The games people play: How the entertainment ... - Wiley Online Library

The Games People Play: How the Entertainment Value of Online Ads Helps or Harms Persuasion Jae Min Jung California State Polytechnic University, Pomona

Kyeong Sam Min University of New Orleans

James J. Kellaris University of Cincinnati

ABSTRACT This research examines consumer reactions to online ads varying in levels of entertainment value. Results show that more favorable brand attitudes and more positive purchase intentions are formed when consumers are exposed to an ad that generates a high (game ad), rather than a low (banner ad) level of entertainment value. However, such effects are qualified by consumers’ shopping goals. When consumers have access to their goals to seek specific product information, affect transfer is impaired, such that the advantage of entertaining ads dissipates. This research also documents moderating roles of individual differences in need for cognitive closure and Internet usage versatility. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

In-game advertising refers to the placement of products in a game (Lee & Faber, 2007; Yang et al., 2006). In typical in-game ads, product information is secondary to the game as players devote primary attention to entertainment content Psychology & Marketing, Vol. 28(7): 661–681 (July 2011) View this article online at wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/mar © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. DOI: 10.1002/mar.20406 661

(e.g., the Cheerios cereal brand inserted into a NASCAR online game). Research shows that such ads can result in low brand recall (Yang et al., 2006). Alternatively, in-game ads can be constructed such that the brand and message are the focal objects of the game (e.g., the Cheerios brand name used in a singing Cheerios online game), eliminating concerns for game players’ limited cognitive resources (Lee & Faber, 2007). This type of in-game ad can be thought of as a seamless integration of a brand into a game. Such in-game ads can be effective due to interactivity and the entertainment they confer to browsers, who encounter game ads while browsing casually on the Internet looking for fun without a specific information search goal (Schlosser, 2003). What is potentially more intriguing about in-game ads is that their effectiveness could reach beyond mere browsers. That is, in-game ads may also be effective for searchers who encounter ads while surfing the Internet with a specific shopping goal in mind, provided such ads do not interfere with the shoppers’ information search goal. The current research investigates how and why playing an online game can increase liking for a brand that is placed as the focal object of the game by comparing an in-game ad with a banner ad, which has less entertainment value. The role of interactive technology in persuasion and consumer decision making has been a vital research interest across various disciplines, including psychology, communications, and marketing. Research on interactive technologies, including Web sites, electronic agents, handheld devices, and Internet ads, has focused primarily on utilitarian, informational, or functional benefits, such as ease of use and usefulness (e.g., Bélisle & Bodur, 2010; Daugherty, Li, & Biocca, 2008; Diehl & Zauberman, 2005; Gershoff & Johar, 2006; Sohn, Ci, & Lee, 2007; Sun, Tai, & Tsai, 2010). Such research is particularly useful for explaining the behavior of consumers who are searching for specific information. However, such research does not fully explain consumer reactions when consumers are seeking hedonic benefits (fun) in addition to utilitarian benefits (product information) (e.g., Huang, Lurie, & Mitra, 2009)—particularly when consumers’ current goals are not congruent with their actual experience with an ad. Thus, this research focuses on the role of entertainment value in interactive online advertisements (i.e., in-game vs. banner ad). Prior research has shown that consumers can form positive attitudes in at least two distinct ways. One way is when consumers learn about the association between a pleasant ad and a product (Gibson, 2008). For example, consumers are likely to form favorable attitudes toward the brand if they find its ad entertaining and visually appealing. The other way is when consumers learn that ad messages are useful to achieve their goals (Kruglanski et al., 2002). For example, shoppers are likely to form positive brand attitudes if they discover that product information in the ad is helpful in meeting their shopping goals. Although both the hedonic value of an ad and search goal–compatible external information appear to shape attitudes independently, the goal accessibility model (e.g., Glasman & Albarracin, 2006; Feldman & Lynch, 1988; Reed, Wooten, & Bolton, 2002) presents a more comprehensive framework suggesting that both factors can jointly influence attitudes. According to the goal accessibility model, a salient goal often determines which of these two factors plays the primary role in attitude formation. If consumers are looking for specific information, the external information within an ad is likely to be what influences their attitudes. If they are looking for entertainment, it is likely to be their hedonic, direct experience of an ad that influences attitudes. Effectiveness of an ad depends on whether the consumer goal accessed is congruent with the perceived benefit from an ad. 662

JUNG, MIN, AND KELLARIS Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar

By the same token, Schlosser’s (2003) object interactivity model shows that consumers’ attitudes are influenced by congruence between their goal and product usage experience in the context of virtual interaction with a product. For example, consumers who simply browse a Web site (“browsers”) form more favorable attitudes toward the brand, compared to consumers who actively seek product information (“searchers”), when information is presented in an interactive way. Browsers are generally less task oriented (e.g., Hamilton & Chernev, 2010), and thus they are more likely to focus on how much engaging experience they can have, rather than how much information they can obtain from the Web site. Web sites with interactive features generate more recreational and engaging experiences than Web sites without such features. In contrast, searchers form more positive brand attitudes than browsers when the information is presented in a passive format without any interactive online features. Searchers are more interested in acquiring specific product information, rather than having an entertainment experience from the Web site. Web sites with interactive features are more likely to inhibit them from efficiently searching for product information than Web sites with simple text information (Peracchio & Meyers-Levy, 1997). Hence, the present study examines how the entertainment value of an ad and shopping goal accessibility influence persuasion jointly. Specifically, the main purpose of this research is to extend Schlosser’s (2003) goal congruency effect to advance current understanding in three ways. First, this study employs a new medium to generate an interactive virtual experience. Whereas Schlosser makes use of simulated product usage experiences at a popular camera Web site (e.g., pressing a telephoto button to zoom in and take a picture), the current study uses an online game ad featuring a detergent brand (e.g., dragging and dropping puzzle pieces to complete a picture of a brand). That is, whereas Schlosser focuses on facilitating a simulated virtual product trial experience via interactivity, this research looks beyond interactivity and examines how the entertainment value of an interactive medium impacts persuasion. This study identifies situations wherein higher level of interactivity does not necessarily impede persuasion for the task-oriented searchers. Second, the current research proposes a single underlying process that explains why interactivity impacts both brand attitudes and purchase intention. Whereas Schlosser finds that an interactive virtual experience influences consumers’ brand attitudes via cognitive elaboration while influencing their purchase intention via mental imagery, the present research proposes that interactivity influences both brand attitudes and purchase intention through affect transfer. Finally, this research introduces two new individual differences (need for cognitive closure and versatility of Internet usage) that help to explain when the goal congruency effect does not lead to the same level of persuasion.

LITERATURE REVIEW AND HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT Entertainment Value Associative learning involves pairing an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., an entertaining ad) with a conditioned stimulus (e.g., a brand of laundry detergent). Once an association between the stimulus and the product has developed, presentation of the product alone can elicit a positively conditioned response to the THE GAMES PEOPLE PLAY Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar

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product (e.g., favorable brand attitude) (e.g., Gibson, 2008; Kim, Allen, & Kardes, 1996; Scherner et al., 2008; Till, Stanley, & Priluck, 2008). In both less and more entertaining online ads—banner ads and game ads, respectively—used in the present study, both unconditioned and conditioned stimuli are simultaneously present. This is a so-called simultaneous pairing, which can lead to somewhat stronger conditioning (Mackintosh, 1974). In addition, a study of moment-tomoment response to 30 ads (Baumgartner, Sujan, & Padgett, 1997) shows that consumer liking for the ads and overall emotional responses are positively associated with consumers’ peak emotional experience with the ads. Because playing a game with interactive features is more entertaining and engaging than surfing a plain Web site with static texts and graphics, products advertised in a game should evoke more positive feelings than those advertised in a plain Web site as a banner. Such an automatic, direct affect transfer from a favorable attitude toward the ad or site to a favorable attitude toward the brand seems to occur without changing brand cognitions (Karson & Fisher, 2005; MacKenzie, Lutz, & Belch, 1986). In addition, akin to peripheral route processing per the elaboration likelihood model (ELM), affect transfer is more likely to operate when consumers are in a low, rather than a high involvement condition (Petty, Cacioppo, & Schumann, 1983).

Goal Accessibility Although the entertainment value of an online ad is likely to increase persuasion via affect transfer, such an influence is expected to be weaker if consumers have (vs. do not have) access to their shopping goal. When consumers surf the Web with a specific shopping goal in mind, any online activities that are related to the shopping goal should seem personally relevant. As demonstrated in the ELM, consumers are likely to be motivated to engage in more systematic and effortful processing when a decision is personally relevant (Petty, Cacioppo, & Schumann, 1983). Thus, when consumers have a shopping goal, they are more likely to be persuaded by the quality of the message argument than by peripheral cues. Effortful, central processing encourages consumers to generate cognitive elaborations, thus resulting in the formation of stronger brand attitudes that are persistent and influential on behavior (Haugtvedt et al., 1994). Similarly, recent research drawing on dual processing persuasion theory has shown that an individual’s attitude can be constructed based on two alternative sources: external information and one’s own direct experience with an attitude object. In the context of an interactive online advertisement, whereas external information refers to attributes of an advertised product, a direct experience includes activities such as viewing an ad, clicking on a banner ad, or playing an ad video clip. According to the goal accessibility model (e.g., Feldman & Lynch, 1988; Reed, Wooten, & Bolton, 2002), the dominant use of one source over the other can be determined by accessibility to a goal. If consumers’ primary goal is to find the right product that meets their specific needs, they are likely to pay more attention to an ad that highlights product features rather than an ad that offers a recreational experience. As a result, consumers who are presented with an interactive online ad should form their attitudes based on ad messages that are salient if they are searching for specific product information. In contrast, consumers tend to construct their attitudes based on the entertainment value of the ad if they are looking for fun. 664


Schlosser (2003) reports an analogous finding that searchers engage in more elaborative processing and form more positive attitudes toward the brand as compared to browsers, when information is delivered in a passive way. In this case, the target Web site does not allow consumers to interact with the site, simply presenting text information along with a close-up picture. In contrast, when information is presented in a more interactive way, browsers (vs. searchers) tend to use more heuristic processing and form more positive brand attitudes. In this case, the Web site allows consumers to press buttons with the pointer and even to change the target images. Consistent with the ELM and goal accessibility model, Schlosser finds that persuasion increases with an increase in the congruency between consumers’ goal and site interactivity. Parallel to Schlosser’s (2003) research, the current research predicts that the effect of entertainment value on persuasion will depend on consumers’ access to their shopping goal. The goal (search vs. browse) and site type (object interactive vs. passive) manipulations in Schlosser’s studies are comparable to the goal (shopping vs. no shopping) and ad type (game vs. banner) manipulations in the present research, respectively. First, Schlosser gives participants a specific instruction regarding whether they are supposed to search specific information (e.g., “efficiently find something specific within the Web site”) or to browse the Web site (e.g., “have fun, looking at whatever you consider interesting”). However, both searching and browsing goals lead participants to be equally highly involved in the task due to the explicit instructions. Schlosser’s manipulation of the browsing goal does not seem to be a process that characterizes browsers’ everyday behavior. Therefore, this study shows the goal congruency effect by using a less direct goal manipulation that mentions a shopping goal only for searchers, but not for browsers. Second, whereas Schlosser varies interactivity of the Web site to see if it prevents searchers from seeking their goal, the current research manipulates interactivity of the ad such that it does not prevent searchers from pursuing their goal. As a result, for entertainment seekers whose shopping goals are not salient (e.g., “browsers” in Schlosser’s research), an increase in entertainment value of an ad should lead to more favorable attitudes and more positive purchase intentions. However, for information seekers whose shopping goals are salient (e.g., “searchers” in Schlosser’s research), such effects should be attenuated: H1:

Goal accessibility will moderate the positive effect of entertainment value on (a) brand attitudes and (b) purchase intentions, such that the effect will be stronger among casual browsers versus information seekers.

Whereas Schlosser (2003) investigates an underlying process by which favorable brand attitudes are formed via thoughtful cognitive elaboration, the current study examines a different process by which persuasion arises via mere affect transfer. Focusing on consumer evaluations under high elaboration conditions, Schlosser demonstrates that consumers form more positive attitudes toward the brand when their goals are congruent (vs. incongruent) with the interactivity of the presented information. The goal congruency effect is mediated by how many different thoughts consumers generate about the self, the product, or the Web design. However, the present research investigates analogous effects under which hedonic experiences, rather than extensive thoughts, are more likely to occur. THE GAMES PEOPLE PLAY Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar

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In this case, it is expected that the entertainment value of an online ad will facilitate the formation of more positive attitudes and behavioral intentions among entertainment seekers via affect transfer (e.g., Karson & Fisher, 2005; MacKenzie, Lutz, & Belch, 1986; Strick et al., 2009), but not among information seekers. This study uses consumers’ perceived entertainment value of the ad, rather than conventional attitude toward the ad, as a potential mediator for two reasons. One is that perceived entertainment value of the ad can better capture hedonic benefits associated with the ad than the attitude toward the ad. The other is that perceived entertainment value of the ad can help to reduce a potential concern for a feedback effect from a favorable brand attitude to a favorable attitude toward the ad. Tide laundry detergent, this research’s target brand, is a well-known leading brand in the marketplace, so people are likely to form positive attitudes toward the ad due to their preconceived positive brand attitude. However, it is unlikely that people’s greater perceived entertainment value of the ad is caused by their favorable brand attitude. Thus, the current research predicts that entertainment seekers’ favorable perceived entertainment value of the ad will be transferred to their attitudes toward the brand and purchase intentions as follows: H2:

For entertainment seekers, perceived entertainment value of the ad will mediate the influence of entertainment value of the ad on (a) attitude toward the brand and (b) purchase intention; however, (c) for information seekers, perceived entertainment value of the ad will not mediate the process.

Need for Cognitive Closure Prior research generally assumes that persuasion is more likely to arise when consumers’ goals are congruent, rather than incongruent, with the information presentation format (e.g., Gupta & Kabadayi, 2010; Ha & Lennon, 2010; Novak & Hoffman, 2009; Peracchio & Meyers-Levy, 1997; Schlosser, 2003). However, the current study challenges this assumption and explores boundary conditions in which such a goal congruency effect can be promoted or diminished. Building on the need for cognitive closure literature, this research claims that the role of goal congruency in persuasion should depend on whether consumers are motivated to obtain quick closure. According to research on the need for cognitive closure, people who pursue an unambiguous answer to a question (i.e., people high in need for cognitive closure) tend to prefer abstract, rather than concrete, knowledge that can be applied in various situations in a consistent manner (Kruglanski et al., 2002; Webster & Kruglanski, 1994). Individuals high in need for cognitive closure, those without patience, are often motivated to achieve closure instantly and then retain it permanently. Accordingly, they tend to rely on a limited amount of information to reach the final decision (Choi et al., 2008). As a result, such individuals’ judgments are more likely to be influenced by a cue such as whether their goals are congruent with their experience, compared to judgments by individuals low in need for cognitive closure. Therefore, this research predicts that an individual difference in need for cognitive closure will qualify the interaction effect between entertainment value of an ad and goal accessibility. For consumers low in need for cognitive closure, 666


brand attitudes and purchase intentions should be influenced by their direct hedonic experience with the ad, regardless of its congruency with their goals. Their evaluations will be more favorable with an increase in their perceived entertainment value of the ad. For consumers high in need for cognitive closure, who tend to jump to a conclusion on the basis of incomplete information, brand attitudes and purchase intentions should be influenced by whether their goals are congruent with their experience. If they do not have access to their shopping goal and thus are looking for fun instead, their evaluations should be more favorable with an increase in the entertainment value of the ad via affect transfer. In contrast, if they have access to their shopping goal, their evaluations should decrease with an increase in the entertainment value of the ad. A decrease in persuasion with an increase in the entertainment value results from the fact that consumers who have a shopping goal cannot seize on closure immediately if their goal of finding specific information is not congruent with their hedonic experience. Hence, the present study hypothesizes that the influence of entertainment value and goal accessibility on persuasion will depend on need for cognitive closure (three-way interactions) as follows: H3:

There will be an entertainment value ⫻ goal accessibility ⫻ need for cognitive closure interaction on persuasion, such that among consumers low in need for cognitive closure, (a) attitudes toward the brand and (b) purchase intentions will be influenced by entertainment value of the ad, rather than by whether their goals are congruent with ad entertainment value; among consumers high in need for cognitive closure, evaluations will be lower if their goals are incongruent, rather than congruent, with the entertainment value of the ad.

Multifinality Pursuit Similar to consumers’ need for cognitive closure, consumers’ differences in pursuing multiple goals are also expected to play a moderating role in the goal congruency effect. According to goal systems theory, an individual’s goals are connected to their means in a network (Kruglanski & Kopetz, 2009; Kruglanski et al., 2002). Whereas a single goal can be linked to multiple means (i.e., equifinality set, “All roads lead to Rome”), multiple goals can be attached to a single means (i.e., multifinality set, “Killing two birds with one stone”). For example, in the case of the equifinality set, a student can achieve a goal of communicating with a future employer by using a phone, a fax, or the Internet. In the case of the multifinality set, a student can satisfy his or her goal of finding study guides, contacting future employers, purchasing books, and playing online games by using the Internet. Chun and Kruglanski (2004) show that individuals high (vs. low) in need for cognitive closure are more likely to pursue a multifinality goal because such individuals want to achieve instant closure and then keep it permanently by using abstract, cross-situational knowledge in multiple situations. Thus, the current research predicts that, analogously to an individual’s need for cognitive closure, a consumer’s possession of versatile ability to pursue multiple goals with the same means can also qualify the joint influence of entertainment value of an ad and goal accessibility on persuasion. In the context of THE GAMES PEOPLE PLAY Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar

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online advertising, consumers’ evaluations of an online ad are likely to be influenced by their Internet usage experience. As implied by Chun and Kruglanski (2004) and H3, consumers who possess multiple goals in using the Internet (“versatile Internet users”) should be more influenced by the congruency between their goal and experience with the ad, compared to those who have limited goals (“limited Internet users”). Among limited Internet users, persuasion will be directly affected by the ad’s perceived entertainment value, regardless of whether their goal is congruent with their experience with the ad. In other words, evaluations should be more favorable when the perceived entertainment value of the ad increases. For versatile Internet users, if they do not have access to their shopping goal and are seeking entertainment instead, their persuasion will increase with an increase in perceived entertainment value of the ad. Yet, if they do have access to their shopping goal, their evaluations will decrease with an increase in perceived entertainment value of the ad. Hence, the influence of entertainment value and goal accessibility on persuasion should depend on a consumer’s tendency to pursue multiple goals with a single means. H4:

There will be an entertainment value ⫻ goal accessibility ⫻ versatility of Internet usage interaction on persuasion, such that among limited Internet users, (a) attitudes toward the brand and (b) purchase intentions will be influenced by entertainment value of the ad, rather than by whether their goals are congruent with entertainment value; among versatile Internet users, evaluations should be lower when their goals are incongruent, rather than congruent, with the entertainment value of the ad.

METHOD Participants and Design One hundred fifty-two undergraduate students participated in a laboratory experiment in exchange for course credit and a chance to win a $100 cash prize. The participants ranged in age from 20 to 42 (M ⫽ 22.9, SD ⫽ 2.92) and work experience from 0 to 25 years (M ⫽ 6.2, SD ⫽ 3.44), with males having slightly higher representation (53%) than females. To test the predictions, a 2 (entertainment value: high vs. low) ⫻ 2 (shopping goal accessibility: shopping goal vs. no-shopping goal) between-subjects design was employed. Entertainment value of an ad was manipulated using two different online ads that generated different levels of entertaining experiences. Participants in the high and low entertainment value conditions were presented with a game ad or banner ad, respectively (see Appendix). The game ad was composed of interactive quizzes about a target product, so the advertised brand and messages were the focal objects of the game. In contrast, the banner ad was placed on the top of a popular music Web site, www.billboard.com, appropriate for study participants. This research also manipulated accessibility to a shopping goal by presenting participants with different instructions before they evaluated the ads. In the shopping goal condition, participants were told that they would need to buy a new laundry detergent for their laundry to get ready for an important party in a few days. They were also led to believe that they would be given a 668


chance to select a laundry detergent of their choice as a gift to take home after the study was over. In the no-shopping goal condition, the participants were not provided with such information as a reason to buy a new laundry detergent.

Procedure Upon arrival, participants were randomly assigned to one of the four conditions, and were instructed either to play a Web game or to browse a Web site for 10 minutes. Next, the goal accessibility manipulation was introduced as described previously. The target ad, the Tide laundry detergent ad, and filler ads were embedded in a Web game or a website. After spending 10 minutes on each activity, the participants were given two booklets, one at a time. The first booklet included open-ended questions measuring unaided recall of advertised brands and recall of main messages of the laundry detergent ad. In the second booklet, participants were asked a series of questions related to their responses to advertisements and brands, such as perceived entertainment value of the ad, attitudes toward the brand, and purchase intentions. After responding to the need for cognitive closure questions, participants were provided with questions designed to measure their versatility in Internet activities and their demographic information. When the second booklet was turned in, participants were debriefed and thanked for their participation.

Measurement Recall. To facilitate manipulation checks on shopping goal accessibility, both unaided brand recall and message recall were measured. Unaided brand recall was measured by the accuracy of the responses to the request for participants to list the names of all the brands that were advertised. Two judges, who were blind to the hypotheses, coded a response as correct if the target brand name, Tide, was listed and as incorrect if Tide was not listed. The interjudge reliability (Perreault & Leigh, 1989)1 was 0.98 and disagreements were reconciled through discussion. Advertised message recall was measured by the accuracy of the responses to the question that asked participants to describe the main messages of the laundry detergent ad with as much detail as possible. Two judges coded a response as correct if detailed description of the messages on the Tide ad was provided and as incorrect if the messages were vague. The interjudge reliability was 0.86 and all disagreements were resolved through discussion.

Perceived Entertainment Value. Perceived entertainment value was measured on a 7-point Likert-type scale (e.g., 1 ⫽ strongly disagree; 7 ⫽ strongly agree) with seven items (e.g., “I thought it was clever and entertaining,” “The enthusiasm of the advertising is catchy—it picks you up”) adopted from Schlinger’s (1984) scale (Cronbach’s a ⫽ 0.938).

Attitude Toward the Brand. Attitude toward the brand (Cronbach’s a ⫽ 0.927) was measured on a 7-point semantic differential scale with four items (unpleasant/pleasant, unlikable/likable, boring/interesting, bad/good) taken from MacKenzie, Lutz, and Belch (1986). 1

Ir ⫽ {[(Fo /N) ⫺ (1/k)][k/(k ⫺ 1)]}0.5, for (Fo /N) ⱖ (1/k), where Ir ⫽ reliability index, Fo ⫽ observed frequency of agreement between judges, N ⫽ total number of judgments, k ⫽ number of categories.

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Purchase Intention. Purchase intention was measured with a 7-point scale (1 ⫽ less likely to purchase; 7 ⫽ more likely to purchase) (“If you have to buy a detergent next time you go shopping, what is the likelihood that you might purchase Tide as a result of the advertising you just viewed?”). Need for Cognitive Closure. Participants’ need for cognitive closure was measured on a 6-point Likert-type scale (e.g., 1 ⫽ strongly disagree; 6 ⫽ strongly agree) with 20 items (Houghton & Grewal, 2000) (Cronbach’s a ⫽ 0.670). Participants were categorized as either high or low in need for cognitive closure based on a median split (Median ⫽ 3.60). Versatility of Internet Usage. Participants’ versatility index was created based on the number of different Internet usage experiences selected from 12 different categories, including online product purchase, online chatting, online phone conference, and other online experiences. The total number of different Internet usage experiences was scored from 0 to 12 and then median spilt (Median ⫽ 6.00). Those who have used the Internet in more than six different categories were grouped into versatile Internet users and the rest were categorized as limited Internet users. Whereas Chun and Kruglanski (2004) measured the number of goals that can be attainable using computers, the versatility index of the current research captured the number of goals that have already been achieved using computers.

RESULTS Manipulation Checks To check for successful manipulation of entertainment value of the ad (EV), a t-test was run on the perceived entertainment value measure. The result showed that the participants in the high EV condition, who were exposed to a game ad (M ⫽ 5.07), felt higher entertainment value for the target Tide ad than those in the low EV condition, who were exposed to a banner ad [M ⫽ 3.68; t(150) ⫽ 7.37, p ⬍ 0.0001, h2 ⫽ 0.27]. Thus, the manipulation of ad entertainment value was successful. To check for successful manipulation of goal accessibility (GA), brand name recall and message recall were assessed. As expected, a significant effect of goal accessibility on brand name recall [t(149) ⫽ 4.41, p ⬍ 0.0001, h2 ⫽ 0.12] and advertised message recall [t(150) ⫽ 3.49, p ⬍ 0.001, h2 ⫽ 0.08] was observed. A higher portion of participants in the shopping goal accessibility condition recalled not only the target brand (Mshopping goal ⫽ 93%, Mno-shopping goal ⫽ 64%), but also advertised messages (Mshopping goal ⫽ 68%, Mno-shopping goal ⫽ 42%), compared to those in the no-shopping goal condition. Thus, the manipulation of goal accessibility was successful.

Joint Impact of Entertainment Value and Goal Accessibility (Tests of H1) A 2 (entertainment value) ⫻ 2 (goal accessibility) ANOVA was conducted and the results are presented in Figure 1. As hypothesized, there was an interactive

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(1) Attitude Toward the Brand (H1a)

(2) Purchase Intention (H1b)

6

6

5

5

4

4

3 No Shopping Goal Shopping Goal

2 1

3

No Shopping Goal Shopping Goal

2 1

Banner Ad

Game Ad

Banner Ad

Game Ad

Figure 1. Effects of entertainment value ⫻ goal accessibility on persuasion (H1).

effect of the treatments on attitude toward the brand [F(1,146) ⫽ 8.47, p ⬍ 0.004, h2 ⫽ 0.06] and purchase intention [F(1,147) ⫽ 3.04, p ⬍ 0.09, h2 ⫽ 0.02]. Specifically, consistent with H1a and H1b, entertainment seekers exhibited more positive attitude toward the brand [Mgame ad ⫽ 5.23, Mbanner ad ⫽ 4.17, F(1,81) ⫽ 20.12, p ⬍ 0.0001, h2 ⫽ 0.20] and purchase intention [Mgame ad ⫽ 4.09, Mbanner ad ⫽ 3.38, F(1,82) ⫽ 4.66, p ⬍ 0.04, h2 ⫽ 0.05] when they were exposed to a more entertaining ad (game ad) compared to a less entertaining ad (banner ad). Further, as predicted, information seekers were not influenced by the entertainment value of an ad in terms of attitude toward the brand [Mgame ad ⫽ 5.17, Mbanner ad ⫽ 5.15, F (1,65) ⬍ 1, n.s.] and purchase intention [Mgame ad ⫽ 4.44, Mbanner ad ⫽ 4.58, F(1,65) ⬍ 1, n.s.]. Therefore, both H1a and H1b were supported.

Mediational Role of Perceived Entertainment Value of the Ad (Tests of H2) Using the analytic procedure suggested by Baron and Kenny (1986), the current study tested whether entertainment seekers’ perceived entertainment value of the ad would mediate the impact of entertainment value on attitude toward the brand (i.e., causal link: EV S PEVad S Ab). The results of a series of regression analyses are presented in Table 1. For entertainment seekers, entertainment value was a significant predictor of perceived entertainment value of the ad (b ⫽ 0.769, p ⬍ 0.0001) and attitude toward the brand (b ⫽ 0.504, p ⬍ 0.0001). Perceived entertainment value of the ad had a significant impact on attitude toward the brand (b ⫽ 0.570, p ⬍ 0.0001). When perceived entertainment value of the ad was controlled for, the direct effect of entertainment value on attitude toward the brand became insignificant (b ⫽ 0.121, n.s.; Sobel’s z ⫽ 4.37, p ⬍ 0.0001), indicating a full mediation effect of perceived entertainment value of the ad. Therefore, H2a was supported. Similarly, the analysis examined whether entertainment seekers’ perceived entertainment value of the ad would mediate the impact of entertainment value on purchase intention (i.e., causal link: EV S PEVad S PI). Entertainment THE GAMES PEOPLE PLAY Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar

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Table 1. Regression Analysis Reporting Direct and Indirect Effects of Entertainment Value on Persuasion (H2).

Independent Variables

Dependent Variables

Causal link: EV S PEVad S Ab EV PEVad EV Ab PEVad Ab EV and PEVad: Ab EV PEVad Causal link: EV S PEVad S PI EV PEVad EV PI PEVad PI EV and PEVad: PI EV PEVad

Shopping Goal (Information Seekers)

No-Shopping Goal (Entertainment Seekers)

b

p-Value

b

p-Value

1.26 0.02 0.41

0.0001 NS 0.0001

1.54 1.05 0.57

0.0001 0.0001 0.0001

⫺0.65 0.53

0.02 0.0001

0.24 0.52

n.s. 0.0001

1.26 ⫺0.15 0.36

0.0001 n.s. 0.02

1.54 0.72 0.55

0.0001 0.04 0.0001

⫺0.79 0.51

0.05 0.002

⫺0.18 0.58

n.s. 0.0001

Notes: EV ⫽ entertainment value (1 ⫽ game ad; 0 ⫽ banner ad); PEVad ⫽ perceived entertainment value of the ad; Ab ⫽ attitude toward the brand; PI ⫽ purchase intention.

value was a predictor of purchase intention (b ⫽ 0.358, p ⬍ 0.04) and perceived entertainment value of the ad had a significant impact on purchase intention (b ⫽ 0.545, p ⬍ 0.0001). When perceived entertainment value of the ad was controlled for, the direct effect of entertainment value on purchase intention became insignificant (b ⫽ ⫺0.087, n.s.; Sobel’s z ⫽ 3.63, p ⬍ 0.0003), indicating a full mediation effect of perceived entertainment value of the ad. Therefore, H2b was also supported. These results are also presented in Table 1. In contrast, for information seekers, perceived entertainment value of the ad did not mediate the impact of entertainment value on brand attitude or purchase intention. Thus, H2c was also supported.

Moderating Role of Need for Cognitive Closure (Tests of H3) H3 predicted a three-way interaction effect on brand attitude (H3a) and purchase intention (H3b) among entertainment value, goal accessibility, and need for cognitive closure. There was a significant three-way interaction for brand attitude [F(1,142) ⫽ 5.90, p ⬍ 0.02, h2 ⫽ 0.04], but not for purchase intention [F(1,143) ⬍ 1, n.s.]. Thus, the three-way interaction effect was further analyzed using only the brand attitude measure. The reason for the lack of the three-way interaction effect on purchase intention is addressed in the discussion section. To understand the source of the three-way interaction effect on brand attitude, a two-way ANOVA was run at each level of need for cognitive closure. As predicted, there was a significant two-way interactive effect of entertainment value and goal accessibility on brand attitude among consumers high in need for

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(1) Low NFCC individuals

(2) High NFCC individuals

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6

5

5

4

4

3


2 1

3


2 1

Banner Ad

Game Ad

Banner Ad

Game Ad

Figure 2. Effects of entertainment value ⫻ goal accessibility ⫻ need for cognitive closure on attitude toward the brand (H3).

cognitive closure [F(1,70) ⫽ 16.21, p ⬍ 0.0001, h2 ⫽ 0.19] but not among those low in need for cognitive closure [F(1,72) ⬍ 1, n.s.; see Figure 2]. Consistent with the prediction, simple main effects tests showed that for consumers low in need for cognitive closure, attitude toward the brand increased with an increase in entertainment value of the ad, regardless of whether they were information seekers [Mbanner ad ⫽ 4.69, Mgame ad ⫽ 5.27, F(1,29) ⫽ 3.06, p ⬍ 0.09, h2 ⫽ 0.10] or entertainment seekers [Mbanner ad ⫽ 4.35, Mgame ad ⫽ 5.08, F(1,43) ⫽ 3.93, p ⬍ 0.06, h2 ⫽ 0.08]. For consumers high in need for cognitive closure, their attitude toward the brand also increased with an increase in entertainment value when they did not have access to shopping goals. Thus, their attitude was formed on the basis of entertainment value [Mbanner ad ⫽ 3.97, Mgame ad ⫽ 5.40, F(1,36) ⫽ 29.86, p ⬍ 0.0001, h2 ⫽ 0.45]. However, contrary to the prediction, the brand attitudes of consumers high in need for cognitive closure with a shopping goal accessed did not significantly decrease with an increase in entertainment value of the ad [Mbanner ad ⫽ 5.51, Mgame ad ⫽ 5.08, F(1,34) ⫽ 1.26, n.s.]. The reason why entertainment value did not decrease information seekers’ brand attitude in the high need for cognitive closure condition is addressed in the discussion section. Therefore, H3a was partly supported but H3b was not supported.

Moderating Role of Versatility of Internet Usage (Tests of H4) As was the case in the test of H3, a three-way interaction effect was observed among entertainment value, goal accessibility, and versatility of Internet usage only for brand attitude (H4a) [F(1,142) ⫽ 7.41, p ⬍ 0.007, h2 ⫽ 0.05], but not for purchase intention (H4b) [F(1,143) ⬍ 1, n.s.]. Thus, the three-way interaction effect was further analyzed only on brand attitude again and the reason for the lack of the three-way interaction effect on purchase intention is explained in the discussion section. To understand the source of the three-way interaction, a two-way ANOVA was performed at each level of versatility of Internet usage. As expected, there was a significant two-way interactive effect on brand attitude for versatile Internet users [F (1,71) ⫽ 22.11, p ⬍ 0.0001, h2 ⫽ 0.24] but not for limited Internet THE GAMES PEOPLE PLAY Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar

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(1) Limited Internet Users

(2) Versatile Internet Users

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6

5

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4

4 3

3

No Shopping Goal


2

Shopping Goal

2 1

1 Banner Ad

Game Ad

Banner Ad

Game Ad

Figure 3. Effects of entertainment value ⫻ goal accessibility ⫻ versatility of Internet usage on attitude toward the brand (H4).

users [F (1,71) ⬍ 1, n.s.]. The pattern of effects mirrors that for high NFCC individuals and low NFCC individuals, respectively, as shown in Figure 3. As predicted, simple main effects tests showed that for limited Internet users, their attitude toward the brand tended to increase with an increase in ad entertainment value, regardless of whether they were information seekers [Mbanner ad ⫽ 5.04, Mgame ad ⫽ 5.50, F(1,31) ⫽ 1.25, n.s.] or entertainment seekers [Mbanner ad ⫽ 4.61, Mgame ad ⫽ 5.07, F(1,40) ⫽ 1.30, n.s.], even though the effects were not statistically significant. For versatile Internet users, their brand attitude significantly increased with an increase in entertainment value of the ad when consumers did not have access to a shopping goal [Mbanner ad ⫽ 3.87, Mgame ad ⫽ 5.46, F(1,39) ⫽ 45.41, p ⬍ 0.0001, h2 ⫽ 0.54]. However, for versatile Internet users with a shopping goal accessed, a decrease in their brand attitude was not significant when entertainment value increased [Mbanner ad ⫽ 5.30, Mgame ad ⫽ 4.96, F(1,32) ⬍ 1, n.s.]. The potential reason why entertainment value did not reduce information seekers’ brand attitude in the versatile Internet usage condition is further addressed in the discussion section. Therefore, H4a was partly supported but H4b was not supported.

GENERAL DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Summary and Implications The current research examines consumer reactions to online ads that generate either a high or a low level of recreational experience. Findings illuminate the role of entertainment value of an ad in consumer persuasion. Consistent with the goal accessibility model (Feldman & Lynch, 1988; Reed, Wooten, & Bolton, 2002), this research found that when consumers do not have access to a shopping goal, ad entertainment value that is salient positively influenced brand attitudes and purchase intentions. When consumers have access to a shopping goal that is salient, however, their goal accessibility, as opposed to entertainment value, drives persuasion.

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Moreover, this research conceptually replicates Schlosser (2003) and extends it in several ways. First, the current study tests the goal congruency effect using a new interactive medium. Schlosser’s participants had online trial experiences with a target product, Kodak camera, by pressing a telephoto button to take a picture. However, this study’s participants played interactive games, for instance, taking a quiz that asked about features of a target product, Tide detergent, by clicking the correct answer choice before it disappears from the screen. Accordingly, unlike Schlosser’s focus on functional benefits of an interactive medium, the current research goes beyond functional benefits to explore how hedonic value of a medium plays a role in persuasion. The current research shows that an interactive, entertaining in-game ad like the one used in this study is effective not only for browsers, but also for information searchers. Notably, taskoriented searchers find a more interactive and entertaining in-game ad campaign not necessarily distractive. This is a point of departure from Schlosser’s findings. Second, whereas Schlosser (2003) proposes cognitive elaboration as the underlying mechanism by which brand attitudes would be formed and changed, the present study proposes a different underlying process by which brand attitudes could be constructed via affect transfer. Specifically, it is shown that when consumers do not have access to a shopping goal, the perceived entertainment value of the ad is automatically transferred to brand attitudes and purchase intentions, thus resulting in an increase in persuasion (MacKenzie, Lutz, & Belch, 1986; Strick et al., 2009). In contrast, when consumers have access to a shopping goal, the perceived entertainment value of the ad is not transferred to attitudes and purchase intentions. The findings offer additional insight into how and why entertaining ads help consumers form favorable attitudes toward advertised brands. Finally, the present study investigates two new individual differences that are boundary conditions for the goal congruency effect: need for cognitive closure (NFCC) and versatility of Internet usage. Understanding the interplay between these variables is important because individuals who have different dispositional traits can exhibit the same level of persuasion through different psychological mechanisms. Building on goal systems theory (Chun & Kruglanski, 2004; Kruglanski & Kopetz, 2009; Kruglanski et al., 2002), this research finds that the degree to which goal accessibility moderates the impact of ad entertainment value on persuasion differs depending on individual differences in NFCC and versatility of Internet usage. For low NFCC individuals (or limited Internet users), goal accessibility does not moderate the impact of ad entertainment value on brand attitudes. Brand attitudes become more positive with an increase in ad entertainment value, regardless of whether consumers have a shopping goal accessed or not. In contrast, for high NFCC individuals (or versatile Internet users), goal accessibility moderates the impact of ad entertainment value on brand attitudes, such that for those with no shopping goal accessed, brand attitude becomes more positive with an increase in ad entertainment value. However, for those with a shopping goal accessed, brand attitudes remain positive, unchanged by ad entertainment value. The present research would seem to hold some provisional implications for ingame advertising. Drawing on the limited-capacity model of attention and using a car racing game, Lee and Faber (2007) show that recall of brands embedded in the focal area of the game (i.e., a gate through which cars must pass) is greater than that of brands placed in the peripheral field (i.e., background billboards


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located in the far left side of the track), indicating that the proximity of product placement matters when consumers process ads. An implication of their study is that consumers need additional cognitive resources to process ads placed in the background (Lee & Faber, 2007). The in-game ad used in the present study is different from the typical in-game ad in that the advertised brand and messages in the game are themselves the focal objects of the game rather than the secondary objects. In a sense, the in-game ad of current research is a seamless integration of an ad into a game. With this kind of in-game ad, immersion in the game would be less likely to divide gamers’ attention. On the contrary, it could actually help gamers remember the brand and its features, potentially leading to greater persuasion. This may explain why there were higher levels of brand attitudes and purchase intentions in the game ad condition, regardless of shopping goal accessibility. This research presents a significant managerial implication for interactive game developers and advertising practitioners when they aim to improve the effectiveness of their game ads. The present research implies that seamless integration of product information into entertainment is an important factor. An emerging technology such as virtual try-on technology seems to be consistent with this approach (Kim & Forsythe, 2008).

Directions for Future Research There are certain features of this study that suggest opportunities for further research. First, the entertainment value manipulation used in this study may have influenced the degree of interactivity with the ad. Although this research assumed that interactivity would contribute to a positive recreational experience, the relationship between interactivity and consumer attitudes can be reversed if consumers do not have a high expectation for interactivity (Sohn, Ci, & Lee, 2007). Thus, it might be interesting to examine entertainment value of the ad independent of interactivity. Second, whereas participants in the shopping goal accessibility condition exhibited significantly higher recall rates than those in the no-shopping goal condition, one may wonder if the difference in recall rates would also impact persuasion. Additional analyses show that consumers’ recall of brand or ad messages can serve as a full mediator for the influence of goal accessibility on brand attitude, but not for the influence of goal accessibility on purchase intention. Even though these findings are comparable with Schlosser’s (2003) findings showing cognitive elaboration as a mediator on brand attitude, but not on purchase intention, further investigation will be needed to clarify the relationship among goal accessibility, cognitive elaboration, and persuasion. Third, although significant three-way interactive effects were found on brand attitude, this research did not observe a similar effect on purchase intentions. This may have occurred because the purchase intentions of the participants with shopping goals did not change with an increase in their need for cognitive closure or multifinality pursuit. The fact that participants in the shopping goal condition were informed by experimenters that they would be offered a free detergent of their choice at the end of the study might have caused them to be less susceptible to internal motivation for instant closure or multifinality pursuit. The three-way interactive effect on brand attitude showed a similar tendency. The brand attitude of those with shopping goals did not change 676


significantly with an increase in need for cognitive closure or multifinality pursuit, even though the interaction effects were significant. Perhaps participants with shopping goals had more positive brand attitudes because they believed they would receive free detergent. Future studies may wish to reexamine these relationships while controlling for the benefits participants expect to receive. Fourth, the current research hypothesized and found that perceived entertainment value would mediate the impact of EV on brand attitude and purchase intention when viewers were exposed to ads online while merely browsing the Web without a shopping goal. This result shows that affective entertainment value is transferred to brand attitudes and purchase intentions. When viewers are exposed to the ads while searching for product information with their salient shopping goal, however, perceived entertainment value of the ad did not mediate the persuasion process. In this case, automatic affect transfer does not seem to explain ad effectiveness. Despite the fact that a higher level of ad entertainment was at odds with viewers’ shopping goals, more entertaining in-game ads were still as effective as less entertaining banner ads. This finding is in contrast to Schlosser’s (2003) study, in which ad effectiveness considerably deteriorated when a higher level of object interactivity was at odds with viewers’ information search needs. This is an interesting point of difference. The reason for an in-game ad’s effectiveness might be that the in-game ad provides the necessary information in a way that does not take up too much of cognitive resources for the task-oriented viewers with a shopping goal accessed. It should be noted that perceived entertainment value of the ad in the current study is different from Schlosser’s mental imagery of the ad in terms of its antecedents and consequences. Whereas Schlosser’s imagery is generated by participants’ interactive product trial experiences, the perceived entertainment value of the ad in the current research is influenced by participants’ recreational experiences with the game ad. Additionally, unlike the imagery process that leads only to increased purchase intentions in Schlosser’s study, the perceived entertainment value process in this research contributes to increasing both brand attitudes and purchase intentions. It would be valuable to further examine the role and impact of these two similar constructs. Fifth, it is possible that results may vary depending on the difficulty of playing an online game. For example, if it takes a longer time for consumers to play a game due to a slow Internet connection, their recreational experience will decrease. According to Schwarz (2004; in press), the fluency with which information is processed can influence evaluations. Indeed the ease or difficulty of processing can play a more important role than ad content in shaping attitudes. It would be interesting to investigate how the difficulty of an online game ad influences persuasion. Sixth, it can be argued that information seekers’ attitudes and intentions were not significantly lower than those of entertainment seekers in the game ad condition, because the product type is a rather low involvement category. Use of higher-involvement products might demand more cognitive resources and thus reduce persuasion for information seekers when they have a shopping goal accessed. Thus, future investigations may wish to use high involvement products. Finally, although participants were asked to play an online game without any break, recent research has shown that the presence of interruptions can impact consumer experiences. For example, interruptions can not only make a


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pleasant consumption experience more enjoyable (Nelson & Meyvis, 2008), but also change information processing from a bottom-up, data-driven to a top-down, goal-driven mode (Liu, 2008). It would be interesting to explore how interruptions or breaks during an online game may influence consumer judgment and decision making.

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APPENDIX Screenshots of Stimuli (a) Game ad.

(b) Banner ad.


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