these areas. While this minority gains a continuing stimulus for participation, for many students late maturation, an unfavourable body type (Shephard et al., 1978), or perceived lack of ability and confidence can be an immediate negative influence on their motivation to take part (Lintunen, 1999). Health-related exercise (HRE) provides a context for the delivery of a number of lifetime activities (Cale, 2000a), and is an essential element of the PE programme. Although included as part of the programme of study at each Key Stage1 (KS) of the National Curriculum for Physical Education (NCPE) (Department for Education and Employment and Qualifications and Curriculum Authority, 1999), HRE is not included as an area of activity in its own right. To some teachers this exclusion may serve to devalue HRE’s role and importance, and could impact on the mode and quality of their delivery (Harris, 1999; Stratton, 1995). This variability in HRE delivery is illustrated by Fairclough and Stratton’s (1997) survey, which observed that only a third of schools in their north-west sample taught focused HRE units. More recently, Cale (2000b) investigated the promotion of physical activity within secondary PE departments. She reported that 48 percent of PE heads of department claimed that HRE teaching was fully structured within their schools, while 45 percent stated that it partially was. Furthermore, 83 percent of schools in this sample possessed an updated written scheme of work for HRE (Cale, 2000b). These data suggest that effective delivery of lifetime activities through HRE is of great importance. This limited focus on HRE is consistent out of curriculum time, as there is clear evidence that curriculum provision is mirrored during extra-curricular activities (Fairclough and Stratton, 1997; Mason, 1995; Penney and Harris, 1997). The PEA (1987) survey observed that during extra-curricular time, 98 percent of male and 99 percent of female teachers were involved in teaching or coaching team games, while opportunities for other activities were less prominent. This report went on to state that extra-curricular activities were mostly used to promote special interest opportunities and to coach talented performers (PEA, 1987). This arrangement focused on the minority and did little to encourage the majority of students who may have wished to take part in lifetime activities. Such approaches ignore the ethos of inclusion, which is vital if lifetime participation is to be a serious aim of PE (Piotrowska,
05fairclough (ds)
10/1/02
12:18 pm
Page 73
FA I R C L O U G H E T A L . : P E A N D L I F E T I M E P H YS I C A L AC T I V I T Y
1990). In their study of schools in the East Midlands, Bass and Cale (1999) also noted that games dominated the extra-curricular programme, with less than half of schools offering any ‘exercise’ activities (i.e. aerobics, weight/circuit training, cross-country). Moreover, a number of PE heads of department felt that they only partially achieved the goal of offering a wide range of activities that were likely to be attractive to all pupils (Bass and Cale, 1999). Based on these findings it would appear that the carryover value of the typical extra-curricular programme is doubtful. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether current PE provision promoted lifetime participation in physical activity. This was achieved by quantifying the provision of PE programmes in secondary schools in the north-west of England. The study also sought to explore differences in the responses of male and female physical educators in the type of provision provided. Methods A postal questionnaire and covering letter were sent to girls’ and boys’ heads of physical education (HoPE) in 89 secondary schools in the Merseyside area of north-west England (160 questionnaires in total). The schools were representative of the six education authorities within Merseyside. Questions focused on information regarding the type of activities included in the PE curriculum, as well as those offered as part of the extra-curricular programme. The questionnaire also ascertained the type of schools and their respective catchment areas. The data were analysed and interpreted under the assumption that the information provided in the questionnaires by HoPE would be an accurate representation of their departments’ programmes. After a follow-up letter and questionnaire were posted to non-respondents, a response rate of 32 percent (N = 51) was achieved by the deadline date. Of the responses 51 and 49 percent came from male and female HoPE, respectively. The respondent schools comprised of: 7 percent independent,2 62 percent high schools3 (11–16 years), 28 percent high schools with Sportsmark4 or Sportsmark Gold status, and 3 percent specialist sports colleges.5 Of these schools, 9.8 percent were all-girls, 5.9 percent all-boys, with the remaining 84.3 percent being coeducational. These schools were proportionally representative of the type of schools in the area surveyed. The catchment areas were mainly urban (60.4 percent), followed by suburban (37.7 percent) and rural (1.9 percent). All respondent schools taught single-sex PE. Questionnaire data were collated by summing responses to produce totals for the various PE activities. Using the definitions of lifetime activities and team games described earlier, the data were then added to produce respective overall totals for these two categories. As athletic and gymnastic activities could not be strictly applied to either definition both were discounted from the analysis. The prevalences of lifetime activities and team games were compared using the Chi-Square test. Specifically, comparisons were made between curricular and extra-curricular activities, KS 3 and 4 provision, and activities made available by male and female HoPE.
73
05fairclough (ds)
74
10/1/02
12:18 pm
Page 74
E U RO P E A N P H Y S I C A L E D U C AT I O N R E V I E W
8(1)
Results Lifetime activities (Table 1) The total amount of curricular lifetime activities was 36.2 percent greater in girls’ PE departments compared to boys’ (2 = 7.08, p
