The Impact of Tax Planning on Reducing Income Tax ...

Middle Eastern Finance and Economics ISSN: 1450-2889 Issue 5 (2009) © EuroJournals Publishing, Inc. 2009 http://www.eurojournals.com/MEFE.htm

The Impact of Tax Planning on Reducing Income Tax Burden in Industrial Companies in Jordan (From Sales & Income Tax Evaluator Point of View) Majed Sharayri Economics And Financial Sciences Department, Faculty Of Planning And Management Al-Balqa Applied University E-mail: [email protected] Ghazi F. Momani Banking And Financial Science Department, Faculty Of Finance And Management The Arabic Academy For Banking And Financial Science E-mail:[email protected] Tel: 00962796555292 Abstract The study aims to recognize the reliability extent on the advantages of income and sales tax law and investment promotion law pertaining to minimizing taxation value of Jordan joint stock industrial companies from income and sales tax evaluators’ point of view. It also aims to recognize the taxation system in Jordan throughout the following study hypotheses: 1. Industrial companies do not rely on the advantages of income and sales tax law to alleviate tax burden. 2. Industrial companies do not utilize investment promotion law to alleviate tax burden. To meet the study objectives, a questionnaire of twenty questions has been prepared and distributed on a study sample consisting of twenty three evaluators of income and sales tax in the industrial activity in income and sales tax department. The statistical analysis led to the following conclusions: 1. The extent of utilizing the advantages of investment promotion law statistically relate to the reduction of tax value on joint stock industrial companies, according to the income and sales tax evaluators. 2. The extent of relying on the advantages of income tax law statistically relate to the reduction of tax value of joint stock industrial companies, according to income and sales tax evaluators. Taking these conclusions into consideration, the study offers many recommendations such as: 3. Industrial companies should train and qualify their employees to have high skills and capabilities in order to make use of the advantages of income tax law to alleviate tax burden. 4. Industrial companies should be more interested in investment promotion law and try to utilize all its advantages as best as possible.

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1. Preface Utilizing the advantages of income and sales tax law and investment promotion law has to do with alleviating tax burden on the tax payer, because he organizes his resources throughout following policies and procedures that exempt him from the tax or reduce its value within the legitimate activities which do not cause the tax payer any legal interrogation or penalty. This can be done by utilizing the legal pitfalls and advantages of income tax law and investment promotion law and by following financial, accounting administrative policies. The need of joint stock industrial companies to alleviate tax burden by legal means away from tax evasion prohibited by law led to studying these advantages as some of the important ways to alleviate tax burden on such companies. The study aims to recognize the extent of utilizing the advantages of income and sales tax law and investment promotion law to alleviate tax burden, and to recognize to what extent Jordan Industrial companies apply them, according to income and sales evaluators’ point of view.

2. Study Problems Study problems are expressed throughout the size of tax burden and tax evasion, since many tax violations made by joint stock industrial companies were revealed when providing tax returns throughout providing false and misleading information to evade payment of a tax by illegal ways. Accordingly, discrepancy between income and sales tax department and companies occurs, and these companies will be subject to legal investigation and will be subject to the penalties stated by income tax law. It is well-known that there are many legal pitfalls which joint stock industrial companies can take advantage of to alleviate tax burden. These companies can also utilize income and sales tax law, investment promotion law and certain financial, accounting and administrative policies to alleviate tax burden. Problems can be summarized by the following questions: 1. Do companies utilize income and sales tax law to alleviate tax burden? 2. Do companies utilize investment promotion law to alleviate tax burden? 3. Do companies utilize financial, accounting and administrative policies to alleviate their tax burden legally?

3. Study Significance Study significance dashes from the following: 1. Recognizing followed policies to alleviate tax burden of Jordan joint stock industrial companies. This is important for these companies to develop their financial situation to increase their revenues and consequently develop their investments and expand their works to include new projects which take part in enhancing national economy. It is also important for them because it enables them to invest the surplus resulted from tax planning of tax relieved projects and activities. 1. Expressing the pitfalls of income tax law which joint stock industrial companies take advantage of. 2. Showing to what extent joint stock industrial companies utilize income tax law and investment promotion law to alleviate tax burden.

4. Study Objectives The study aims to stand on utilizing income of the advantages of income and sales tax law and investment promotion law to alleviate tax burden.

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It also aims to recognize the extent of applying these advantages in Jordan joint stock industrial companies. The main objective can be sub-classified into the following secondary objectives: 1. Showing the importance of taxes and their development, and showing tax evasion in Jordan. 2. Recognizing tax system in Jordan. 3. Studying to what extent joint stock industrial companies follow financial, accounting and administrative policies to alleviate tax burden. 4. Studying to what extent joint stock industrial companies utilize the advantages of income and sales tax law and investment promotion law to alleviate tax burden, according to income tax evaluators’ point of view.

5. Previous Studies Many Arabic and English studies dealt with utilizing the advantages of income and sales tax law and investment promotion law from many aspects. The following is some of the most important studies: 1. “The Choice of Accounting Alternatives”, Ronen J and Aharoni, 1989. The study dealt with the influence of income tax on companies’ choice of accounting policies such as stock evaluation, consumption… etc. It was conducted on 202 companies, and it turned out that the administrations were willing to declare high profits in order to realize their interests to maximize their wages. In return, shareholders were not willing to declare high profits in order not to pay more taxes to the state. Accordingly, the company manages to the accounting profit and tries to increase or decrease it as it deems fit by choosing the right accounting alternative without violating the well-known accounting principles to realize the interests of the concerned parties. The study showed forward relationship between the ideal accounting alternative and the imposed tax rate, meaning that the higher tax rate is, the more the necessity is for the companies to choose an accounting alternative that help reduce tax commitments of it. 2. “Tax Planning of Banks Operating in Jordan”, Joummáh, 1993. The study aimed to find standards to measure the extent of using tax planning by the banks operating in Jordan, and to determine the impact of including a department specialized in tax issues in these banks and also the impact of the bank’s nationality, whether Jordanian or not, on tax planning. The study was conducted on profit-making banks that are subject to tax in Jordan whether they are Jordanian of branches of foreign banks. A questionnaire was prepared of three sections and distributed on the high administrative levels or departments specialized in processing tax issues. The study included seventeen banks and the percentage of answered questionnaires was %100. The study concluded the following: 1. Banks operating in Jordan use tax planning to utilize any chance offered by income tax law, since the average tax planning in the investment field and assets management reached % 68.3 and the average of tax planning in the process of providing self-estimation report reached % 65.6 and the average of tax planning in banks including departments specialized in tax issues reached %77. 2. Tax planning level increases in the banks that include a department specialized in tax planning, and banks’ nationalities have nothing to do with tax planning. 3. “Tax Planning of Jordan Industrial Companies” Hassen, 1996. The study aimed to: a. Measure to what extent joint stock and limited liability industrial companies conduct tax planning which is considered the legal way to alleviate tax burden on these companies. b. Measure to what extent joint stock and limited liability industrial companies exploit valid legal statements that help them perform tax planning.


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c. Measure to extent public liability and limited liability companies follow financial and accounting policies in tax planning. The study was conducted on joint stock and limited liability industrial companies and a questionnaire was prepared and made of six sections, each of which deals with a group of questions, and measure the companies practicing to the elements of tax planning as a means to alleviate tax burden. It showed that the average of tax planning usage in joint stock and limited liability companies is % 69.9 and that joint stock companies conduct tax planning by a percentage of % 74.25, while limited liability companies conducted it by a percentage of % 65.5. 3. “Factors Controlling the Pricing Way of the Spent Stock”, Shihatta, 1997. The study dealt with the factors that help the administration to choose the right way to price the stock and the impact of tax incentives on choosing the right way of pricing. It showed that tax savings realized by the companies are the most important factors to decide whether the incoming method is better or the outgoing one is one of the methods used to price the stock. 4. “Tax Planning In Jordan Joint Stock Companies Working in Service sector”. Noor and Ibrahem, 1999. The study aimed to recognize the process of tax planning generally and to study the extent of applying it in the companies working particularly in service sector in Jordan and to focus on the following: 1. Recognizing the extent of performing tax planning by the subject companies. 2. Studying how they utilize the advantages of Jordan income tax law. 3. Recognizing general policies of the companies used in investment planning and assets management. 4. Recognizing the impact of utilizing the advantages of investment promotion law on the national economy. The study was conducted on thirty six joint stock companies working in service sector. It concluded that these companies do tax planning by a percentage of around % 68. 5. “Income Tax Monitoring Means in Yemen Republic”, Omer, 1999. The study dealt with tax monitoring in Yemen republic to figure out its weakness points and suggest some means necessary to develop it in order to maintain the rights of public treasury and, on the other, implement tax justice. It figured out that a low percentage of tax payers were committed to declare their commercial and industrial profits. This is due to their weak tax awareness and the lack of following up by tax department. It also figured out that the procedures followed regarding escaping providing tax return were not sufficient to force the tax payer to provide their returns on due time, in addition to not applying the penalties stated in the law firmly. It also dealt with the difficulty of gathering sufficient information about tax payers, the lack of experience of tax evaluators and insufficiency of them, the lack of information about overdue taxes on commercial and industrial profits, the suitability of internal monitoring system and not using financial analysis and planning budget in tax evaluation.

6. Study Hypotheses Study hypotheses have been formulated in the light of the previous studies and the study problem as follows: First Hypothesis Industrial companies do not depend on income and sales tax law to alleviate tax burden.

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Second Hypothesis Industrial companies do not utilize the advantages of investment promotion law to alleviate tax burden.

7. Study Methodology To meet the study objectives, the researcher followed the analytical descriptive method with using some statistical methods to show, analyze and test the hypothesis (SPSS) throughout the statistical program.

8. Study Society The study society compromises forty five income and sales tax evaluators in the industrial field in the department of income and sales tax in Jordan, and a study sample of twenty three evaluators working in Amman branches has been chosen.

9. Procedural Definitions Tax planning: a set of procedures and policies the taxpayer follows to minimize the amount of due tax or to be exempted from the tax. (Abu Nasser, 1999). Tax burden: the amount of due tax on the taxpayer whether he is a real personality or artificial one. Tax saving: the amount saved throughout tax planning so that the amount of due tax will be saved. Tax avoidance: avoiding tax payment by exploiting pitfalls of the law in order to reduce the tax amount or hide tax responsibility. Tax evasion; it is illegal activities done by the tax payer to reduce the amount of due tax. (Abdullhameed,1999).

10. Theoretical Frame Definition of tax planning Tax planning is known as “the procedures followed by the taxpayer to minimize due tax commitments and which do not conflict with the legal procedures in effect”. Some researchers see it as “the attempt to utilize legal pitfalls to avoid paying taxes on the grounds that no conditions that involve taxes are available”. (Abu Yahia,1996) In addition, there is no difference between tax planning and tax evasion, since they are two sides of one coin, and although they have different definitions, they both agree on that tax planning is “the way of minimizing tax commitments which includes a set of procedures and legal ways, without violating the tax law in effect”. On the contrary, tax evasion is known as “the manipulation done by the taxpayer to alleviate tax burden by illegal ways”. It is also known as “the cheating and using of illegal ways resulting in the loss of the state’s right of claiming taxes”. It is also known as “the operations done by the taxpayer to avoid taxes, which is against the law rules and tax legislations in effect”. In the light of the aforementioned, we find out that the definitions agree that tax evasion is “the alleviation of tax burden by the taxpayer in a way that conflicts with tax legislations in effect”. We also find out that what make tax planning different from tax evasion is that alleviating tax burden by tax


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planning is legal. If the taxpayer performs tax burden alleviation in the legal ways without violating valid tax legislations, this process is tax planning. In this regard, James Wonbus says that tax avoidance is used in a way that conflicts with the law by processing taxable income. He thinks that if tax amount increases, both tax avoidance and tax evasion will be useful and the company will have more risks in implementing them. In addition, the more income tax law is inaccurate and controversial, the more tax evasion and tax avoidance are useful. Moreover, if the penalties are deterring, tax evasion will be less while tax avoidance will increase, and if the agreement level upon the tax system increases tax evasion will be less. We conclude that the need for tax evasion and tax avoidance increases in the light of agreement upon tax amounts. In Jordan, tax law no. 57 for 1985, articles 42, 43, 44, 45 and 46, stated the activities that are considered illegal tax evasion: If the taxpayer submits false tax return by ignoring, incompleting or omitting any information about his income or part of his income which should be reported in accordance with the provisions of such law and which influences the tax amount tangibly. If the taxpayer includes false statement or false pro forma entry in the self-estimation statement or any statement provided in accordance with income tax law. If the taxpayer prepares, keeps or agrees to prepare any books, accounts, pro forma or false entries, allows to forge any books, accounts or entries, hides or damages them partly or totally, hides any taxable income or part of it, avoids paying the tax partly or totally or obtains exemption or deduction allowed by the law with no rights. If the taxpayer resorts to any trick what so ever to evade the tax or minimize its amount in any possible way. If the taxpayer refuses to provide any demanded information of provides false information regarding any event or issue influencing his responsibility or any other person’s for paying income tax or influencing the tax amount. If the tax payer provides in writing any false answer to any question or request directed to him to obtain information or data required by such law, for the purpose of tax evasion partly or totally. (Al Khatib, 1998). Jordan law stated penalties of imprisonment for a period ranging from a week to one year or a fine not less than JD100 and not more than JD 500. However, it insures the double of the deducted taxable amount. Accordingly, it is clear that tax evasion is punished by law, contrary to tax planning or tax avoidance which are allowed. (Kattawneh 2008)

11. Necessity of Tax Planning Tax planning is part of planning in general and of financial planning in particular, which concerns with the financial issues of the company. It determines policies and strategies suitable for this goal. Tax planning is important because it forces the administration to utilize and exploit the available resources as best as possible. It also forces it to analyze the deviations resulted from applying the plan and to determine the reasons that led to not achieving the objectives of the plan and to try to deal with these reasons. The administration therefore should prepare a detailed plan to manage income tax perfectly without causing harm to the company’s other interests within an inclusive frame. It should analyze the deviations and find solutions to avoid them in future. The most important advantages of tax planning can be summarized in the following: Tax planning helps alleviate tax burden on the taxpayer in legal ways. Tax planning allows companies to direct their investments to the fields the grant good tax savings for them, resulting in increasing their efficiency in exploiting their assets perfectly throughout a plan comprehending financial and tax issues.

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Tax planning allows companies view valid laws periodically and develop the plan according to the changes that would occur on the economic and legal level. Tax planning facilitates monitoring the plan throughout analyzing the deviations. Tax planning meets the goals set by the state to promote the investment and achieve the economic development. (Al Abbadi, 2000).

12. Study Methodology & Conclusion Analysis Study Methodology Two kinds of data have been adopted in this study: 1. Primary data: it is obtained from collecting necessary data throughout the questionnaire designed especially for this study and containing a group of questions covering the study aspects. The questionnaire has been distributed on a study sample of twenty three evaluators from income and sales tax department in the industrial field. 2. Secondary data: many books, university researches and magazines have been reviewed. After collecting data from different resources and confirming it accuracy, the statistical analysis program has been used to reach the results of the questionnaire and then reach the conclusions and recommendations. Descriptive statistical methods have also been applied. Study Elements The aforementioned questionnaire included the explanation of the main theme of the study in addition to some instructions given by the researcher to explain how to answer the questions of it. The following is summarized explanation to the sections of the questionnaire: This section includes a group of questions designed to measure the extent of relying on the advantages on income tax law and investment promotion law to minimize the tax value of joint stock companies according to income tax evaluators’ point of view. The researcher designed in this section an extent to answer each question made of 5 choices as the following: Strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, strongly disagree. Methods of data analysis The researcher uses numbers to answer the questions of the second section of the questionnaire as follows: 1. Meaning that this requirement is always applied. 2. Meaning that this requirement is usually applied. 3. Meaning that this requirement is occasionally applied. 4. Meaning that this requirement is not applied. 5. Meaning that this requirement has never been applied.

13. The Variables The Independent Variables 1. The extent of relying on the advantages of income and sales tax law to alleviate tax burden. 2. The extent of utilizing the advantages of investment promotion law to alleviate tax burden. Dependant Variables 1. Tax burden


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14. Study validity The symbol (α) has been used to measure the validity of the measurement tool whose value reached the following: Real value 23

(α) value %89.4

The aforementioned table shows that (α) value equals %89.4 which is statistically greater than the accepted percentage of % 60, indicating the validity of the used measurement tool. (David, p.p 4, 1998). The program of the statistical analysis has been applied to analyze the study data and come out with the conclusions.

15. The Methods of Testing the Study Hypotheses The null hypothesis and the alternative one have been adopted to test the study hypotheses. The following is a summary of the definitions of these hypotheses: Hypothesis: a claim about the truth of something. Hypothesis testing: estimating the possibility of the trueness of a certain claim at a certain level of validity by using data obtained from a sample. Null Hypothesis (HO): a hypothesis about a certain society sample under testing, and which we suggest when we have strong evidence about its trueness. If the related evidences proved otherwise, we shall accept it. Alternative Hypothesis (Ha): it is the hypothesis the researcher make as an alternative to the null hypothesis and which we accept after refuting the null hypothesis that is considered untrue according to the data obtained from the sample. The null hypothesis can be accepted or rejected according to the basic rule which is: The null hypothesis can be accepted if the calculated value is less than the tabular one obtained from statistical tables, or if (α) value is greater than 0.05 which is the value adopted in human studies. It is rejected when the calculated value is greater than the tabular one or when (α) value is less than 0.05.

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Table 1: No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

19. 20.

• •

•

Summary of the questions of the sample questionnaire Question Industrial companies hold asset accounts organized according to the requirements of income and sales tax law. Industrial companies evade paying the fine on the overdue tax. Industrial companies provide tax return in order not to estimate the tax randomly. Industrial companies utilize the promotional discount. Industrial companies pay Zakkah (an amount of money paid annually according to Islam. This amount is considered as a tax collected from rich people and entities and given to poor people) to parties the parliament considered as non-profit making. Industrial companies export their production because the profit accrued from export is exempted from taxes. Industrial companies attempt to expand the tax return period in order to gain more time to delay paying the tax. Industrial companies exchange their old machinery with new one in order to deduct the exchange cost from the tax. Industrial companies assign experts in tax issues to discuss and follow up the company’s issues in the department of income and sales tax. Industrial companies take the policy of instalment sales to take advantage of delaying tax return and realize a tax saving. Industrial companies damage their goods according to the requirements of the department of income and sales tax. Industrial companies study the advantages of the investment in the different investment areas. Industrial companies seek to obtain customs tariff exemptions to import their assets according to what investment promotion law states. Industrial companies utilize the advantages of investment promotion law. Industrial companies build their factories within the borders of the industrial cities institution. Industrial companies seek to obtain a trial production period to expand the commencing date of the project. Industrial companies seek to obtain the character of an accredited economic project. Industrial companies implement the maturity basis and declare their expenses and revenues every year in order not lose the chance of deducting these expenses from the income. Industrial companies take all the necessary procedures to collect the troubled debts after trying all means to collect such debts. Industrial companies prefer to own depreciable assets with taking into consideration the other factors.

Average 4.69

Standard deviation 0.470

3.47 4.30

0.510 0.470

4.08 3.56

0.733 0.506

4.86

0.344

4.00

0.522

4.21

0.795

4.91

0.288

3.43

0.895

2.34

0.486

3.43

0.727

4.00

0.000

3.82 4.00

0.576 0.522

4.00

0.000

3.82

0.650

3.69

0.470

4.39

0.722

4.00

0.000

Null hypothesis can be accepted or rejected in accordance with the basic decision, which is: Null hypothesis is accepted if the calculated value is less than the tabular one extracted from the statistical tables or if (α) value is greater than 0.05m which is the value adopted in human studies. It is rejected if the calculated value is greater than the tabular one, or if (α) value is less than 0.05. Testing the study hypotheses:

First Hypothesis Null hypothesis (Ho): the extent of relying on the advantages of investment promotion law does not statistically relate to minimizing tax value in joint stock industrial companies according to the income tax evaluators.

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Alternative hypothesis (Ha): the extent of relying on the advantages of investment promotion law statistically relate to minimizing tax value in joint stock industrial companies according to the income tax evaluators.

16. Results of Testing the First Hypothesis Table 3:

Test of the first hypothesis

Calculated T 27.4

Tabular T 4.69

(α) value 0.00

Results of null hypothesis Rejection

Applying T-test, computer results in the aforementioned table showed that the value of calculated T (27.4) is greater than the tabular value. In addition, (α) value is less than 0.05, meaning that the extent of utilizing the advantages of investment promotion law statistically relates to minimizing tax value in joint stock industrial companies according to the income and sales tax evaluators. Second Hypothesis Null hypothesis: there is no statistical relationship between utilizing the advantages of income tax law by industrial companies and alleviating tax burden. Alternative hypothesis (Ha): there is a statistical relationship between utilizing the advantages of income tax law by industrial companies and alleviating tax burden. Results of testing the second hypothesis: Table 4:

Test of the second hypothesis

Calculated T 13.8

Tabular T 3.47

(α) value 0.00

Results of (Ho) Rejected

Applying T-test, it turned out from the computer results of table 4 that the value of the calculated T (13.8) is greater than the tabular one, and (α) value is less than 0.05, meaning that there is a statistical relationship between relying on the advantages of income tax law by industrial companies and alleviating tax burden.

17. Conclusions and Recommendations After analyzing the data of the study and in the light of the study results about the extent of relying on the advantages of income and sales tax law and investment promotion law to minimize tax value in Jordan joint stock industrial companies according to income and sales tax evaluators, the researcher suggests some important conclusions and recommendations: 17.1. Conclusions The study conclusions can be expressed as follows: 1. Joint stock industrial companies can alleviate tax burden throughout the following different elements: a. Utilizing the advantages of investment promotion law is one of the most useful elements for joint stock industrial companies because it grants them tax relief for long periods of time. Accordingly, companies hardly seek to alleviate there tax burden using this element and by exploiting such element as best as possible.

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b. Utilizing the advantages of income and sales tax law realizes great advantage to industrial companies and can also achieve tax savings. c. Following certain financial, accounting and administrative policies by the industrial companies can be achieve tax saving. 2. Some joint stock industrial companies do not concern about having an internal division or administration specialized in tax issues. 17.2. Recommendations In the light of the aforementioned results and conclusions, we mention below some recommendations which would achieve tax saving for Jordan joint stock industrial companies. 1. Industrial companies should be more interested in investment promotion law and try to utilize all its advantages as best as possible. 2. Industrial companies should study income tax law to utilize its advantages and exploit the legal pitfalls in it in order to alleviate tax burden more than ever. 3. Industrial companies should train and qualify their employees in order to have excellent skills in the administration field so that they can practice financial, accounting and administrative policies and utilize them to alleviate tax burden. 4. Industrial companies should assign competent experts specialized in tax issues to utilize the advantages of income and sales tax law and determine the chances that the companies can exploit to alleviate tax burden. 5. Income and sales tax department should develop tax payers’ awareness about the importance of taxes and how to deal with them throughout different means. 6. Industrial companies should be concerned with policies that evaluate the stock to realize greatest tax saving.

List of Resources and References Books [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7]

“Tax Accounting, Katawnah and Affanah, 2008. Dar Waél, Distribution and Publishing, Jordan. “Tax and their Accounting, Abunassar, 2000. Waél, Distribution And Publishing, Jordan. “Tax Accounting”, Karrajah and Abboubi, 2000. Safaa’, Distribution and Publishing, Jordan. “Scientific Principles of Tax Accounting”, Al Khatib, 1998. Hamid Bookshop, Distribution and Publishing, Jordan. “Taxes and their Accounting”, Siam and Khaddash, 2000, Jordan. “General Finance and Tax Legislation” Khassawnnah and Siam. 2000, Jordan. “Income Tax Guid”, Samman and Abuabbass, 1996. Majdi Samman & Co. Jordan.

Periodicals & Theses [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6]

“Tax Impact on Capital Budget and other Administrative Decisions”, Commercial and Economic Magazine. Ain Shams University, 1987. “Factors Controlling Pricing the Spent Stock”, Shihattah and Mohammad Fathi. Scientific Magazine for Economy and Trade, 1997. Ain Shams University. “Tax Planning in Jordan Joint Stock Companies Working in the Service Sector”, Noor and Ibrahim, 1999. Masqatm Oman. “Tax Planning in Jordan Industrial Companies”, Master’s thesis, 1996. ‘Income Tax Monitoring Means in Yemen Republic”, Omer and Abdullah Ahmad, Master’s thesis. 1996, University of Bagdad. “Tax planning in Banks Operating in Jordan”, Master’s thesis, 1993. University of Jordan.

Middle Eastern Finance and Economics - Issue 5 (2009) [7] [8]

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“Factors Influencing the Decision of Income Tax Evaluators when Handling Asset Accounts in Jordan”, Affanah and Odai Hussien, Master’s thesis, 2002, Al Al-Bayt University. “The Impact of Tax Planning on Alleviating Tax Burden in Yemen Joint Stock Industrial Companies”, Ahmad and Abdurrahmin Abdul-Jabbar, Master’s thesis, 2001, Al Al-Bayt University.

Articles [1]

“The Choice among Accounting Alternatives”, Ronen, J and Aharon. The Accounting Review, Vol. 67, No.2, pp 69-81.

Laws [1] [2]

Jordan Income Tax Law, Ministry of Finance, 2004. Sales Tax Law no. 6 for 2004 and its amendments. Ministry of Finance.