the professional life-cycles and professional ...

THE PROFESSIONAL LIFE-CYCLES AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF ADULT TEACHERS OF ENGLISH TO SPEAKERS OF OTHER LANGUAGES (TESOL)

VOLUME I

CAROL K WAITES

A dissertation in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of New South Wales

June, 1999

ABSTRACT THE PROFESSIONAL LIFE-CYCLES AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF ADULT TEACHERS OF ENGLISH TO SPEAKERS OF OTHER LANGUAGES (TESOL) This thesis focuses on the findings of a research study conducted in Geneva and Sydney to examine the career cycles of TESOLs. It explores many of the issues investigated in Huberman’s study of 160 secondary school teachers in Geneva (1989, 1993). Seventythree in-depth interviews were conducted with teachers and trainers / administrators in adult TESOL, and professional development issues were examined in greater detail than in the Huberman study.

The central purpose of the study was to test the universality of the Huberman model of career phases. TESOLs were found to have far more variations during their career cycles than school teachers, who were in a more stable and predictable situation.

The study focused on particular moments in the career cycle, exploring TESOLs’ levels of satisfaction. TESOLs in the present study were found to have similar intrinsic satisfactions and concerns about working conditions as the findings of other TESOL studies. Although the occupation was reportedly becoming increasingly more professional, its unpredictable nature made it stimulating and rewarding. In spite of the instability of the TESOL career, TESOLs appeared to have more positive career experiences overall than many school teachers with more stable career paths.

The study also examined professional development issues by comparing the perceptions of TESOLs and their trainers / administrators. They had many divergent opinions as to the professional development requirements of TESOLs. While there was no conclusive evidence that professional

i

development could be linked to stages, TESOLs in a phase of diversification were found to have different professional development requirements from other phases. Personal, professional and environmental factors also affect the professional development requirements of TESOLs at any stage.

In summary, it appears that the traditional career phase model is inappropriate when applied to TESOLs, and perhaps for other similarly unstable careers. With the recent changes in people’s professional lives, requiring increasing mobility and adaptability in the changing job market, other career path models to guide counselling, professional development and other staff management programs will need to be explored.

___________________________________________________

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I gratefully acknowledge the invaluable assistance and patience of the following people:

My supervisor, Professor Fenton Sharpe, AM My co-supervisor, Dr Robert Conners My husband, Roy Patterson, our daughter, Alicia, and our son, Thomas My father, Professor Emeritus Geoffrey Waites

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TABLE OF CONTENTS VOLUME 1 1 CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY Objectives

2

Need for the study

6

Research questions

9

Significance of the study for research and practice

10

Acronyms used in the study

12

Discussion and definition of terms

15

Limitations of the study

16

Chapter summary

17

19 CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW Life-cycle research

19

Human life-cycles

19

General career cycles

22

Teacher career cycles

24

Motivation and job satisfaction research

41

Professional development research

48

Chapter summary

56

58 CHAPTER III: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY Methodology

61

Pre-interview procedure

71

Selection of subjects

71

Characteristics of the sample

73

The interview schedule

86

Interview methods

92

Analysis and presentation of data

98

iii

Chapter summary

129 131

CHAPTER IV PHASES AND ITINERARIES IN THE PROFESSIONAL LIFE-CYCLE OF TESOLS IN GENEVA AND SYDNEY Huberman’s study of secondary school teachers

132

Geneva TESOL study

133

Motivations for entering TESOL

133

Characteristics of major phases

140

Common itineraries across the whole career for respondents with more

159

than five years’ experience Overall model of itineraries for Geneva TESOLs

163

Comparison between the Geneva secondary school teachers and

165

Geneva TESOLs Sydney TESOL study

170

Motivations for entering TESOL

170


178

Common itineraries across the whole career for respondents with more

207

than five years’ experience Overall model of itineraries for Sydney TESOLs

212

Comparison between Huberman’s study and the TESOL studies

219

Motivations for entering the career

219


220

Common itineraries across the whole career for respondents with 5-29

228

years’ experience Overall summary of phases and itineraries Chapter summary

233 240

244 CHAPTER V: SATISFACTION AND DISSATISFACTION WITH TESOL Huberman’s study of secondary school teachers

245

TESOL studies

248

Geneva TESOL study

249

iv

Is TESOL a career?

249

Beginning teachers’ concerns

254

Stocktaking (moments of doubt)

263

Future aspirations

268

Re-select TESOL?

270

Sydney TESOL study

275

Is TESOL a career?

275


281

Stocktaking (moments of doubt)

290

Future aspirations

292

Re-select TESOL?

295

Comparison between Huberman’s study and the TESOL studies

300


300

Stocktaking

302

Re-select TESOL?

302

Comparison between TESOL studies

303

Future aspirations

303

Is TESOL a career?

303

Chapter summary

304

306 CHAPTER VI: PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT Introduction

306

Section 1: Perspective of TESOLs

307

Geneva TESOL study

308

Professional development rated as currently useful

308

Professional development related to phases

311

Professional development related to years of experience

314

Analysis of all interviews to identify areas of professional development

316

Sydney TESOL study

320

Definition of “professional development”

320


321

v


324


327

Analysis of all interviews to identify areas of professional development

329

Summary of professional development preferences in the TESOL studies

338


338


338


340

Analysis of interviews to identify areas of professional development

342

Section summary

343

Section 2: Perspectives of trainers and administrators

345

Introduction

345

Geneva TESOL study

347

Teachers’ professional development needs

348

Professional development wanted

357

Ideal professional development for Geneva TESOLs

362

Section summary

368

Sydney TESOL study

369

Teachers’ professional development needs

369


375

Ideal professional development for Sydney TESOLs

378

Comparison of Geneva and Sydney TESOL studies

382

Professional development needs

382


383

Ideal professional development

383

Chapter summary

384

vi

VOLUME II 391 CHAPTER VII: CONCLUSION Methodological issues and limitations of the study

391

Issues concerning the respondents

391

Interview schedule and conducting the interviews

392

Analysing the data

395

Professional life-cycles of TESOLs

396

Research question 1

398

Research question 2

402

Research question 3

418

Research question 4

422

Job satisfaction

424

Research question 5

424

Research question 6

426

Research question 7

428

Research questions 8 and 9

429

Research question 10

433

A comparison of findings on phases and job satisfaction

434

Professional development

436


436


440


441


442


442

Summary of major findings

443

Implications derived from the findings

445

Implications for career phase theory

445

Implications for further research

456

Implications for educational administrators

460

Conclusion

466

vii

469 REFERENCES

LIST OF TABLES

VOLUME 1 Table 3.1: Stage 1: Geneva TESOL study: phases, dates and activities

60

Table 3.2: Stage 2: Sydney TESOL study: dates and activities

60

Table 3.3: Instruments and methodology

66

Table 3.4: Characteristics of the samples and studies

74

Table 3.5: Nationality of TESOLs

77

Table 3.6: Categories of experience and numbers of teacher respondents in the

77

Geneva study Table 3.7: Distribution of interviewed Geneva teachers and trainers /

78

administrators in different institutions according to sex and status of work Table 3.8: Qualifications of Geneva respondents

80

Table 3.9: Distribution of Geneva trainers / administrators by institution

80

Table 3.10: Categories of experience and numbers of teacher respondents in

81

the Sydney study Table 3.11: Distribution of Sydney teachers and trainers / administrators in

82

different institutions according to sex and status of work Table 3.12: Number of respondents and sex in each institution

84

Table 3.13: Qualifications of Sydney respondents

86

Table 3.14: Commonality of questions in the two TESOL studies with the

89

study by Huberman (1993) Table 3.15: Relationship between the research questions and the interview questions

viii

91

Table 3.16: Category of responses by years of experience across the three

97

studies Table 3.17: Geneva TESOL respondents with less than five years’ experience

101

Table 3.18: Themes used for TESOL studies from Huberman’s study and

103

additional theme names Table 3.19: Geneva TESOLs with less than five years’ experience (sample)

106

Table 3.20: Sydney TESOLs with 11-19 years’ experience (sample)

107

Table 3.21: Geneva adult TESOL professional life-cycles (sample)

109

Table 3.22a: TESOL phases model

110

Table 3.22b: Preliminary model of career cycles for Geneva and Sydney

111

TESOLs combined Table 3.23: Nomenclature of common itineraries grouped in each study

116

Table 3.24: Codes relating to themes in the interview

118

Table 3.25: Geneva TESOLs: Passive motivations

123

Table 3.26: Sydney TESOL reasons for hesitating or doubts (sample)

124

Table 3.27: Professional development mentioned as useful by Sydney TESOL

125

respondents (sample only) Table 3.28: Professional development related to the phases of stabilisation,

126

doubt and experimentation: Sydney TESOLs (sample) Table 3.29: Type of professional development needed for beginner teachers

128

with less than five years’ experience: Sydney TESOLs Table 4.1: Active motivations (Geneva TESOLs)

135

Table 4.2: Material motivations (Geneva TESOLs)

138

Table 4.3: Passive motivations (Geneva TESOLs)

139

Table 4.4: Personal factors affecting Geneva TESOLs

154

Table 4.5: Summary of phase Geneva TESOL respondents were in at the time

155

of the study Table 4.6: Geneva adult TESOL professional life-cycles

157

Table 4.7: Overall summary of positive and negative phases –

166

ix

Geneva TESOLs compared to Huberman Table 4.8: Active motivations (Sydney TESOLs)

171

Table 4.9: Material motivations (Sydney TESOLs)

175

Table 4.10: Passive motivations (Sydney TESOLs)

177

Table 4.11: Personal factors affecting Sydney TESOLs

200

Table 4.12: Summary of phase Sydney TESOL respondents were in at the time

201

of the study Table 4.13: Sydney adult TESOL professional life-cycles: positive and negative

204

phases Table 4.14: Overall summary of phases - Sydney TESOLs compared to

216

Huberman Table 4.15: Common itineraries across the whole career: 5-29 years’

229

experience Table 4.16: Common current harmonious phases across the three studies: 5-29

231

years’ experience Table 4.17: Overall summary of phases - Sydney TESOLs, Geneva TESOLs

232

compared to Huberman Table 5.1: Is TESOL a career?: Geneva TESOLs

249

Table 5.2: Positive responses relating to TESOL being a career: Geneva TESOLs

250

Table 5.3: Negative responses relating to TESOL being a career: Geneva

252

TESOLs Table 5.4: Concerns of beginning teachers: Geneva TESOLs

256

Table 5.5: Pedagogical concerns of beginning teachers: Geneva TESOLs

257

Table 5.6: Affective concerns of beginning teachers: Geneva TESOLs

261

Table 5.7: Personal concerns of beginning teachers: Geneva TESOLs

261

Table 5.8: Positive comments of beginning teachers: Geneva TESOLs

262

Table 5.9: Have you ever thought of leaving? Geneva TESOLs

264

x

Table 5.10: Motives for leaving teaching: Geneva TESOLs

265

Table 5.11: Future plans: Geneva TESOLs

268

Table 5.12: Re-select TESOL or not? Geneva TESOLs

271

Table 5.13: Reasons for re-selecting or possibly re-selecting TESOL: Geneva

271

TESOLs Table 5.14: Reasons for not re-selecting TESOL: Geneva TESOLs

273

Table 5.15: Is TESOL a career?

275

Table 5.16: Positive responses relating to TESOL being a career: Sydney

276

TESOLs Table 5.17: Negative responses relating to TESOL being a career: Sydney

278

TESOLs Table 5.18: Negative memories: Sydney TESOLs

281

Table 5.19: Positive memories: Sydney TESOLs

282

Table 5.20: Concerns of beginning teachers: Sydney TESOLs

283

Table 5.21: Pedagogical concerns of beginning teachers: Sydney TESOLs

284

Table 5.22: Positive features for beginning teachers: Sydney TESOLs

287

Table 5.23: Concerns of beginning teachers: Sydney TESOLs

288

Table 5.24: Personal concerns of beginning teachers: Sydney TESOLs

289

Table 5.25: Have you ever thought of leaving? Sydney TESOLs

290

Table 5.26: Motives for leaving teaching: Sydney TESOLs

291

Table 5.27: Future plans: Sydney TESOLs

293

Table 5.28: Re-select TESOL or not? Sydney TESOLs

295

Table 5.29: Reasons for re-selecting TESOL: Sydney TESOLs

296

Table 5.30: Conditional reasons for re-selecting TESOL: Sydney TESOLs

299

Table 6.1: Professional development described as useful currently: Geneva

308

TESOLs Table 6.2: Professional development related to the phases of stabilisation,

312

doubt and experimentation: Geneva TESOLs Table 6.3: Professional development preferences for respondents

xi

315

with less than five years’ experience Table 6.4: Professional development preferences for respondents with more

316

than five years’ experience Table 6.5: Categories of professional development mentioned throughout the

317

interviews: Geneva TESOLs Table 6.6: Professional development described as useful currently: Sydney

321

TESOLs Table 6.7: Professional development related to the phases of stabilisation,

325

doubt and experimentation: Sydney TESOLs Table 6.8: Professional development preferences for respondents with less

328

than five years’ experience Table 6.9: Professional development preferences for respondents with more

329

than five years’ experience Table 6.10: Categories of professional development mentioned throughout all

330

interviews: Sydney TESOLs Table 6.11: Type of professional development needed for teachers with less

353

than five years’ experience: Geneva TESOL study Table 6.12: Type of professional development needed for teachers with more

355

than five years’ experience: Geneva TESOL study Table 6.13: Type of professional development wanted by Geneva TESOLs as

358

perceived by trainers / administrators Table 6.14: Geneva TESOL trainers / administrators’ ideal professional

363

development for teachers compared to teachers’ unsolicited responses Table 6.15: Type of professional development needed for teachers with less

370

than five years’ experience: Sydney TESOL study Table 6.16: Type of professional development needed for teachers with 5-10

372

years’ experience: Sydney TESOL study Table 6.17: Type of professional development needed for teachers with 11-29

374

years’ experience: Sydney TESOL study Table 6.18: Type of professional development wanted by Sydney TESOLs as perceived by trainers / administrators

xii

376

Table 6.19: Sydney TESOL trainers / administrators’ ideal professional

379

development for teachers Table 6.20: Factors perceived as important by TESOL teachers from both

384

studies Table 6.21: Four categories of professional development mentioned by TESOLs

386

VOLUME II Table 7.1: Modal sequences of the teacher career cycle: a schematic model

403

Table 7.2a: Preliminary model of career cycles for Geneva and Sydney TESOLs

406

combined Table 7.2b: Preliminary model of career cycles for Geneva and Sydney

408

combined Table 7.3: Roles of TESOL teachers and range of developmental programs

415

undertaken by TESOLs in Sydney

LIST OF FIGURES

VOLUME 1 Figure 2.1: The human life-cycle: a thematic model

22

Figure 2.2: Dynamics of the Teacher Career Cycle

30

Figure 2.3a: Modal sequences of the Teacher Career Cycle: A Schematic

39

Model Figure 2.3b: Huberman’s findings from 1982-1986 study in Geneva,

40

Switzerland Figure 3.1: Interviewing: the continuum model

64

Figure 3.2: Geneva respondents with less than five years’ experience (sample)

100

Figure 3.3: Phases model for Geneva TESOL respondents with less than five

108

years’ experience

xiii

Figure 3.4: Geneva TESOLs with 5-10 years’ experience: Achieved harmony

113

(sample) Figure 3.5: Stabilisation following training

114

Figure 3.6a: Harmonious career

115

Figure 3.6b: Relatively harmonious career

115

Figure 3.7: Pre-TESOL experience: sample of respondents’ quotes

121

Figure 3.8: Motivations for entering the career: sample of respondents’ quotes

122

Figure 3.9: Responses about hesitations for entering the career (sample)

124

Figure 3.10: Sample of responses on professional development useful for

125

Sydney TESOLs Figure 3.11: Professional development mentioned as needed for Sydney

127

TESOLs with less than five years’ experience (sample) Figure 4.1: Harmonious early itinerary

142

Figure 4.2: Relatively harmonious early itinerary

142

Figure 4.3: Problematic early itinerary

143

Figure 4.4: Partial itinerary leading to new challenge

146

Figure 4.5a: Positive itinerary leading to stabilisation

148

Figure 4.5b: Problematic itinerary leading to stabilisation

148

Figure 4.6: Itinerary leading to new challenge

149

Figure 4.7: Doubts leading to balance or not with private life following doubts

153

Figure 4.8: Harmonious itinerary

160

Figure 4.9: Achieved harmony - developing / growing

161

Figure 4.10: Achieved harmony - commitment

162

Figure 4.11: Problematic career

163

Figure 4.12: Overall model of itineraries for Geneva TESOLs

164

Figure 4.13a: Harmonious early itinerary

179

Figure 4.13b: Relatively harmonious early itinerary

180

Figure 4.14: Problematic early itinerary

181

Figure 4.15a: More confident in years 1-3

183

xiv

Figure 4.15b: More confident in years 2-5; year 10

183

Figure 4.15c: Training leading to increased confidence

183

Figure 4.16: Effects of inservice training

185

Figure 4.17a: Itinerary 1: Experimentation leading to stabilisation

189

Figure 4.17b: Itinerary 2: Easy, mixed or painful beginnings leading to

189

stabilisation Figure 4.17c: Itinerary 3: “Bewildered” or change leading to stabilisation

190

Figure 4.18a: Stabilisation following training

190

Figure 4.18b: Stabilisation followed by training

191

Figure 4.19: Itinerary following reassessment

193

Figure 4.20: Reassessment following stabilisation

194

Figure 4.21: Reassessment following changes

195

Figure 4.22: Itineraries following dissatisfaction

196

Figure 4.23a: Itinerary 1: Doubts leading back to teaching

197

Figure 4.23b: Itinerary 2: Dissatisfaction leading to more confident

197

Figure 4.23c: Itinerary 3: Doubts leading to training

198

Figure 4.24: Maturing / consolidation / growing / mastery

199

Figure 4.25: Itineraries leading to new challenges

199

Figure 4.26: Harmonious itinerary

208

Figure 4.27: Relatively harmonious career

210

Figure 4.28: Achieved harmony

210

Figure 4.29a: Positive itinerary including reassessment

211

Figure 4.29b: Problematic itinerary including reassessment

212

Figure 4.30: Unresolved problems

212

Figure 4.31: Summary of phases and itineraries for Sydney TESOLs

214

VOLUME II 397 Table 7.1: Preliminary model of career cycles of TESOLs Table 7.2: Preliminary model applied to Geneva and Sydney TESOLs: analysis

399

of motivational factors for entry Table 7.3: Contextual factors (personal and professional) affecting

xv

411

TESOLs’ professional life-cycles Table 7.4: Preliminary model of the career cycles of Sydney and Geneva

422

TESOLs with the factors affecting them Table 7.5: Positive and negative aspects relating to TESOL being a career

425

Table 7.6: Negative aspects of TESOL: moments of doubt

428

Table 7.7: TESOLs’ future aspirations

430

Table 7.8a: Reasons for re-selecting TESOL

432

Table 7.9: Preliminary model of TESOLs’ professional development and

437

associated environmental factors impacting on success Table 7.10: Preliminary TESOL model of career cycles and factors affecting

448

them Table 7.11: Traditional and “emerging” career path models

456

LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix A: Interview questions in the TESOL studies

491

Interview questions in the Huberman study

502

Appendix B: Coding the interviews

504

Appendix C: Entering TESOL: background of TESOLs

509

Appendix D: Hesitations in choosing TESOL as a career

521

Appendix E: Sydney TESOLs’ responses to the Geneva TESOL list of

527

motivations for entering TESOL Appendix F: Definition of the term “career” and attitudes towards TESOL as a

535

career Appendix G: Beginning teaching: background information

542

Appendix H: Responses to secondary school teachers’ list of concerns

545

Appendix I: Sydney TESOLs’ responses to the Geneva list of beginning teacher

554

concerns Appendix J: Sydney TESOLs’ responses to the Geneva list of doubts

560

Appendix K: Definition of the term “professional development” by Sydney

565

TESOLs

xvi

Appendix L: Sydney TESOLs’ responses to the Geneva TESOL list of

568

professional development rated as useful Appendix M: Background profile of trainers / administrators

574

Appendix N: Profile of institutions and professional development programs

597

Appendix O: Sydney trainers’ / administrators’ responses to the Geneva

622

trainers’ / administrators’ list of professional development rated as important for teachers

LIST OF TABLES IN APPENDICES Table C.1: Trajectories of careers and studies (Geneva TESOLs)

510

Table C.2: General qualifications before entry to TESOL

511

Table C.3: Specific TESOL qualifications at entry

511

Table C.4: Non-teaching experience prior to teaching

513

Table C.5: Entry to TESOL (Geneva TESOLs)

515

Table C.6: Career, studies and teaching experience prior to TESOL

517

Table C.7: Qualifications before entry to TESOL

518

Table C.8: Qualifications at entry of Sydney TESOL respondents

519

Table C.9: Non-teaching experience prior to teaching

519

Table D.1: Any hesitations in choosing TESOL? Geneva TESOLs

521

Table D.2: Reasons given for hesitating by Geneva TESOLs

522

Table D.3: Reasons for not having hesitations (Geneva TESOLs)

523

Table D.4: Any hesitations in choosing TESOL? Sydney TESOLs

525

Table D.5: Reasons given for hesitating by Sydney TESOLs

525

Table E.1: List of motivations for entering TESOL (Sydney TESOLs)

528

Table F.1: Definition of “career”: Geneva TESOLs

536

Table F.2: Definition of “career”: Sydney TESOLs

539

Table G.1: Geographical location of first year teaching

543

Table G.2: Year started TESOL

544

Table H.1: Were you (are you) confronted with these problems?

546

Table H.2: Were you (are you) confronted with these problems? (List derived

547

from Huberman): Geneva TESOLs

xvii

Table H.3: Were you (are you) confronted with these problems? (List derived

551

from Huberman): Sydney TESOLs Table I.1: Geneva TESOL additional beginners’ concerns / positive comments:

555

Sydney TESOLs Table J.1: Motives for leaving : Sydney TESOL comments

561

Table K.1: Definition of the term “professional development” by Sydney

565

TESOLs Table L.1: Sydney TESOLs’ responses to the Geneva TESOL list of professional

570

development rated as useful Table M.1: Summary of distribution of roles and worksites of Geneva trainers /

576

administrators Table M.2: Geneva TESOL trainers / administrators: background and roles

577

Table M.3: Pedagogical and training roles: Geneva TESOLs

584

Table M.4: Sydney TESOL trainers and administrators: background and roles

586

Table M.5: Training and administrative roles: Sydney TESOLs

592

Table N.1: Types of professional development programs mentioned in

602

chronological order by trainers / administrators: Geneva TESOLs Table N.2: Types of professional development programs trainers and

609

administrators were currently involved in conducting: Geneva TESOLs Table N.3: Professional development programs respondents were involved in:

616

Sydney TESOLs Table O.1: Type of professional development needed for less than five years’

624

experience (Sydney TESOL combined list) Table O.2: Type of professional development needed for 5-10 years’

626

experience (Sydney TESOL combined list) Table O.3: Type of professional development needed for 11-29 years’

627

experience (Sydney TESOL combined list) Table O.4: Professional development wanted as perceived by trainers / administrators (Sydney TESOL combined responses)

xviii

630

Table O.5: Sydney trainers’ / administrators’ ideal professional development for teachers (combined responses)

xix

633

1

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY In the last 20 years an increasing number of studies have focused on the development of school teachers throughout their careers (for example, Ball and Goodson, 1985; Holly and McLoughlin (Eds.), 1989; Huberman, 1989, 1992, 1993; Huberman with Grounauer and Marti, 1993; Kremer-Hayson, Vonk and Fessler (Eds.), 1993; Maclean, 1992 and Sikes, Measor and Woods, 1985). These studies on teachers have followed the broader life cycle studies of the last 60 years, including those using the psychodynamic approach (Allport, 1961; Erikson, 1959; Gould, 1978; Jung, 1930 and Darrow, Klein, Levinson and McKee, 1978), the sociological approach (Becker, 1952; Donovan, 1920; Hall, 1948; Hughes, 1971; Geer, 1966; Lortie, 1975; Mayo and Lombard, 1944; Park and Burgess, 1925; Roth, 1963 and Whyte, 1943); life-span development psychology (for example, Baltes, Featherman and Lerner (Eds.), 1990 and Shaie and Schooler, 1989) and adult development theories (for example, Loevinger, 1966; Neugarten, 1976 and Oja, 1980, 1989).

One of the most influential studies of teacher career cycles was the research conducted by Huberman, which included a study of secondary school teachers in Switzerland by Huberman, Grounauer and Marti (1982-86), and documented in 1989 and 1993. Huberman’s study investigated whether the 'classic' studies of the individual life cycle would be replicated when applied to secondary school teachers. More specifically, he wanted to determine whether there is a discernible developmental sequence in the teaching career, and, if so, to identify its main patterns and configurations. Finally, he set out to ascertain whether there are identifiable career sequences which lead to the perception by teachers of their 'professional satisfaction' or 'dissatisfaction'. This current study of two groups of Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOLs) explores and expands on aspects of the Huberman study in order to examine the relationships between the career cycles of TESOLs in two

2 locations and the recognised career cycles of school teachers, and the most appropriate professional development of TESOLs at different stages of their careers.

Objectives This study has three major objectives and some subsidiary objectives. The first and major objective of the study was to examine the professional life cycles of TESOLs in two locations, Geneva and Sydney, using Huberman’s conceptual framework. This would provide an indication of the robustness of the framework when applied to a very different cohort of teachers.

Several assumptions underlie this primary objective. Secondary school teachers tend to have more stable working conditions than adult TESOLs and tend to have joined the profession straight from university studies. These teachers, therefore, may have been in the profession for most of their adult careers, and may have reached negative phases of ‘defensive focusing’, ‘withdrawal’, ‘disenchantment’ or ‘positive focusing’, also called ‘cultivating my garden’, which is a term Huberman borrowed from Candide. (Huberman, 1993, p. 109, for example). The different backgrounds of the TESOL respondents might affect the phases they traverse and may lead to a different general career path from that of school teachers.

A subsidiary purpose was to note the effect of environmental, social and historical factors on TESOLs during the course of their career cycles (Fessler, 1985 and Huberman, 1989). Huberman maintained that teachers playing out their careers in times of historical or social turbulence are likely to have radically different careers from those traversing their careers in periods of calm, or periods of growth and expansion. In the study on school teachers, Huberman identified a number of periods of turbulence and restructuring of the system and identified the extent to which this affected their career cycles. The TESOL study also set out to identify the effect environmental factors may have on adult TESOLs and the phases they traverse as well as to discover whether the environmental factors were similar.

3 The assumption underlying this subsidiary purpose is that the TESOL industry has recently been affected by a series of historical events: the economic recession which affected all industries world-wide from 1988-1992; the Gulf War (1991), which affected the TESOL industry in Australia by temporarily stifling the numbers of students travelling from Asian countries to Australia, resulting in the collapse of some of the language colleges in Australia; the events of Tiananmen Square (1989) and the resulting collapse of many English language schools in Sydney, and the subsequent tightening of government control over the industry in Australia; the later boom in the profession (48,900 ELICOS students in 1996 provided $227 million in fee income) (Coorey, 1997), and the current downturn due to the financial instability in Asia (for example, Illing and Coorey, 1997). All these factors have affected in some way the career paths of TESOL teachers, their morale and their opportunities for advancement.

Two locations were selected which would reflect in some ways the two sides of the TESOL industry: Geneva and Sydney. Geneva is an example of a non-Anglophone major cosmopolitan city and was somewhat typical of non-Anglophone centres in that there were high levels of instability in the working conditions with a large number of casual or freelance teachers, and relatively limited possibilities for professional development. The TESOL field in Geneva was at the time of the study unregulated with unqualified nativeEnglish speaker teachers being employed, although in most professional centres the requirements for qualifications were becoming more stringent. There was a training centre offering Certificate (CELTA) and Diploma (DELTA) qualifications, but with no clear incentive to qualify beyond Certificate level. Diploma courses were rarely conducted. Teaching opportunities were mainly limited to company teaching, private school teaching or examination preparation with few opportunities for promotion or opportunity to move into different areas.

Sydney represents an Anglophone environment with more stable working conditions and multiple opportunities for professional development. Several centres offer Certificate and Diploma level courses as well as opportunities for study at university in graduate diploma, masters and doctorate level programs.

4 A greater range of teaching opportunities exists for native-English speaker teachers: teaching migrants, teaching ELICOS students and teaching English for entry to university. There are far more schools including private schools, university centres, centres for Technical and Further Education (TAFE), Adult Migrant English Programs (MEP) and business colleges. However, there is little in-company teaching. The field is tightly controlled by an accreditation body ensuring minimum standards of teaching, a teachers’ award establishing salary scales and working conditions and the nature of facilities required to be available in the schools.

The second major objective of the study was to explore levels of satisfaction and dissatisfaction with the TESOL career. Job satisfaction has been the focus of a number of TESOL studies. Pennington (1991, 1992), Pennington and Riley (1991) and Pennington and Ho (1995), found that TESOL teachers typically express moderate or high job satisfaction in connection with the intrinsic values of teaching work, while registering low job satisfaction in connection with pay and particularly with opportunities for advancement. Another study by Blaber and Tobash (1989) reported a high level of concern among ESL practitioners about pay, benefits and professional status. In Australia, a survey by McKnight (1992) reached similar conclusions, with positive intrinsic motivation towards TESOL work being coupled with its lack of professional recognition. These research findings suggest that the intrinsic rewards and positive social relations of the job may compensate to some degree for the inadequate career structure and financial rewards which many perceive as existing in the TESOL field.

This TESOL study had a number of subsidiary purposes in the exploration of levels of satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the career. Firstly, similar areas to those Huberman analysed were identified and explored, such as initial motivations of teachers for entering the career, their willingness to re-select the career, their concerns as beginning teachers and how they overcame these, and their moments of doubt or reasons for stocktaking. Secondly, a number of other questions were posed in the two TESOL studies in order to further test assumptions about the nature of the career. These included questions

5 regarding their future career aspirations and their acceptance of TESOL as a profession. This issue is also explored in Johnston (1997).

The third major objective of the study was to explore the professional development needs of TESOLs from the perspective of teachers and the trainers/administrators. This exploration was carried out in a different way from the method used by Huberman as both teachers and trainers/administrators were interviewed and the questions posed were different. However, the intention was again to test Huberman’s findings as well as to explore other areas of professional development. Huberman (1995) suggested that pedagogical mastery was increased by specific modes of solitary and communal work. He found that the most popular form of professional development was the ‘lone wolf’ scenario with teachers working alone and ‘tinkering’ in their classrooms interspersed with short readings and consultation with colleagues, not with specialists (Huberman, 1995, p. 207). Huberman also argued that conventional inservice training was largely unsuccessful, especially when conducted by specialists far removed from the classroom, or as “one-offs” (Huberman, 1995, p. 207). He recommended inservice training to support the ‘craft-like tinkering’ as a way of expanding and improving teachers’ repertoires of instruction, suggesting that more productive moves might be made in extending teachers’ networks and that a more collaborative approach would enable them to learn from each other's skills. “Tinkering” is a term which Huberman borrowed from the French anthropologist Levi-Strauss (1966), in which the idea of b ricolage (tinkering) is introduced. His metaphor for tinkering is an instructional handyperson, a do-it-yourself craftsperson who can put to use a host of materials lying around at various stages of instructional disrepair (Huberman, 1996, p. 132).

The subsidiary purpose to this objective was to identify how teachers defined professional development and described their professional development needs at their current stage of development. Trainers/administrators were also interviewed about their perceptions of teachers’ needs at various stages in the career cycle, and about teachers’ aspirations. In this way, perceptions of both teachers and trainers/administrators could be compared to identify aspects

6 which were agreed upon as well as possible misperceptions that may have arisen. The TESOL trainers / administrators were further questioned as to their ideal professional development aspirations if constraints were removed. The underlying assumption in this part of the study is that budgets for professional development are fairly restricted in most institutions, resulting often in ad-hoc professional development arrangements with little consultation or research into the needs of teachers. Teachers, especially those who are freelance, are often forced to self-fund their professional development.

Need for the study This study addresses three areas of need for research in the field of TESOL: professional life-cycles of TESOLs, job satisfaction and professional development. The body of research in the field of adult TESOL is meagre compared with that of school teaching. TESOL is gaining in professionalism and warrants research because of the danger of educational administrators making decisions based on anecdotal evidence or because they believe they know what teachers want or need. The present study is aimed at confirming or denying such impressions and should also help administrators to better understand their TESOLs.

Professional life cycles of TESOLs This study of career cycles of TESOLs will help to determine the robustness and ‘universality’ of Huberman’s framework. Huberman questioned whether the mid-life crisis is connected in some way to the psychological evolution of the teacher, or ‘does it depend more on the sickly institutional structure?’ (1993, p. 263). Huberman stated:

the best way to answer these questions would be to study the professional life cycle of teachers working in schools of a starkly different nature' (1993, p. 263).

7 The mid-life crisis may be different in the TESOL group due to late entry and other factors. It is also important to know how robust the professional life-cycle concept is with professions which vary greatly from one another.

Another important area of need for career cycle research generally arises from the changing employment situation globally. Since the late 1980s and early 1990s, the current global economic situation has been undergoing substantial change, resulting in downsizing of companies, resulting job losses and casualisation of many industries (Thurow, 1996, p. 26), including established ones such as banking. In the process of downsizing, a contingent workforce is developing composed of involuntary part-timers, temporary workers, limited-term contract workers and casual staff. They receive lower wages, fewer fringe benefits, fewer paid holidays, and must accept greater economic risks and uncertainty. Over the last decade three quarters of the increase in part-time work had been involuntary (Thurow, 1996, p. 29). As a result, the career phase models currently in use may be superseded and may relate to another era of secure employment. Therefore, there is a need to explore different types of professions to challenge the robustness of the current phases models. TESOL is an interesting field to research due to the insecure working conditions it has always experienced, the high levels of casualisation, part-time workers and contract staff and the mobility of members of the profession.

Freeman and Richards (1993) called for substantial research in TESOL to examine how teachers’ conception of their work unfolds throughout their career. Richards (1994), a British academic in teacher development in TESOL, again took up this theme of calling for a research agenda in TESOL to explore teacher thinking, citing Huberman’s study as a valuable framework to further understand teachers’ lives and careers. In his view, we need to know how teachers change over time and he cited Huberman’s study as “illuminating” (1994, p. 403). He affirmed that “the lives of teachers are deserving of study, not least because person and practice cannot be separated.” He suggested that “an understanding of teacher knowledge derived from such intimate research can then be combined with findings from

8 wider investigations into teacher careers to form the basis for developing an adequate epistemology of experience” (1994, p. 403).

Since this study was begun, Johnston (1997) explored the lives of EFL / ESL teachers in Poland. As no other published studies of career paths in the TESOL field appear to exist, it is of value to explore the profession as seen through the eyes of teachers in two centres which are fairly active in the field: Geneva and Sydney. Job satisfaction and dissatisfaction There can be little doubt that studying job satisfaction is necessary and important. The only published material exploring job satisfaction and dissatisfaction of TESOLs is concerned with working conditions for TESOL employees and job satisfaction in the USA, (for example, Blaber and Tobash, 1989); Canada (for example, Pennington, 1991; 1992; Pennington and Riley, 1991 and Pennington and Ho, 1995) and Australia (for example, McKnight, 1992). The main findings indicate that TESOLs find the extrinsic aspects of their career unrewarding, especially those relating to working conditions, status, pay and opportunities for advancement, while intrinsic aspects such as a love of the subject matter are found to be rewarding. Professional Development Professional Development or inservice training can be narrowly perceived to be the programmed courses and workshops which teachers attend in their place of work. However, professional development also encompasses other aspects of a teacher’s development throughout the career cycle. For example, Huberman (1993, 1995) described teachers’ “tinkering” or experimenting in their classrooms, combined with bursts of reading and consulting with colleagues. This is a process which he stated continues throughout the teacher’s career cycle.

Alternatively, the professional development of TESOL teachers can be considered to be well developed, with an abundance of inservice courses and currently a plethora of masters courses in TESOL in Australia and Britain.

9 The professional development undertaken at the institutional level and by individual teachers is described in professional newsletters such as the IATEFL (International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language) newsletter on professional development. In addition, teacher training books have recently appeared on topics such as “cooperative development” (Edge, 1992) and “the reflective approach” (Wallace, 1991). However, this literature focuses mainly on pre-service notions of training, or on institutional group professional development.

It is also of interest to explore what the teacher considers to be the most significant professional development undertaken, and how this matches the opportunities available within the profession and the perceptions of trainers / administrators. There are few available studies exploring teachers’ professional development needs and interests in the TESOL field.

Research questions The following research questions were posed to fulfil the objectives of this study. They address the three major objectives of the study, addressing issues of professional life cycles, job satisfaction and professional development.

Professional life cycles 1. What motivated TESOLs to enter the profession? 2. What are the phases TESOLs pass through in the course of their career? 3. What are the similarities and differences in the career cycles of Huberman’s school teachers to TESOLs? 4. How valid is Huberman’s career phase model currently in view of the changing employment situation globally from more tenured secure employment to less security, greater casualisation and a consequent greater need for mobility?

Job satisfaction 5. Do teachers consider TESOL to be a career? 6. What concerns do beginning TESOL teachers have?

10 7. Do teachers have moments of doubt about the profession? 8. What are teachers’ future career plans? 9. Would teachers re-select TESOL if they had their lives to relive? 10.How do the findings for questions 6, 7 and 9 compare to Huberman’s findings for secondary school teachers?

Professional Development 11.What are the professional development needs of TESOL teachers at their current phase of development? 12.Is there a link between professional development needs perceived as useful and the phase teachers are in? 13.What professional development do TESOL trainers/administrators perceive the TESOL teachers need at the various phases of their career, and what do they perceive TESOL teachers want? 14.What ideal aspirations do trainers/administrators have for professional development programs and how do they compare to TESOL teachers’ perceived needs? 15.How closely does the professional development mentioned as useful by TESOL teacher respondents match the perceptions of trainers / administrators?

Significance of the study for research and practice The importance of studying careers in teaching Studying teachers’ careers is important for employers. The results from such studies can influence recruitment, retention of teachers in the profession, and teachers’ attitudes and behaviour and then have implications for professional development. They reveal the impact of these factors on salary and other costs. As Hughes (1937) proposed, the study of career cycles helps yield insights into the occupation, the individual and society. The study of careers of various smaller occupational groups has until recently received relatively little attention, perhaps because of the complexity involved in carrying out such studies. The studies focusing on teachers’ careers have been especially limited in range and number, although interest in research into the teaching career has

11 greatly increased since the 1980s, culminating in the International Journal of Educational Research devoting a full issue to ‘Research on Teachers’ Professional Lives’ (Huberman, 1989c).

TESOLs have never enjoyed secure employment in the past and in Australia have gained some security in their employment only in recent years. With the current Asian crisis, however, working conditions and job security are taking another step backwards, emphasising the fairly tenuous nature of TESOL career paths. In this regard, TESOLs may be representative of many occupations in the modern world where certainty of tenure and progression is being replaced by greater uncertainty and casualisation. The current study may therefore also have important implications for career phase theory as a whole. If the TESOLs in the present study have a different career phase profile from those in Huberman’s and other teacher and professional career cycle studies, this may herald the need for more and different research into career paths of various groups of teachers and other professions in the changing career context.

As affirmed by Richards (1994), a better understanding of the professional life-cycles of adult TESOLs should provide insights for administrators and teachers themselves on the likely phases they may traverse. It may enable trainers and administrators to assist teachers more effectively in devising appropriate professional development programs throughout teachers’ careers, may assist administrators in personnel management systems, and may have policy implications. Job satisfaction and dissatisfaction Job satisfaction or dissatisfaction of TESOLs is an important topic for further exploration, particularly as the two sites chosen for the present study have differing working conditions and opportunities for advancement. Sydney has a regulated TESOL industry with an accreditation body, teachers’ award and other professional advantages. Therefore, because of their better working conditions, teachers in Sydney might be expected to show higher levels of extrinsic satisfaction than those in Geneva. The findings may suggest areas of

12 concern for administrators to focus on, and ways of enhancing job satisfaction for TESOLs. Professional development The findings on the perceptions of professional development needs of teachers and the perceptions of the trainers / administrators will assist trainers / administrators in assessing how closely they are meeting the needs of teachers and to devise programs that better suit their needs throughout the career.

Acronyms used in the study Adult TESOL (Teaching or Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages Adults) This acronym is used in the USA and Australia to broadly denote TEFLAs, ELICOS teachers, TEFLs and TESLs or to refer to the field. This is the definition used in this study. ADOS (Assistant Director of Studies) Some schools have an assistant to the Director of Studies, who is called a Head Teacher in other schools. CTEFLA (Certificate in the Teaching of English as a Foreign Language to Adults) This is the entry level qualification offered by the University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate and which is accepted worldwide. It consists of a one-month intensive or three to six-month part time course. It has been renamed CELTA (Certificate in English Language Teaching to Adults). Cert TESOL (Certificate in TESOL) Cert TESOL (Certificate in TESOL) from the University of New South Wales, Institute of Languages is also an entry level qualification to the TESOL field in Australia.

13 DOS (Director of Studies) All ELICOS schools in Australia are required to have a Director of Studies, who is responsible for the academic management of the school, and a Principal Administrator, who is responsible for the financial management of the school. DTEFLA (Diploma in the Teaching of English as a Foreign Language to Adults) This is the inservice qualification offered by the University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate and which is taken worldwide after a minimum two years in the profession. It consists of a two-month intensive or nine-month part time course with practical and written exams. It is to be renamed DELTA (Diploma in English Language Teaching to Adults). EFL (English as a Foreign Language) This term is used mainly in Europe, while ESOL is the most common term in Australia and the US. This term is used mainly to refer to those learning English in a nonEnglish-speaking country or those learning English in an English-speaking country but intending to return overseas on completion of their studies. ELICOS (English Language Intensive Courses for Overseas Students) teachers This is the term used to denote TESOLs in Australia. These teachers are also broadly grouped under the heading of TESOLs. ESL (English as a Second Language) This term is used mainly to refer to those learning English in an English-speaking country for the purpose of settling there. Thus migrants in Australia are learners of English as a Second Language. IATEFL (International Association for Teachers of English as a Foreign Language to Adults) This is an association based in the United Kingdom, but covering Europe, which holds an annual conference and publishes professional journals.

14 NEAS (National ELICOS Accreditation Scheme) This is the regulatory body which sets minimum standards for ELICOS schools to operate including teachers’ qualifications. Only schools which are accredited are legally able to accept overseas students. ELICOS teachers must have a degree in any subject area and a minimum of CTEFLA or equivalent plus 800 hours’ experience. Schools must have accreditation to operate and standards are strictly controlled. This system was introduced in 1989 (Davison, 1998). RSA (Royal Society of Arts) This used to be the body controlling the CTEFLA and DTEFLA, both of which are now under the control of the University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate. TEFL or TEFLA (Teaching or Teachers of English as a Foreign Language) (to Adults) These acronyms are used extensively in Europe to describe those learning English in a non-Anglophone environment. ELICOS is the equivalent in Australia to denote those students who come to study English for a defined period of time before returning to their country of origin. They are broadly defined as TESOLs in this study. TESL (Teaching English as a Second Language) This term is used to describe teachers of English to immigrants in the United Kingdom, USA or migrants in Australia. These are students learning to operate in an Anglophone environment and who are permanent residents of the host country. TESOL (Teachers or Teaching of English to Speakers of Other Languages) TESOLs may include those teaching ELICOS or migrant students in Australia.

15

Discussion and definition of terms Definitions of specific terms used in this study are given below. Some of the terms are defined in the course of the study. Stages or phases The stages, phases or normative / modal sequences of the career are construed in various studies (for example, Huberman, 1989; Lightfoot, 1985 and Prick, 1986) using various terms such as career entry, stab ilisation, experimentation and diversification, stocktaking, serenity, conservatism and disengagement. The initial phase tends to last from 1-3 years, but the others are recurrent themes with no time limits. In the current study, a phase is identified using the same term where possible, and new terms are identified and defined as they arise. Entry In the TESOL studies entry is the point at which the TESOL teacher begins his or her TESOL career. This may be immediately post initial training (usually CTEFLA), which is recorded at entry, or with no training. Stabilisation, experimentation and diversification Stab ilisation corresponds to a definite commitment to the profession and to an administrative act such as official appointment or granting of tenure for school teachers, and more commonly a short-term contract in TESOL. Stab ilisation also means freedom from direct supervision, greater instructional mastery and greater confidence (Huberman, 1989). The most common next stage outlined in the literature is experimentation or diversification (Cooper, 1982 and Feiman-Nemser, 1985). This phase was also identified in the current study. Challenges / new challenges These are themes which may be nominated when respondents receive a promotion, or when they adopt a new role or undertake new areas of specialisation.

16 Stocktaking / doubt Stocktaking at mid-career involves having doubts about the teaching profession and possibly considering changing professions (Adams, 1982; Hamon and Rotman, 1984; Huberman, 1989; MacDonald and Walker, 1974; Prick, 1986 and Sikes, 1985). This term was also used in the TESOL study. Training Training addressed respondents’ in-service training during the career. The TESOL profession has a number of formal inservice training programs available in Sydney and in the United Kingdom, such as the DTEFLA, masters and doctoral programs. Some of the Geneva participants had been to England to complete further training. The CTEFLA was also sometimes used as inservice training. Negative themes Negative themes used in the study include those associated with such themes as disillusioned / discouraged / stressful / frustration / stagnation. Transition This is a theme which describes a period of major change, such as when respondents change country or school or when they have a transitional period between jobs. External factors External factors is a category in the career phase models identifying events or influences outside of the profession impacting on the career cycle and often resulting in a temporary or permanent exit. The types of events may include travel, the birth of a child, personal or family events or circumstances and change of career or activity.

Limitations of the study The field of adult TESOL includes centres which hire as teachers unqualified students or itinerants to follow a prescriptive method or who give no initial training. These centres exist in non-Anglophone countries, and Geneva is no exception. Such centres have been excluded from this study in order to provide

17 a more comparable sample to Huberman’s qualified school teachers and the adult TESOLs in Sydney.

The study involves only teachers actively engaged in the profession at the time of interview. It does not include those who had left the profession at that time. However, some left the profession during the course of the interviewing.

In Geneva, the respondents in the study were limited to those teaching adult EFL. In Sydney, teachers had a more varied background and some respondents were currently engaged in teaching adult migrants, but had taught EFL in the past and were at an institution where both were taught. It was felt that including a more diverse range of teachers may give a clearer indication of the opportunities for movement and diversification.

As there were a total of 73 respondents in the TESOL study compared to 160 in Huberman’s study, and because random sampling processes were not used, any generalisations can be made only with very great caution. The research adopts a case study approach, but, where possible, attempts were made to group the responses in order to explore categories of answers. However, in what is essentially an exploratory study, no firm conclusions have been made about the TESOL profession as a whole.

Chapter summary This is an exploratory study of TESOL professional life-cycles, their job satisfaction and professional development needs in two different locations. This chapter, Chapter II reviewing the literature and Chapter III describing the research methodology, provide the conceptual basis for the framework of the study. Following this, Chapters IV-VI report the findings from the interviews. Chapter IV describes the motivations for entering the career and the major phases TESOLs undertake in their career paths and traces the itineraries they follow. Chapter V addresses the satisfaction levels of TESOLs at different points in the career. Chapter VI explores the professional development needs of TESOLs and the perceptions of trainers / administrators about professional development needs

18 Finally, Chapter VII discusses the findings and their implications for further research and for practitioners.

19

CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter summarises the relevant literature for the three major facets of the TESOL studies. The literature review for the major part of the study on professional life-cycles encompasses human life-cycles, general life-cycles and teacher career cycles. This is followed by a brief review of the literature on motivation, job satisfaction and professional development.

There is very little published literature about the lives and levels of job satisfaction of TESOL teachers, but a few articles have been published on the job-related attitudes of TESOL teachers in Canada, the United States and Australia, and TESOL training and professional development is the topic of a number of books and articles in professional journals.

Life-cycle research Human life-cycles Extensive research into human life-cycles has been carried out over the last 60 years with each academic discipline basing its interpretation on a different conceptual framework. The main approaches include the psychological research, the sociological literature, the life-span development psychology series and adult development theories.

The psychological research began with Jung (1930) and has included work by Allport (1961), Erikson’s eight normative ‘life-cycle crises’ (1959) and White’s Lives in Progress (1952). More recent popular studies, such as Transformations by Gould (1978) and Levinson, Darrow, Klein, Levinson and McKee’s Seasons of a Man’s Life (1978) have also taken this approach. The sociological research into occupations started with Park, Mead, and colleagues at the University of Chicago in the 1920s and 1930s. Park (1925) and his fellow researchers studied a variety of low status, often marginalised

20 occupations such as ‘hobo’ (Anderson, 1923) and prostitute (Donovan, 1920), and adopted a social-psychological and social-interaction approach to the occupations studied. This heralded the beginnings of occupational research using oral history methods, the research then widening to include more accepted occupations, such as school teacher (Donovan, 1938). Studies undertaken by Mayo and Lombard (1944), and by those involved in the ‘Hawthorn studies’, widened existing approaches to the study of work and occupations. These studies concentrated on the study of work organisation, industrial relations and human relations in industry, adopting a psycho-sociological approach.

Everett Hughes from the University of Chicago developed a coherent framework in the 1940s within which occupational groups could be analysed. Occupational sociology then became an accepted sub-field of sociology, and in 1974 an international journal was founded called Sociology of Work and Occupations.

Hughes (for example, 1937, 1949, 1952, 1958, 1971) is therefore the pivotal figure in occupational sociology with many of the major figures in the field being either students of his or clearly influenced by his ideas and theoretical approach, for example, Becker (1952); Geer (1966); Hall (1948); Lortie (1975); Roth (1963) and Whyte (1943). Hughes and those influenced by him extended the body of research on occupations to include many more professions.

Another approach to life-cycle research is that of life-span developmental psychology dating from 1970 on, with studies by Baltes et al. (1990) and Schaie and Schooler (1989) which utilised empirical data from several disciplines such as biology, history and sociology, and especially from the sub-disciplines of psychology.

Adult development theories are the basis of another approach reviewed by Oja (1980). They include the following categories:

21 i) the maturational approach to adult development, which is represented primarily in the psychoanalytical theories.

ii) life-age theorists (Gould, 1978 and Levinson et al., 1978) who described the relationship between the ages and the life concerns of adults, focusing on predictable life-events as regulators for growth. Seasons of a Man's Life by Levinson et al. (1978) has popularised the concern for ages and life periods. Levinson identified two relatively stable periods within the psychological life of a normal adult and a Mid-life Transition period: Early Adult Era (17-32 years) and Middle Adult Era (45-60 years).

iii) life-cycle theorists (Erikson, 1959; Havinghurst, 1972 and Neugarten, 1976) emphasised the experiences confronted by an adult at various stages of life. Life-cycle researchers focused on qualitative differences at various points of adult growth and development. Erikson (1959) suggested eight universal 'stages' of psychosocial growth. He suggested that each stage represented a major crisis faced during the normal course of life and that these crises must be successfully overcome in order to achieve feelings of 'satisfaction'.

iv) cognitive-developmental-stage theorists (Loevinger, 1966; Kohlberg, 1969 and Hunt, 1971) based their research on the assumption that development results from changes in the cognitive structure, focusing on particular cognitive and emotional aspects distinctive to different stages of development. The events that may prompt cognitive development will vary according to the feature of the developmental stage currently held by a person. Patterns have been found in the thinking, emotions and behaviours of adults, and these patterns have been called cognitive-developmental stages.

Such theorists emphasised that the negotiation of certain life tasks in various life periods may have a significant impact on the functioning of the adult. Life-cycle theories also had implications for personal development, for example, the need for assistance through events such as the unexpected death of a close relative (Neugarten, 1964) as well as the need for support to work

22 through issues of identity, intimacy, generativity and integrity (Erikson, 1959). Oja (1980, p. 124) suggested that awareness of the above may help to broaden the focus of staff development.

Other studies observed gender differences. Krupp (1981) and Levine (1989) identified major differences between men and women, and across the age cycle (for example in their 20s and 40s), which must be taken into account. Collectively, the above approaches have been progressively developed, with a re-emergence of an interest in biographical studies and longitudinal research in general. General career cycles Whilst the professional life-cycle can be conceptualised in many ways, Super (1957) provided perhaps the most common conceptualisation. He described a succession of 'maxicycles' traversed by individuals in the same profession and across professions. Then Huberman (1993) attempted to summarise the trends in the general literature, and offered the model set out in Figure 2.1: Years of

Career phases / themes

experience 1-3

Beginnings, feeling one’s way ↓

4-6

Stabilisation, consolidation of a pedagogical repertoire ↓←←←→→→↓

7-25

Diversification, activism →

Reassessment

↓ 26-33

34-40

←

↓

Serenity, affective distance

Conservatism

↓

↓ Disengagement (serene or bitter)

Figure 2.1: The human life-cycle: a thematic model (Huberman, 1993, p. 13)

23 Huberman maintained that individuals traverse an exploration phase followed by a stab ilisation or engagement phase. Exploration involves making a provisional choice, exploring the configuration of the profession, and trying out one or several roles. If successful, one moves to a stab ilisation or engagement phase. In this phase, an attempt is made to master core aspects of the job, to seek out an area of focus, to try for better working conditions, and, in many cases, to pursue responsibilities which are more prestigious, powerful and lucrative.

According to empirical studies, many career profiles follow this sequence, but not all (for example, Phillips, 1982). Super (1985, p. 407) noted that some people stabilise early, others later, others never, and still others stabilise and then destabilise later. Huberman (1989) stated that the evolution of a career should be viewed as a process, not a series of events. For some, this process may appear linear; for others, there are plateaux, regressions, dead ends and discontinuities. Some careers may not start out with an exploration phase. Therefore, according to Huberman, the identification of phases and sequences must be handled with care, as a descriptive rather than a normative construct.

The ‘classic’ literature put forward the themes of ‘uncertainty’ or reassessment that many people have been identified as going through in mid-career, and a feeling of serenity encountered by many later in their careers. Jung (1926) identified a ‘dangerous period’ near the ages of 37-45, when individuals first assess what they have accomplished professionally and personally. For Jung (1926) and Gould (1978), this is more an acknowledgment of perceived subconscious or subliminal impulses than of current achievement. In contrast, a more sociological analysis (for example, Burns, 1970 and Riley, 1968) construed such an assessment as an attempt to establish where one should be at this point in life. In the research on teaching, Sikes (1985) found such a pattern with several respondents expecting to be promoted to administrative positions or viewing themselves as a failure. For others (for example, Kimmel, 1975 and Levinson et al., 1978), this assessment period has more to do with a

24 decision to stay in one’s job for the rest of one’s life or to change before it is too late. Teacher career cycles Although life-cycle research has been progressing for decades, there was little interest in its application to teachers in the 1960s, and until 1970 little was known about the careers of teachers, apart from the study by Becker (1970) of Chicago schoolteachers and Peterson’s (1964) chapter on secondary-school teachers. Much of the work since 1970 is based on the work on adult development and life stages (Levinson et al.., 1978; Loevinger, 1976 and Sheehy, 1976). Until about 1985, virtually all the research on the career progression of teachers focused on entry into the profession based on work by Fuller (1969), or on the first few years of teaching. Even in Wittrock (Ed.)’s (1986) Handb ook of Research on Teaching there is no reference to research on professional life-cycles, and only a few references to careers (Floden and Huberman, 1989). More recently there have been numerous biographical studies, many in the oral history tradition. However, these studies seem to focus on primary and secondary school teachers.

In addition, a large number of biographical or longitudinal studies on the careers of teachers were carried out in the 1970s and 1980s in several countries: for example, in Australia (Ingvarson and Greenway ,1984), Canada (Butt and Raymond, 1985), France (Hamon and Rotman, 1984), the Netherlands (Prick 1986, 1989), Switzerland (Hirsch and Ganguillet, 1988 and Huberman, 1989), in Britain (a more detailed review follows) and the USA (a more detailed review follows). More recently there have been numerous biographical studies, many using oral history methods (for example, Bacharach, Conley and Shedd, 1987; Burke, Christensen, Fessler, McDonald and Price, 1987; and Huberman, 1989).

The studies on teacher career cycles focused on primary and secondary school teachers, leading to a greater understanding of the professional trajectory of teachers as well as the consequences of that trajectory, as discussed in Huberman (1989). However, little, if any, published research

25 appears to exist on teacher career cycles in the adult teaching field, let alone in TESOL. Gender Much mainstream research omits consideration of gender or its impact on the work of teachers reviewed by Acker, (1995-6). In the past 20 years feminist work has considered questions such as the barriers encountered by women teachers in seeking career advancement, as well as rejecting the “commonsense” ideas about the differences between the sexes such as women viewed as the natural carers of children. Abbot (1993, p. 197) comments that, while there are studies that compare the sexes and studies that explore differences among sub-groups of women, “varieties of women are (never) compared to varieties of men.”

Lortie (1973, pp. 486-488) stated that men and women experience different life contingencies and career realities and noted the need for studies to take into account sex differences in motivations to enter and stay in the field and their possible consequences for the occupation. Acker’s study of primary school teachers (1992, 1995) went further in questioning conventional ideas of career. She felt that most of the existing models of teachers’ careers did not do justice to the “fragmented, accidental quality” of careers described by the teachers she interviewed and observed over a period of several years. Respondents were reluctant to make long-term plans with any certainty although they had provisional plans. Older women often blamed themselves for “mistakes” that they thought had impeded their progress within the career structure. Their movements out of teaching had followed their family building, but their re-entry might have been the consequence of “a chance meeting in the village store.” Sometimes they had left and re-entered several times and had performed work outside teaching. The younger teachers took much less time “out”. Some worked part-time, and all made complicated arrangements for childcare. Although several younger teachers initially had no well-developed ambitions, several years later they had become deputy head teachers (Acker, 1987). She found only a few male teachers in the schools she studied, and found that, as a group, they could not be characterised as more careerminded than the

26 women, although some did follow a more traditional path. Acker (1995, p. 130) suggested that “career” needs redefining for both sexes.

Acker believes that the challenge to researchers is to keep gender considerations paramount while simultaneously deconstructing the concept of teacher and still managing to achieve some generalisability about teachers’ work. While gender issues are not the prime focus of this study, most of the teachers were women, and Acker’s observations and comments will be taken into account in Chapter VII to identify any parallels or differences.

The following is a discussion of recent research into teacher career cycles in the United Kingdom, the United States of America and Switzerland. British research into teacher career cycles Studies conducted in the United Kingdom include those by Ball and Goodson, 1985; Hilsum and Start, 1974; Lacey, 1978; Lyons, 1981; MacDonald and Walker, 1974; Marsland, 1975; Nias, 1989; and Sikes et al. 1985. Several significant studies into the lives and careers of teachers have emerged in recent years. In Teachers' Lives and Careers, Ball and Goodson (Eds.) (1985) emphasised the need to view the careers and work in relation to, and in the context of the lives of teachers as a whole. Contributors to this book included Measor (1985) and Sikes (1985) who used life history methods. Measor identified critical influences traversed by teachers in their lifetime. She described three main critical influences; 'extrinsic', relating to historical events, 'intrinsic', within the natural progression of a career; and 'personal', relating to family events. She proposed that critical incidents were most likely to occur during these periods. Sikes (1985) followed the life-cycle of the teacher from probationary year to retirement and explored ways in which secondary teachers perceive, experience and adapt to getting old. Sikes et al. (Eds.) (1985) Teacher Careers: Crises and Continuities, using Levinson et al.’s (1978) conceptualisation of life development, discussed the problems of the age / stage approach when considering those entering the teaching career later in life. Their study examined teachers in different age

27 groups. Their findings indicated that teachers do not all follow the same occupational career path, nor is the progression of their life career necessarily similar in other respects as each has his or her own idiosyncratic biography. Yet their accounts do suggest a broadly common developmental sequence of stages or phases. Each of these seem to be associated with an evaluation and perhaps a redefinition and/or reordering of interests, commitments and attitudes which are not necessarily consequent upon events and experiences arising directly out of the work situation.

Studies which included interviews with teachers about their professional development and changes throughout their careers have also been conducted (Burden, 1981; Newman, Burden and Applegate, 1980). US research into teacher career cycles Examples of studies conducted in the USA include Adams (1982); Burden (1981); Cooper (1982); Fessler (1985) and Lortie (1975) . In studies by Fessler (1985); Fessler (1995); Fessler and Christensen (1992) and Burke, Christensen, Fessler, and Price (1987), a social systems approach (Getzels, Guba, Lipham and Campbell, 1968 and Hoy and Miskel, 1982) was used to examine the influence of personal and organisational factors on teacher careers. The Teacher Career Model Cycle by Fessler (1985) is one of the most elaborated models, based on an extensive literature review by Christensen, Burke, Fessler and Hagstrom (1983), interviewing 160 teachers and conducting case studies.

Fessler’s model was influenced by the work of several others who have attempted to develop theoretical models for teacher career stages (Burden, 1982; Feiman-Nemser and Floden, 1981; Gregorc, 1973; Katz, 1972; Krupp 1981; Unruh and Turner, 1970 and Watts, 1980). Their work arose from research carried out by Fuller (1969) in her attempt to provide meaningful preservice programs for education students at the University of Texas-Austin.

The Fuller and Brown model (1975) included the following categories of concerns at various stages in the process of becoming a teacher:

28 • Preteaching concerns • Early concerns about survival • Teaching situations concerns • Concerns about pupils

Fuller noted that, through these stages, the focus of those who were becoming teachers seemed to progress from concerns for self to concerns for teaching tasks, to, finally, concerns for the impact they were having on students.

The concept of career stages was further developed in the 1970s with different researchers proposing various nomenclatures for similar notions: for example Unruh and Turner (1970) proposed the following periods: • Initial teaching period (approximately 1-5 years) • Period of building security (approximately 6-15 years) • Maturing period (approximately 15 years and more)

Gregorc (1973) reported on observations of teachers in Illinois, and described the following stages: • Becoming stage • Growing stage • Maturing stage • Fully functioning stage

Katz (1972) described four stages of pre-school teachers: • Survival (lasting 1-2 years) • Consolidation (lasting into the third year) • Renewal (lasting through the fourth year) • Maturity (fifth year and beyond) The views expressed by these authors provided a valuable insight into the notion of differentiated stages of development of teachers. However, these models were limited in that they neglected to view mature teachers as continuing to grow and change (Fessler, 1995). The models proposed by

29 these writers were based largely on their own observations and anecdotal reflections or on limited samples. Nonetheless they provided a useful base from which more thoroughly researched models have grown, particularly those by Fessler and Huberman described below.

Fessler’s model in Figure 2.2 conceptualised a series of stages in the career cycle, in which he demonstrated how personal and organisational factors interacted to influence teacher growth and development. A teacher career cycle was proposed to illustrate how development proceeds through the interplay and resolution of conflict between the growth needs of individual teachers and the demands of the organisation.

The personal environment includes a number of interactive facets with variables which govern the career cycle, such as family support structures, life crises and individual dispositions, and which may operate alone or in combination. The organisational environment of schools and school systems comprises a second major category of variables influencing the career cycle, for example, school regulations, the management style of administrators and supervisors and the union atmosphere in the system.

31 The components of the career cycle in the Fessler model include the following (Fessler, 1995, pp. 185-186): • Preservice, including pre-service training or retraining for a new role. • Induction, including the first few years of employment, or when changing to a new district. • Competency b uilding, with teachers keen to improve their teaching skills and to seek new materials, methods and strategies. • Enthusiastic and growing, when teachers have reached a high level of competence in their jobs but continue to progress as professionals. They have high levels of enthusiasm and job satisfaction. • Career frustration, characterised by waning job satisfaction, frustration, teacher “burnout” and disillusionment with teaching. While this tends to occur at the career midpoint, there is increasing evidence of it occurring relatively early in some careers. • Career stab ility, in which teachers have reached a plateau in their careers and are doing what is expected of them but little more. They are not committed to growth and are in the process of disengaging from the commitment to teaching. • Career wind-down, when the teacher is preparing to leave the profession. This could be a pleasant reflective experience or a bitter one, and may last weeks, months or years. • Career exit, representing the period of time after the teacher leaves the job, and could include a period of unemployment or a temporary exit for child rearing.

Fessler insisted that this model should not be viewed as rigid, but as a working, flexible one:

a dynamic ebb and flow is postulated, with teachers moving in and out of phases in response to environmental influences from both the personal and organisational dimensions (1995, p. 187).

32 The Fessler model pays more attention to institutional parameters than the Huberman model, while both take account of external factors impinging on teachers’ careers. Swiss research into teacher career cycles Huberman (1989, 1993) identified a series of sequential stages in career cycles, following 'life-span development psychology' and studies of adult development and adult socialization. The study explored whether the 'classic' studies of the individual life-cycle would be replicated when applied to secondary school teachers. More specifically, the aim was to determine whether there is a discernible developmental sequence in the teaching career, and, if so, to identify its main patterns and configurations. Finally, the aim was to ascertain whether there are identifiable career sequences which lead to teachers' perceived 'professional satisfaction' or 'dissatisfaction'. The Huberman study was the one on which the current TESOL studies were largely based. Huberman’s model and findings are therefore discussed in detail in the following sections.

Huberman (1995, p. 194) argued that much of the classic life-cycle work construes a normative path of cycles or sequences, along which most or many individuals pass. He believed that the appeal of such a structured sequence of events is that if large numbers traverse similar phases, administrators can determine what constitutes a more or less ‘successful’ or ‘satisfactory’ career, and support structures can be put in place to assist those with unhappy careers. However, Huberman criticised this approach stating that it underestimates the effect of social and historical factors (compare Neugarten and Datan, 1973), and arguing that teachers active in classrooms one hundred years ago faced radically different circumstances from those in the 1990s (compare Warren, 1993). Another criticism Huberman levelled at stage theory was its tendency to view individuals passively, ‘somewhat like marionettes whose developmental strings are being pulled at critical ages, or in response to a social ‘time clock’ or as a function of an intrapsychic ‘crisis’ that characterises particular ages and circumstances’ (1995, p. 195). In fact, Huberman argued, individuals are capable of planning and observing and can

33 thereby influence or even determine the nature or succession of stages in their careers. In addition, he believed that a large part of development is neither externally programmed nor personally engineered but is rather discontinuous or even random.

Fessler and Huberman independently developed models which are similar in their approach. They argued that the career cycle is not always a linear process. Fessler believed that teachers move in and out of stages in response to ‘environmental’ influences (Fessler, 1995, p. 187). Both models include the impact of environmental factors on career paths but the Fessler model gives this aspect more emphasis because its roots are in social systems theory. While some differences in emphasis and structure are evident, there are sufficient similarities in these two models to provide a comprehensive picture of current thinking regarding the teacher career cycle process.

Fessler states that his findings have implications for supervision and staff development, including the need to identify personalised support systems for teachers at various stages of their career, support systems to assist teachers in dealing with personal problems, for example family problems, and new and creative ways of supporting teachers at various stages in their careers. Examples include enlightened leave policies, job sharing and diversification in job assignments. He also stated that school systems need to take account of teacher career stages and the organisational environment (Fessler, 1995, p. 188). Stages and phases in the teacher’s career cycle One of the most comprehensive publications in recent years in this area was the eight chapters reviewing research: Research on Teachers’ Professional Lives with Huberman (1989a) as guest editor in the International Journal of Educational Research, Vol 13. Huberman’s chapter: ‘On teachers’ careers: once over lightly with a broad brush’ (1989b), is devoted to a detailed examination of current research on teachers’ professional lives. In this, Huberman gave an historical perspective to life-cycle research, and presented general trends in the literature, particularly in regard to the phases individuals

34 traverse in their career cycles. He reviewed the literature relating to career cycles of teachers to ascertain how the stages and phases relate to the classic studies of adult development and socialization. His research on teacher career cycles has been further documented in The Lives of Teachers (1993) and in Professional Development in Education by Guskey and Huberman (Eds.) (1995), where the issue of Professional Development is further explored.

The following is a discussion of the different stages or phases found in the career cycle as presented by Huberman in Research on Teachers’ Professional Lives (1989a). Career entry (1-3 years’ experience) Many of the studies dealt with career entry, or the first two to three years of teaching. Fewer studies have dealt with the career as a sequence of phases or stages. Those that did (for example, Adams, 1982; Field, 1979; Fuller, 1969; Huberman, 1989; Katz, 1972 and Watts, 1980) typically described the first phase as Exploration, which is one of Survival and Discovery as can be seen in Huberman and Fessler’s models and the reality shock of the first year of teaching (Veenman, 1984). In the sociological literature, the initial career typically begins with an exploration phase to do with making a provisional choice and exploring the contours of the profession. If this experience is successful, then the individual moves to the next phase of stab ilisation. S tabilisation / engagement (3-5 years’ experience) The first phase typically leads into a sense of commitment or stab ilisation in the classic life-cycle literature. Interestingly, this period emerged in a large number of very different studies set in different places at different times using different instruments. There is a theme of ‘independence’ and ‘emancipation’ or ‘liberation’ from the role of student teacher and a feeling more of security and of belonging to a professional guild, as well as of personal commitment. This often takes place at the time of gaining tenure. In the psychoanalytical literature (for example, Erikson, 1950 and White, 1952), choosing a professional identity constitutes a decisive stage in ego development and

35 reflects a stronger affirmation of the self. In more recent studies (for example, Levinson et al., 1978), professional commitment is a key event, a moment of transition between two distinct periods of life.

Some of the earlier studies referred to a sense of ‘comfort’ or assurance (for example, Burden, 1981 and Fuller, 1969) and a lesser concern with self and greater concern with instructional goals. More recent literature referred to teachers consolidating, then refining, a basic instructional repertoire (for example, Lightfoot, 1985 and Sikes, 1985). Some autobiographical accounts (for example, Ball and Goodson, 1985 and Sikes et al., 1985) and the psychoanalytical literature suggests that this decision is often difficult for some teachers who may aspire to other occupations.

In Huberman’s study (1989c), one third of teachers, when asked to carve up their careers, produced a second, mostly positive, phase with a theme identical with or related to the stab ilisation motif and with at least two of the three dimensions mentioned earlier: commitment to the choice of teaching and a career, and a more assertive professional autonomy and instructional mastery. Stabilisation also means the informal induction into a professional guild. Diversification and change While the career literature and research on stages in teaching can make strong claims for an 'exploration' and 'stabilisation' phase among a sizeable proportion of samples studied, the evidence is more uncertain beyond that point. Apparently, individual trajectories later in the career cycle are very diverse. For example, Cooper (1982) and Feiman-Nemser (1985) described increasing effectiveness in the classroom, while Sikes’ (1985) findings indicated that teachers become ‘activists’, trying to lobby for improvement in resources, joining key commissions etc. Some believe the 'activism' is due to a need for variation, a quest for stimulation, new ideas, challenges and engagements.

In Huberman’s study (1989c), 35-40% of teachers were in a subset identifying this phase, but this was far more evident in the earlier phases of older

36 teachers than for those with less than ten years’ experience. Huberman attributed this to the influence of social or political trends. In some cases, there was a move to promotion, not change in the classroom. Fear of stagnation was also present (Cooper, 1982; Huberman, 1989b, 1989c and Watts, 1980). S tocktaking and interrogations in mid-career (12-20 years’ experience; 32-45 years old) Several studies mentioned a phase which informants described as problematic. There were some indications that males were more affected than females, and full-timers more than part-timers, and in several studies teachers reported similar reflections and behaviours associated with 'mid-life crisis', especially the experience of reviewing one's life and career and contemplating other careers (Adams, 1982; Hamon and Rotman, 1984; Huberman, 1989; MacDonald and Walker, 1974; Prick, 1986 and Sikes, 1985). There were indications that many who lived such a time are more likely to relive it later too (Huberman, 1989a). Many moments of stocktaking are attributed to external factors. In some cases, this follows a diversification phase that was disappointing or exhausting. In others, teachers move directly from stab ilisation to interrogations about their future. Symptoms include boredom with routine to doubts about having chosen a teaching career.

Many moments of reported reassessment or 'crisis' were attributed to changes within the school system, poor institutional conditions, family events, intractable classes and heavy investments in structural change with few results (Huberman, 1989c). While mid-career may well be a period of increased vulnerability, and of increased reflectiveness, there is no strong evidence in empirical studies of teaching that it necessarily brings on the perception of a 'crisis'. S erenity and affective distance (20-30 years’ experience; 44-55 years old) This stage, though not reported in all studies, describes the teacher settling into a more relaxed and self-accepting activity in class, following periods of high

37 energy and activism. Serenity is a phase which teachers with 20-30 years’ experience (aged 45-55) tend to undergo (Lightfoot, 1985 and Prick, 1986).

In more recent work, teachers with 20-30 years’ experience reported similar characteristics (for example, Huberman, 1989c; Lightfoot, 1985; McDonald and Walker, 1974; Prick, 1986 and Rempel and Bentley, 1970). The level of career ambition decreases, as does the level of investment, but the perception of confidence, effectiveness and serenity appears to compensate for this. Conservatism (50-60 years old) Older teachers (aged 50-60) complained about the characteristics of pupils attending the school, the negative public image of teachers, the lack of commitment of younger colleagues and / or the opportunistic nature of administrators (Peterson, 1964 and Prick, 1986). Huberman (1989c) reported a ‘more prudent’ phase (almost half the sample) among older teachers, with most being far more sceptical towards structural reform. There was only one subset in Huberman demonstrating Peterson’s and Prick’s characteristics. The highly conservative subset of teachers in Huberman’s study bypass the serenity phase, moving directly from the self-questioning phase midcareer to the final phase of b itter disengagement. Disengagement / internalisation and withdrawal Disengagement and withdrawal towards the end of the profession tends to involve mostly positive tones: a gradual turning towards more reflective pursuits (Becker, 1970 and Nias, 1985). However, a distinct phase of disengagement for the teaching career has not been clearly demonstrated. Intuitively, there is no reason to believe teachers behave differently from other professionals at the end of their careers. In the Huberman study, however, virtually the whole subset of older teachers (more than 30 years experience) described itself in terms consonant with the disengagement hypothesis. For some it was serene, and for others it was bitter. However, seniority had brought with it benefits, and their goal was to preserve these privileges.

38 Summary of major phases in Huberman’s teaching career cycle model As can be seen in the model in Figure 2.3, Huberman (1989b) identified the following phases in the career cycle: Career Entry (1-3 years’ teaching), including themes of survival and discovery. Exploration phase and reality shock (Veenman, 1984). Stab ilisation (4-6 years’ teaching). Pedagogically, this phase is associated with 'a growing sense of mastery ... and a more assertive professional autonomy' (Huberman, 1989b, p. 351) Diversification and change, which is a period of experimentation, of reforming the classroom organisation and teaching methods. This includes a quest for stimulation, new ideas and challenges. Stocktaking and interrogations at mid-career (7-18 years’ teaching), which is a period of self-questioning, review and career contemplation. There is increased vulnerability at this time. Serenity and Affective Distance, which is a period when teachers become detached from pupils, career ambitions and their level of investment decreases. Their teaching objectives become more modest. Conservatism (19-30 years teaching), which is a period of increased rigidity and resistance to change. Disengagement, involving a gradual serene or bitter withdrawal, and a rechannelling of energies outside school or towards classroom work of a more modest nature.

Figure 2.3a illustrates Huberman’s schematic model for teacher career cycles including the phases and stages discussed above.

39

Years of

Themes / Phases

teaching 1-3

Career entry; Survival and discovery ↓

4-6

Stabilisation ←↓→

7-18

Experimentation / →

Stocktaking / interrogations ↓

diversification ↓ 19-30

←←

Serenity→

Conservatism

↓

↓

31-40

Disengagement Serene

Bitter

Figure 2.3a: Modal sequences of the Teacher Career Cycle: A S chematic Model (in Guskey and Huberman, 1995, p. 204)

In the model in Figure 2.3a, there is a single stream at the point of career entry running to the stabilisation phase. Then there are multiple streams throughout the career cycle, converging again onto a single path at the end, which may be either serene or bitter depending on the previous trajectory.

The most harmonious sequence runs along the left side of the model: Experimentation/diversification → serenity → (serene) disengagement and the most problematic sequence runs along the right side: Stocktaking/interrogations → conservatism →(b itter) disengagement Teachers can also bypass a certain phase or revert to a phase experienced earlier in the career.

Figure 2.3b annotates the findings of his study in Switzerland (1989c, 1993) for easier comparison with his model summarising the findings from other major

40 studies in his literature review (Huberman, 1989b, 1993; Figure 2.3a). Huberman did not produce a separate model for his findings, however. In this study, Huberman corroborated many of the major phases and themes identified in the literature review. He found several subpatterns, but in general terms he found that teachers go from Survival and Discovery (the first 3 years), to Stabilisation (years 4-6), to Experimentation and Diversity (years 7-18), to Focusing Down (19 + years). He found three subpatterns in the later years from year 19 on, which he labelled 'positive focusing', 'defensive focusing', and 'disenchantment'. School teachers: Huberman et al (1993, pp. 244-247) Survival and discovery ↓ Stabilisation ↓ Experimentation & diversity / renewal and reform ↓ Self-doubt following stabilisation (fear of routine or disappointment) / Reassessment following disillusionment with attempts at reform (fleeting moments and not for majority) ↓ Internalisation or serenity following period of self-doubt (not time-bound) Less activism and less commitment in pursuit of greater serenity Greater caution towards reform / energetic / open / committed and optimistic (30-40 years’ experience) Focusing down • Positive focusing • Negative focusing Disenchantment Figure 2.3b: Huberman’s findings from 1982-1986 study in Geneva, S witzerland (ref. Huberman, 1993, pp. 244-247)

41 He addressed the issue of career satisfaction statistically and was able to predict 89% of the cases of ‘disenchanted’ or ‘dissatisfied’ older teachers and 97% of the cases of ‘satisfied’ teachers. But the study did not predict them before they were 12-15 years into the career. However, there were indications that teachers who steered clear of reforms but who invested consistently in ‘productive tinkering’ in the classroom were more likely to be ‘satisfied’ later on in the career (Guskey and Huberman, 1995, pp. 205-206).

Consequently, the first two phases are as in the classic literature, and the latter phases differ. He found no consistent evidence of the middle three phases, although 40% of the sample had self-doubts following a period of stabilisation, and reassessment can occur through unsuccessful attempts at diversification and reform.

Huberman also argued that social and historical events are influential factors distinguishing cohorts of teachers, regardless of age or number of years’ experience in the profession. His findings clearly demonstrate this, with different cohorts of teachers living through significant periods of structural reform in the educational system in the 1960s.

Motivation and job satisfaction research There has been increasing understanding of the motivation of people at work during the course of this century, with one of the most influential theories of motivation being the two-factor theory of motivation proposed by Herzberg, Mausner and Snyderman, (1959). Maslow’s more general hierarchy of needs theory was developed some 12 years earlier, and Herzberg adapted it and applied it to an industrial setting. Herzberg’s theory posited that motivation is composed of two separate factors:

i) “motivators”, or satisfiers intrinsic to the job, which can lead to job satisfaction, include: • Achievement • Advancement • The work itself

42 • Possibility for growth • Responsibility • Recognition

ii) hygiene factors or “dissatisfiers”, found in the work environment but extrinsic to the job itself, which can lead to job dissatisfaction, include: • Interpersonal relations with subordinates, peers and superiors • Physical working conditions • Type of supervision • Salary • Benefits • Job security • Company policies and administrative practices • Personal life • Status

According to Herzberg, if “hygiene” needs are not met, the individual is not happy. Provision for “hygiene” needs, however, does not guarantee increased motivation. The satisfiers have motivational potential but depend on reasonable “hygiene” needs before they become operative (Herzberg, 1959, pp. 113-119). Therefore, by eliminating sources of dissatisfaction one may reduce the dissatisfaction of a worker, but this does not necessarily mean that such reduction either motivates the worker or leads to positive job satisfaction.

Sergovianni (1967) replicated Herzberg’s work among teachers, reporting that the twofactor theory appeared to be supported. His findings were that achievement, recognition and responsibility were factors which contributed predominantly to teacher job satisfaction, while interpersonal relations (with students and peers), school policy and administration, unfairness, status and personal life were factors which contributed predominantly to teacher dissatisfaction. Further, the satisfaction factors for teachers tended to focus on the work itself and the dissatisfaction factors on the conditions of work.

43 However, the early literature does not acknowledge the importance or existence of context specific sources of satisfaction or dissatisfaction, including factors such as changes to education (Dinham, 1995). Change in the education system was also found to have far-reaching consequences for respondents in Huberman’s study (1993). Other authors have elaborated on other factors such as school-based factors (Dinham, 1998) including leadership, climate and decision-making, school reputation and school infrastructure, which Dinham grouped together to form a third domain of factors. Others have suggested the factors affecting job satisfaction may be more productively labelled in other ways. For example, McCormick and Solman (1992) suggest “intrinsic to the person” and “extrinsic to the person” rather than “intrinsic to the job” and “extrinsic to the job”.

While some criticise Herzberg’s theory (for example, Salancik and Pfeffer,1977; Campbell and Pritchard, 1976, p. 381) and recommend abandoning it for other approaches such as expectancy theory, which was popularised by Vroom (1964), others have attempted to build on it to develop a further domain (for example, Dinham, 1998). However, the two-factor theory remains a powerful explanation of motivation in the workplace. The model used in the current study will be Herzberg’s two-factor model with the school-based factors which Dinham separated out into a third factor, being recognised as highly important, but included in Herzberg’s extrinsic “hygiene” factors.

Herzberg’s findings still have important implications for educational administration. In spite of Herzberg’s insights, much of present management practice is still directed at controlling the hygiene conditions, which have, at best, limited motivating power for teachers.

Herzberg suggested three main ideas for those who would apply his theory:

1. Enrich the job, involving redesigning the work to make it more interesting, challenging and rewarding. 2. Increase the autonomy on the job, to give workers more participation in decisionmaking on how the job should be done.

44 3. Expand personnel administration beyond its traditional emphasis on maintenance factors in order to create or redesign jobs that motivate the incumbents.

Herzberg’s motivation-maintenance theory has been widely accepted and applied to the management of business and industrial organisations. However, results from other studies using the same taxonomy have found that intrinsic factors were linked to dissatisfaction as well as satisfaction (Dunnette, Campbell and Hakel, 1967; Ewen, Hulin, Cain Smith and Locke, 1966 and Graen, 1966). Other research has indicated that both extrinsic and intrinsic factors affect job satisfaction, although intrinsic factors are more significant (Farrugia, 1986; Kyriacou and Sutcliffe, 1977 and Lortie, 1975). Herzberg’s dichotomy has been reinforced in most studies of the motivation and job satisfaction of TESOLs. Job satisfaction of TESOLs Few articles have been published relating to TESOL teachers’ job satisfaction levels. Pennington (1991) found ESL teachers typically express moderate or high job satisfaction in categories to do with the nature of teaching work and its intrinsic values, while registering low job satisfaction in categories to do with pay and particularly with opportunities for advancement. Thus, ESL teachers are generally satisfied with the intrinsic rewards of teaching and not with its extrinsic rewards.

Blaber and Tobash (1989) reported a high level of concern among ESL practitioners about pay, benefits and professional status. These concerns were confirmed by the results of two small-scale studies (Pennington and Riley, 1991) that surveyed ESL practitioners about their job satisfaction. The results of the first survey show a moderate degree of overall job satisfaction on the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire but the respondents showed least satisfaction in the areas of opportunity for advancement and pay. The job aspects rated most highly were Moral Values (being able to do things which do not go against one’s conscience), and Social Service (the opportunity to

45 perform a social service in one’s work). In general these were intrinsic rewards. The second of these studies employed the Job Satisfaction Descriptive Index and showed similar results, with a high overall degree of job satisfaction. The least satisfaction was again with opportunities for advancement and with salaries, and higher satisfaction was associated with interaction with co-workers, the nature of work and with supervision.

In Australia, a survey by McKnight (1992) of teachers graduating from the Victoria College, Melbourne, Graduate Diploma course in TESOL reached conclusions similar to those from the Pennington and Riley surveys. The positive intrinsic motivation towards ESL work coupled with its lack of professional recognition is summed up well in the comment of one teacher in McKnight (1992, p. 27):

Other staff members have a poor attitude to ESL teachers. The lack of acknowledgment does not detract from the work itself being very fulfilling.

McKnight (1992, p. 24) also noted that

a high proportion of respondents indicate their wish to change sectors (largely into working with adults), change their field to ESL/EFL, or to seek the more flexible work arrangements offered in the TESOL field.

McKnight (1992, p. 30) also made the less positive observations about ESL work in Australia:

Careers in TESOL appear to be marked by horizontal rather than vertical mobility, and for those teachers who are interested in promotion, the only option in many cases is to move out of the specialist field. Many teachers who remain in the TESOL field, particularly in (public) schools, have to tolerate a powerless, relatively solitary position, and the support of colleagues, administrators and bureaucrats may be lacking. Many teachers and administrators still appear to see TESOL as a ‘soft option’

46 and have no understanding of the roles and responsibilities of ESL teachers. For some teachers in the adult TESOL sector, positions are short-term and insecure, and their position is in many ways worse than that of school teachers, who at least have the option to return to subject or grade teaching when the attractions of ESL begin to pall.

Pennington and Ho (1995) reported their findings on a survey carried out on 95 TESOL practitioners to identify levels of ‘burnout’ using the Maslach Burnout Inventory Manual. As compared to the overall figures for the other 11,067 employees surveyed by Maslach and Jackson (1986), the ESL group was slightly lower on the Emotional Exhaustion subscale, considerably lower on the Depersonalisation subscale and considerably higher on the Personal Accomplishment subscale. The ESL group, therefore, seemed to suffer less from the stress-related effects associated with burnout than did the general population of human services workers. TESOL educators experience a greater sense of Personal Accomplishment and less Depersonalisation from their work than others in the human services professions.

The results obtained confirmed a moderate-to-high degree of satisfaction with intrinsic aspects of the work such as relationships with others and feelings of worth and accomplishment that come with fulfilment of job responsibilities. The results of the surveys outlined above taken together suggest that, for many ESL educators, the intrinsic rewards and positive social relations of the job may soften the potentially stressful aspects of ESL work and compensate to some degree for the inadequate career structure and financial rewards which many perceive as existing in the field.

Pennington and Ho (1995) admitted that these findings may vary depending on the particular school and educational system within the country from which the respondents are drawn and whether they work with adults or children. In the McKnight study (1992, p. 26) there was evidence of high stress among teachers working in primary and secondary schools, including ESL teachers:

47 The figures indicate the obvious preference of teachers who work in the adult sector at the commencement of their study to remain in that sector on completion of the (TESOL) course, with 84% of employment subsequent to the course being spent in the adult sector and only 8% in primary or secondary teaching. These figures reinforce the impression that the adult sector is extremely attractive to primary and secondary teachers and ... it is tempting to wonder whether the stresses of primary and secondary teaching have some bearing on this.

Richards (1994) recommended indepth studies of teachers’ lives and careers in order to understand teacher thinking better.

In 1997, Johnston explored the life histories of 17 EFL teachers in Poland in which he echoed the findings of McKnight (1992) confirming empirically that EFL / ESL can be an “unstable, marginalised, impermanent occupation” (Johnston, 1997, p. 707). He also suggested that assumptions about the status of EFL / ESL as a profession and about the possibility of careers in this field are highly questionable. He concluded that EFL teachers live in complex contexts in which personal, educational, political and socioeconomic discourses all influence the way the life is told (Johnston, 1997, p. 708).

Johnston (1997) referred to an earlier study on TESOL teachers’ careers by the Centre for British Teachers (CfBT, 1989) in which the career aspirations of teachers were expressed in vague terms implying a heavy attrition rate, as the CfBT found that by the age of 45, a very small proportion were left in full-time EFL employment. The reason given was the lack of an institutionalised career structure.

The present TESOL study also provided the opportunity to examine levels of job satisfaction to see how they compare to the findings of current research. As TESOL educators from different institutions, in different countries and with different working conditions were included, the results could reveal the degree to which levels of satisfaction are associated with any of these variables.

48 Model building in the current study Fessler’s Teacher Career Cycle Model (1985) was developed using the following specific process of model building (Fessler, 1995, pp. 177-179). The first step in the process was to gather data that present a view of the “real world”. Based on a synthesis of data collected, an explanation of teacher careers was hypothesised into a “working model”. This model-building phase of theory development requires the synthesis and expansion of prior knowledge into a framework that adds new insights and structures for analysis. The working model should at this stage be viewed as a tentative paradigm that offers the current best explanation for existing data. Subsequent data gathered should be cycled back into the model to make modifications and refinements. Given the dynamic nature of model building described by Fessler, the working model should serve the dual purpose of providing guidelines for action and a structure for future research. For the researcher, the working model offered a framework for research and further analysis.

The current study on TESOL career cycles will take account of the Fessler and Huberman models (Figure 2.1) described earlier in this chapter in an attempt to build a modified model which applies to TESOL professional life-cycles and may have wider application, at least to careers with similar characteristics to those of TESOLs. This will be presented in the theoretical discussion in Chapter VII.

Professional development research According to the literature on professional development, collaboration between teachers is essential in order for it to be successful (for example, Fullan and Hargreaves, 1991). Therefore, structures which support collegiality such as observation of peers, feedback from peers, consultation and reflection with peers, planning and evaluating together are all positive factors (Anastos and Arcowitz, 1987; Eisner, 1988; Johnson and Johnson, 1987; Lieberman and Miller, 1984 and Little, 1984). Yet schools (particularly secondary schools) are generally designed on a model that divides and isolates teachers.

49 Furthermore, we know that developing new skills and incorporating new ideas into practice requires large time provisions (Fullan, 1985; Goodlad, 1984; Joyce, 1986; Sirotnik, 1987 and Welsh, 1986). However, school timetables allow little time for professional development activities of this sort, as teachers are fully occupied teaching.

Another aspect of professional development which has received attention in recent years is that of personalising or giving individual attention to teachers’ professional development (for example, Eraut, 1993, Fessler, 1995 and Levine, 1989).

Finally, we know that while professional development sponsored by outside agencies is acknowledged as important, the most crucial professional development is that which is built into the school itself and is part of the normal cycle of a school’s renewal (Bolam, 1982; Goodlad, 1983 and Joyce, 1986).

Huberman demonstrated that life concerns are deeply implicated in teachers’ approaches to instruction. He illustrated this with reference to a group of mid-career teachers, whom he termed Positive Focusers, who focused their interest and commitments on particular parts of their work (a subject, or a grade level, perhaps), built up their outside interests and avoided school-wide innovation. Yet, having found and defined their areas of interest and preference, the positive focusers were still open to and interested in experimenting with their practice, in making small changes and improvements in their own domain. They were proud of their classroom mastery and always sought to improve it further, but only in their own way and in their own time.

Huberman found, therefore, that teachers who avoided reforms or other multiple classroom innovations, but who invested consistently in classroom-level experiments or ‘productive tinkering’, experimenting with new groupings and new materials, were more likely to be ‘satisfied’ later on in their careers than others. Additionally, they were far more likely to be satisfied than their peers who had been involved in schoolwide or districtwide projects throughout their careers. This latter group felt that the time and efforts expended on

50 ambitious attempts to change on-going practices had essentially exhausted and embittered them, given the few concrete results they observed in their classrooms. Yet they usually described the first experiences of ‘experimentation’ or ‘renewal’ as the most exciting and formative years of their career.

Three factors were predictive of professional satisfaction later in the career cycle: i) Higher levels of satisfaction were experienced by teachers who spontaneously sought some form of role shift when they began to feel stale. ii) When asked to describe their ‘best years’, teachers overwhelmingly mentioned specific cohorts or classes with whom they had enjoyed privileged relationships. iii) The experience of achieving significant results in the classroom when low performing students improved their performance also led to satisfaction. In many cases this followed a major instructional shift on the part of the teachers.

These factors correspond closely to the mainstream literature on satisfaction. According to Ashton and Webb (1986, p. 162):

work is likely to be satisfying when we value what we do, when it challenges and extends us, when we do it well, and when we have ample evidence confirming our success.

There are important lessons to be learned from this group of positive focusers for teacher development as a whole. First, Huberman advocated a craft model as the most appropriate model for career development. This is one which encourages and supports teachers in their experimentation in their own classrooms, as a way of expanding and improving their repertoires of instruction. Second, he argued that inservice training would need to be designed to support these needs of craft-like tinkering, and he suggested that workshops, peer coaching and similar activities are likely to prove too codified and scripted for most individualistic craftworkers. More productive moves might

51 be made in extending teachers’ networks so that they can learn from each other's skills.

Huberman also concluded that such conditions of professional satisfaction are not so difficult to ‘deliver’ at the organisational level. Sustaining professional growth seems to require manageable working conditions, opportunities to experiment without sanctions if difficulties are encountered, periodic shifts in role assignments, regular access to collegial expertise and external stimulation, and a reasonable chance to achieve significant outcomes in the classroom.

Huberman indicated that his findings have valuable implications for school administrators:

On the practical level, studies of the teacher career have an obvious relevance. For example, recent work on ‘school improvement’ shows that many of the key determinants are career-related: how administrators and teachers view implementation of new practices is closely related to how they construe next steps in their careers. In the same vein, work on ‘staff development’ or ‘workplace conditions’ has been shown to be closely tied up with career-related variables. Clearly, issues of personnel policy are contingent on an understanding of the contours and dynamics of the professional career cycle of teachers (1989a, p. 343).

Developmental models of the teaching career tell us that there are different concerns at different moments in the professional life-cycle. A teacher at the beginning of his or her career has different concerns from one who has been teaching for 20 years. Some analysts (for example, Burden, 1986; Fessler and Burke, 1988 and Glickman, 1990) have suggested that stage-appropriate staff development opportunities can be developed. However, Huberman was sceptical of ‘career-phase engineering’ and was more inclined towards collaborative work among teachers at different points in their career (Huberman, 1992).

52 In addition to the ‘lone-wolf’ scenario, which he suggested would remain entrenched, Huberman (1995, pp. 208-218) also further developed his ideas on professional development, proposing several ‘innovating’ paradigms: a closed individual cycle, an open individual cycle, a closed collective cycle, and an open collective cycle.

The closed individual cycle depicts the way teachers deal with everyday instructional problems in their classrooms, diagnosing the problem, experimenting with different ways of resolving the problem, and abandoning or adopting the new ways, depending on how successful they are.

The open individual cycle is similar to the closed one, except that the teacher reaches out for assistance outside the classroom, either to colleagues, to people at the local teacher education faculty or to a wider span of materials. Huberman still classified this as the ‘lone-wolf’ paradigm as the success of the enterprise depends almost entirely on the social network of the colleagues and their willingness to make something of the information and expertise provided. In the closed collective cycle the teacher collaborates with colleagues from several schools with the same pedagogical interests. The teacher therefore broadens the input from sources further afield than immediate colleagues. The teachers exchange information and experiment individually or collectively. This cycle of experimentation and reflection is a core component of this and the next cycle.

In the open collective cycle, in which the group comes from several schools, the cycle is managed by the group, but specialists are called in at specific moments for specific purposes. This cycle involves a series of possible steps involving teachers from various centres setting up experiments, trying out new methods and observing peers enacting new practice under everyday conditions, all with specialist input at appropriate moments. Following this the group adopts some of the new approaches they have tested together and abandons others. More importantly, they will have created an enlarged network of teachers in their area, the network being further connected to specialists in university and resource centres.

53 Professional development of TESOLs The field of TESOL has a number of professional development opportunities for its members through programs, conferences and journals offered through professional organisations such as the Australian-based National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research (NCELTR) at Macquarie University, Sydney and the Australian Council of TESOL Associations (ACTA); the US-based TESOL International, and the British-based International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language (IATEFL). These indicate that teachers of TESOL in Australia and other parts of the world participate in inservice professional development opportunities during the course of their career. Universities are increasingly offering masters programs specialising in Applied Linguistics and TESOL (see, for example, Ward & Wilson (Eds.), 1996, p. 3).

While the teacher-as-researcher is a well-known concept in general education, classroom research in TESOL has been seen until recently as involving linguistic research (Edge, 1992). However, this impression is slowly changing and new possibilities for the autonomous teacher / researcher can be found in Allwright and Bailey (1991), Clark (1987), Nunan (1989; 1997), Wallace (1991) and Wright (1987). Action research in the classroom, peer observation and reflection on practice are ways the teacher may take steps for self-improvement, either independently or collaboratively with colleagues. According to Richards (1991, p. 21):

A primary goal of inservice programs is to provide teachers with ways of looking at their own classrooms from a different perspective. Activities which promote selfenquiry and critical thinking are central for continued professional growth and are designed to help teachers move from a level where their classroom actions are guided by routine to a level where their practices are guided by reflection and critical thinking.

Edge (1992), in ‘Cooperative Development’, described a cooperative process of professional development in which teachers collaborate with their colleagues in

54 order to discover their own ways of gaining more satisfaction from their teaching.

Nunan (1997) states that interest in teacher-research in TESOL has grown substantially in the last seven or eight years, with the publication of practical manuals (for example, Nunan, 1989; 1992), and the staging of a biennial Teachers Develop Research conference, and an increase in the number of teacher-research presentations at international conferences such as those of TESOL and the International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language (IATEFL) (Nunan, 1997, p. 365).

Murphy (1994) summarised the concern, raised by various experts in the field of second language teacher education, that there is a lack of an underlying theoretical foundation to its practice and Freeman (1989, p. 27) warned that second language education has

become increasingly fragmented and unfocused’ because it lacks ‘a coherent, commonly accepted foundation.

Murphy (1994), however, argued that TESOL educators have access to a range of useful principles serving to bridge the gap between theory and practice, presenting an outline for a unified, though still emerging, theory of second language teacher education. He linked six broad principles, which are widely discussed, with implications for practices of TESOL teacher education (Murphy, 1994, p. 10): • Becoming well informed • Investing in one’s own teaching • Collaborating with other teachers • Exploring promising strategies of effective second language teaching • Recognising processes, strategies and styles of second language learning and language use • Participating in continuing professional development opportunities

55 In his discussion of these principles, aspects of Huberman’s open collective cycle are evident.

In the TESOL professional development literature, there is an emerging importance given to peer, in contrast to supervisory, collaboration. Nunan (1991), for example, believed that teachers need to ‘discover and develop their own philosophy of teaching, and to create their own methodological practices’ through reflecting on their own and other teachers’ authentic classroom experiences (1991, p. 16). He presented readings and tasks designed to assist teachers in collecting and analysing data relevant to their own and their colleagues’ instructional decisions. A recurring theme presented by Nunan (1991), Wallace (1991) and others, is the suggestion that teachers benefit if they are able to work collaboratively while exploring alternative instructional procedures. This coincides with Huberman’s models for professional development and the literature generally.

Procedures encouraging reflective analyses of teaching have been well documented within the field of teacher observation (for example, Day, Whitaker and Johnston, 1990), classroom-centred research (Allwright, 1987; Richards, 1990 and Wajnryb, 1992), action research (Nunan, 1989) and exploratory teaching (Allwright and Bailey, 1991). Murphy suggested that, while these teacher education areas are technically different, they are closely related in that teachers benefit from focused collaboration with peers who share similar interests. Allwright and Bailey (1991), Nunan (1989) and Wallace (1991) provided alternative procedures for teachers to engage in reflective/exploratory teaching.

Ways of participating in continuing professional development opportunities described by Murphy (1994) included attending conferences, workshops and other formal and informal gatherings of language teachers. Nunan (1989) recommended informal peer discussions, seminar presentations, convention-style delivery of papers, slide shows, video reports and workshops and edited manuscript submissions to refereed journals.

56 According to Richards (1991, p. 13):

The difference between what teachers think they need to know and what experts think teachers need to know is often striking.

He cited an example where teachers disavowed any interest in the theoretical issues occupying an important place in graduate TESOL programs. The findings of this study may assist in confirming or denying this assertion.

Chapter summary In summary, this literature review provides the basis of the conceptual framework of the study. Huberman’s model was used for comparative purposes, and the TESOL studies expanded on aspects of his study to develop a professional life-cycle model for TESOLs. This is described in Chapter IV. The study also focuses on specific moments and phases of the career cycle in order to identify aspects of job satisfaction described in Chapter V. The study intended to identify whether the same types of satisfaction and dissatisfaction would be found in TESOLs as the research revealed in the studies in the literature review. The literature on professional development revealed a range of recommended types of individual and collective professional development to enhance teachers’ satisfaction and growth throughout the career cycle. This study explores professional development for TESOLs in a non-directive fashion in order to discover which aspects of professional development TESOLs would identify as important. The findings on professional development are described in Chapter VI.

Having reviewed the literature which formed the basis of the TESOL studies, Chapter III sets out the research design and methodology.

57

58

CHAPTER III RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY This chapter sets out the research design and methodology employed to answer the research questions. It describes in detail the way the research project unfolded, the approaches employed to select the research sites, the selection of respondents for the studies, the roles of the researcher and the characteristics of the sample. It also describes the development of the interview schedule, and provides a list of interview questions and relates these to the research questions. Following this, the interview methods are described. Finally, there is a detailed description of the methods of analysis and presentation of data, with examples given for each step taken in the analysis.

The base methodology of the study was influenced by Huberman (1989,1992,1993), and the study sought to use similar qualitative methods to those in Huberman’s study in order to obtain comparable data for a group of teachers with very different characteristics and from different circumstances.

The focus of Huberman’s study was on teachers themselves identifying, describing and interpreting successive moments in their career. Such an approach avoids labelling data with constructs from research literature that may not be appropriate. The methods used, therefore, were qualitative. Qualitative research is especially appropriate in circumstances in which the particular context plays a significant role in determining the behaviour observed. Such methods enable more intimate familiarity with social life, and provide more valid knowledge “through detailed, dense acquaintanceship” with social life (Lofland, 1976, p. 8). The fundamental characteristic of qualitative research is its commitment to viewing events, actions, norms and values from the perspective of the people who are being studied (Bryman, 1988, p. 61). Typical methods are interviewing and participant observation. According to Filstead (1970, p. 6):

59 Qualitative methodology allows the researcher to “get close to the data,” thereby developing the analytical, conceptual, and categorical components of explanation from the data itself.

Methods of analysis were, therefore, geared to organising the available data in ways which illuminated the research questions posed in the study.

The main method used in this study, as in Huberman’s, was interviewing, although the researcher was also to a degree a participant observer throughout. The study focused on the data obtained through interview, but some of the viewpoints expressed at interview were further verified or not by observations made in the course of the study. During previous visits to the first research site to focus the research topic, a detailed diary was kept from September 1992-May 1993 with day-to-day observations, and five managers of less professional schools were interviewed. Less professional schools are those preferring to hire unqualified teachers who can be trained on the job. The working conditions and pay rates are inferior with only casual work offered, and the teaching syllabus and methodology are often rigidly imposed. While these do not form a part of the current study, they serve as an example of the extent to which the researcher attempted to gain an understanding of the field prior to the main study.

Tables 3.1 and 3.2 indicate that this study was carried out in two distinct stages. Stage I occurred in Geneva, Switzerland from July 1993 to December 1994, and Stage 2 in Sydney, Australia from September 1995 to March 1996. Although many features of the research methodology were replicated in both studies, some changes were made as a result of experience. In that sense, the methodology evolved as the study progressed.

60 Table 3.1: S tage 1: Geneva TES OL study; phases, dates and activities Date

Stage

Activity

Geneva: 1st visit Not part of current Jan 1992 study Geneva: 2nd visit Sept 1992-May 1993 Geneva July - Dec 1993

April - Dec 1994

Oct-Dec 1994

Preliminary investigation: Interviews with 5 managers of “less professional” schools living and working in Geneva: Detailed diary and observations Phase I Interview 1 (question 1) with 22 Interviews 1 and 2 teachers Interview 2 (questions 2-11) with 9 teachers Phase II Interviews 1 and 2: with six more Interviews 1 and 2 teachers Interview 2: eight teachers from phase I reinterviewed by phone or face-to-face Phase III Interview 3 (professional Interview 3 development questions 12-15): eigh respondents from original sample and two new respondents

Table 3.2: S tage 2: S ydney TES OL study; dates and activities Date

Stage

Sydney: January 1995-March 1996

Stage 2: phase Interviews with 32 TESOL teachers Teacher interviews Stage 2: phase Interviews with 11 TESOL trainers / II administrators Trainer / administrator interviews

Sydney: December 1995-March 1996

Activity

The Geneva interviews were carried out in several phases as the preliminary interviews were analysed and other questions of interest were added for clarification or expansion. Respondents were contacted again to gather responses to the additional questions. In some cases the interviews were

61 conducted face-to-face, and in other cases by phone when a quick response was needed or the respondent was not available for a meeting. Sometimes respondents were no longer available for additional interviews.

Therefore, some Geneva interviews were carried out on several occasions. Several of the later Geneva interviews were carried out in one session of two hours. As this proved to be successful, all Sydney interviews were conducted in one session.

In Geneva, interview 1 consisted of the Huberman question asking respondents to divide their professional lives into phases. Interview 2 consisted of the remainder of the Huberman questions for teachers and some additional questions. Interview 3 consisted of the questions for administrators and / or trainers.

Methodology The methodology used was qualitative with interview questions designed to gather data to answer the research questions. Ethical considerations Ethical considerations were addressed at the outset of the study. Respondents included freelance teachers who worked at several institutions. The employers of all the schools from which the majority of the respondents came were informed about the study, and the managers of two of the main sites were also respondents in the study. However, all respondents were asked individually for permission to use the data on a confidential basis prior to the interview. Permission was also sought to tape the interviews, and in some cases they were not taped at the request of the respondent. The nature of the information gained was personal to them. Therefore, no written consent was sought from the schools as all interviews were conducted on an individual personal basis and much of the information sought was not relevant to the respondents’ current situation as it addressed their past career, often in another school or schools.

62 Participant roles The roles adopted by the researcher are summarised below. i)

Interviewer and data analyst

The researcher carried out the interviews and analysed the data for the two studies to a certain extent as a participant observer (see ii below) for the Geneva study, and more as an outsider in the Sydney study. ii)

Participant observer

Participant observation, also known as “field observation”, “qualitative observation” or “direct observation” (Lofland and Lofland, 1984, p. 12), refers to the process by which

an investigator establishes and sustains a many-sided and relatively long-term relationship with a human association in its natural setting for the purpose of developing a scientific understanding of that association. This may not be the person’s sole purpose for being present in the setting, but it is at least an important one.

The researcher worked as a TESOL in Geneva for two and a half years, spending one and a half years conducting the interviews with colleagues for the Geneva part of the study. Therefore, the researcher experienced first hand the life of a TESOL in Geneva.

The researcher gradually became accepted as a participant in the field, being involved in teaching and training during the first year. As a participant observer, therefore, the researcher listened to the problems of teachers and teacher trainers and administrators. The researcher was often privy to confidential information and reports. Whilst these were not used in the study, they helped to confirm or question some of the data.

The researcher was invited to give guest talks, to train teachers in various institutions, and to become president of the professional development association of TESOLs in Geneva. These functions served to repay to some extent the

63 respondents in the study, to broaden the possible sample and to gain a better understanding of the field.

The insider status of the researcher gave an understanding of the social system involved and the jargon in use, for example, the many acronyms: CTEFLA, DTEFLA, M.Ed. (EFL); MA Applied Linguistics without the need for clarification. The insider was able to check details such as employment conditions and was also aware of the history of working conditions.

As the motivation for being in Geneva was primarily the study, it was evidently difficult to be a participant observer while maintaining a neutral role. Having made contacts in the schools, these were the source of all the teachers interviewed there. The researcher’s teaching and training were mainly carried out at the international organisation.

In Sydney, the researcher works in a different department from ELICOS in the language teaching institution attached to the university which formed part of the study, thereby maintaining more of an outsider status than in the Geneva studies. Professional skills brought to the role of researcher Other professional skills were employed in the role as interviewer. Training as a linguist encourages sensitivity to responses to questions and the choice of words.

Having trained as an interpreter, which involved acquiring notetaking skills, the researcher found that the transcripts obtained from the notes provided reliable records when checked against the tape recordings. Methods Interviewing was the method employed in data gathering to seek opinions and perceptions and to have an account of the history of the careers and lives of the respondents. According to Shaver (1981, p. 83), perception is “the understanding of the world that you construct from data obtained through your senses”. It is acknowledged that every investigator approaches research with a personal frame of reference that focuses the inquiry and may influence data

64 collection, analysis and presentation of findings. However, a questionnaire would not have elicited the depth of information obtained, nor would it have enabled the participants to describe so freely the framework of their professional lives and the amount of time to spend on different phases.

Perceptions are inescapable in all social science research. The present study was specifically based upon perceptions and reflections of respondents drawn from a social setting in an educational institution.

The interview is often viewed on a continuum as demonstrated in Figure 3.1:

Structured → Quantitative

Focused or semi-structured→ →→→→→→→→→→→→→→→

Unstructured / In-depth Qualitative

Figure 3.1: Interviewing: the continuum model (Taylor and Bogdan, 1984; Minichiello, Aroni, Timewell and Alexander, 1990, p. 89)

At one end of the scale are structured research tools such as oral opinion polls, attitude surveys and questionnaires which are administered to a large group of respondents in a highly structured interview form. Results are often analysed using quantitative methods. Semi-structured or focused interviewing is often used either as part of or to complement the quantitatively-oriented structured interview, or as part of the qualitatively-oriented indepth interviewing model. This process essentially entails the use of the broad topic of interest to guide the interview. The content of the interview focuses on the issues that are central to the research question, but the type of questioning and discussion allows greater flexibility than does the survey-style interview. As with the in-depth interview, this may reduce the comparability of interviews within the study but tends to provide a more valid explanation of the informant's perception of reality (Minichiello et al, 1990, p. 93). Part of this study used a semi-structured interview format with a series of questions asked of all respondents. Respondents in Sydney and Geneva were also asked to comment on lists of factors mentioned by school teachers from Huberman’s study, and in Sydney they were asked to comment on the outcomes of the Geneva study.

65 In-depth interviewing, which has been referred to as nondirective, nonstandardised, and open-ended interviewing, is at the other end of the continuum. According to Taylor and Bogdan (1984, p. 77), in-depth interviews are:

repeated face-to-face encounters between the researcher and informants directed towards understanding informants' perspectives on their lives, experiences or situations as expressed in their own words.

In this type of interviewing, therefore, the respondents may be interviewed frequently and substantial background detail may be collected. The interviews can last for many hours and the rapport established can lead to greater understanding. In-depth interviewing is directed towards learning about events and activities that cannot be observed directly. The in-depth interview seeks to discover the informants' experience of a particular topic or situation in a language that is natural to them. This reduces the possible distorting effect of symbols and language which are not part of their everyday usage. Hence, there is a significant move from the interrogative process used in a structured interview toward that of a more conversational process.

Huberman’s study (1993, pp.24-25) involved an interview schedule with 14 questions of a diverse nature (see Appendix A for the main questions as described in Huberman, 1993). Some questions, notably the first, were totally open-ended, deliberately general in scope, inviting respondents to elaborate fully their own lines of response. Others took a dual form, being open-ended at the outset, then becoming progressively more directive as the response emerged. There were also several more tightly structured questions, also beginning with an open-ended enquiry. In these, after an initial response, respondents received a flash card containing a list of items to comment on.

The TESOL studies adopted some in-depth interviewing techniques for many of the openended questions. The first question, for example, which asked respondents to describe their career, adopted this technique. Other questions

66 included a list of factors for comment, involving more focused interviewing techniques as in Huberman’s study.

Table 3.3 describes the methodology employed in the three studies. The TESOL studies used the same interviewer on all occasions, while Huberman had many interviewers trained for his study. Table 3.3: Instruments and methodology Methodology

Huberman’s Geneva

Sydney

study

TESOLs

TESOLs

Number of interviewers

multiple

one

one

Total interview length (ave.)

5 hours

2 hours

2 hours

Interview types

all used

all used, in one all used

- face-to-face

or two

(one session

- open-ended and focused

sessions

only)

- directive with lists and

(mainly face-to

examples

face, but a few

- in more than one session

phone calls for

- taped and transcribed from

follow up data)

notes taken Interview methodology similar to clinical interviews,

yes

yes

yes

positive

positive

positive

oral history Respondents' reaction to interviews Advantages and limitations of the interview as a research method The interview allows both parties to explore the meaning of the questions and answers involved. Any misunderstandings can be checked immediately by either party in a way which is not possible with questionnaires or other survey techniques. Interviews are therefore valuable in that they involve sharing and negotiation of understanding, and they give rapid, immediate responses.

67 Interviewing is, therefore, an appropriate method to gain access to individuals' worlds and interpretations. According to Spradley (1979), “an ethnographic interview is a particular kind of speech event,” similar to a friendly conversation. However, the interview differs from a conversation in both structure and purpose. For instance, the interview is not balanced, as most conversations are, because the interviewer asks most of the questions and sets the framework for the discussion. Also, the researcher uses repetition to clarify responses and encourages the informants to elaborate on their answers. Therefore, the research interview is a rather special conversational interaction with its own particular dynamics. Many writers stress the importance of the interviewer's role, and the ability to develop a rapport with the respondent that will enable the interviewer to elicit frank answers. This involves the ability to simulate spontaneous participation while evaluating the respondent's views toward the interview, to evaluate moods and such feelings as anxiety, suspicion, and sincerity (Goode and Hatt, 1952, p. 186 and Hyman with Cobb, 1954).

The respondent-interviewer's attractiveness or unattractiveness to one another, and the social, physical, and role distance can all produce bias and error because these are integral to the structure of everyday conduct. If the goal of the interview is to achieve some measure of “naturalness,” then reliability cannot be achieved by the same procedures for all subjects, but only for each subject taken separately (Cicourel, 1964, pp. 79-80). Therefore interviews must be seen, to some degree at least, as a series of separate case studies.

Interviews, like any social interaction, are subject to fabrications, exaggerations, and distortions. Although verbal accounts may lend insight into impressions of the world and behaviour, there can be a great discrepancy between what is said and what is done (Deutscher, 1973). This is true also of most other data-gathering methods, particularly surveys. Another point to consider is that what people do and say differs in different situations. Since the interview is a special kind of situation, it cannot be assumed that what is said in an interview is what that person necessarily believes or says in other situations.

68 Many of the problems inherent in interviewing are a part of social interaction and communication in everyday life. Hyman et al. (1954) support the view that the interview will always contain variable meaning structures which typically influence all social interaction.

In using life history methods, one of the factors to bear in mind is that discontinuity is typically underestimated by individuals when recounting their own lives to make sense of their past through their current perceptions. In other words, some career sequences may be creations from a series of disjointed events to which researchers and informants have attempted to give shape and meaning (Huberman, 1995). The “trustworthiness” of the study If practitioners and other researchers are to derive benefit from a study, they must have confidence in the quality, or overall “trustworthiness”, (Lincoln and Guba, 1985) of the procedures and the resultant findings. The types of considerations include reliability, validity and generalisability. Guba's (1985) equivalent labels for qualitative research include: “credibility”, “transferability”, and “confirmability”. Credibility or reliability The first construct, credibility or reliability, means ensuring that the inquiry was conducted in such a manner as to ensure that the subject was accurately identified and described. The insider status of the researcher tends to enhance the credibility of these TESOL studies. The interviews were conducted in as similar a fashion as possible in each setting, using the same questions and with the same researcher using the same techniques. While some questions were added for the Sydney study, the same wording of the main questions was retained and the same qualitative methods used in each setting for conducting the study. Where additional lists of prompts were shown to Sydney respondents, these were shown only after the main question had been answered with no prompt to ensure comparability.

69 Transferability The second construct proposed by Lincoln and Guba is transferability, or the generalisability of the study. McCutcheon (1981) expressed the view that

generalisability in interpretive studies ... rests on the readers' ability to generalise personally to their own situations rather than on the researcher's generalising to populations larger than the sample used in the particular study.

While the perceptions of respondents may not be representative of the opinions of other teaching staff, the data analysis may permit some readers to find personal relevance in specific viewpoints. In order to discover the degree of generalisability of the conclusions obtained from the analysis, further research would need to be carried out.

No attempt has been made to generalise beyond the samples in these studies but an effort was made to obtain a variety of views by carrying out studies in the quite different international situations and by including interviewees to cover a range of strata in each circumstance. Confirmability Another consideration is objectivity, which concerns the “confirmability” of the study (Lincoln and Guba, 1985). In other words, if the same procedures were followed in another study, would the new analysis and interpretation of data result in the same findings? The data analysis of the present studies includes detailed accounts of responses and cross-referencing across interviews, often including direct quotations from informants in the report with more detailed tables and additional information being retained in appendices, to permit external scrutiny of interpretations and conclusions. The use of triangulation (see below) also increases the objectivity of the study by allowing various means of “confirmability”.

70 Triangulation Triangulation means the combination of methods or sources of data in a single study (Denzin, 1978; Taylor and Bogdan 1984, p. 68). It can enhance a study's transferability and confirmability. Data from different sources can be used to corroborate, elaborate or illuminate the research. Designing a study in which multiple methods are used, and there are multiple informants or more than one data gathering technique, can greatly strengthen the study's usefulness for other settings. It can capture a more complete, holistic and contextual portrayal of the study. The present study did not use triangulation of methods because the sole formal source of data was the interview. However, by interviewing a wide variety of respondents in two different circumstances, content triangulation was carried out. Subjectivity While as much objectivity as possible was sought, it is clear that the subjectivity of the researcher will ultimately shape this kind of research. He or she must gain some understanding, even sympathy, for the participants in order to gain entry into their world. Personal insights increase the likelihood of being able to describe the complex social system being studied. However, there must be controls for bias in interpretation. Such controls might include the following (adapted from Marshall and Rossman, 1989, pp. 147148): • a constant search for negative instances • checking and rechecking the data and purposeful testing of possible rival hypotheses • discussing biases, including biases of interest (personal, professional) and theoretical biases and assumptions • documenting field decisions altering strategies or substantive focus • explicit data collection methods • negative instances of the findings displayed and accounted for.

In the Sydney TESOL study, one method employed for searching for negative instances or for omissions was that of showing the interviewees a list of items mentioned by Geneva TESOLs. This was only done after the original question

71 had been answered spontaneously (see Appendix A). This served to further explore unstated aspects of the question and to provide further opportunities for discussion. It also served to identify how different responses may be when focusing respondents on specific aspects of a question. Evidence was further corroborated in different parts of the interviews as many of the questions covered the same ground from different angles. The interviews were further analysed and compared with against other parts of the interviews in order to ensure that isolated comments on an issue could not be misinterpreted or given undue weight.

Therefore, the responses given to each question were not viewed in isolation, but were corroborated with evidence from other parts of the interview. When there was a possible doubt as to the exact interpretation of a comment and no further evidence was found to support or refute the proposed interpretation, the comment was not included in the analysis. These types of misinterpretations were largely avoided by giving the respondents their interview transcripts for comment or change.

Pre-interview procedure Selection of subjects In a qualitative study it is difficult to determine how many people to interview. Huberman’s study was conducted in Geneva and Lausanne in three sites (Geneva lower secondary, Geneva high school , Vaud high school) with 160 secondary teachers in the state system with between five and thirty-nine years of teaching experience. The sampling procedure involved using official records to identify the years of appointment, and was stratified according to years of teaching experience. Approximately 25% of the respondents had some additional responsibilities to teaching, although these non-teaching responsibilities never exceeded 50% of their role. Therefore, the principal professional activity of the sample group was teaching.

The two groups of teachers interviewed for the present TESOL studies were from Geneva and Sydney, and both groups were teachers of adults in the private

72 system. Huberman personally recommended that the researcher should interview 25 teachers in Geneva because of the much smaller total pool of ESOL teachers compared to secondary school teachers (personal correspondence from Huberman, 2 April, 1994). The number of 25 was thought to provide a sufficient range to elicit useful data on career issues. The aim in Geneva was therefore to interview at least 25 teachers for an initial interview, and as many as possible for the second interview, taking into account that some may not be available one year later. All respondents were teachers of ESOL to adults, some were trainers and / or administrators in addition to their teaching, and two were mainly administrators. For the teachers’ interviews, all respondents in both studies performed teaching for at least 50% of their time. Trainers / administrators were interviewed separately. All respondents in both studies were native speakers of English or close to native-speaker level of proficiency (in the case of one Swiss respondent in Geneva).

In fact, in Geneva, 30 people were interviewed, and 61 interviews were conducted over a period of 18 months between July 1993-December 1994. The research in Geneva was limited to three main teaching centres, and it included some freelance teachers who taught at one or more of the selected sites. The three selected sites were the most professional ones identified during a preliminary investigation 18 months before the study took place. The aim was to interview teachers from the most professional sites. This was important to ascertain in Geneva as there were no official controls over standards, while in Sydney there were. The criteria used to select the sites were therefore those indicating at least minimum levels of professionalism: • institutions requiring CTEFLA minimum or equivalent qualification for recruitment of teachers. • institutions offering a minimum standard of working conditions, such as: 1. contracts for full-time staff 2. provision of professional development opportunities or institutional support to attend external training 3. minimum hourly rates (CHF50 for a fully qualified teacher)

73 4. resources and support structures such as course coordinators, books and tapes, computers, preparation areas and support 5. testing and placement procedures for enrolling students

An effort was made to interview as many men as possible, as there are few in the field. Five of the 30 (17%) respondents were male, which is regarded as a reasonably representative proportion of the total TESOL population.

The research site in Sydney included four main teaching centres. In Sydney 43 respondents were interviewed. Similar criteria to those for the Geneva study were used to select the sites. Fourteen of the 43 (33%) respondents were male.

“Snowball” sampling (Minichiello et al, 1990; 198) occurred as respondents often recommended others who were included if they fitted the study criteria. Sampling bias could arise if respondents with rapport with the researcher and a willingness to respond to questions had been recruited preferentially. Consequently, an effort was made to include in the study some respondents who were unknown to the researcher. Characteristics of the sample This section examines the characteristics of the sample. As an exploration of the field of TESOLs, the study was intended to be a set of case studies, with sufficient numbers of respondents to be able to draw some tentative general conclusions. An effort was made to include respondents differing by sex, place of work, type of work, and years of experience.

Table 3.4 compares and contrasts the samples of the three studies, showing similarities between the two TESOL studies, particularly in the areas of median years of experience and median age, and differences in the number of freelance teachers employed, in the sex distribution and in the number of administrators interviewed. In Huberman’s study the sample was larger, the teachers were older and more experienced, the subjects taught were more varied and the sex distribution was fairly equal.

74 Table 3.4: Characteristics of the samples and studies Characteristics

Huberman’s Geneva TESOL study study

Dates of study

Number of

1982-1986

study July - Dec 1993; April

January 1995-

- Dec 1994

March 1996

160 teachers Total: 30 including

respondents

Sydney TESOL

Total: 43 including

28 teachers and

32 teachers and

2 administrators

11 trainers/admin

Years of experience

5-39

6 mths-29 yrs

6 mths - 27 yrs

Median experience

15

11

9

46:54

17:83

33:67

Age range (years)

28-67

25-55

25-55

Median age (years)

44

42

38

Academic discipline

all subjects

TESOL

TESOL

(years) Male: female (by % o sample)

taught Source of

100% Geneva 20% international

47% university

respondents (by % o lower and

organisation

language centre

sample)

upper

43% private

53% private

secondary

language schools

language schools

schools

37% freelance

In Huberman’s study, a total of 160 respondents were interviewed; including teachers from the middle school (n=88), Geneva high school (n=52) and Vaud high school (n=20). Respondents were divided into 5-10 years of experience (24%), 11-19 years of experience (39%), 20-29 years of experience (21%) and 30-39 years of experience (16%). In the Geneva TESOL study, 28 teacher and two additional trainer / administrator respondents were interviewed; 25 females and five males. They were drawn from an international organisation’s language training unit and two schools, and a

75 number were freelance. The two additional trainers / administrators included one from the international organisation and the other from one of the schools. In the Geneva TESOL study the respondents could have been divided by years of work experience into four main categories as in Huberman’s study. However, owing to the relatively small number in the sample, they have been considered as a whole in the analysis.

In the Sydney study, 32 teacher respondents and 11 trainer / administrators were interviewed; 28 females and 15 males. They were drawn from a university language centre and from three adult TESOL schools. There were no freelance teachers.

There were few respondents in the TESOL studies with 20-29 years’ experience, let alone 30-39 years as this is a profession attracting many respondents well into their professional lives, and because as a “new” profession, even those who entered at a young age have not yet had time to develop the years of experience common to school teachers. This situation may be changing, however, as there were a number of younger respondents with less than five years’ experience in the Sydney TESOL study. Huberman did not examine the category with less than five years’ experience, presumably because they would be too new to the profession to be able to present a lengthy enough career path to be of interest. Presumably in most cases they would have been young people starting out in their first profession. However, this did not appear to be the case in the TESOL studies as in most cases people did not discover TESOL until later. Therefore, the initial phase of the career path was considered of interest to this study, as many respondents had had other careers beforehand and may therefore have reached phases earlier than young people starting out in their first career.

In the Huberman study, the respondents were analysed separately according to whether they were male or female, and from the middle or high school. This is because historical factors affected them differently. As there were fewer respondents in the TESOL studies and historical factors were not so significant in the Geneva TESOL study, and unlikely to have affected males or females differently in the Sydney TESOL study, the respondents have generally been

76 considered as a whole. Only where an historical or other factor appeared to affect males and females differently are the differences discussed in the analysis. For comparative purposes the Huberman male and female respondents for each category have been considered as a whole group, involving combining all the relevant tables from the Huberman study to present a single table of itineraries covering both men and women.

For the purpose of the present study, the respondents were not considered according to their years of experience at the time of the study but were analysed as a whole group, reflecting back on different phases of their career. However, in the Professional Development section, an attempt was made to link years of experience to “current” professional development requirements. For this one section only, respondents were divided for analysis into two categories, of 0-10 and 11-29 years’ experience.

Nationality / language Table 3.5 indicates that two-thirds of Geneva respondents (18) were from Britain; eight were from other English speaking countries and two were Swiss nationals, but English “native-speaker like” as their own education or professional experience had been in English.

The majority of Sydney respondents were of Australian origins (21), eight were from Britain, the remainder originally being from other English-speaking countries.

77 Table 3.5: Nationality of TES OLs Responses Nationality

Geneva

Sydney

respondents

respondents

American

6

1

Australian

-

21

18

8

Canadian

-

1

New Zealander

1

-

South African

1

1

Swiss

1

-

Swiss / British

1

-

28

32

British

Total responses

Geneva TESOL study Table 3.6 shows the number of respondents in the Geneva study for each category based on years of experience. Table 3.6: Categories of experience and numbers of teacher respondents in the Geneva study Category: years of experience

Responses

1. 0-4

9

2. 5-10

6

3. 11-19

8

4. 20-29

5

Total responses

28*

* The total number of respondents included two trainers / administrators not interviewed as teachers. Two additional respondents and eight of the above respondents were also interviewed for the trainers/administrators’ interview. All told, of the 30 respondents, 25 were females and five males, which is roughly representative of

78 the distribution of the sexes across the population of Geneva TESOLs according to an analysis at the time of the study of staff lists from the main teaching institutions from which the samples were drawn. The distribution of Geneva teachers and trainers / administrators in different institutions according to sex and status of work is shown in Table 3.7. Respondents came from three selected institutions and many also worked freelance across institutions or in companies. Of the total respondents (n=30), 15 were freelance mostly working in multiple worksites, 13 worked full-time in the Schools (9) or the international organisation (4), and two worked part time at the international organisation. The five male and 25 female respondents gave a total of 46 responses. Table 3.7: Distribution of interviewed Geneva teachers and trainers/ administrators in different institutions according to sex and status of work (n=30) Responses Institution

Men

Women

School A full-time

-

6

School B full-time

2

1

International organisation A full-time

2

2

Total full-time

4

9

International organisation A part-time

-

2

Total part-time

-

2

School A freelance

-

10

School B freelance

-

6

International organisation A

1

3

Other freelance

1

8

International organisation C

-

2

Total freelance

2*

29*

TOTAL RESPONSES

6*

40*

freelance

freelance

* Some of the 30 respondents worked in multiple worksites. There were 13 female freelance / freelance respondents, and two male freelance respondents.

79 No respondents worked on a part-time permanent basis in the schools; those working regular part-time hours being employed on a freelance basis with none of the benefits of a permanent contract. If there were insufficient teaching hours for a full-time employee in School A for a period of time, the employee would be expected to produce materials during time not teaching and make up the teaching hours at a later date.

The international organisation had two permanent part-time employees sharing one fulltime position with good working conditions. The full-time employees at the international organisation also enjoyed good working conditions. However, there were few such positions available (three full-time positions in TESOL) with no apparent prospect of future expansion. These working conditions were clearly in sharp contrast to the conditions in the schools (according to information gained from educational managers and respondents in the different worksites and from personal experience).

Table 3.7 also shows the distribution of males and females in the different institutions. Four of the five males held full-time responsible positions. Nine of the 25 women held full-time positions. Two of these held officially recognised positions of responsibility beyond teaching. The remainder were teachers, some with additional duties without formal recognition. This suggests that men may be keener to further their careers than women. Differences between men and women are alluded to where relevant, but no definite conclusions could be drawn as the sample was too small.

Among the Geneva respondents, 20% had no recognised TESOL qualification (see Table 3.8 which sets out the qualifications of the Geneva TESOL respondents). Twenty years ago specialist qualifications in TESOL were not available in Geneva, and in few places elsewhere in the world. The Certificate and Diploma qualification became available in Geneva in the early 1980s. Half the respondents entered the field as qualified school teachers, one third with the CTEFLA, one third with the DTEFLA and 10% with a masters degree in TESOL. One was currently undertaking a masters degree in the field.

80 Table 3.8: Qualifications of Geneva respondents Responses Qualifications

Number

% cases

No recognised TESOL qualification

6

20

School teacher qualification

14

47

CTEFLA

11

37

DTEFLA

10

33

MA or MEd

3

10

MA in progress

1

3

Total responses

45*

* 30 respondents gave 45 responses

The distribution of Geneva trainers / administrators by institution is shown in Table 3.9. Only three of the respondents in the Geneva study were employed full-time in the area of training and / or administration, the remainder retaining a large number of teaching hours or being employed casually. Table 3.9: Distribution of Geneva trainers/administrators by institution (n=10) Responses Institution

Full-time

Full-time

Freelance

trainer /

teacher with

trainer / admin

administrator

other duties

School A

-

2

1

School B

2

-

3

International organisation

1

1

1

Other schools

-

-

5

3*

3*

10*

Total responses

* multiple responses: 10 respondents gave 16 responses

School A had no formal external training program, but had an extensive, less formal internal in-servicing program. Two of the respondents were responsible for providing inservicing in addition to their teaching duties, while one freelance trainer was employed as a consultant.

81 School B is a training institution, and half the trainer respondents were involved in training in that institution. Two of the respondents from School B were employed full-time, while three were freelance trainers. Sydney TESOL study In Sydney, similar criteria were used to select respondents. All respondents (with one exception) were interviewed with the same questions on one occasion only; thus the numbers of responses for all questions is more consistent than for Geneva. The exception related to one respondent who asked for the interview to be held in two sessions because of time constraints. All interviews were conducted face-to-face and were taped.

All the teachers had taught or were currently teaching in the English Language Intensive Courses for Overseas Students (ELICOS) area (TEFLA), while some also had experience teaching English as a Second Language (ESL), and/or teaching adult migrants. There were 10 males and 22 females in the teachers’ interviews, and five males and six females in the trainers/administrators’ interviews.

Thirty-two respondents were interviewed for the teachers’ interview in Sydney, and a further 11 for the trainers’/administrators’ interview from the same institutions as the teachers. The teachers were subdivided into four categories according to years of experience as is shown in Table 3.10: Table 3.10: Categories of experience and numbers of teacher respondents in the S ydney study (n=32) Category of years experience

Responses

1. 0-4

9

2. 5-10

12

3. 11-19

9

4. 20-29

2

Total responses

32

82 There were only two respondents with more than 20 years’ experience, with the largest numbers of respondents having 5-10 years’ experience. Table 3.11 sets out the distribution of Sydney respondents by institution, sex and work status. Table 3.11: Distribution of S ydney teachers and trainers/ administrators in different institutions according to sex and status of work (n=43) Responses Institution

Male trainers

Male

Female

Female Total

teachers trainers teachers

A: Full time (FT) School A

1

2

2

3

8

School B

2

-

-

2

4

School C

-

4

1

-

5

University language

2

3

3

5

13

5

9

6

10

30

School A

-

-

-

1

1

School B

-

-

-

2

2

School C

-

-

-

-

-

University language

-

-

-

5

5

-

-

-

8

8

School A

-

-

-

-

-

School B

-

-

-

-

-

School C

-

-

-

1

1

University language

-

-

-

2

2

centre Total full-time B: Part time (PT)

centre Total part-time C: Freelance

centre

83 Table 3.11 (continued) Total freelance

-

-

-

3

3

Exit because of illness

-

1

-

-

1

-

-

-

1

1

Total exit

-

1

-

1

2

TOTAL RESPONSES

5

10

6

22

43

(School A) - previously FT Exit for maternity reasons (School A) previously FT

All the trainers/administrators were full-time employees. As can be seen in Table 3.11, of the teachers, there were 19 full-time, eight part-time, three freelance and two who had left the profession but had previously worked full-time at School A. The more experienced teachers in the middle categories (5-19 years’ experience) demonstrated the most commitment, with the majority working full-time. The respondents with fewer than five years’ experience showed the least stability in employment. There were also fewer opportunities for full-time employment early in the career.

All the male teachers held full-time positions except for one who had exited, but who previously was full-time. The women respondents held positions ranging from full-time (10) to part-time (8) and freelance (3). All the trainers/administrators were full-time.

While definitive statistics on the size of the school were not available, the university language centre was the largest, followed in order by School A, School B and School C (see Table 3.12). The numbers and sex of respondents were roughly proportional to the size of the school.

84 Table 3.12: Number of respondents and sex in each institution in S ydney Responses Workplace

Teachers

Trainers /

Females

Males

Total

admin. University

15

5

15

5

20

School A

8

3

7

4

11

School B

4

2

4

2

6

School C

5

1

2

4

6

Total responses

32

11

28

15

43

language centre

Twenty respondents held full-time positions, while eight were employed part-time. Two had left the profession and two were freelance. Full-time contracts ranged from permanent to fixed contracts for one term to one year. Two of the respondents had been working full-time at School A but had temporarily left the profession, one for maternity reasons and the other for medical reasons. Neither was sure of returning to School A.

Those working part-time did so by choice, some holding permanent part-time positions. Of those in part-time employment, five respondents chose to work part-time for family reasons, while three were single and had other interests. One respondent was working casually in two of the institutions, and two were working on a freelance basis for a limited period at one institution in a transitional period in their careers. Respondents’ roles Teachers Fourteen of the 32 respondents were full-time teachers, while the others performed other duties in addition to teaching. As would be expected, the majority of respondents at the beginning of their career were teachers only, while those later in the career had other duties as well.

85 For respondents in the Sydney study, the main activity was teaching at least 50% of the time. The exception was one respondent who taught only nine hours a week as well as having a range of other duties including counselling and coordinating. Another was a head teacher who had only recently taken up the position and was currently teaching 10 hours a week. A full-time teacher usually teaches 20 hours a week in Sydney, and is present at the workplace for about 35 hours a week. A teacher/coordinator usually teaches between 12-16 hours a week and coordinates other teachers on the program as well as overseeing the curriculum. The “other duties” carried out included: supervising other teachers as Head Teacher, developing materials and assisting in the Individual Learning Centre, acting as Activities Officer organising student excursions and other activities, being Counsellor for overseas students, teacher training duties, assisting in organising the professional development program and marketing courses off-site. Trainers / administrators Three of the respondents were teacher trainers and eight were administrators. While some of the administrators also had some professional development duties or participated in the teacher training department, their main roles were as Director of Studies, Director or Head Teacher. These respondents had few, if any, teaching duties. Qualifications Table 3.13 shows the qualifications of Sydney respondents. Only one Sydney respondent was unqualified. The remainder had multiple qualifications. Fifty-three percent of the respondents had a school teaching qualification, 53% had a Certificate in TESOL qualification, and 53% a DTEFLA qualification. Twelve percent had a graduate diploma, 33% a masters degree, four respondents were currently undertaking a masters degree and two a doctorate. The Sydney respondents, therefore, were well qualified, many undertaking further formal studies throughout their career.

86 Table 3.13: Qualifications of S ydney respondents Responses Qualification

Number

% cases

No recognised qualification

1

2

School teacher qualification

23

53

CTEFLA

23

53

DTEFLA

23

53

Graduate Diploma TESOL

5

12

MA or MEd

14

33

MA in progress

4

9

Doctorate in progress

2

5

Total responses

95*

* multiple responses: 43 respondents gave 95 responses

The interview schedule The interviews were divided into three sets of questions for the Geneva respondents; two sets for teachers and one set for trainers/administrators, and most of the respondents were interviewed in separate sessions for each set of questions.

In the Sydney study, there was one set of questions for teachers and another set for trainers / administrators. The interview questions fell into three main areas: Career cycle phases Respondents were asked to recount their career from graduation on, dividing it into developmental phases, as in Huberman’s study (1993). They were also asked what their future plans were, a question not addressed in Huberman’s study. This was to identify the likelihood of their remaining in TESOL, which would give an indication of satisfaction with the profession. Career entry, teachers’ motivations and satisfactions This series of questions was designed to elicit from the respondents how motivated and satisfied they had been during their careers. Respondents were

87 asked about their motivations for and hesitations in entering TESOL (Huberman and TESOL studies); whether they would re-select TESOL (Huberman and TESOL studies); what they planned to do in the future (TESOL studies only); whether they had ever thought of leaving the profession, or whether they had had moments of doubt (Huberman and TESOL studies); their concerns as beginner teachers (Huberman and TESOL studies) and ways of overcoming these concerns (Huberman and Sydney TESOL studies); and whether TESOL can be considered a career, and what the term “career” means (TESOL studies). As so many of the TESOL studies had highlighted dissatisfaction with extrinsic career factors, the question relating to TESOL being a career was added to explore to what extent respondents felt TESOL provided a genuinely professional career. Professional development An additional question, not addressed by Huberman, was asked: what sort of professional development is useful for you? This was in place of Huberman’s questions on years of caution, levels of activism and pedagogical mastery. The researcher’s interest lay less in teaching methods and classroom issues raised by these questions, and more in professional development systems and approaches in use in TESOL institutions and practised by members of the profession.

Professional development was an important issue to be explored in the TESOL studies. The needs could be diverse considering the relatively recent professionalisation of the field and the lack of in-service opportunities or initial training afforded some older teachers. Additionally, there is now a one month certificate course which older teachers may complete. As trainers/ administrators were interviewed about professional development needs of their teachers, it was felt that it was also necessary to gain the opinion of the recipients of professional development, the teachers themselves.

In the Geneva study, although 28 respondents were interviewed for the first interview and only 23 for the second, in some cases clear evidence existed from the first interview to infer answers to questions not specifically asked of some recipients.

88 Ten respondents who were interviewed as trainers/administrators were questioned regarding their beliefs about professional development, as they were most directly responsible for the professional development of the teachers interviewed in the first part of the study. By including trainers / administrators in the study, it was possible to compare the perceptions of teachers and management, particularly about issues of professional development.

In the Sydney study, no respondent was interviewed as both a teacher and a trainer / administrator as in Sydney trainers/administrators held full-time positions with reduced or no teaching, making duplication unnecessary. Interview questions The interview schedules and questions as they were used for teachers and trainers / administrators in Geneva and Sydney are set out in Appendix A.

Table 3.14 shows the extent of commonality in relation to questions asked in the TESOL and Huberman studies:

89 Table 3.14: Commonality of questions in the two TES OL studies with the study by Huberman (1993) Interview questions

Huberman Geneva study

Motivation for career entry

Sydney

TESOL

TESOL

study

study

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

How did you enter the profession? List of motivations from Geneva TESOLs for comment Career phases Plot your career into phases Career definition - professionalisation

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

No

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Define your concept of career and its relationship to TESOL Beginning teaching Reflect back on when you first taught Describe 2 situations that caused problems Did you experience these concerns (list of secondary school teacher concerns for comment)? List of beginner concerns from Geneva TESOLs for comment Stocktaking mid-career Have you ever thought of leaving teaching? List of concerns from Geneva TESOLs in moments of doubt Future aspirations What of the future? Reselect the profession? Would you choose teaching again? Why? Why not?

90 Table 3.14 (continued) Caution and years of experience

Yes

No

No

Levels of activism at different moments in

Yes

No

No

the career Pedagogical mastery

Yes

No

No


No

No

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

No

No

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

Define professional development What sort of professional development is useful for you? List of professional development from Geneva TESOLs for comment Interview with trainers / administrators regarding professional development

Table 3.15 shows the relationship between the research questions and the interview questions:

91 Table 3.15: Relationship between the research questions and the interview questions Research questions

Geneva interview

Sydney interview

questions

questions

Professional life-cycles 1

5

1, 4

2-4

1

2

Job satisfaction 5

4

13

6

8 and 9

6 and 7

7

7

10

8

2

3

9

6

14

10

6-9

6, 7, 10 and 14

Professional development 11

11

16

12

1 and 11

2 and 16

13

12 and 14

27 and 29

14

15

31

15

11, 12, 14, 15

27, 29, 31

Some of the interview questions have been omitted from the table because they sought background information, definitions of terms or to add detail to the research question in a way which is non-comparable between studies. These include Geneva interview questions numbers 3, 10 and 13 and Sydney questions numbers 5, 8, 9, 11, 12, 15, 1726, 28, 30 and 32. The responses to these questions have been included in appendices as indicated in the relevant chapters.

The following section describes the methods and procedures employed to carry out the interviews.

92

Interview methods The interview methods evolved as the study progressed (see Tables 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3). The Geneva study interviews were fragmented for several reasons; firstly a selection of Geneva teachers undertook interview 1 before the researcher returned to Sydney to further clarify the aims of the study and to identify additional questions of interest. On returning to the research site, further respondents had interview 1, and interview 2 questions were added to explore aspects of satisfaction and dissatisfaction with the career.

As the study in Geneva progressed, further questions of interest or clarification were added to the study and the respondents were re-interviewed where possible. Most Geneva respondents fitted only the category of teacher and were interviewed twice, but some fitted both categories of teacher and trainer/administrator and were interviewed three times. This is because few people held full-time trainer/administrator positions in Geneva, most tending to be teachers with almost a full-time teaching load plus some other duties, or they were freelance teachers / trainers. Others were interviewed only once if the time set aside was sufficient. Some were interviewed only once because they left TESOL or Geneva after the first interview. As the interviewing progressed and the researcher became more efficient at planning the time needed, the two interviews were sometimes combined into one session, particularly for respondents who were available only on one occasion. Most of the interviews were conducted face-to-face and taped, but some respondents were interviewed at a later date by telephone for additional questions to ensure the data were complete. Telephone interviews were not taped but detailed short-hand notes were taken.

In the Sydney study, as the interviews had been fully refined, teachers were interviewed in one session and teachers / administrators had a different interview in one session. Each interview typically lasted two hours.

93 Interview procedure In Huberman’s study, the duration of each interview was typically about three hours. These were long, in-depth conversations, close in format to the clinical interview, conducted by trained interviewers. The interviews in Huberman’s study were all taped, only the pilot interviews being fully transcribed, the later ones being coded and condensed into a protocol of 30 pages.

The potential TESOL interviewees were contacted and a time and place organised to interview them, varying from their classroom, to a coffee shop, their house, or another available room in the school.

Interviewees were told a little about the project: that TESOL careers were the topic of the project, and that the interview was confidential. Permission was asked to tape it, and the procedures were explained; namely that a transcript would be written up from the detailed notes taken during the interview. Interviewees would then be asked to correct, amend, delete or otherwise change any incorrect information in the transcript. Usually the interviewees were not given time to consider their response before the interview, so almost all interviews were entirely spontaneous. Sometimes respondents were given a general indication of the topic of the interview by other respondents, but the exact wording of the questions was retained by the interviewer, and not included in the transcripts.

In the case of the Sydney interviews, lists of responses given by Geneva TESOLs were included for comment after the initial response to some of the questions. Probing One of the keys to successful interviewing is knowing when and how to probe (Taylor and Bogdan, 1984, p. 96). This involves asking informants to clarify their answer (Taylor and Bogdan, 1984, p. 97; Lofland and Lofland, 1984, p. 56). Because of time constraints, the researcher tried to keep the interviewees focused on the topic. However, at times the researcher probed to elicit how respondents may have reached a new phase and omitted to name the previous one. In addition, the interviewer intervened when the opinion expressed needed

94 further clarification, or when the informants needed time to clarify their thoughts on topics they had not previously considered. Recording the interview The interview was taped and detailed notes taken. In Geneva, the first interview usually lasted 45-60 minutes, the second 30-45 minutes and the third about 30 minutes. In Sydney, the teachers’ interview lasted between 90 minutes to two hours, and the trainers’/administrators’ interview 30 minutes to two hours, depending on the detail given in answer to the first question, which sought background information. The relationship the researcher had with the informants also influenced the time, as some were at ease and others less so. Those more at ease tended to say more.

Respondents were handed the questions, one at a time, on a sheet of paper or card. They answered and were interrupted only to clarify a point, or to name and identify phases if they had omitted to do so. Most of the time the interview approximated a monologue, and there was little dialogue.

Numerous studies have shown that people's memories and their reconstructions of what was said may alter radically with time (Cicourel, 1964, p. 124). Background assumptions about events, the identity of participants or the content and purpose of the interview can alter perceptions and errors may occur (Schwartz and Jacobs, 1979, p. 44). The data should therefore be analysed as soon as possible following the interview(s). In the present study, the researcher had an in-depth knowledge of the interviewees’ working situation, and there was less possibility of misunderstandings than if the interviewer had had no knowledge of the field or of the participants.

As the respondents were aware that the purpose was to conduct research, most were not disturbed by the presence of the cassette recorder. In only two cases in Geneva the interview was not taped, at the request of the respondent. Occasionally, the recorder did not work properly and some taped data were lost. As detailed shorthand notes were taken on all occasions, the information was recoverable.

95 The transcript used for data analysis was primarily from the shorthand notes with the taped version mainly for checking. The transcript was verified by the respondent. Role relationships during the interview Some methodologists believe that the interviewer should be supportive and sympathetically understanding towards the respondent, a style known as “socioemotional”. Others recommend that the interviewer should act in a strictly task-oriented manner, which is called the “formal” style of interviewing (Brenner, Brown and Canter, 1985, p. 38). The stance adopted in the present study was generally socio-emotional because the respondents were colleagues. Hyman et al. state “You can't remain blank that's impossible...” (Hyman et al., 1954, p. 40; Cicourel, 1964, p. 83). But nevertheless, Benny and Hughes (1970) feel it is important to remain nonjudgemental, stating:

the interview is an understanding between two parties that, in return for allowing the interviewer to direct their communication, the informant is assured that he (sic) will not meet with denial, contradiction, competition, or other harassment.

It is important that the interviewer does not demonstrate any negative reaction when something personal, embarrassing or negatively critical is revealed. The present researcher attempted to communicate empathy, but sought to remain non-judgemental at all times. The researcher avoided eye contact with the respondent and concentrated on taking notes throughout the interview. Most informants talked uninterruptedly, seemed relaxed and did not appear to “look for approval”.

Occasionally the participant appeared to be trying to formulate an answer to the question when it appeared to the researcher he or she had never considered the issue. On other occasions the question would elicit a different issue and the information provided was tangential. With those with whom the researcher had a closer relationship, the tone of the interview was lighter and more relaxed, while

96 with others the tone was more formal. The researcher let the interviewee set the tone. At times it appeared that a respondent was withholding feelings and conceptions about the topics covered, and some respondents appeared to be biased in the direction of the interviewer's perceived sentiments. These are problems inherent in interviewing and the researcher was vigilant in searching for conflicting or corroborating evidence in all other parts of the interview responses. Post-interview feedback At the end of the interview, when the cassette recorder was turned off, some respondents clarified some of the points or revealed more sensitive or personal issues, while others left immediately without debriefing.

Interviewees often commented on how honest they had been, and that they had enjoyed the experience. Many said it was the first time they had thought about their career and recommended the experience to colleagues for its value as a reflection on their lives and careers. Transcriptions of the interviews As soon as possible after the interview, mostly within hours, the transcript was typed from the notes. The interviewees were asked to make comments, additions, deletions or any changes to the draft. Of a total of 61 interviews, 32 of the Geneva interviews returned the draft (52%), and 29 did not (48%). Of a total of 43 Sydney interviews, 28 returned the draft (65%) and 15 did not (35%). From informal feedback from interviewees, there appeared to be several reasons for not returning the interviews, for example, lack of time and aversion to reading their words in print. The transcripts which were not returned were used after checking with the taped material to ensure accuracy.

Most made few, if any, changes and many commented on the accuracy of the draft of the interview. Many found it disturbing to see their words in print and were sometimes amused as linguists to see the features of their spoken discourse, such as rephrasings, fragmented and hanging sentences, and the punctuation of spoken discourse. A few attempted to make the draft into a formal

97 written discourse by adding traditional punctuation and rewriting fragmented sentences. Categorisation of respondents Respondents’ interviews were organised into four categories according to years of experience. For categories of responses over the three studies, see Table 3.16, which demonstrates that Huberman did not examine teachers with less than five years' experience, and the TESOL studies did not examine respondents with over 30 years' experience. In the case of TESOL studies, this was because of a lack of respondents in that category. Huberman does not state why he did not examine teachers in category one, but indicated that he was more interested in the teachers with 11-29 years’ experience. Table 3.16: Category of responses by years of experience across the three studies Teacher respondents Category

Years of

Huberman’s

Geneva

Sydney

experience

study (1993) TESOL study TESOL study

1

0-4

9

9

2

5-10

39

8

12

3

11-19

61

6

9

4

20-29

34

5

2

5

30-39

25 Trainer / administrator respondents

2

5-10

2

2

3

11-19

3

8

4

20-29

5

1

30*

43

Total responses

159

* Some respondents performed the role of teacher and trainer / administrator and w ere interview ed in both capacities.

As indicated earlier, in the TESOL studies the respondents were initially categorised by years of experience for the purposes of analysis, but the results have been presented as a whole or in categories as appropriate for each section of the study. For most purposes it was not thought to be useful to report the

98 respondents in the various categories as the numbers were small; in these cases the responses are reported in an aggregated form.

The interview transcripts were then grouped in computer document files according to categories, and the responses to each interview question recorded in a different file for further analysis as indicated below.

Analysis and presentation of data Some authors (for example, Lofland and Lofland, 1984, pp. 131-132 and Minichiello et al, 1990, p. 285) recommend not leaving the data analysis until the end but doing it during the study. Owing to time constraints, however, although all interviews were transcribed promptly, the analysis of the initial interviews was not started until mid-way through the data gathering.

Analytical procedures fall into five modes: organising the data; generating categories, themes and patterns; testing the emergent hypotheses or conclusions against the data; searching for alternative explanations of the data; and writing the report (Marshall and Rossman, 1989, p. 114). Each phase involved data reduction as the voluminous raw data were allotted to manageable components and an appreciation emerged of the meanings of the words used by the participants in the study. With focused interviewing, some aspects of organisation and categorisation are predetermined by the focus of the questions, and the format of Huberman’s study provided guidelines in some cases.

Categories are the key to content analysis and, according to Berelson (1971), “Content Analysis stands or falls by its categories.” Various techniques were utilised in the analysis stage to find patterns in the data. It is important both to be able to see evidence of a pattern and to remain open to discordant evidence when it appears (Miles and Huberman, 1984, p. 216). The interviews were scrutinised for repetition and to corroborate a pattern using a coding system. In some cases, the responses were summarised and some exact quotations included in the report to preserve the language of the respondents. A matrix was also useful on occasions, particularly in categorising quotations from respondents.

99 Analysing the responses: career phases For the question about the phases and itineraries in the career cycle, in Huberman’s study (1993) the transcriptions were condensed to register themes associated with successive phases. The responses were then subjected to simultaneous qualitative and quantitative analyses. In the qualitative analysis, the themes as well as the examples were regrouped using socio-linguistic procedures derived from conventional content analysis (for example, Miles and Huberman, 1984). Numbers of respondents undergoing each phase were then grouped and represented in tables and figures.

In the current study, similar procedures were employed with interviewees’ transcripts being analysed and categorised for each interview question. The respondents were divided into four groups according to their years of experience; less than five years’ experience; 5-10 years’ experience; 11-19 years’ experience and 20-29 years’ experience.

The transcripts were submitted to five main steps of analysis before arriving at a final version of the figure for each category of experience, as is demonstrated below. The first and second steps allowed the data to be viewed in chronological order by year of experience with each respondent’s main theme identified, and with supporting information. In the third step, the main themes of respondents were grouped on a table with positive, negative or neutral experiences grouped in different parts of the table. The fourth and fifth steps gradually condensed the information and identified key phases with overarching themes. In the sixth step, the itinerary of each respondent was analysed and typical themes were grouped together. Finally, in the seventh step the four categories of experience were drawn together, and respondents’ main itineraries traced in a model for TESOL respondents from each study. These steps are discussed in more detail with examples, as follows. Phases summary sheet (step 1) On a summary sheet, the major events were noted chronologically, with phases or thematic names used. Interviews were condensed onto one to three sheets. Each number refers to a respondent, with his/her major phase words noted, and

100 key phrases and thematic words highlighted in bold. Exact quotes from respondents were used. For each respondent, a year appears first, illustrating the exact date of their first year of TESOL.

Example: Year 1 1. (1992) CTEFLA Hell and rediscovery. 1st year: Continual rediscovery. 2. (1992) CTEFLA An excellent learning experience, positive time professionally and personally. 1st year: Having a ball. I love my job. 3. (1992) CTEFLA Rediscovery of myself - very positive. 1st year: Fantastic - my friends were right. 4. (1993) CTEFLA: It was good, but incomplete. The year of getting to know me. I like teaching, but it’s not the only career I’d like to try during my life. I have my eyes open for other jobs at the moment. I’ve applied to Swiss Air and I’m onto the final selection stage. 5. (1991) CTEFLA International House, Paris. The course was dynamic 6. (1991-92) CTEFLA Approaching my goal. My first year’s real work 7. (1992) CTEFLA Realization that I could work intellectually again and challenge of wanting to do more. First year - very intensive and very draining 8. (1991) I thoroughly enjoyed the CTEFLA. 9. (1990) Doing the course at School B (CTEFLA) was a break. Figure 3.2: Geneva respondents with less than five years’ experience (sample) Phases summary sheet (step 2) The second step allows the same information to be viewed in a linear fashion on a matrix with respondents side by side, three at a time (see Table 3.17). This step was used only for the Geneva TESOL respondents as grouping the themes and then transferring them directly to the phases summary table described in step 3 was found to be reliable for the Sydney respondents.

101 Table 3.17: Geneva TES OL respondents with less than five years’ experience (sample) Respondent 1

Respondent 2

Respondent 3

1990- TESOL ENTRY

90 - got married and

TESOL ENTRY

1995

Sep 92 CTEFLA

moved back to London.

92 - did CTEFLA. I

Hell and

Refreshing change

thought I might go back

rediscovery

91 - back home and job in to uni, but I thought I

Rediscovery of my DHSS

didn’t want to sit doing

old insecurity and May-Dec 91 - back to

research, I wanted a

positive

recruitment. (job in City of more active job. Then I

rediscovery. It

London) very aggressive

thought my new job

was wonderful

period - v. arrogant and

must be compatible

from the

egocentric - real

with family life - I have a

friendships I

character-building stuff -

crazy pattern of life and

made and the

sink or swim

want flexibility and want

doors it’s opened Feb 92 to GE. Tearful and time for myself. Then I Continual

traumatic period -

met Respondent 1.

rediscovery

extremely difficult to

She was having lunch

integrate. I’d lost

at my mothers and

everything familiar, I was

talked about this

in an alien culture.

wonderful course,

TESOL ENTRY

which sounded like it would answer all my needs.

102 Nomenclature of phases: definition of terms used Nomenclature of major phases and themes identified by Huberman was retained where the key themes and leitmotives coincided with those of Huberman’s study (for example, Huberman, 1993b, Figure 3.2, p. 40). Many of Huberman’s main themes included direct quotations from respondents (for example, “Finally, the upper grades!” (p. 83) or “Ripe for a change” (p. 62)) which were not deemed appropriate for the TESOL studies. Those retained in this study included the themes in the first column in Table 3.18 (see literature review for a complete list of Huberman’s main phases), while the middle and right hand columns list the additional themes appearing in the TESOL studies.

103 Table 3.18: Themes used for TES OL studies from Huberman’s study and additional theme names HUBERMAN’S THEMES *

GENEVA TESOL STUDY

SYDNEY TESOL STUDY

Career entry

Career entry / Experimentation

Easy beginnings

Developing / growing

Survival

Painful beginnings

More mature experimentation

Further experimentation

(Relatively easy or relatively painful Positive experimentation

Stressful

beginnings

Harmonious beginnings

Initial commitment

Resolved or unresolved problems

Relatively harmonious beginnings

Experimentation

Problematic beginnings

Self-doubt

Uncommitted

Dissatisfaction Teacher training

Positive experimentation / learning Disappointed and discouraged Exit Initial training later on Further training Back to teaching

Themes of experimentation and learning

104 Table 3.18 (continued) Stabilisation

Further experimentation /gaining

Learning / experimentation

confidence /consolidation /learning /new Stabilisation / commitment

Maturing /new challenges /mastery

More confident

Diversification

Stabilisation

Maturing /consolidation /growing /mastery

New challenges/ second wind

Stocktaking /watershed

New challenges

Stocktaking

Exit TESOL temporarily

Effects of in-service training

Balance

Training

Themes of stabilisation

Positive and negative themes

Stabilisation /commitment /permanency

Stabilisation

Training

New challenges

Stabilisation following training

Training

Stabilisation followed by training

Disenchantment /stagnant

Balance

Self-doubt

Disenchantment/ disillusion

Dissatisfaction Reassessment / transition *Only those used for TESOL studies are shown

105 Phases summary table (step 3) The themes were categorised in phases, as in the Huberman study. Phases of all respondents for each category were tabulated in chronological order and categorised as positive, negative or neutral according to the tone of the theme (see Table 3.19 for an example). Huberman was not always consistent in classifying responses in this way but it was felt that by making this consistent in the TESOL studies, it would better illustrate positive and negative trends in the career paths.

106 Table 3.19: Geneva respondents with less than five years’ experience (sample) Positive experience

Neutral experience

Entry

CTEFLA

CTEFLA

• at School A.

• (London) Really

Negative experience

Impressive and

enjoyed the course

annoying

• (Ireland) My learning

• at School A

phase - quite intensive • at School A and well run • (School A) I was quite confident. Learning to

• TESOL Certificate (University Language Centre)

do it the TESOL way • First 3 mths FIRST PHASE (first year)

nightmare: entertaining and frustrating (London)

• A learning time (London; Sydney; Japan) • Very compatible situation (Ireland). V. helpful and understanding

• It was a total nightmare (School, Sydney). This was a pretty insecure period and basically made me wonder if I’d made the right decision. Disillusioning couple of months.

Phases summary (step 4) - detailed version The phases were further identified, categorised and tabulated, noting at which time of the career they occurred (see Table 3.20 for an example). Key phrases from each respondent were retained for checking purposes.

107 Table 3.20: S ydney TES OLs with 11-19 years of experience (n=9) (sample) Year

Positive

Negative

Entry

Cert. level training: (3)

Teacher training: (5)

Berlitz training (1)

Untrained in TESOL: (6)

Learning: (6)

No guidance (1)

Interesting(1)

Making money (1)

1

Personal factors

Exit and travel (2)

Yrs 1-2 Disillusioned, boring (1) Floundering (1) 2

Commitment (1)

2

Training: DTEFLA (3)

2-4

Getting more experience Burnt out (1)

Exit (1)

(4)

Consolidation at

Uncommitted (1)

school level in Malaysia 2-5

Passive re-entry to

Exit yr 5 (1) for 5

TESOL. Enjoyed it (1)

years; travelled, odd jobs

3-6

Stability (5)

Exit (1) one year other activity

6

Active re-entry to TESOL. Hard work but enjoyable Gaining experience (1)

4 -7

Training: Grad Dip (1); CTEFLA (1); DTEFLA (5); MA App Ling (1)

4 -7

New challenges (5)

Year 6: Fed up with ELICOS (1) Bewildered with industry (1)

7-14

Maturing (1)

108 Phases model (step 5) - condensed version The themes were then grouped into overarching phases, and presented in a model for each of the four categories of experience (see Figure 3.3). Entry: Other teaching; other career (3); other career (5); direct entry (1) Yr and phase Positive

Negative

Personal problems

Yrs 0-1

CTEFLA course (9 - positive)↓→

Yrs 1-2

Easy beginnings

Painful

Phase 1:

(6)↓

beginnings (3)↓ (1)

Settling in

Beginnings Phase 2:

Positive

Wishing to

Experimentat experimentation (3)

Doubts (6) ←↓

on

↓

(yrs 2-4)

travel with husband (1 Stressful with family (1)

(yrs 2-3)

Resolution of doubts (3) ↓ Training (1)

↓

Unresolved (3) →↓

Balance with private Searching for

Exit into

life (2)

other

balance (1)↑

career (2) Figure 3.3: Phases model for Geneva TES OL respondents with less than five years’ experience (n=9) Phases model (step 6) - overall condensed model from all four categories of experience The four models from the different categories of experience were then grouped together in one table (see Table 3.21).

109 Table 3.21: Geneva adult TES OL professional life-cycles (n=28) (sample) Year

Phases

Positive phases

Negative phases

0-1

1: Beginnings

Training (16)

Training (1)

Easy beginnings (17)

Painful beginnings (11)

0-3

Personal factors

Settling into a new country (1)

2

Training

Training (1)

2-4

1-2:

Positive experimentation (16)

2-11

Experimentation

2-3

2:

Doubts (14)

Unresolved doubts (3) - Exit (2)

Exit to other career (2)

Balance with private life (2)

Searching for balance (1)

Wish to travel (1)

Developing / growing (5)

Doubts (4)

Family concerns (3)

Frustration (1) - Exit (1)


Experimentation / 3

doubts / developing / growing

2-7 2-11

2-3:

More mature experimentation (4)

3-6

Training

Training (8)

6-10

Acceptance /

Acceptance (1)

frustration

110 Phases model (step 7) - overall model Finally, both phases models from the Sydney and Geneva TESOL studies were combined to produce an overall TESOL phases model as in Table 3.22a, which has been reorganised in Table 7.2b in the conclusion of the study (shown here as Table 3.22b).

Table 3.22a: TES OL phases model Geneva and Sydney TESOL career phases (1993-1996) Survival and discovery (1-2 years’ experience) Training (1-2 yrs) Exit and re-entry (1-6 yrs) Experimentation (2-7 yrs) Doubts (2-11 yrs) Uncommitted (2-6 yrs) Back to teaching (5-8 yrs) Further experimentation / more confidence (2-6 yrs) Training (3-8 yrs) Stocktaking / reassessment (3-6 yrs) Stabilisation (3-9 yrs) Stabilisation (11-19 yrs) Experimentation / new challenges (2-16 yrs) Further training (3-16 yrs) Disillusioned (1-9 yrs) New challenges (4-15 yrs) Stocktaking/ reassessment (7-18 yrs) Stabilisation (8-20 yrs) Further training (8-19 yrs) Second wind / New challenges (11-24 yrs) Reassessment (7-25 yrs) Acceptance / balance (6-28 yrs)

111 Table 3.22b: Preliminary model of career cycles for Geneva and S ydney TES OLs combined Career cycles of Geneva and Sydney TESOLs (1993-1996) • Positive phases

• Training / reassessment

• Negative phases

Discovery and experimentation

Training

Doubts (2-11 yrs)

Survival and discovery (1-2 years’ experience)

Training (1-2 yrs; 3-8 yrs)

Disillusioned (1-9 yrs)

Experimentation (2-7 yrs)

Further training (3-16 yrs; 8-19 yrs)

Lack of commitment

Further experimentation / more confidence

Exiting and re-entry

Uncommitted (2-6 yrs)

(2-6 yrs)

Exit and re-entry (1-6 yrs)

Experimentation / new challenges

Reflective phases

(2-16 yrs; 4-15 yrs)

Back to teaching (5-8 yrs)

Second wind / New challenges

Stocktaking / reassessment

(11-24 yrs)

(3-6 yrs; 7-18 yrs; 7-25 yrs)

Stability Stabilisation (3-9 yrs; 11-19 yrs; 8-20 yrs) Acceptance Acceptance / balance (6-28 yrs) ⇑

⇑

⇑

Contextual factors: professional and personal

112 Identification of typical phases (step 8) Nomenclature of typical itineraries: definition of terms used As for the previous sections in the phases chapter, Huberman’s nomenclature was retained where appropriate, and additional terms were added to represent the particular flavour of the itinerary. Huberman focused on major sections of itineraries for teachers within the categories of years of experience (for example, those with 5-10 years’ experience; those with 20-29 years’ experience), and the names of typical itineraries were more reflective of larger sections of their career paths. He did not consider all teachers in his study, only tendencies within each category of years of experience, then narrowing down the variations on the theme. For example, the theme of commitment was further defined to include:

• Commitment: from tentative to definitive • Commitment: from tentative to definitive by way of promotion to the high school

The theme renewal was further defined to include: • Renewal : focusing and retreat • Renewal: stagnation and the loss of enthusiasm

In the TESOL studies typical themes were identified by superimposing the itineraries or sections of itineraries having the same themes and sequences. Thus, career themes of the TESOL teachers were brought into focus, where several respondents underwent a similar itinerary at a point in their career. Huberman did not focus on specific themes in the career, but instead traced partial recurring itineraries. The TESOL studies considered all respondents and examined the central themes in more detail with the varying paths leading to and from them, as well as identifying recurring whole itineraries. However, the complete career itineraries were not identified until step 8.

Each respondent’s itinerary was then analysed and typical themes grouped together as Figure 3.4 demonstrates. These itineraries read from left to right

113 back to left as positive themes are presented on the left and negative ones on the right.

Positive training and work (yr 1)↓ Easy beginnings (yr 1)↓ Experimentation (yrs 2-4)→

Doubts (yr 4)

Developing / growing (yr 4- now)

←

Respondent 2: Easy beginnings (yr 1-2)→ Dissatisfaction / doubts (yr 2-4) Training - positive (yr 6)↓

←

Developing / growing (yr 7-now)↓ Assuming family responsibilities

Respondent 3: Positive beginnings training (1 month)→ Painful beginnings (yr 1) Experimentation (yr 2)↓

←

Hell, but positive hell (yr 4)↓ Developing / growing 7yr 5 to now) Figure 3.4: Geneva TES OLs with 5-10 years’ experience: Achieved harmony (3) (sample) This process was followed by a search for commonalities among the respondents. The aim was to search for phases or sequences common to most or all TESOL teachers (see figure 3.5 as an example from the Sydney TESOL study). The numbers in brackets indicate the number of respondents typified by the particular phase named. This figure is to be read from left to right.

114

DTEFLA (4)→ Grad Dip (2)→

Stab ilisation (4) First maturing phase

Commitment /

(1)→

stab ilisation (2)

Apprenticeship (1)→ Figure 3.5: S tabilisation following training (n=6) Identification of common itineraries (step 9) (see Figures 3.6a and 3.6b) The next step was to analyse the common itineraries of all respondents by tracking their main phases. As in Huberman’s study, the TESOL respondents’ itineraries were grouped together in an attempt to identify analogous itineraries following to or leading from a theme or phase. These were given a name using Huberman’s nomenclature where possible, as Figures 3.6a and 3.6b from the Sydney TESOL study demonstrate:

115 Easy →

Experimentation (3)

beginnings (4) Training(2)

Stabilisation

New challenges /

(4)

balance (4)

Training

Balance / Stabilisation (1)

focused (3)

Training (1)↑

(2) Figure 3.6a: Harmonious career (4 respondents)

Easy beginnings

Training (2)

Stabilisation (1)

(2)→

Confident

Stabilisation /

Taking a

(1) →

balance

breather (1)

Back to teaching (1)

(2)

Dissatisfied

New challenge

Dissatisfied ↑

Sometimes

(1)→

(1)→

(1)

stagnating (1)

Figure 3.6b: Relatively harmonious career (2 respondents with 5-19 years’ experience)

116 There were some sequences which did not fit those identified by Huberman. In these cases, new names were conceived to relay the general mood of the sequence (Table 3.23). For example, in the case of relatively harmonious career: reassessment (Sydney TESOL study) respondents would have had a harmonious career with a few instances of doubts, resulting in reassessment at the time of the study. Table 3.23: Nomenclature of common itineraries grouped in each study Huberman’s study

Geneva TESOL study

Sydney TESOL study

No

Yes

Harmonious

No

No

Harmonious: reassessment

No

Yes

Relatively harmonious

No

No

Relatively harmonious: reassessment

No

Relatively harmonious:

Yes

unresolved problems Renewal

No

No

No

No

(experimentation) with positive outcome Renewal (experimentation) with negative outcome No

No

Achieved harmony: reassessment

Achieved harmony No

Yes

Yes

Achieved harmony: partia

No

exit Commitment to the profession

No

No

117 Table 3.23 (continued) Promotion and self-doub

No

No

No

No

No

No

Yes

No

(resolved) Promotion and self-doub (unresolved) Self-doubt or (re)assessment Problematic career No

No

Problematic beginnings: resolved

No

No

Problematic but challenging career: reassessment

No

No

Problematic but challenging career

Renewal with positive

No

No

No

No

focusing Renewal with negative results: disenchantment Coding (step 10) Table 3.24 illustrates the coding system which was used to scrutinise interviews for evidence to corroborate findings from interview questions, and the interviews were also coded for additional areas of interest which emerged during the study. The code was noted in the margin alongside the interview, then the quotation added to the relevant document file. Some of the themes have not been pursued in this study, but could provide interesting information for future studies. For example, the theme of women and personal relationship or personal situation often provided interesting anecdotal information about women’s situations concerning their careers. However, the scope of the present study did not permit this type of analysis.

118 Table 3.24: Codes relating to themes in the interview Code

Topic

Personal BKG

Background, upbringing, parents etc

PR

Personal relationships

PS

Personal situation

CHAR

Reflections on personal character,

WOM

Reflections on women's situation, family responsibilities affecting career etc personality

Historical and social event HIST/SOC

PROF

Mention of historical or social events of the era affecting career or personal situation Professionalisation of the industry

Mgt change

Change in management of school

Logistical and geographical change CC

Change of country

CJ

Change of job

CX

Crisis and change

ADJ

Adjusting to new country, settling in

Working conditions WC

Working conditions

QUIT

Quitting a job

status

Status of TESOL

profm

Professionalism

coll

relationship with colleagues

FT vs PT

Comments regarding full-time or parttime teaching

119 Table 3.24 (continued) Teaching and training TCHR TRNG

Teacher training

CTEFLA / CERT

Certificate in TEFLA

DTEFLA / DIP

Diploma in TEFLA

METH

Methods in teaching

Phases MOT

Motive for entry

FUT

Future plans

BEG TCHG

Beginning teaching

STOCK

Stocktaking

DOUBTS

Moments of doubt

WISH

What I wish I’d done in the past

STAB

Stabilisation

SAT

Comments regarding job satisfaction

Career CAR Admin

Comment on definition of the term “career” Administrative work

Coord

Coordinating

Qualifications, training and professional development PD Mastery

Comment regarding professional development Mastery in teaching

Support

Support in teaching

TESOL Cert / CTEFLA / DTEFLA / Discussion regarding one of the MA qualifications listed Quals Qualifications Solve Tchr trng

Solving problems and gaining a new level of experience Teacher training

Meth

Methodology

120 Other codes, such as b eginning teaching or stocktaking, however, provided additional information which was categorised alongside the information given when answering the question directly.

Appendix B gives examples of transcripts with codes in the right hand margin. Analysing the responses: job motivation and satisfaction Respondents’ interviews for the remaining questions were then scrutinised individually. Huberman’s methods of dealing with questions were replicated where possible, and other means of categorising responses were also used.

In each case, responses were grouped and tabulated with quotations to be used in the discussion being noted. Examples are given below. i) Pre-TESOL career Various methods were used to analyse the Pre-TESOL career data. Figure 3.7 shows a tabulation of respondents’ quotes, followed by Figure 3.8, which shows a summary of the Pre-TESOL experience by the researcher.

121

Respondent 1

Respondent 2

• Initiation into the world of teaching

• Piddling around and having a good

• Finishing off my studies - getting out while the going was good -

time • Difficult, depressing

escape • Getting out. I was still in Boston, I hadn’t ejected from the burning plane Respondent 3

Respondent 4

• Phase 1 was a prescribed phase

• Feeling my way around, sales

which was what I’d been prepared to do • My domestic maternal

marketing first experience • Gaining more experience • In those years career-wise I was

responsibilities lasted for 8 years

still rather unstable, impetuous

and there was a long gap free of a

and changing - feeling my way

career

around

• Teaching English for children.

• Pleasure of learning. Now I was at

Trying to straddle 2 worlds. Feeling

a watershed in my life - which way

my way back into the world without

to turn? International Sales or

leaving my family

education?

Figure 3.7: Pre-TES OL experience: sample of respondents’ quotes ii) Motivations for entering the career An example is given below of typical means of categorising the data on motivations (Figure 3.8). In the example, quotations have been taken directly from the interviews and grouped under a heading (in bold). Each bullet point indicates a new respondent. The question asked was “why did you enter the career?”

122 • I fell / sank / drifted into it • As I said before, I'd always thought I'd be a teacher because my parents were teachers although I didn't know I'd be a TESOL, I didn't dream of that or even know it existed. When I went to school there were no jobs in teaching and I studied Business Administration and went back to school to get closer to teaching and finally in Europe I had the possibility of doing a Certificate in TESOL, and thought I'd stay for one year, but here I am still 16 years later. • and the second reason was that I was in love with a German and realised that if I wanted to go to Germany I could do that ... with that type of lifestyle moving around, there’s not a lot else you can do really. • I had been a French teacher, so it seemed right to be an English teacher • I came to be a TESOL because I had to transfer from one country to another and considered it easier to find work as an English language teacher than in a primary or secondary school where they gave fixed contracts. This was when I came to GE. That’s when I started TESOL, before that I was not in EFL. • I was here in GE, I needed something to do, so it took into account my teaching background, it was a convenient choice at the time, I have no regrets at all - the choice came out of the situation I found myself in as much as anything else. Maybe that’s more to do with the other question. Figure 3.8: Motivations for entering the career: sample of respondents’ quotes Responses were then tabulated under headings with the identification of respondents and the total number and percentage. Table 3.25 gives one example, on passive motivations.

123 Table 3.25: Geneva TES OLs: Passive motivations (18% of responses) Responses Motivation * • Sank / drifted / fell into it

Cases

Number

%

%

14

13

50

5

5

18

19**

18

• “Sinking into it”; tentative commitment, then the inab ility to change • Unable to think of anything else / by process of elimination • For lack of something b etter or b y process of elimination Total responses

* Huberman’s equivalent motivation has also been listed in italics for comparative purposes ** 19 out of a total of 107 responses overall related to passive motivations for entering TESOL

iii) Hesitations First the raw data were analysed into categories of responses. Figure 3.9 gives an example of initial categorisation of raw data:

Respondent 1: •

Hesitations? No, when I decided to do CTEFLA that was it, I enjoyed it.

•

I had hesitations after I’d done it because a lot of teachers work very hard and get frustrated, and,

•

as the career path is limited you get to a certain point and can’t get past it

•

in admin you get more money for less work - although money is not one of the prime reasons for me.

•

My hesitations were of a practical nature and whether I’ve got what it takes to be a good teacher.

Respondent 2: •

My hesitation was I knew the Dip Ed was to prepare for high school although I really wanted to teach adults, but I felt it was a way in - I felt I’d get more of a grounding with a Dip Ed and more theory and practice than a quick one month

124 course. I baulked at the fact of committing one year to something I was not sure about and I was so far in it that I thought I might as well go ahead - it was a funny year (= strange). Respondent 3: • Hesitations - none, it came fairly naturally. I had no hesitations, it just happened. Figure 3.9: Responses about hesitations for entering the career (sample)

Table 3.26: is one example of the tables which emerged from this process. Table 3.26: S ydney TES OL reasons for hesitating or doubts (sample) Reasons

Responses

I had other career / dreamt of other career

5

Hesitant because I lacked confidence in my ability to teach

5

English Hesitant because of working conditions or salary

2

I hadn’t wanted to be a teacher in the past

2

I should have done it earlier

2

Similar processes to those described above were used for the analysis of responses on beginning teaching, future aspirations, professionalism in TESOL and stocktaking.

Analysing the responses: professional development Responses regarding what professional development is useful for teacher respondents were categorised as in the examples below (Figure 3.10) and tabulated as in Tables 3.27 and 3.28.

• Workshops / seminars • Now - immediately now the thing I would love to do most is not a course, but to have the opportunity to do shorter workshops run by experienced teachers themselves • For me it’s a bit of input, which is very refreshing for me, because you don’t get it very often. .

125 • And we’re allowed to go to the School A series every third Tuesday. • Or something completely new. The part I enjoy most is usually a workshop and it’s exciting and you get ideas and it’s frantic and busy and we throw ideas together and it’s rewarding. • What’s useful to me now having done all the academic work I want, I would enjoy certain kinds of workshops given by people who’ve thought out clever ways of teaching things, and who give me information I didn’t know - two-hour workshops • Doing further studies: the Dip or a further TESOL course (e.g. MA) • Actually a lot are doing the Dip course at the moment and that’s professional development too on a much grander scale. • and the professional development that is useful at the moment is getting my MA finished. • Now I’m finding the MA most useful - it’s taking up most of my mental energy and I’m thinking a lot about teaching adults, it’s very practical and useful. Figure 3.10: S ample of responses on professional development useful for S ydney TES OLs

The responses were then tabulated (Table 3.35): Table 3.27: Professional development mentioned as useful by S ydney TES OL respondents (sample only) Professional Development area

Responses

Diversify /try new areas / experience

14

Workshops / seminars

11

To keep evolving / new ideas / keeping up to date

8

Specific course / seminar

7

Doing further studies: the Dip or MA

7

The responses were further grouped under headings (in bold) as in Table 3.28. The current phase respondents were in was also analysed alongside the professional development mentioned to give an indication of the type of professional development preferred at different phases in the career:

126 Table 3.28: Professional development related to the phases of stabilisation, doubt and experimentation: S ydney TES OLs (n=32) (sample) Responses PD mentioned

Stabilisation *

Doubt * n=33

n=23

Experimentation * n=29

Inservices

8

10

4

Workshops

5

4

3

Specific courses

3

6

1

Diversification

3

6

5

Diversification

3

5

3

Other duties

-

1

1

Writing books

-

-

1

Reflection

2

2

7

Observation

1

2

2

Reading books

1

-

4

Reflection

-

-

1

Interaction with

1

4

4

1

2

3

-

2

1

colleagues Interaction with colleagues Liaison with other schools

* Stabilisation: n. respondents = 9; Doubt: n. respondents = 13; Experimentation: n. respondents = 10

127 Professional development - trainers’ / administrators’* responses Responses were categorised as below (Figure 3.11) and then presented in a table under subcategories (see Table 3.29 as an example).

Less than five years’ experience Formalised training after 2-4 years n=5 • At some point there’s a need for formalised training. It’s invaluable for all these teachers to have observation - it can be peer or self observation from a video. Observation and reflection is the most powerful developmental tool we have as teachers. • 0-3 years: They probably need continued classroom-based development, things that work well, developing their understanding of grammar, developing better classroom management skills, good lessons that work - the sorts of things they do on the Certificate program, but consolidating their teaching skills. • 3-4 year as something more theoretical - not before three years. The Diploma says they need two years and I think that’s about right. They need about three years before doing a linguistics type degree or it clouds their development in the basic areas. Figure 3.11: Professional development mentioned as needed for S ydney TES OLs with less than five years’ experience (sample)

128 Table 3.29: Type of professional development needed for beginner teachers with less than five years’ experience: S ydney TES OLs Responses Less than five years’ experience: type of PD

Trainers*

Teachers**

Experience / diversification

9

5

Support and guidance

8

4

Inservices

7

8

Reflection

5

5

Further studies

5

2

Everything

1

Understanding and motivating students

2

Conferences

1

Keeping up to date

1

Other / travel

1

Teacher training

1

Total responses

35

30

*Number trainers/ administrators = 11; **number teachers = 9

Summary of data analysis methods A variety of data analysis approaches were employed to analyse the data depending on the suitability for the type of data collected. In all cases, the transcribed interviews were transferred question by question to independent files for further detailed analysis, with coding of interviews to crosscheck responses and to add relevant points. Where relevant or suitable, Huberman’s categories and tabulations were used as a reference point, with new categories created to describe the different data collected. Sometimes Huberman’s wording and categorisation has been retained for comparative purposes. The data analysis process spanned five years and was extremely detailed and refined continuously as the writing up process was undertaken. On many occasions, the Geneva data analysis was revisited as experience with Sydney data suggested a more efficient approach.

129 Each aspect of each question was painstakingly examined and checked to ensure reliability of responses and where even slight discrepancies were identified or suspected, the source interview was scrutinised for corroborating evidence throughout the analysis process.

Chapter summary This study served three purposes; firstly to test Huberman’s career cycles of secondary teachers against those of a different group of teachers in order to determine how universal his framework is; secondly, to identify a preliminary profile of adult TESOL teachers, their motivations, levels of satisfaction and concerns about the career; and thirdly, to assist educational administrators and trainers to identify the means of ensuring that TESOLs develop to their full potential in order to have an enriching career.

The methods used were qualitative, focusing primarily on in-depth interview techniques. Responses were transcribed, analysed and coded, then categorised and presented mostly in tabulated form.

The career paths were tracked in both TESOL studies to explore possible patterns and to test the universality of the career cycles defined by Huberman. Motivational factors for career entry, satisfaction levels at different points in the career cycle and motivations for continuing or re-selecting TESOL as a career were analysed. A more detailed analysis of the perceptions of the term “career” in relation to TESOL was performed.

Teachers were asked which professional development they found useful, and an attempt was made to match these with the different phases to identify possible trends. The responses of trainers and/ or administrators were also analysed to ascertain the perceptions of teachers’ needs in order to develop a profile of professional development programs including the methods available, and how far these meet the perceived needs of teachers.

130 Data from the various sections of the research process are analysed, presented and discussed in Chapters IV to VI below. Conclusions and implications are presented in Chapter VII.

131

CHAPTER IV PHASES AND ITINERARIES IN THE PROFESSIONAL LIFECYCLE OF TESOLS IN GENEVA AND SYDNEY This chapter presents the motivations for career entry and phases and itineraries in the professional life-cycles of TESOLs in Geneva and Sydney and compares these with Huberman’s secondary school teacher cycles to determine their robustness when applied to a group of different teachers working in different circumstances. Data reported in this chapter relate to research questions 1-4 (see page 9), which address motivations for career entry and the major phases of the career.

Data for research question number 1 were derived from the following interview question: Interview question 5 for Geneva and 4 for Sydney TESOLs Tell me how you came to b e a TESOL teacher? Review your own studies or career and indicate the moment at which you decided to b ecome an Adult TESOL. State the reasons and hesitations for that choice.

Data concerning TESOLs’ work and study prior to entry to TESOL is reported in Appendix C, and concerning hesitations about entering the profession is reported in Appendix D. Sydney TESOLs were also asked to comment on a list of motivations derived from the Geneva responses. As these cannot be compared with the Geneva studies, the questions and responses are presented in Appendix E.

Data for research questions 2-4 were derived from the following interview question: Interview question 1 for Geneva and 2 for Sydney TESOLs Survey your career from the very b eginning up to the point of the interview. Reflect on your career itinerary and try to discern some key themes and

132 leitmotives*. Plot these themes sequentially, if possib le, into a series of step or phases that would capture the flow of your professional experience. Note: * leitmotif / leitmotives (derivation from the field of music). This term is used by Huberman interchangeably with the term theme (for example, Huberman, 1993, pp. 3233).

Huberman’s study of secondary school teachers Motivations for career entry The main interview question required respondents to list their reasons or motives for entering the career, which provided an opportunity to deepen and refine their earlier account.

Huberman interviewed 156 respondents for this question and classified the 413 responses into three categories: active, material and passive motivations.

“Active” motivations, according to Huberman (1993), were those suggesting a deliberate choice. These motives constituted 63% of the whole set. However, it should be noted that the classic motives of calling, contact with young people, and desire to share one’s knowledge comprised only 21% of the responses. Love of the discipline represented only 11% of responses.

“Material” motivations constituted 28% of responses. The most frequently mentioned was a way of earning a living, of b ecoming financially independent representing 12% of responses overall. This was followed by working conditions (6%) exemplified by an attractive salary (12%), and flexible and unburdensome hours (4%). For some women, teaching allowed a parallel family life (2%).

“Passive” motives constituted 9% of responses. Among those teachers who admitted that their motives for teaching were “nil at the start”, some sank into it (1%), and some did it for lack of something better (8%). But 10 or 20 years later they were still teaching, unwilling or unable to change jobs.

133 Twenty-eight Geneva TESOLs gave 107 responses, and 32 Sydney TESOLs gave 175 responses. TESOL teachers are therefore compared with Huberman’s teachers at entry to the profession, recognising that TESOLs seemed generally to have joined the profession later in their lives and that in Geneva in particular their unusual circumstances were worthy of closer exploration. Phases and itineraries in the career Huberman interviewed 134 respondents for this question, with between five and 39 years of experience. There were 28 Geneva TESOLs and 32 Sydney TESOLs interviewed for this question, with between 0-29 years of experience.

Firstly, the characteristics of the major phases are identified and discussed. The focus is on exploring in more detail phases which could be considered archetypal for the careers of TESOLs. The personal and external factors affecting the respondents are identified. This is followed by an identification of common itineraries across the whole career for respondents with more than five years of experience in an attempt to identify trends common to both studies. From the analysis of phases, an overall career model is developed for both Geneva and Sydney TESOLs and compared to Huberman’s model.

The numbers of respondents in the TESOL studies were quite small, however, and the study essentially exploratory, so, while some emerging patterns are evident, the conclusions are regarded as provisional upon further confirmation.

GENEVA TESOL STUDY Motivations for entering TESOL Only two respondents were already TESOLs before arriving in Geneva. The remainder were already in Geneva seeking a career change or had come to Geneva to join their partner.

134 The motivations for Geneva TESOLs were similarly distributed to those of the school teachers’, the “active” category being the most frequently nominated motivation, followed by “material”, then “passive”. Active motivations “Active” motivations represented 54% of responses for Geneva TESOLs, or 58 responses out of 107 overall (see Table 4.1). However, in contrast to Huberman’s respondents who mentioned aspects of the profession such as working with young people, or wishing to influence them, or a desire to share their knowledge, the Geneva TESOL responses related more to the circumstances in which they found themselves. Fifty-five percent said that their former teaching experience had given them confidence to try TESOL, and others found that as teachers in a non-English-speaking environment they naturally were attracted to TESOL.

135 Table 4.1: Active motivations (Geneva TES OLs: 54% of responses) Responses Motivation

Number

% of

Cases %

total Unhappy with other career/ lifestyle - wanting a

17

16

61

14

13

50

11

10

39

Meeting people

3

3

11

Enjoyment

3

3

11

Helping people

2

2

7

Preferred TESOL to teaching children

2

2

7

Success with substitute teaching

2

2

7

Love of English / language

2

2

7

Modelling; influence of former teacher or

1

1

4

1

1

4

58*

54

change / actively seeking something to do Already trained as a teacher before At some stage had done TESOL before or something related Majored in English External request, suggestion

parents who were teachers Compensate for a perceived educational deficit; desire to “do better than one's own teachers”. Total responses

* 58 out of 107 responses overall w ere active motivations for entering TESOL

The largest number of Geneva TESOL responses were those seeking a change. In many cases the teachers were already abroad, or were simply wanting to change careers. This may be because of being unhappy with their other job, seeking something to do, seeking initial employment, or because of a mid-life crisis: Then I looked at the calendar, and decided I was not a young lady anymore. I looked on my passport and then I looked in the mirror

136 (laughs). And I knew that having an interesting job had always been important to me and the job was getting worse and worse, and I knew if I took another one, it'd be the same in six months ... and I had saved up for a long time for the (CTEFLA) course.

Often they were approached with the suggestion by someone recognising the value of their English skills. They then actively pursued it as a profession. Some examples follow:

Then it was through a German speaking contact who couldn't see why I didn't become an English teacher here, because he perceived English native speakers could automatically teach English.

I was looking for a job... and was being told that people needed English mother tongue speakers to teach, and a friend told me about the course and I did it.

I was very happy to be asked to teach young adults who were highly motivated from the Far East who had graduated from universities in the region. I jumped at the opportunity. It was great.

The other major reason mentioned by half of Geneva TESOL respondents was that they had trained as a teacher before, had majored in English or had some experience of TESOL.

Examples of these motivations follow:

One of the reasons I had for choosing that career (TESOL) was that I would be using my past experience, not as an English teacher, which I'd never been, but in the teaching profession.

I had been a French teacher, so it seemed right to be an English teacher .

137 In the back of my mind I had the memory of enjoying my teaching experience in Greece. Another respondent had been working in a supermarket in Geneva when he was asked to teach English for the same company:

and I was an English major and thought it would be better than putting cans on shelves

None of these motivations is surprising. TESOL was not typically a subject studied at university so that people are unlikely to come across it early in their lives through free choice. It was only later when they were abroad that they started looking for employment and either drifted into teaching, or went into it by a process of elimination.

Huberman’s secondary teachers had different active motivations, mainly relating to contact with youth and love of the sub ject matter.

The principal active motivations of Geneva TESOLs related not to intrinsic motives for teaching TESOL, but to more personal motives, such as wishing to have a change of lifestyle, or to the logic of progression, from having been a teacher before. Material motivations “Material” motivations represented 28% of total responses or 30 responses out of 107 overall, (see Table 4.2), the most highly rated in both Huberman and Geneva TESOL studies being the need to earn a living (36% of Geneva TESOL respondents; 31% of Huberman respondents). Some reasons follow:

I was strapped for cash, we needed it ... Switzerland was shocking at the beginning, everything was so expensive.

if I was going to be able to pay the mortgage I needed a regular income.

I needed a job - I’d just separated from my husband.

138 Table 4.2: Material motivations (Geneva TES OLs: 28% of responses) Responses

Case s

Motivation

Number

% of

%

total Need for a job / money

10

9

36

Job freedom; flexibility in one’s work

7

6

25

For travel / it’s portable

7

6

25

To enable me to get a work permit / stay in

2

2

7

2

2

7

Access to a higher status

1

1

4

Better conditions than in the school system

1

1

4

30*

28

Switzerland Feminine profession: the possibility of a family life in parallel

Total responses

* 30 out of 107 responses overall w ere material motivations for entering TESOL

Favourab le working conditions, which were important for secondary teachers (6%), were not mentioned by Geneva TESOLs. However, the flexibility and freedom offered by the field was important to 25% of the TESOLs. This is not surprising, as many Geneva TESOL respondents did not need to earn a living, but worked for pleasure, and wished to have time for other activities.

Essentially all the way through the one thing I relish is my freedom and I was lucky enough to always be in a position to do what I wanted to do.

I think there’s one thing about this job - you can do as much or as little as you want a lot of the time.

On the practical side it’s a wonderfully flexible job and you can teach anywhere in the world.

139 A large number (36%) of respondents taught casually. This allowed Geneva TESOLs to have experiences complementary to teaching, unlike Huberman’s teachers. These people liked the flexibility of TESOL as they could select convenient timetables and be available for their personal activity.

Travel was another feature for Geneva TESOLs, but not for Huberman’s sample. The portability of the profession made it initially attractive, particularly to those accompanying their spouses (25%). On the other hand, obtaining job security and tenure was a feature for Huberman’s respondents, but not for Geneva TESOLs. Passive motivations “Passive” motivations represented 18% of Geneva TESOL responses, or 19 out of 107 overall, including having a lack of something b etter to do or selecting teaching b y process of elimination (see Table 4.3). Table 4.3: Passive motivations (Geneva TES OLs: 18% of responses) Responses Motivation

Number

% of

Cases %

total Sank / drifted / fell into it

14

13

50

Unable to think of anything else / by process

5

5

18

19*

18

of elimination Total responses

* 19 out of 107 responses overall w ere passive motivations for entering TESOL

Half of Geneva TESOL respondents attributed their entry to “falling, drifting or sinking” into TESOL, while only 3% of Huberman’s respondents gave this as a reason. Some felt they had no choice:

Here there is no other choice, and since I live here it’s the only way to answer the question ... since I drifted into it.

140 They remained involved in the same activity years later without any conscious decision to adopt it as a career. This was especially true for the older respondents who had started before they needed to be qualified. Currently it is more usual for people to make a conscious decision to acquire the CTEFLA qualification first. Only one respondent did the CTEFLA out of interest being unable to work, and then found:

I got swept into it - not against my will - but you do get pulled along by the enthusiasm of it all.

The motivations for the secondary teachers for entering the career were substantially different from those of Geneva TESOLs. The school teachers mentioned factors associated with teaching as a full-time position offering security, and the attraction of teaching young people, while for Geneva TESOLs the most frequently mentioned motivations included wanting a change, drifting into it or because they had already trained as a teacher before.

Characteristics of major phases The major phases and themes during the career are identified with the itineraries leading to and from these. The terms used were discussed in Chapter III. Phase 1: Beginning phases A total of 17 Geneva respondents had easy b eginnings while 11 had painful ones (see Table 4.6). The theme in Huberman’s study of easy b eginnings resembled the Geneva TESOL study in many ways, with those having easy beginnings reporting positive contact with students, a manageable ambience in the classroom and ease with the curriculum.

Painful b eginnings were associated with factors such as stress, exhaustion, overinvestment and difficult pupils in the Huberman study. In the Geneva TESOL study, however, many beginning teachers were keen to discover whether the career would fit with their private lives, or whether they felt comfortable with their new career, particularly as many had started it later in

141 life. There was less concern with difficult students and curriculum matters, although many of the Geneva TESOLs referred to the stress, exhaustion and over-investment in their specific responses on the difficulties of beginning teaching (see Chapter V).

Respondents who had more than 10 years’ TESOL experience were more likely to have had painful beginnings because of a lack of available TESOL training leading to feelings of insecurity. One male respondent undertook a training course but was unhappy because of the working conditions.

One respondent, who was untrained in TESOL, had a painful start and said: ‘It took me seven years to know what teaching was about.’ The first phase she described as

bumbling along. I prefer to forget about that phase. I was all on my own, I had no guidance, no help, I had to find everything out for myself. I had no books.

Her training to be a French teacher did not help as she felt TESOL was ‘completely different to teaching French to secondary students ...’.

Another respondent, who was untrained in TESOL but had trained as a high school teacher, also had a painful start;

I was filling in time. I wasn’t thinking of it as a career. I couldn’t imagine doing it full-time. ... I had no idea what I was doing and I wasn’t very happy.

Two-thirds of respondents with less than five years’ experience underwent problematic beginnings, half resolving their problems and the other half with their problems still unresolved. The unresolved doubts could be attributed to their move from other careers later in life, not necessarily because of a need to earn a living. Some of these respondents appeared to find working life too restricting in spite of their wish to continue in the career. Some had

142 experienced professional life in other fields and were able to compare working conditions, which may have made them more discerning and critical.

From easy or painful beginnings, respondents then went on to other themes, with partial itineraries which have been further categorised as harmonious, relatively harmonious or problematic beginning phases. Four of the 17 respondents with easy b eginnings went on to experience doub ts, thereby having prob lematic b eginnings. Typical beginning itineraries for Geneva TESOLS Harmonious beginning phase (13 respondents: 46%) Thirteen respondents underwent a harmonious beginning to their career (see Figure 4.1). From easy b eginnings, 13 respondents from all categories went on to experimentation. This was an archetypal phase for TESOLs, crossing all categories of experience. Easy beginnings →

Experimentation (13)

Figure 4.1 : Harmonious early itinerary (n=13) Relatively harmonious early itinerary (3 respondents: 11%) As Figure 4.2 shows, three respondents had a relatively harmonious b eginning phase, starting off with difficulties then gaining confidence through experience or training. Painful beginnings (3) →

→

Experimentation (2) Training (1) - positive

Figure 4.2 : Relatively harmonious early itinerary (n=3) Problematic early itinerary (12 respondents: 43%) There was a typical prob lematic b eginnings phase, which crossed all Geneva TESOL categories but was particularly prominent for respondents with less than five years’ experience.

143 As Figure 4.3 shows, twelve respondents underwent this itinerary. Respondents with more than five years’ experience tended to go through a longer phase of experimentation before reaching a phase of doub ts. However, three respondents with 11-19 years’ experience had painful b eginnings leading to doub ts, then to exiting the career, and a further two with more than 20 years’ experience had painful b eginnings leading to doub ts. Easy beginnings (4)

Resolved (5) (with training) Dissatisfaction/ doub ts (11)


Unresolve

→Exit (6)

d (7) Figure 4.3 : Problematic early itinerary (n=12)

This was also a theme in Huberman’s study for 19 (14%) of the younger teachers (11-29 years’ experience). Whilst for some it ended badly, it was not definitive for the majority as they were still early in their lives. Four of the older Geneva TESOLs re-entered the career, while the two from the beginning category may have re-entered later.

In total, 57% (16/28) of respondents underwent harmonious beginnings to their careers, while 43% had problematic beginnings.

The respondents with less than five years’ experience seemed to enter a phase of selfdoub ts somewhat faster than the more experienced respondents thinking back to their early years. This could be because, as they were currently at the beginning phase they were focusing on their beginning pangs, which more experienced respondents mostly seemed to “gloss over” in light of later experience and to summarise into a mainly positive phase. Alternatively it could be because many were more mature entrants who had already come from other careers, and were more quickly critical of the working conditions which then brought them dissatisfaction. Or they may have had other priorities and viewed TESOL as a distraction.

144 One of the respondents left the field during the study and another changed direction. One can assume that a percentage would train for the field, start in it, and then decide it was not for them. Others who had had doubts were going through a desire for more training or for change, and one respondent then decided to go on to the next level of training. Phase 2: Experimentation / self-doubts / developing / growing Theme of experimentation Sixteen respondents went on to positive experimentation, gathering confidence in their choice of profession, and being on a “learning curve”.

Themes relating to experimentation included the comment of one respondent who mentioned she had ‘spread her wings’ and undertaken some training, as well as becoming a trainer. Another mentioned changing to more formal teaching at the international organisation. She also exited several times when she had children. Another mentioned independence, and several mentioned the themes of ‘exciting’, ‘stimulating’ and ‘stressful’. Theme of doubts There were 18 references to doubt in phase 2. The doubts were mainly due to a feeling of stress and overload with lesson preparation and of disillusionment with working conditions. Some resolved the situation, one deciding to do a DTEFLA to further her knowledge of the field:

I’ve thought of doing other things with it, I would use the word ‘doubt’ but I’m very surprised at myself using the word ‘doubt’ because I’m only in my second year of teaching. I was so pleased with what I’d found that I thought ‘Oh no, not again - I want to be settled - I want to like what I’m doing’

145 Of the three respondents, all with less than five years’ experience, who had not resolved their problems, one exited from TESOL by changing direction into another career teaching children:

I really prefer teaching children to teaching adults ... with teaching children I have my own method I’ve introduced, I’ve selected the books and I have more autonomy.

Another respondent exited completely from the profession into the airline industry, although she did not discount the idea of returning later in life to teaching: I enjoy teaching, but it’s not the only job I’d like to try during my life.

Many of those who started with doubts therefore exited TESOL to try something else. Some spent many years in and out of the profession before stabilising. Two male respondents decided that the profession had inadequate conditions, one trying to be a writer and the other deciding early in his career that the profession was ‘too precarious’:

I can’t have a child or buy my bread with this profession.

He left TESOL to go full time into editing and translating, but was forced to return to TESOL when work in that field dried up. Both had returned to TESOL. These two male respondents resemble, in some ways, Huberman’s male teachers from the high school with 5-10 years’ experience, ‘exploring’ or being ‘like a tourist’ (Huberman, 1993, p. 73).

A female respondent was never very happy with TESOL and throughout her career had periods when she would exit to study, have a break or take up another profession. She eventually returned to TESOL full-time because she needed the income.

146 Theme of developing / growing In the Geneva TESOL study, the stab ilisation phase seemed to be missing in the early phases, with respondents going to a phase with themes such as developing / growing, processing what I’d learned, an influential period, a more professional period. This could be attributed to the follow-on period from the DTEFLA - the late training many respondents underwent, and the fact that this often provided new challenges and a new burst of enthusiasm.

Huberman mentioned the theme of stab ilisation more frequently in this phase, while TESOL respondents mentioned the themes of experimentation and growing / developing more frequently. These themes still denote commitment to the profession even though they contain elements of restlessness and change. Partial itinerary leading to developing / growing / new challenge As Figure 4.4 shows, the prime theme appearing for respondents with five to ten years’ experience was developing / growing (years 2-7), which typically followed a period of training (DTEFLA) between years 3-6.

Easy beginnings

Experimentatio

Training

New challenge

(5)

n (6)

(4)

(2)/ developing/ growing (5)

Painful

Doubts

beginnings (2)

(3)

Figure 4.4 : Partial itinerary leading to new challenge (n=7)

Another typical itinerary for respondents with more than five years’ experience demonstrated in Figure 4.4 was that of experimentation followed by doub ts, then a new challenge to renew the enthusiasm. The new challenge usually followed a training experience. This could be a recurrent theme before respondents finally stab ilised.

147 Phase 3: Stabilisation The majority of respondents in the Huberman study achieved stab ilisation following experimentation and promotion to the high school or training for middle school teachers (between years 4-14). In the Geneva TESOL study stabilisation commonly followed the Diploma training course.

All 13 respondents with more than 10 years’ experience mentioned themes relating to stab ilisation. Three of the respondents mentioned stab ilisation as early as year three; three of them mentioned this theme from year six; another at year nine said she had ‘found my niche’; and a further one at year 13-14 described it as ‘solid development.’ Stabilisation, however, had a different flavour from that in the Huberman study, largely because of the unstable nature of the working conditions of TESOL. Therefore, while TESOLs may stabilise for a certain period of time, they were more likely to encounter some form of turbulence which would lead to other themes or change.

Many of the Huberman sample were concerned with finding a balance with family life, which was generally not an issue for Geneva TESOLs at this point in their career and was not necessarily linked to stabilisation. However, one female respondent had felt under great pressure because of the stress of having young children, and while she had a very successful TESOL career, she had always put her family as her priority. She had achieved this by remaining independent and freelance, seeking contracts that fitted her family obligations.

Those more experienced TESOLs with permanent contracts had achieved stabilisation in the international organisation, even though none had formal TESOL qualifications. Partial itineraries leading to and from stabilisation In the itinerary set out in Figure 4.5a, seven respondents with more than 10 years’ experience went through an experimentation phase leading to stab ilisation. In that set out in Figure 4.5b, five went from painful b eginnings to doub t and one from easy b eginnings to doub t. Five of these exited to other careers before taking up TESOL again and stabilising.

148 Only three of those following this itinerary were trained to international standards and many received little training through their career. This may have contributed to their problematic itinerary.

Easy beginnings (6) →

Experiment -ation (7) →

Stab ilisation (7) New challenge (1)

Painful beginnings (1) Figure 4.5a : Positive itinerary leading to stabilisation (n=7)


Stab ilisation (6) Doubts (6)

Exit (5)

Doubts

Easy beginnings

(1)

(1)

Exit (1)

Figure 4.5b : Problematic itinerary leading to stabilisation (n=6)

Somewhat surprisingly perhaps, stab ilisation was achieved by respondents with all types of working conditions, suggesting that permanency is not a necessary condition for stabilisation to take place. Of those reaching stab ilisation with this itinerary, five were permanent employees in the international organisation. Four of those started with painful b eginnings, but achieved stabilisation assisted by permanency. Four were freelance, three of them trainers. Three were long term employees of private school A, and one had recently commenced employment there after transferring from Paris. Phase 4: New challenges / stabilisation / doubts The major themes for Geneva TESOLs in this phase were new challenges, stab ilisation and acceptance. Other respondents had doub ts. Themes of new challenges / new concerns New challenges represented the strongest theme, with eight references. One female respondent was given new responsibilities as a coordinator which made

149 her more positive towards the profession even though she had previously considered it merely as a way of earning a living. Another female respondent had taken up a masters course in TEFL, which was very significant to her. The three male respondents with 11-19 years’ experience indicated that career challenges and a full-time job were important factors for them, even causing one to leave the field. Two of them had been moved into other training areas in the international organisation; one into computers, and one into management training.

Another respondent, who was fully trained in TESOL, and who was also a writer of TESOL articles and a teacher trainer, had had a fairly smooth path. At the time of the study, she considered she was involved in ‘growth and development upwards’. Partial itineraries leading to new challenge Two Geneva TESOL respondents with more than 20 years’ experience, who were both trainers and had had varied careers, seemed to need new challenges to keep their motivation and interest levels high (see Figure 4.6):

Doubt /

New

dissatisfaction

challenge →

Stab ilisation

Doubts →

→

New challenge

→ Figure 4.6 : Itinerary leading to new challenge (n=2)

Both respondents had a healthy career, and the periods of doubt were seen as positive moments, rather than negative. In these and many other cases, these periods of doubt were due to working conditions, but also to a need to explore other fields and other options; thus undergoing a reassessment of their career generally.

They therefore underwent, to various degrees, periods of doubt followed by new challenges.

150 Theme of stabilisation Three female respondents with permanent contracts at the international organisation mentioned themes of stab ilisation. One had achieved stabilisation through ‘combining career and children’. Permanency clearly brought feelings of stabilisation and security.

Another, who was untrained in TESOL, had a fairly painful start. She continued on a shaky path, being dismissed from one school and finally obtaining a part-time permanent contract in the international organisation. This led to stab ilisation and a sense of peace and balance.

Another respondent, who was untrained in TESOL but had trained as a high school teacher, went on to a full-time permanent position in the international organisation after her separation, as she needed to support herself and her daughter. She went through periods of stimulation, followed by a period of decline in enthusiasm, accompanied by tension with colleagues. She had a personal tragedy and ‘surviving after the accident’ entailed a new burst of enthusiasm, as she undertook training in Neuro Linguistic Programming over five years, which helped her to feel at peace with her colleagues.

One respondent, who was untrained in TESOL, had a problematic itinerary for many years, frequently leaving TESOL to try her hand at clerical and secretarial work, journalism and writing. She continually had the feeling of ‘underselling myself’, both in TESOL and other jobs. Finally, she reached a phase of stab ilisation, while retaining her independence, stating she was

thriving. I like the freedom to do whatever I want with my students and no one ever checks up on me. I wouldn’t want a contract here (at the private school). Theme of doubts There were four mentions of doubt in this phase. One respondent entered a period of concern due to the recession. He was unsure which way to take, as he wanted more stabilisation and a full-time job, which he couldn’t find in

151 TESOL. He currently worked casually at the international organisation and was keen to stay in the field, providing he got a fixed-term contract. After several years in EFL I realize I can’t exist on a part-time basis - no way. ... So, a career is having a contract, I couldn’t survive without it, whether you’re a man or woman you need a contract, particularly in Switzerland, security, health care.

He perceived himself as suffering due to the recession:

Now I’m 47, there’s a recession with a lot of people unemployed, companies are reticent to take on full-time staff and I’m seriously wondering which way to take.

He ended up exiting the profession as he managed to get a full-time job in the hospitality industry. Theme of doubts / dissatisfaction Two-thirds of respondents went through one or several periods of doubt in their careers. This phase could occur at any time, and may be a passing questioning or a whole reassessment of the career leading to change. Change may take several forms as indicated below: either leading to exiting the career, to training, to a change in positions or to a reduced assignment, to balance with one’s private life. Partial itineraries leading to and from doubt Doubts leading to exit Ten respondents from across the categories of experience experienced doubts leading them to exit the career, in some cases on several occasions. The reasons for exiting included working conditions (7), dissatisfaction with the stresses of the profession (1) or dissatisfaction and attempting another career (9).

152 Three respondents exited just once before returning, and four others had exited several times. Three respondents had exited for the first time and had not rejoined yet. Four were currently out of the profession, having exited during or directly after the study. Three respondents branched out occasionally into another field, while retaining some TESOL experience as a source of income. Doubts leading to training In some cases, doub ts could be caused by boredom or disillusionment with methods, or a need to develop. Training could help to renew confidence and inspiration, which five respondents experienced. Doubts leading to change in positions in TES OL Changing positions was quite difficult for many Geneva TESOLs as there were not many openings. Five, however, managed to do so, including one who had doubts and changed worksite; another who had doubts and changed position to a promotion ; another who had several phases of doubt and was continually seeking new challenges. Yet another reduced her hours and changed worksite, and another changed her worksite and position many times during her career, and had recently moved from Paris to Geneva. Doubts leading to reduced assignment In three cases doub ts were caused by personal factors such as settling in or family priorities or other priorities. These respondents attempted to rationalise their teaching load, or find a balance. Doubts leading to balance with private life One of the older respondents established early on that TESOL would take second place and maintained that balance throughout her career. As a consequence she did not mention periods of doub t. Similarly, one respondent with less than five years’ experience actively chose TESOL to accommodate her family obligations, so she did not have problems or doubts.

153 Figure 4.7 shows that three others, however, were enthusiastic initially, but then experienced problems, reaching a balance or maintaining their enthusiasm. Two resolved their doubts by reducing their load or stabilising the settling-in process, and another was still searching for a solution. Doub ts (3) → →

Resolved (2) →

Balance (2)

Unresolved (1) →

Still searching for balance (1)

Figure 4.7: Doubts leading to balance or not with private life following doubts (n=3) Personal and external factors affecting Geneva TESOLs The external factors affecting Geneva TESOLs included the world recession occurring at the time and working conditions and personal factors, for example, family concerns, which resulted in some respondents exiting the career. For others it brought on a phase of doubts and reflection.

Personal factors affected Geneva TESOLs in the earlier phases more than at any other time (see Table 4.4). Some were able to resolve the problems, while others were still attempting to find a solution. Many exited the career during the experimentation phase, some because of being disillusioned with the working conditions or being unable to earn enough to live, while others exited the career then re-entered later.

154 Table 4.4: Personal factors affecting Geneva TES OLs Phase

Personal factors

Phase 1: Beginning

Settling in (1)

teaching

Completing training (2)

Reason for exit

Family concerns (5) Relationship concerns (2) Phase 2:

Exit (11)

Experimentation

Wish to travel (1)

Other career (11)

Family concerns (3) Phase 3

Exit (1)

Other career (1)

Phase 4

Exit (2)

Other career (2)

Current phase Table 4.5 shows the current phase of respondents. Three respondents felt committed to TESOL at the time of the study. One of the respondents currently in a phase of stab ilisation was permanently employed at the international organisation; another was full-time long-term employed at private school A, and the third was freelance but committed to the profession.

155 Table 4.5 : S ummary of phase Geneva TES OL respondents were in at the time of the study Responses Current phase

0-10 years of

11-29 years of

experience

experience

-

6

6

Acceptance / at peace

1

3

4

Positive experimentation

3

-

3

Developing / growing

3

-

3

Commitment / stabilisation

-

3

3

Doubts resolved

3

-

3

10

12

22

5

1

6

5

1

6

15

13

28

New challenge (within

Total

stabilisation)

Positive Doubts (unresolved or partially resolved) Negative TOTAL RESPONSES

As may be expected, the types of themes encountered by respondents with less than 10 years’ experience related more to experimentation, developing and growing as well as trying to resolve doub ts, while those relating to respondents with more than 10 years’ experience related to commitment, new challenge or acceptance.

As for respondents in the Huberman study, respondents with more than 20 years’ experience had multiple phases, three of the sample starting with painful b eginnings and ending with acceptance of their situation and two with relatively harmonious careers currently being in a phase of new challenge. Unlike the Huberman study, historical factors were not a factor in the Geneva study, except to the extent that two of the respondents had permanent contracts at the international organisation. All Geneva TESOL respondents were relatively positive about the career at the time of the study, either describing it in terms of

156 acceptance or stab ilisation, or indicating that they were taking on new challenges or resolving perceived difficulties. Positive and negative phases in the professional life-cycle As in Huberman’s study of secondary school teachers, the Geneva TESOLs displayed some typical sequences or maxi-cycles. Table 4.6 identifies the main phases that the Geneva TESOL respondents underwent. On the left is the number of years’ experience they had when they nominated each phase; the next column identifies the name of the phase; the following column identifies the positive phases with the number of respondents nominating it in brackets; the following column the negative phases, and the final column the personal factors to which respondents referred.

At the time of the study, 22 respondents (79%) were in a positive or stable phase, while 6 (21%) were in a somewhat less positive phase with unresolved doubts (see Table 4.5). The large majority were, therefore, currently satisfied with their career despite difficult working conditions for many. Personal factors The personal factors explicitly mentioned during this part of the interview included settling into a new country, family concerns, a desire to travel, and exiting to another career.

Further analyses of the interviews reported in Chapter VI revealed additional professional and personal factors, which are discussed more fully in Chapters VI and VII.

This table represents the end-product of the analysis of responses by Geneva respondents to the question on career phases. It arose from the detailed discussion above.

157 Table 4.6: Geneva adult TES OL professional life-cycles (n=28) Year

Phases

Positive phases

Negative phases

0-1

1: Beginnings

Training (16)

Training (1)

Easy beginnings (17)


0-3

Personal factors

Settling into a new country (1)

2

Training

Training (1)

2-4

1-2:


2-11

Experimentation

2-3

2:

Doubts (14)





Wish to travel (1)


Doubts (4)

Family concerns (3)



Experimentation / 3

doubts / developing / growing

2-7 2-11

2-3:


3-6

Training

Training (8)

6-10

Acceptance /

Acceptance (1)

frustration

158 Table 4.6 (continued) 4-15

3: Stabilisation

New challenges / stabilisation (2)

12-16

Training

Training (2)

2-19

Stabilisation (8)

8-19

Training

Training (2)

8-20

Phase 3-4: New

New challenges / stabilisation

challenges /

(6)

8-25

stabilisation /

Stabilisation (4)

23-24

doubts

Second wind / new challenges (2)

21-25

Acceptance (3)

Doubts (3) - Exit (2)

Doubts (1)


159 Each phase has a thematic label, as in Huberman’s study. The procedure for establishing a theme within the phases in the TESOL studies was similar to that of Huberman. The theme, for example, of stab ilisation was retained when the term itself or one of its constituent elements was stated explicitly by one or several respondents. On the other hand, the respondent may have used words like ‘commitment’, ‘confident’, ‘settled’ or ‘permanent’ when evoking stab ilisation. In order for a theme to be included in Huberman’s analyses, it had to be mentioned by at least two persons of a sub-group, whereas all responses were included in the TESOL studies as the number of respondents overall was smaller. From these themes a smaller number of global themes was specified, having been identified by a number of respondents. However, the patterns were never so clear-cut as those reported by Huberman.

Where possible, terminology from the Huberman study was retained, but in many cases this terminology did not fit the TESOL study, so new terms were conceived. This matter was discussed in more detail in Chapter III.

In Table 4.6 the phases traversed by Geneva TESOLs have been presented chronologically in a linear sequence as far as possible. However, as is demonstrated in the left hand column representing years of experience of respondents undergoing such phases, there was no strict chronological order, as there are several instances in which phases overlapped.

Common itineraries across the whole career for respondents with more than five years’ experience This section analyses and explores the itineraries of 19 Geneva TESOL respondents using Huberman’s criterion of more than five years’ experience in an effort to establish common tendencies between Geneva secondary teachers and TESOLs. This was performed to test further the universality of Huberman’s framework, by identifying common elements and noting differences. The life-cycles divided into overarching themes of harmony or doubt.

160 Huberman required that a minimum of 15% of the total number in each case had followed a typical path in order to consider it for analysis. As the numbers were smaller, all TESOL itineraries for respondents with more than five years’ experience were identified and traced.

The respondents with less than five years’ experience in the TESOL studies were excluded from this part of the study and analysed separately because they were early in their careers and unlikely to have passed through phases other than beginnings. The last two scenarios in Huberman’s study were not repeated in the TESOL studies as they included teachers from the 30-39 year group, which were not represented in the TESOL studies. Generally harmonious itineraries Sixteen respondents with more than five years’ experience underwent generally harmonious itineraries including the following patterns discussed below: harmonious; achieved harmony: developing / growing; and achieved harmony: commitment. Harmonious itinerary Four respondents followed this itinerary (see Figure 4.8). From easy b eginnings, respondents went on to experimentation, then to stab ilisation with one having a new challenge. This was a positive harmonious itinerary, with new challenge being equated with Huberman’s third phase of renewal / experimentation.

Easy beginnings

Experimentation

Stabilisation (4)

New challenge

(4) →

(4) →

→

(1)

Figure 4.8: Harmonious itinerary (n=4) Achieved harmony - developing / growing Three respondents fell into this category (see Figure 4.9). From easy or painful beginnings they went on to experimentation. Two then entertained doubts which they resolved by developing / growing, and one went directly from

161 experimentation to developing / growing. They had not yet reached stab ilisation.

Easy beginnings

Experimentation (3)

Developing /

(2)

growing (3) Doubts (2)

Painful beginnings (1) Figure 4.9: Achieved harmony - developing / growing (n=3) Achieved harmony - commitment Nine respondents followed this itinerary (see Figure 4.10). These respondents reached stab ilisation before going on to a new challenge, which could equate with diversification or experimentation in Huberman’s study. Those with a final theme of acceptance/at peace could be equated with Huberman’s positive focusing.

162

Painful

Experimen

New

Developing

New challenge

beginnings

t

challenge

(1)

(partial exit) (2)

(7)

-ation (4)

(2)

Doubt

Training

Doubts (2)

Stabilisation

New challenge

Easy

s

(1)

beginnings

(5)

(5)

Doubt (3)

(3)

(2) Exit (4)

Acceptance / at peace (4)

Figure 4.10: Achieved harmony - commitment (n=9)

163 Problematic itineraries Problematic career Three respondents underwent a problematic itinerary, going from easy b eginnings and experimentation to problems later on due to working conditions, which caused two respondents to exit TESOL (see Figure 4.11). This could be equated with Huberman’s archetypal itinerary of self-doub t or assessment.

Easy

Experimentation

beginnings

(3)

(3)

Frustration (1)

Exit (2)

Doubts (2)

Searching

Stabilisation (1) Developing / growing (1)

for balance (1)

Figure 4.11: Problematic career (n=3) Section summary Sixteen respondents underwent itineraries relating generally to harmony, while only three underwent itineraries relating generally to themes of doubt. Overall then, Geneva TESOLs perceived their careers positively, despite difficult working conditions.

Overall model of itineraries for Geneva TESOLs Figure 4.12 shows an overall model of itineraries for all Geneva TESOLs. At all phases there were more incidences of positive phases than negative. Training at the beginning of the career often meant that respondents had easier beginnings to their career. Despite the generally positive responses there was evidence that respondents across the range of years of experience had some periods of doubt. Respondents either resolved these doubts while continuing teaching or exited. In some cases those who exited returned and resolved their doubts later.

164 Easy

Experimenta-

Training

Developing / Stabilisation

New

Stabilisation New

beginnings

tion (16)

(8)

growing /

challenges /

(4)

(17)

(10)

new

stabilisation

challenge(9

(6)

challenge (2)

) Resolved -

Training (4)

Doubts (3)

Resolved

Exit (2)

Doubts(1)

balance (3) Painful

Doubts (14)

Doubts (4)

beginnings

(3)

(11) Unresolve d (7)

Exit (6)

Acceptance (1)

Figure 4.12: Overall model of itineraries for Geneva TES OLs

Acceptance (3)

165 Most TESOLs reached phases of stab ilisation, but then had new challenges which tended to spur them on to further periods of stab ilisation. There was a fairly high incidence of respondents exiting the career once or repeatedly, often because of working conditions (four respondents), or to try something different (six respondents). Of those, three exited the profession long-term after the study started. Three respondents had combined EFL with other activities to achieve satisfaction. Since the study began, three new positions were created at a more senior level, offering further challenges to some within the field. This could indicate the beginnings of change in the profession, with more recognition of senior positions. However, two respondents were still performing additional duties as well as having substantial teaching duties, but with no official recognition.

Comparison between Geneva secondary school teachers and Geneva TESOLs As Table 4.7 shows, while the beginnings are similar in the two studies and some of the Huberman phases can be identified in the Geneva TESOL career cycle, the phases are more overlapping, recurring and varied for TESOLs, and interspersed with instances of training, often leading to a new lease of life.

166 Table 4.7: Overall summary of positive and negative phases - Geneva TES OLs compared to Huberman Year

Phases

Geneva phases

0-1

Phase 1:

Training: positive (16) negative

Huberman

Year

Survival and discovery

1-3

Stabilisation

4-6

Experimentation and

7-18

(1) 0-3

Beginnings

Easy beginnings (17) Painful beginnings (11)

2

Training

Training: positive (1)

2-4

Phase 1-2:


2-11

Experimentation

Doubts (14)

2-3

Phase 2:


3

Experimentation


/


doubts


/developing /

Doubts (4)

2-7

growing 2-11

Phase 2-3:


diversification

167 Table 4.7 (continued) 3-6

Training

Training (8)

6-10

Acceptance /

Acceptance (1)

frustration


Phase 3:


4-15

Self-doubt and reassessment

(2) 12-16

Stabilisation

Training (2)

2-19

Training

Stabilisation (8)

8-19

Training

Training (2)

8-20

Phase 3-4: New


challenges /

(6) Doubts (3) - Exit (2)

stabilisation /

Stabilisation (4)

doubts

Doubts (1)

8-25

23-24

Second wind / new challenges (2)

21-25

Acceptance (3)

Focusing down • Positive focusing

19+

• Defensive focusing • Disenchantment

Serenity and affective distance

Greater caution

19-33

168 The similarities include evidences in both studies of phases of discovery, experimentation and diversification. The phase of stab ilisation in the Huberman study was not as established for Geneva TESOLs, with stab ilisation occurring later and being more sporadically interspersed with phases of new challenges. The latter phases of Huberman’s study were not found, with the exception of acceptance, which could be likened to positive focusing. This is perhaps because there were no respondents with more than 30 years’ experience among the TESOL respondents, but it is also possible to speculate that Geneva TESOLs may not pass through such phases because of the greater variety in their career patterns. This can only be ascertained from further research.

This final identification of typical itineraries is particularly revealing. On the one hand there is some evidence to suggest that the Huberman model does have some efficacy even for such a different sample of teachers at the beginning of the career. However, following the first phases of b eginning and experimentation, the Geneva TESOL sample overall demonstrated many instances of new challenges and changes in direction to keep interest levels high. While several of them exited, many returned to the career and achieved a contented state of commitment and stab ilisation in spite of (or perhaps because of) the working conditions. Respondents often experienced “mini-cycles” following change.

Huberman’s sample, on the other hand, showed more instances of negative outcomes, or non-resolution of doubts, of reassessment and of disenchantment overall.

The relative positiveness of TESOL teachers when compared to secondary school teachers, in the context of what are generally regarded as inferior working conditions, deserves further discussion. It is an important matter which will be returned to in Chapter VII. Section summary Geneva TESOLs had little security in their working conditions. However, in spite of this, they had relatively positive career cycles, with many instances of

169 new challenge and further experimentation. Respondents often stabilised at various times during the career, sometimes only briefly before a period of reassessment followed sometimes by exit then further challenges on re-entry. Even those with more experience had entered a phase of acceptance and had stabilised, but did not mention the negative themes associated with focusing down for Huberman’s teachers. Overall, respondents seemed to have more positive career trajectories in spite of the working conditions. This is a surprising finding, as one might have expected more negative career trajectories in view of the degree of insecurity in the TESOL profession.

The mobility and frequent instances of change experienced by respondents resulted in a more complex career phase model, with repetition of phases and “mini-cycles”. It appears that people in a more insecure working environment may have different career phases from those in a secure life-long working environment, and that their career cycle may be no less positive than that of people with life-long tenure, especially towards career maturity. Indeed there is a suggestion here that the challenges associated with insecurity could lead to greater resilience and acceptance later in the career.

244

CHAPTER V SATISFACTION AND DISSATISFACTION WITH TESOL This chapter explores satisfaction levels of TESOLs by asking them a range of scenarios about the past and the future. It addresses research questions numbers 5-10 (see p. 9-10). Data are derived from the following interview questions: Interview questions 3 & 4 for Geneva study; 12 & 13 for Sydney study Define the word “career”. What is its relationship to TESOL? Interview question 8 for Geneva study; 6 for Sydney study Reflect back on the initial period of your teaching career; describe the year, the setting, the circumstances, your personal situation, your difficulties and emotions. Interview question 9 for Geneva study; 7 for Sydney study Describe two situations that caused problems during the initial months of classroom work.

Interview question 10 for Geneva study; 8 for Sydney study Both TESOL groups were asked to comment on a list of concerns affecting secondary school teachers and Geneva TESOLs mentioned some additional concerns, all of which are reported in Appendix I. Interview question 7 for Geneva study; 10 for Sydney study Have you ever thought seriously of leaving teaching? If yes, at what time in your career did these doubts occur? What would be the reasons for leaving this career? Interview questions 9 and 11 for Sydney study Sydney TESOLs were again asked to comment on lists of responses from the Geneva TESOL study concerning beginners’ concerns and moments of doubt.

245 As these cannot be compared with the Geneva studies, the questions and responses are presented in Appendices I and J. Interview question 2 for Geneva study; 3 for Sydney study Looking to the future? Interview question 6 for Geneva study; 14 for Sydney study Very honestly, if you had your professional life to live over again, would you choose TESOL and why or why not?

Huberman’s study of secondary school teachers Beginning teachers’ concerns Huberman’s respondents were asked about their personal situation, difficulties and emotions at the beginning of the career. Huberman divided the teachers’ responses into the categories of personal, pedagogical and affective themes:

Personal themes were those in which respondents talked about their personal and professional lives at the time of entry. They appeared in 49% of responses and were largely those common to people starting out in life, including studies (33% of respondents), financial problems (22%), teacher training college (22%), marriage or family (9%), difficulties in adapting locally (6%), an important investment outside (3%) and divorce or death of spouse (3%).

Pedagogical themes, which deal with the instructional setting, but also with relationships with colleagues, students and administrators comprised 20% of the responses. These included attitudes towards professional roles and status and were mainly classified as relating to the students (including 24% relating to discipline), the relationship with subject matter knowledge and its transmission (9% negative and 7% positive responses), relationship with colleagues (7% positive and 4% negative), attitudes towards professional roles and status, sufficient or inadequate preparation. Overload was an issue for about 63% of Huberman’s secondary teachers.

246 Affective themes which might have played a positive or negative role at that time were grouped under the headings of quality of experience, and self-perceptions. Fifty-three percent mentioned initial difficulties and/or negative self-perceptions, and 47% talked of pleasure and of positive selfperceptions. Perceptions ranged from feelings of panic to feelings of pleasure and doubts.

Huberman’s respondents were given a list of 11 “preoccupations” of beginners compiled from empirical research dealing with the chronic difficulties of beginning secondary school teachers (Bush, 1980; Fuller and Brown, 1975; MacDonald and Elias, 1983 and Veenman, 1984). The same list was shown to TESOL respondents for comment. As it was a pre-determined list, the responses Huberman’s respondents and TESOL respondents gave did not vary substantially except that TESOLs did not experience discipline problems in the same way as secondary school teachers. The findings are reported in Appendix I.

Stocktaking : moments of doubt Stocktaking is something people in all professions do at various stages in their lives, particularly in midcareer, when they question what they are doing and where they are heading, and teachers are no exception as many studies have shown (for example, Adams, 1982; Hamon and Rotman, 1984; MacDonald and Walker, 1974; Newman, 1979; Prick, 1986 and Sikes, 1985). In teaching, this introspection comes early in the career, with Huberman’s school teachers recording their most serious doubts just after the stabilisation phase, between years 11-15 of the career. Other crucial moments were the adaptation crisis in the first 18 months and after year 15.

Fifty-eight percent of Huberman’s secondary school teachers said that they had never thought of leaving teaching and 42% said that they had. Therefore, although the majority said “no”, a fairly strong minority (42%) had seriously wavered between staying or leaving the teaching profession.

Twenty-five percent of respondents were tempted by another more attractive career path, and an equal proportion of responses referred to personal and

247 institutional complaints. Personal concerns (fatigue, frustration) were more important than institutional concerns (changing locations, scheduling).

Re-select the career? Respondents were questioned about their willingness to re-select teaching. Huberman felt this interview question was “an unequivocal way” of measuring satisfaction (Huberman, 1993, p.127). In Huberman’s study, 50% said “yes”, without qualification. Eighty-four percent would “actively” choose teaching again, but some only on certain conditions, while only 12% of the sample were certain they would not re-select teaching. Three percent were uncertain.

Among the 18 teachers who said firmly that they would not re-select teaching, 60% regretted having considered, then abandoned, other career paths in professions considered to be more socially prestigious than teaching, such as the medical profession and research-related and artistic careers.

The reasons for re-selecting the profession were numerous. Huberman created two categories of responses; intrinsic responses dealing with the internal feelings arising from being a teacher (66% of responses), and extrinsic responses, related to external working conditions (34% of responses). Huberman noted that when a respondent offered a single answer, it tended to be intrinsic. Two such responses predominated; the feeling of being “made” for teaching (25%), and the pleasure of contact with young people (20%). However, when the respondent offered two responses, the second was often of an extrinsic nature.

A considerable number of respondents said they would choose teaching again, but only conditionally. Variety of work was the key component of the conditional choice of teaching, with the idea of setting boundaries between the commitment of work and the pleasures of the outside world. There was also an element of fear of routine and of a one-dimensional type of life.

248

TESOL studies What is a career? It is important to define key terms such as “profession” and “career”. The question of whether TESOL is a career was included later in the Geneva TESOL study as, during the initial interviews, many respondents had reacted to the word “career” in a negative way. Could TESOL, with its unstable working conditions and largely unqualified personnel, really be considered a “career”? Was TESOL changing as some indicated during the course of the interviews? What was the definition of the word “career” and what interpretation did the respondents give to this word? Was it the nature of teaching generally that it did not fit into the classic business world career structure or hierarchy, and was this structure an appropriate one for teaching anyway?

Johnston (1997) challenged the use of the terms profession and career in relation to TESOL and concluded that the possibility of careers in this field are highly questionable. The Centre for British Teachers’ study (1989) and McKnight’s study (1992) both found that TESOL lacks an institutionalised career structure and that TESOLs lack career ambitions and consequently have a high attrition rate. These findings are echoed elsewhere in the literature, for example in Maley’s (1992) description of EFL/ESL as permeable, meaning that it is an easy occupation to enter and leave. Clayton (1989) called EFL teachers “unreal” (p. 56), as they were mainly young, unqualified native speakers looking to spend a couple of years in English teaching to make money, gain overseas working experience and so on.

Asking respondents to define the concept of career and its relationship with TESOL provided another way for them to indicate levels of satisfaction in the “career”. A general definition of career has been given in Appendix F. The majority of the responses of groups of TESOLs centred around intrinsic rewards (Geneva TESOLs: 55%; Sydney TESOLs: 58%) including professional rewards such as development / expansion and advancement / progression; and extrinsic rewards (Geneva TESOLs: 45%; Sydney TESOLs: 42%) such as commitment and material rewards.

249 The responses from the TESOL studies have been divided into the following categories: extrinsic rewards, including material rewards; commitment; and other; and intrinsic rewards, including personal rewards and professional rewards (advancement / progression and development / expansion).

GENEVA TESOL STUDY Is TESOL a career? These are the responses to interview questions 3 and 4. Twenty-two Geneva TESOL respondents commented on this question. Forty-six percent felt TESOL was a career, while 41% felt it was not. (Table 5.1). Sixty percent felt TESOL was in some way a career, but 86% had some type of doubt over whether it was or not. Most respondents were therefore not convinced that the term “career” related naturally to TESOL. Table 5.1: Is TESOL a career?: Geneva TESOLs Responses Is TESOL a career?

Number

%

TESOL is definitely a career

3

14

TESOL is a career, but .....

7

32

TESOL is definitely not a career

6

27

TESOL is not a career, but ....

3

14

TESOL is a career of sorts

3

14

22

100

Total responses

TESOL was often perceived not to have typical career components, but, as one respondent stated:

it goes back to do you want a career? Do you want money? Or purely job satisfaction?

Many respondents explained why TESOL was often considered by others not to be a career, but excluded themselves from that view. They mentioned poor

250 salaries and part-time work in support of the common view. Many respondents felt teaching in general was not considered a career. They felt a career was linked with financial power “which of course doesn’t happen with teachers.” One respondent said:

If you think of a career woman, it’s not associated with teaching - why not? I am developing with new approaches, there probably is some career development there but it’s the relationship with teaching which sounds funny.

The following section explores the reasons given for TESOL being or not being considered a career.

Positive responses relating to TESOL being a career The reasons for believing TESOL was a career were mostly intrinsic with 77% of responses, while extrinsic rewards represented 23% of responses. They are set out in Table 5.2. Table 5.2: Positive responses relating to TESOL being a career: Geneva TESOLs Responses TESOL is a career

Number

%

Intrinsic rewards

20

77

Professional rewards: development / expansion

10

38

Personal rewards

7

27

Professional rewards: advancement / progression

3

12

Extrinsic rewards

6

23

Material rewards

4

15

Commitment

2

8

Total responses

26

100

The largest category of responses related to intrinsic rewards of the profession, including professional rewards: development / expansion (38%), personal rewards (27%) and advancement / progression (12%).

251 Four respondents felt that TESOL was becoming more professional. One respondent had attended a management course in England and commented:

I came away with such an impression of the professionalism of it all. I've never seen that level of professionalism here in Geneva.

Another respondent felt that more recognition was now given to TESOL as a business:

EFL is going through a great period of transition ... the recession has pushed (the industry) round here into realising it's a business.

Another respondent also agreed that the situation was changing with increasing numbers of teachers having qualifications.

Personal rewards included the career having the potential of providing long-term satisfaction, meeting people and receiving feedback from students.

Extrinsic rewards represented 23% of responses, including material rewards and commitment. Material rewards were not high on the list, but included being able to travel and work anywhere in the world, and TESOL being relatively well paid. Some felt it was the individual’s responsibility to make a career of it:

it’s up to you to make it one - you have to train and keep up to date.

Negative responses relating to TESOL being a career Negative responses included a lack of extrinsic rewards (73%) and a lack of intrinsic rewards (27%) (Table 5.3).

252 Table 5.3: Negative responses relating to TESOL being a career: Geneva TESOLs Responses Lack of

Number

%

Extrinsic rewards

21

73

Commitment

15

52

Material rewards

6

21

Intrinsic rewards

8

27


7

24

Personal rewards

1

3

Total negativ e responses

29

100

Lack of extrinsic rewards Fifty-two percent of the negative responses asserted that TESOL was not a career because of lack of commitment and the abundance of part-time or casual work. One respondent expressed the view that there were three levels of commitment within the TESOL occupation; professionalism - a group that regard it as a profession and were committed; one “camp” which thinks of it as charitable work: “just like doing the shopping for the neighbour”; and perhaps a third that teach a few hours a week and have other priorities “just filling in a few hours of teaching EFL.” The group who “do it like the shopping for the neighbour” were usually not trained.

The high incidence of part-time teachers and of women in the field made many question the status and seriousness of the profession. As one respondent commented:

too many people here do it part-time, and have separate incomes and are just dabbling in it, they are amateurs and not bothered about work conditions or professional development as a way to having a career structure.

253 I am very disappointed about the whole status of EFL in Geneva.... There’s a lack of continuity, lack of security... There is low esteem within the private sector.

Poor working conditions and pay were themes that arose here and elsewhere in the study:

it’s certainly one of the more traditional areas where women are exploited.

The way the system is organised you’re always chasing hours. There are many unprofessional aspects.

One respondent commented on “working ridiculous hours, funny timetables”. Teachers had to travel between companies to deliver classes carrying “loads of books” and had no base classroom. Many working in private schools had no contract. One respondent said:

A career is having a contract, I can’t survive without it, whether you’re a man or a woman.. Lack of intrinsic rewards Many respondents felt that the lack of opportunities for progression or movement upwards meant that TESOL could not be considered a career:

One respondent expressed the general feeling of many:

For me a career is ... evolution and you can gain responsibility and be promoted. It’s always moving forward.

She compared this general definition with TESOL as follows:

254 The problem with TESOL is that if I spend another five years here nothing would change responsibility-wise, the salary wouldn’t increase much, and I wouldn’t be doing anything more.

Teaching in the State secondary school system, whether in Geneva or elsewhere, however, was seen by some respondents to have more possibilities of movement:

In the school system you have junior teacher, senior teacher, deputy headmaster, headmaster etc and you end up not doing the job you started doing.

In summary, although 60% of Geneva TESOL respondents held the view that TESOL contained some significant elements of a career, in general poor working conditions precluded it from full career status. The intrinsic rewards were the most frequently mentioned positive aspect of the career, while the largest number of responses concerning the negative aspects of TESOL as a career related to the lack of commitment to the profession and the lack of material rewards. This was often perceived to be due to the inadequate working conditions resulting from the high levels of casual employment in the field.

Beginning teachers’ concerns Personal situation, emotions and difficulties Twenty-three people responded to interview question 8. In the general responses to the first part of the question, 55% related to negative memories and 45% related to positive memories. Negative memories Sixty-seven percent of negative responses related to affective themes, and 33% to pedagogical themes.

Negative affective themes included feelings of stress or anguish and not liking the atmosphere. Many balanced the difficulties with a feeling of excitement.

255 My emotions; frustration, frustration, frustration. Before I had training - the frustration of trying to get over something which seems so obvious to me now ... I found it very exciting too. I would come out of a class on a high and it would take some time to come back down again.

(Tentatively) I suppose I felt a certain anxiety, a feeling of discovery of being able to try out something quite new, the newness was quite exciting.

Pedagogical themes included time spent on preparing lessons, timetable problems, problems of motivation of students and the frustration of trying to please students. Positive memories Affective themes mainly addressed the attitudes of respondents to entering the profession. The positive memories consisted of affective themes (73% of positive responses) and pedagogical themes (27% of positive responses).

Many respondents entered the profession with no training and with a happy-go-lucky attitude: they were young and earning some money. One respondent said “I did it for a lark”:

We didn’t have a clue ... It was horrible but they (the students) didn’t leave. It was the exuberance of the teacher, I’m sure. I went in happy as a bird, I was young.

I was young and innocent and having a nice time.

One contrasted TESOL with teaching in schools:

It’s a wonderful contrast between secondary school and TESOL - there are groups of adults, they are mature, motivated, there are no discipline problems, it’s such a joy, there are no police coming in to arrest the

256 students, ... it’s a challenge, a joy of life and I used to work for hours and hours till early in the morning building up materials.

Several pedagogical themes were mentioned, with three respondents stating they had support and guidance and one speaking of excellent facilities.

Two situations causing beginner concerns Twenty-three respondents answered interview question 9. The responses of participants about situations which caused them problems related to pedagogical, affective and personal concerns.

As Table 5.4 shows, pedagogical concerns were the largest category, with 58% of responses, followed by affective concerns (17%) and personal concerns (15%). Eight percent of responses mentioned positive themes unprompted, while two respondents mentioned they had no concerns as beginner teachers. Table 5.4: Concerns of beginning teachers: Geneva TESOLs (n=23) Responses Category of concern

Number

%

Pedagogical concerns

66

58

Affective concerns

20

17

Personal concerns

17

15

Positive comments

9

8

No concerns

2

2

114*

100

Total responses

* 114 responses w ere given by 23 respondents Each of these groups of concerns is broken down further in Tables 5.5 to 5.8 below. Pedagogical concerns Pedagogical concerns covered a wide range, which have been sub-categorised and set out in Table 5.5.

257 Table 5.5: Pedagogical concerns of beginning teachers: Geneva TESOLs (n=23) Responses Pedagogical concerns

Number

Classroom/ practical concerns

39

Practical things connected to conducting the lesson -

11

% of total

timing/ instructions / using equipment Learning English grammar

8

Student motivation

7

Difference of levels in the class

6

Problems with the method

4

Absenteeism / discipline

2

One on one teaching

1

Lack of support (people and materials)

9

Lack of guidance / support

5

Lack of familiarity with materials / lack of materials

4

Planning

8

Planning / overplanning

8

Relationship w ith students

7

Logistics

3

Space / rooms

2

Logistics / travelling between classes

1

TOTAL PEDAGOGICAL CONCERNS

66

58

Classroom / practical concerns The largest category related to methods and concerns connected to the classroom. Practical things connected to conducting the lesson included references to timing, difficulties in judging the level of the class to match the materials, going too fast, and difficulties with working cassette recorders, videos or overhead projectors.

258 Some schools had developed their own methods, usually with questionable or no sound theoretical base, designed to train people who had never taught. One respondent found that a “hands-on practical” method was the best, and criticised the CTEFLA for an over-academic approach. Some of the recent recipients of the CTEFLA were grappling with aspects of the course which they perceived as unrealistic or unworkable.

High on the list of concerns for Geneva TESOL respondents was that of learning English grammar. This could equate with learning the subject matter in the Huberman study. English-speaking teachers were at a particular disadvantage in that the English teaching systems do not adequately prepare students at school to analyse their own language in the same way as school systems do in many countries. Students were frequently better able to analyse the grammar than the teacher was, which caused much stress, and new teachers often spent hours checking the rules before teaching. It also made them nervous of teaching more advanced classes.

I remember asking M for a list of the names of tenses in English, and she was horrified - if you don't know the tenses, how can you teach?

every book had a different explanation and I’d wonder which was right.

Student motivation was another problem affecting teachers at the planning and implementation level. It was assumed that adults are motivated. However, there were instances in which motivation was lacking. For example, in company classes, where the company paid for the class and could require them to attend, students may not come of their own will.

My first experience was when I had to teach in a company and it was very discouraging; there were problems of motivation, the students weren’t paying, the company was paying, so they treated it a little like the coffee machine - you go and help yourself when you want some.

259 Beginning teachers also had problems identifying levels of students, and coping with mixed levels in classes:

you get an exam class and only half of them are motivated to do the exam - the other half are there because they are more or less the same level. ... It’s all to do with finances and private schools. They need as many in the group as possible and they put in people who have different motivations. Lack of support The CTEFLA recommends that beginner teachers should have guidance and support. However, schools were not obliged to provide guidance. Many CTEFLA graduates felt lost and lacking in guidance, although both private schools had made guidance and support available, one in an informal way, and the other through a formal appraisal system.

For the last 15 years there has been a plethora of materials available for TESOLs, but teachers rarely follow coursebooks, preferring to construct their own syllabuses. Previously there was a dearth of materials. For some starting out in the 1970s or 1980s this was a concern, while some newer recruits found the choice bewildering. Planning In the Huberman study, there was a feeling of insufficient time for planning. Geneva TESOL teachers were also concerned about the amount of time spent on preparation. One respondent was so stressed by the home preparation that she decided to change professions. In contrast to school teachers, TESOLs are encouraged to develop their own courses and individualise each lesson to suit student needs:

I was approached by a private student ... he wanted to start immediately and my husband said, “you don’t realise all the work that goes into this - you can’t start just like that” ... and Rafael was

260 impressed with the lesson plan in the plastic folder. He said “Is that just for me?” and I said “Yes, I do a different one for each student.

One respondent found a solution by taking on a greater number of teaching hours to help control the amount of preparation time.

I used to do phenomenal lesson planning and I couldn’t switch off from teaching ... In the end I talked to X about it and she said “take on more hours and you’ll have less time and get less preoccupied.” So I took on 15-16 hours a week, and had no time to prepare. Relationship with students Many beginning and young teachers found they were too emotionally involved with students and that other personality concerns caused difficulties. Although discipline was not generally a problem for Geneva TESOLs, some respondents did give examples of difficult students. On the other hand, many TESOLs who had also worked in the school system stated that with adults there were no discipline problems because adults were generally motivated. Logistics Another area of concern mentioned by respondents was logistics, for example, travelling between classes and space concerns. In some cases, teachers were given inferior conditions for teaching, especially in companies where teaching took place in the canteen, rooms without windows or airconditioning, or the venue was changed without notice. Affective concerns The next most frequently mentioned category of concern for Geneva TESOLs related to affective concerns. These are set out in Table 5.6.

261 Table 5.6: Affective concerns of beginning teachers: Geneva TESOLs Responses Affectiv e concerns Lack of confidence / experience / training

Number

% of total

15

Stress

4

Fear

1

TOTAL AFFECTIVE CONCERNS

20

17

A general overwhelming feeling of lack of confidence or experience was the major concern facing beginning teachers. This was further compounded by the fact that 52% of Geneva TESOLs entered the field untrained. Personal concerns As Table 5.7 indicates, of the 15% responses about personal concerns, financial problems were mentioned by seven Geneva TESOLs. Table 5.7: Personal concerns of beginning teachers: Geneva TESOLs Responses Personal concerns

Number

Financial problems

7

Difficulties in adapting locally

5

Marriage or family

4

Divorce or death of a spouse

1

TOTAL PERSONAL CONCERNS

17

% of total

15

However, some remembered that although they earned little money, they were young with no family responsibilities:

the pay was appalling and I had the hours no-one else wanted, early mornings and late evenings, and I was teaching privately on the side to make up the hours left, but at the same time I had no family responsibilities.

262 Four Geneva TESOL respondents mentioned marriage or family concerns, two because of family obligations with children: I was juggling children and hours ... my husband was supposed to get home at that time to take over the evening shift, but sometimes he was delayed.

Difficulties in adapting locally were mentioned by five Geneva TESOL respondents, as most of the respondents found themselves transferred overseas, two with no foreign language skills.

Bosses do not think of the psychological aspects of being in a strange place, feelings of alienation, the culture shock even in Europe. Positive comments Eight percent of respondents mentioned positive aspects of the profession they recalled as beginner teachers (see Table 5.8). Table 5.8: Positive comments of beginning teachers: Geneva TESOLs Responses Positiv e comments I liked the colleagues, the atmosphere in EFL

Number

% of total

5

staffroom (pedagogical) I feel more confident (affective)

2

TESOL is enriching (pedagogical)

2

Total positiv e comments

9

8

These included the pleasure of discovering the atmosphere of the EFL staffroom, and interaction with colleagues. Some of the respondents had felt relatively isolated until they took up TESOL, having moved to Geneva to join their husbands:

I found the support from colleagues was terrific.

Another mentioned the relief of feeling more confident due to having a job:

263 I felt much more confident personally - if I went to social gatherings or parties, I could say “I have a job” rather than “I go to exercise classes, have lunch with girlfriends”...

One was realistic about how genuine the interaction with colleagues was:

It’s been enriching from the personal point of view. I’ve loved meeting different people and I love it ... but I’ve got the impression that if I left tomorrow no one will miss you.

In summary, the salient areas of concern were with practical matters relating to the classroom. The CTEFLA graduates were particularly concerned about practical things after only a one-month preparatory course, and a lack of familiarity with materials leading to the need for overplanning. The CTEFLA encouraged teachers to plan their own syllabuses using many source texts, which for an inexperienced teacher could be a daunting and time-consuming task, as this study demonstrated. Beginner teachers, being junior to their colleagues, were often given the most unsocial timetables. Lack of support and guidance were also a concern.

Stocktaking (moments of doubt) Twenty-four respondents answered interview question 7. Some TESOL respondents felt that stocktaking was a natural process regardless of profession, one stating that stocktaking was expected of those treating any profession seriously:

Some colleagues go through doubts because if they're serious, they stocktake and question and have doubts. They are my closest training colleagues.

Table 5.9 shows that 54% of the sample had thought at one time or another of leaving TESOL, while 46% had not. More than half had therefore considered leaving the profession, which is considerably more than in the Huberman study.

264 Table 5.9: Have you ever thought of leaving? Geneva TESOLs (n=24) Responses Hav e you ev er thought of leav ing?

Number

%

Firm yes

6

25

Yes with reservations

7

29

Firm no

7

29

No with reservations

4

17

Total responses

24

100

Most of those who answered that they had not seriously considered leaving nevertheless mentioned moments of doubt. This increased the numbers of sometime doubters to 17 out of 24. That is, 71% of the Geneva TESOL sample had harboured moments of doubt. The adaptation crisis in the first two years was the most crucial time for Geneva TESOLs, and between years 7-10. However, there were also moments of doubts spread over the career cycle.

At the time of the study, nine of the 24 respondents (37.5%) were in a stocktaking phase: four of these were recent recruits to the profession who resolved their doubts by various means during the study. Two respondents referred to their working conditions which were causing them constant concerns, while another three respondents actually left the profession during or after the study due to the working conditions.

Motives for stocktaking The motives for considering leaving teaching were varied, but extrinsic reasons represented 70% of responses. Working conditions and poor pay were the most frequently mentioned negative reason (Table 5.10). However, several respondents cited positive aspirations outside of TESOL, not related to any problems in TESOL itself.

265 Table 5.10: Motives for leaving teaching: Geneva TESOLs (n=13) * Responses Motiv e

Number

%

Extrinsic reasons

22

70

Because of money and working conditions

11

35

Positive motive: leaving without a crisis

9

29

Institutional reasons: method or student conditions

2

6

Intrinsic reasons

9

29

Stressful, boredom / talents underused / loneliness of

6

19

Lacking confidence

3

10

Total responses

31

100

the job

* These cases include those who said “no, I haven’t thought of leaving but .....”

Thirty-five percent of “yes” responses by Geneva TESOLs concerned leaving because of money and working conditions, often within the institution, but also attributable to the profession as a whole. Some found that poor pay was frustrating, but wouldn’t change because of it:

I'm so tempted to take a job with better pay but I wouldn't do it for the money, so I've created a stalemate for myself.

Poor working conditions for teachers included long and unsociable working hours and lack of security and paid vacations:

The reasons for leaving this would be the terrible working conditions, there are no social benefits to speak of, you don't even get coffee breaks, to say nothing of vacation, pension etc.

266 Considering leaving without a crisis was significant in the Geneva TESOL study, representing 29% of responses. The reasons given were consistent with Huberman’s four categories, with additional TESOL categories as follows:

i) teaching having forsaken other options One respondent found herself doubting whether she wanted to continue or return to England to teach in schools ii) teachers who have other interests / commitments and have no financial need This reason was typical, particularly of three teachers, whose spouses guaranteed financial security. They could leave or take part-time work to devote themselves to family life, to return to university, or to pursue cultural or artistic activities. iii) change when everything became too easy One respondent mentioned on several occasions that she was underselling herself by working in TESOL, then left TESOL to do secretarial duties in a company, where she felt she was underselling herself, and then returned to TESOL. iv) leaving for a more attractive option Four Geneva TESOLs thought of leaving when a more attractive option came their way. v) TESOL being a stepping stone to other careers These respondents always intended to move on from TESOL.

Six respondents considered leaving for reasons of frustration or boredom, but this may occur in any profession, as one TESOL respondent stated:

maybe due to the fact that I’ve been in the profession for 20 years, you have your ups and downs whether you’re teaching or anything else...Yes, this feeling recurs from time to time. But I think it would happen to me whatever job I’m in.

Huberman’s respondents often gave reasons of boredom with routine and apathy, while the TESOL respondents primarily gave reasons related to stress,

267 stagnation or even loneliness. One was bored because she had no training and her methods were limited, while another was “bored with working for love”. One respondent said:

At the beginning of this year in January I really thought about leaving. I felt like a number, I was teaching 16-17 hours a week and it was monotonous, I was going nowhere.

Another felt the responsibility daunting, finding she was taking her concerns home. She was also lonely in her professional life:

I would like to have to think less about my job at weekends / evenings etc ... another reason is that often I feel the job is very much you on your own - there are workshops and things, but it's very much each man for himself in the sense that you’re left to your own devices.

Three respondents mentioned lack of confidence, or self-esteem. One spoke about: The panic in front of the class - the room literally rolling beneath my feet - so that was a bad experience - I thought I couldn't do it for more than a week.

In summary, the Geneva TESOL respondents had more moments of doubt than Huberman’s secondary school teachers. These were related mostly to inadequate working conditions. This was a recurrent concern of TESOLs in several sections of the study. Another 29% of responses related to leaving for positive motives.

Fifty-six percent of Geneva TESOLs intended to continue with TESOL in future, even though many expressed doubts over whether TESOL can be considered a career. The positive aspects of TESOL related to intrinsic factors, while a lack of certain extrinsic factors were perceived to be the negative aspects.

268 Fifty-four percent had thought of leaving TESOL, mainly because of extrinsic reasons such as working conditions or attraction to another job.

Future aspirations Twenty-eight teachers responded to interview question 2. From the responses to the question about their future plans, Geneva TESOLs appeared overall to be sufficiently satisfied with the profession to wish to continue (Table 5.11). The most frequently mentioned plans referred to TESOL-related activities (50% of responses). Table 5.11: Future plans: Geneva TESOLs (n=28) Responses Future plans

Number

%

TESOL combined with another activity

18

35

TESOL - status quo

11

21

Uncertain

8

15

Other career

7

13

Would prefer to travel

5

10

Family life priority in short term

3

6

52*

100

Total responses * The 28 respondents gave 52 responses

Combining TESOL with another activity represented 35% of responses. The previous chapter identified the attraction of the freedom and flexibility of TESOL, as a result of casual and part-time teaching positions, allowing TESOL to be combined with other activities.

The additional activities were often TESOL-related. For example:

Four respondents wished to continue or move into training or development:

I’m interested in development, there are quite a lot of things on the boil in Switzerland, certainly two projects after Christmas will take off.

269 Four envisaged writing either TESOL-related books or materials or on other subjects: I thought of being a materials writer - keeping my hand in, but something different.

Two respondents mentioned combining translation and teaching but one commented that “the profession may disappear because of technology.” For some the idea of teaching full-time long term was unchallenging:

I have to admit that the thought of full-time teaching and doing the same thing year in year out till I’m 65 doesn’t seem very challenging.

I'm always interested in doing something other than just teaching.

Why? Because I need

variety.

As might be expected, six out of nine respondents with less than five years’ experience were still happy teaching and envisaged TESOL as a career for the future. Two of these were keen to do the DTEFLA, the next step in training, and one was also keen to study further than that:

I'd like to do more academically - I'll certainly do the Diploma. Artificial Intelligence gave me the flavour of linguistics, maybe I'll do something like that.

Those with permanent positions in the international organisation envisaged teaching until retirement.

Eight of the respondents expressed uncertainty about the future, which was attributed to a range of factors. Three were new recruits to the profession and were going through feelings of doubt and insecurity. One new recruit wished to travel with her husband and had no financial need for a job:

270 I have thought of leaving because with the little teaching I do, I have to give up travel with my husband ...

Another respondent was unhappy with her working conditions, but had no other solution close to hand:

It's an awfully hard way to earn money. I tell my trainees teaching is like adolescence - there are highs and lows that you don't get in middle age. The more you get into it the highs get higher and the lows get lower. Only one of the respondents sounded dissatisfied with TESOL, the others speculating but not committing themselves to a future direction.

Travel was mentioned by several respondents, either for professional reasons or for pleasure, with the main motive of discovering other cultures. Three respondents wanted to give priority to their families for the short term.

Seven respondents were keen to move into something different, and two of these have moved since the study.

In summary, most Geneva TESOL respondents wished to continue in the profession in the future. There was no evidence of general dissatisfaction with the career, even though three respondents left the field for extrinsic reasons: two because of the working conditions, and one who had taken up TESOL only as a stepping stone. Many respondents planned to combine TESOL with training or had already started doing this, while others planned to travel laterally over time.

Re-select TESOL? Twenty-three teachers responded to interview question 6. Fifty-seven percent of Geneva TESOL respondents felt they would re-select TESOL, 17% felt they would not, and 26% were uncertain (Table 5.12).

271 Table 5.12: Re-select TESOL or not? Geneva TESOLs (n=23) Responses Responses

Number

%

Firm yes

10

44

Yes, but with reservations

3

13

Uncertain, do not know

6

26

No, something completely different

3

13

No, with reservations

1

4

Total responses

23

100

Reasons for re-selecting TESOL The reasons given by Geneva TESOLs for re-selecting TESOL were mainly intrinsic (83%). Similar proportions of respondents in Huberman’s study and the Geneva TESOL study said they enjoyed teaching for a range of reasons: the contact with people, giving and sharing cultures, sharing knowledge (see Table 5.13). A small number of extrinsic reasons were given, relating to the creativity and flexibility of TESOL as a career. Table 5.13: Reasons for re-selecting or possibly re-selecting TESOL: Geneva TESOLs Responses Reasons

Number

%

Intrinsic reasons

15

83

Enjoyment of teaching adults/ the contact with

7

people / different cultures Desire to help people / giving

6

Love of language / English

2

Extrinsic reasons

3

Flexibility

2

Creativity

1

Total responses

18

* Multiple responses

17

100

272 Intrinsic reasons related to the advantages of teaching adults. Seven respondents enjoyed teaching adults from different cultures:

I can't think of a better way to meet people from all over the world, to learn about different cultures.

Two respondents felt adults were more motivated than children:

Also motivation is important. Everyone wants to learn here, unlike children doing theology at school, and that makes a difference.

Two respondents felt there was an equality with TESOL that isn’t found in school teaching: in TESOL the students bring their lives to the classroom and it’s just the language which is missing - there’s an equality that doesn’t exist in teaching academic subjects.

As the current approach in TESOL was not imparting knowledge, but facilitating learning and sharing, these responses were categorised as “desire to help people / giving.” (six respondents):

I enjoy learning and giving out what I’ve learned

it's rewarding and enriching. So I'm not only a tool that helps students, they're helping me to help them too.

Reasons for not re-selecting TESOL Overall 17% of Geneva TESOLs and 12% of Huberman’s school teachers said they would not re-select the profession. The reasons for not re-selecting TESOL were multiple for many respondents and focused on very different areas from Huberman’s study (Table 5.14).

273 Table 5.14: Reasons for not re-selecting TESOL: Geneva TESOLs (n=13) Responses Reasons

Number

%

Would not have discovered it

5

38

Why do the same thing again?

2

15.5

Women’s opportunities are changing

2

15.5

No, other career

2

15.5

No other choice

2

15.5

Total responses

13

100

Five respondents acknowledged they probably would not have discovered TESOL if they had stayed in their home country. Some would re-select teaching:

I was here in Geneva, I needed something to do, so it took into account my teaching background, it was a convenient choice at the time, I have no regrets at all - the choice came out of the situation I found myself in as much as anything else.

I wouldn't have chosen TEFLA had I not come to Switzerland - it wouldn't have occurred to me.

Two respondents felt they should try something different, although neither was dissatisfied with teaching: Why do it again?

I've had that experience, I've met all these people, but I'd try

something else, I'd do something different.

Two older respondents talked about the current opportunities available for women, and the lack of choice previously available: it was the obvious thing to do then if you did marry and have children, as it fitted in with the dual role, but nowadays the structure of society is changing in all professions.

274 we were the pioneers and a woman could have a career, but it was still mighty radical.

Two Geneva TESOL respondents preferred other careers; in music and as a writer: I might end up teaching music as I am not gifted enough to make it to the top.

The choice was the chicken's way of not becoming a writer. I was so scared I wouldn't succeed it's like becoming a nurse instead of a doctor, or an art historian instead of a painter.

And two respondents had a more negative tone: with that type of lifestyle moving around, there’s not a lot else you can do really. Here there is no other choice, and since I live here it’s the only way to answer the question.

In summary, the major reasons for those wishing to re-select TESOL (57%) were intrinsic, including the enjoyment factors linked with teaching adults and the desire to help people. Five respondents who were positive about the profession nevertheless mentioned a wish for better pay or working conditions, one calling teaching a “Cinderella profession.”

Those not wishing to re-select TESOL (17%) did not directly criticise TESOL as a profession, but mentioned that more opportunities are now open to women, that they would combine TESOL with something else, or that they would prefer a complete change in another life; “why do the same thing again?”.

Overall, therefore, respondents showed high levels of satisfaction with the intrinsic features of TESOL. The reasons for not re-selecting TESOL were not extrinsic ones related to working conditions, as might have been expected, but

275 more because of doubts about whether they would have discovered TESOL again or because of other interesting career opportunities.

SYDNEY TESOL STUDY Thirty-two teachers were interviewed for all questions in the Sydney TESOL study.

Is TESOL a career? This section records the responses to interview questions 12 and 13. Overall 81% of Sydney respondents felt that TESOL has significant elements of a career. Only 18% said it was not, though half of these had hesitations about their responses (Table 5.15). Table 5.15: Is TESOL a career? Sydney TESOLs Responses

Number

%

It is a career

16

50

It is a career of sorts

10

31

It is not a career

3

9

It is not a career, but ...

3

9

32

100

Total responses

Respondents were asked why or why not and the responses are presented below.

Positive responses relating to TESOL being a career Positive responses included more intrinsic reasons (62%) than extrinsic ones (38%).

276 Table 5.16: Positive responses relating to TESOL being a career: Sydney TESOLs Responses

Number

%

Intrinsic rewards

31

62

Professional rewards: development / expansion

16

32

Personal rewards

11

22


4

8

Extrinsic rewards

19

38

Material rewards

19

38

Total positiv e responses

50

100

Ten respondents felt that TESOL was becoming more professional as an industry. One commented that those in their late 30s were

from the baby boomer generation with a travel background, very anti the whole work establishment in terms of going up the ladder and power seeking ... It’s not true now - many do it as a considered career.

One respondent described how TESOL started out as an opportunity to travel and earn money, then: “the moment I got a job it was a career doing qualifications”. Another respondent commented on the way TESOL had changed, with people having a more theoretical background nowadays: I have noticed in teaching adults that a theoretical background has grown over my career span. ... the theory helps to raise the status and level of proficiency or competence of the people doing it.

On this note, five respondents commented that TESOL provides opportunities to develop the theory of teaching in different areas. Alternatively, some respondents felt that a career in teaching meant moving into other areas, such as administration:

277 people say they love teaching and the moment they’ve got a job in the industry they don’t teach much and would rather die than go in the classroom. I’ve seen people who only do token teaching and will do anything but relief - it’s like it’s untouchable.

Other respondents felt that diversification and moving into other areas was a positive aspect of TESOL, contrary to many respondents who held the view that TESOL did not provide opportunities for advancement:

someone involved in TEFL with a CTEFLA or DTEFLA or MA etc can move up in qualifications and branch out into different areas - into teacher development, marketing, materials development and developing new projects.

One respondent felt that being in the migrant area gave her a career path:

the TESOL field in Australia is a recognised career path because we have the migrant policy ... nationally it is recognised and has status ... and we have an award and reasonable conditions.

Twenty-two percent of responses related to personal rewards. Five respondents felt TESOL was a satisfying career which provides feedback:

what’s important to me in a career is something I gain satisfaction from, and if I stop feeling satisfaction I would look for something else.

It was also described as “interesting and stimulating” and “socially useful and people-oriented”.

Thirty-eight percent of responses referred to material, extrinsic rewards. Ten respondents mentioned that TESOL as a career offered possibilities of travel. Five respondents felt TESOL was flexible and accommodating, and although some felt that working conditions and salary were substandard in TESOL, three

278 respondents felt they were good: “we have an award and reasonable conditions”;

I have a good salary, we’ve just had an increase, I’m getting paid preparation time, I finish at 3.45 and don’t think about work till the next morning when I go to school again.

Negative responses relating to TESOL being a career As Table 5.17 indicates, the majority of the reasons for TESOLs feeling that it was not a career related to lack of extrinsic rewards (64% of responses), while 35% of responses related to lack of intrinsic rewards. Table 5.17: Negative responses relating to TESOL being a career: Sydney TESOLs Responses Lack of

Number

%

Extrinsic rewards

22

64

Material rewards

12

35

Commitment

10

29

Intrinsic rewards

12

35


12

35

Total negativ e responses

32

100

Lack of extrinsic rewards included lack of material rewards and lack of commitment. Among lack of adequate material rewards mentioned in 35% of the negative responses, TESOL working conditions and salary were criticised by one quarter of respondents. One saw the upper echelons as being poorly paid: “it’s very underpaid compared to other similar jobs in industry.” One respondent referred to her work in Europe:

teaching is always casual - that was always my career, a few hours here and there and you gathered it together and that was work.

279 Low status was another reservation about the career, mentioned by four respondents. One contrasted TESOL to being a doctor:

Everyone outside knows what a doctor is, and how hard they work, and what they have to study, but no one knows what my job is; they think it’s like teaching children with pictures of large bunches of grapes.

Lack of commitment comprised 29% of responses. One respondent commented that many in TESOL had other priorities and were not interested in developing a career path:

TESOL is not a standard pathway, there’s a low ceiling, maybe because it’s female dominated, maybe because of family priorities and many are happy with their work and working part-time and they give their family priority and stay at a certain level. There are also many travellers who are not so interested in status.

However, five respondents believed that TESOL was more of a profession now than in the past. One who had had a series of senior positions overseas said: “my parents thought of me as a backpacker.”

Several of the newer TESOL respondents felt that “there’s no real encouragement to be in it long term”, and that it may not be interesting as a lifetime career. Another newer respondent felt that this was a positive aspect of the career: one good thing about TESOL, it’s a thing you can do at different times in your life, in different contexts and situations, and you can diversify and it seems capable of that.

Twelve respondents commented on the lack of promotional opportunities in TESOL. One said that “lots of people observe TESOL as a crablike sideways progression and only a few move up”.

280 I feel the career path in this institution is very narrow. ... There are about thirty teachers and only six coordinators so the majority of teachers don’t go anywhere at all unless they switch places.

Intrinsic rewards were more valued than extrinsic rewards by Sydney TESOLs. In summary, although 22% of respondents regarded opportunities for advancement and promotion as being integral to the concept of career, only 8% of respondents believed such opportunities were a feature of TESOL. Indeed, 35% of negative responses related to TESOL not offering opportunities to move up. On the other hand, 30% of respondents did refer to good opportunities for development and expansion within TESOL, which were also perceived to be an important element in the career concept. Therefore, while TESOL was not seen to offer many opportunities for advancement, in the sense of promotion, it was seen to offer opportunities for development and expansion.

Material rewards were an area of concern, with one quarter of respondents feeling TESOL did not offer good working conditions and four respondents feeling its status was low. Opportunities to travel were perceived to be the most beneficial single aspect of TESOL. These were classified in the study as material rewards.

Although commitment was regarded as a necessary element in the general career concept, TESOL was not seen necessarily as a lifetime career and was said to attract many travellers. This situation was seen to be changing, however, as TESOL became more professional. Overall the findings indicate considerable optimism about TESOL in Sydney, particularly with intrinsic factors such as the opportunities for professional development and expansion. Dissatisfaction focused mainly on working conditions and general commitment to TESOL. There was an optimism about its future potential, however, with 10 respondents feeling it was becoming more professional.

281

Beginning teachers’ concerns This section records the responses to interview questions 6 and 7.

Personal situation, emotions and difficulties Forty-seven percent of the 93 references made were positive and 53% were negative. More than half the respondents had mixed emotions regarding their initial TESOL experience and these responses have been categorised as negative or positive according to the main direction of the response. Twenty-five percent of respondents had only negative memories, and 19% had only positive memories. Negative memories Negative memories are categorised in Table 5.18 under affective or emotional, personal and pedagogical themes. Table 5.18: Negative memories: Sydney TESOLs Responses Negativ e memories

Number

%

Affective or emotional themes

23

47

Personal themes

18

38

Pedagogical themes

8

17

Total responses

49

100

Affective or emotional themes Lack of confidence affected seven respondents. All except one of these was qualified with the Certificate course, but needed time to build up confidence. Others felt inadequate and had a lack of training, while some felt anxious with the preparation needed, and felt stretched and stressed. Stress affected seven respondents, especially anxieties about preparation. Personal themes Personal concerns included family or marriage concerns at the time of initial teaching, and financial worries.

282 Pedagogical themes Three respondents found themselves in an unprofessional situation, coping with responsibilities beyond their preparation. Five respondents felt a lack of support and guidance; two of these had no training, while three were trained at Certificate level. Positive memories Positive memories also included affective, emotional personal and pedagogical themes (Table 5.19). Table 5.19: Positive memories: Sydney TESOLs Responses Positiv e memories

Number

%

Affective and emotional themes

28

64

Personal themes

10

23

Pedagogical themes

6

14

Total responses

44

100

Affective and emotional themes One third of respondents remembered their initial experience as fun and easy-going; free and easy or enjoyable. Many were young people overseas meeting people from a different culture and without responsibility. Four felt stimulated because the lessons went well, which gave them confidence. Some had enjoyed the training and felt generally positive. Personal themes Three respondents had either worked in TESOL overseas with children, or were unqualified in the past, and felt positive because they made a conscious decision to take TESOL up as a career. Others felt independent and some were keen to travel through TESOL. Pedagogical themes Six respondents felt they had supportive colleagues, which helped them have an easier entry to the profession.

283

Two situations causing concern Beginner concerns are set out in Table 5.20. When respondents were asked to nominate two specific concerns during their initial teaching experience, pedagogical concerns were the major category with 35% of responses, as they were for Geneva TESOLs. However, the Sydney TESOLs worked in established well-equipped schools and, in contrast to the Geneva TESOL study, motivation was not mentioned, nor were concerns with space or logistics. Positive comments attracted 30% of responses, and affective concerns attracted 19% of responses. Thirteen percent of responses related to personal concerns, and four respondents said they had no concerns as beginner teachers. 5.20: Concerns of beginning teachers: Sydney TESOLs Responses Category of concern

Number

%


52

35

Positive comments

44

30

Affective concerns

28

19

Personal concerns

19

13

4

6

147

100

No concerns Total concerns

Each of these groups of concerns is broken down further in Tables 5.21 to 5.24 below. Pedagogical concerns The pedagogical concerns represented 35% of responses for Sydney TESOLs and are broken down in Table 5.21. They consisted mainly of intrinsic factors to do with the work itself but included some extrinsic factors to do with the work environment such as lack of support and pressure from management.

284 Table 5.21: Pedagogical concerns of beginning teachers: Sydney TESOLs Responses Pedagogical concerns Classroom/ practical concerns Cultural differences and teaching /learning styles /

Number

% of total

25

17

6

motivation / needs Practical things associated with the lesson

6

Learning English grammar

6


5

Getting too emotionally involved in class discussions

2

Planning and preparation

15

Problems with the syllabus

8

Time spent on preparing lessons - workload

7

Lack of support

7


5

Relationship with coordinator

2

Pressure from management

2

Being expected to do a lot for nothing

2

Relationship w ith students

2

Student complaint turning point - reflection

1

Interpersonal relationship with the students

1

Personal concerns

1

Juggling too many things at once

1

TOTAL PEDAGOGICAL RESPONSES

52

10

5

1

1

0.5

35

Frequently mentioned pedagogical concerns were not understanding the grammar, leading to feelings of inadequacy when unable to answer students’ questions, and cultural differences affecting student learning styles.

Learning English grammar again seemed to present many problems, particularly as school systems in other countries focus more on grammar than

285 those in Anglo-Saxon countries, with the consequence that students are often more acquainted with the grammar rules than the beginner teacher:

I was not secure in my own knowledge about grammar and felt the students knew more.

I had such a fear of feeling a fool and I put a lot of time into preparation.

With students from a range of different nationalities, predominantly Asian, there were cultural differences leading to problems such as differing teaching and learning styles and student expectations.

Students were expecting one thing and getting something different.

Other concerns mentioned by six respondents were practical things associated with the lesson, such as using equipment; timing; teacher talk; difficulty with instructions, being too strict, being unable to relax and dealing with the unexpected. Five respondents mentioned problems with the method, particularly if they had been teaching before doing training:

(In) the initial period of six months that preceded my teacher training, what I remember most was the encouragement to adopt the communicative methodology and my resistance to jettisoning my traditional ways of teaching.

Planning concerns most frequently mentioned were problems with the syllabus / no syllabus / or inappropriate materials. In recent years there has been a wealth of published materials in general and specialist areas of TESOL, whereas, in the early 1980s there were few materials, which led to problems for some respondents.

286 I felt like I had no ideas in the first ten weeks in Cairo. I was going from the opposite book-based course to no book where you have to make everything up yourself.

Another concern relating to materials and syllabus arose from some schools not having set texts but having a syllabus which seemed complicated and frightening for a new teacher:

Being given one of ... (the) syllabus pages and being overwhelmed with acronyms such as MM and ILC and the choices, there were not steps on how to teach it ... and I had to find the books and choose between an enormous variety of materials.

Conflicts with management arose as private schools sometimes expected extra commitment from teachers:

I remember getting into trouble because I wouldn’t go with the students for sheepshearing and it was a weekend away on no pay and I refused to go and they said they might have to look at my hours. Positive comments Table 5.22 shows the positive memories which represented 30% of the responses.

287 Table 5.22: Positive features for beginning teachers: Sydney TESOLs Responses Positiv e comments

Number

Free and easy; fun, easy-going

10

Enjoyable

10

Supportive colleagues

6

Stimulated because lessons went well

4

Decision to make it a career

3

Training enjoyable

2

Excited

2

Independence

2

Finding a job was great

2

Interested in travel

2

Good to be back at work after children

1

Total positiv e comments

44

% of total

30

Ten respondents mentioned feelings of freedom and having fun, often while young and abroad. Some found TESOL enjoyable in spite of the hard work:

Initially I worked long hours and the work load was hard but I never regretted the change, and despite the hard work it was a positive time in my life and it was all positive and I liked the people. Affective concerns Affective concerns represented 19% of responses (Table 5.23).

288 Table 5.23: Concerns of beginning teachers: Sydney TESOLs (n=32) Responses Affectiv e concerns

Number

Lack of confidence / training

11

Stressed / stretched

6

Lack of support

5

Unprofessional / fiasco

3

All the newness

2

Frustrated

1

Total affectiv e concerns

% of total

28

19

One respondent had felt:

there was so much newness, new people, new learning, being very committed and busy when I had been very uncommitted before, doing odd jobs to save money and go travelling and I had no sense of commitment to a career path.

One respondent felt very young and felt she looked very young, which was a problem:

particularly if older Korean men were in the class. They didn’t find it easy either. Cultural things like that make things difficult. Personal concerns Personal concerns represented 13% of responses. They related to extrinsic factors such as financial considerations, problems with marriage or family, and having a difficult time personally (Table 5.24).

289 Table 5.24: Personal concerns of beginning teachers: Sydney TESOLs Responses Personal concerns

Number

Financial considerations

7

Marriage or family

4

Difficult time personally

4

Stressed by studies

1

Death of partner

1

Sickness

1

Insecure about decision to change

1

Total personal concerns

19

% of total

13

In one case, having a difficult time personally related to personal relationship problems in a foreign country:

I had just left a fantastic job in Australia and my family behind, and I’d sold everything to get to Spain and within three months I had serious emotional problems.

Four respondents could not remember any specific concerns.

In summary, Sydney and Geneva TESOL averaged similar numbers of concerns per respondent (4.5 and 4.9 respectively). In their responses regarding two situations which caused them concern in their early years, Sydney TESOLs mentioned similar numbers of pedagogical and positive memories, while Geneva TESOLs mentioned almost double the pedagogical concerns, and only 8% of positive comments. This suggests that Sydney TESOLs had a more positive feeling towards TESOL in the formative years.

Where the TESOL studies differed, Geneva TESOLs mentioned lack of familiarity with materials and relationships with students. Sydney TESOLs mentioned problems with the syllabus and cross-cultural concerns. This is not

290 surprising, as Geneva TESOLs seldom had syllabuses, but worked from textbooks or devised their own syllabuses on the run. However, many Sydney TESOLs had to work within the confines of syllabuses devised by the school. Also, Sydney TESOLs tended to teach classes containing many different nationalities, including Asian, European and South American students.

Stocktaking (moments of doubt) This section records the responses to interview question 10. Seventeen Sydney respondents (53%) said they had seriously considered leaving TESOL at some stage. Only four (13%) had not in any way considered leaving, the remaining 11 (34%) saying they had not seriously considered leaving, but mentioned doubts. Therefore, altogether 15 respondents (47%) answered that they had not seriously considered leaving TESOL. A total of 28 respondents (or 87%) mentioned giving consideration at some time to leaving TESOL. Table 5.25: Have you ever thought of leaving? Sydney TESOLs (n=32) Responses Hav e you ev er thought of leav ing?

Number

%

Firm yes

17

53

Firm no

4

13

No with reservations

11

34

Total responses

32

100

The most crucial moments for doubting for Sydney TESOLs were the adaptation crisis, and between years 7-10. Other critical moments were between years 4-6, years 11-16, but there were no doubts mentioned after year 16 by Sydney TESOLs.

As Table 5.26 indicates, the most frequently mentioned reasons were extrinsic, representing 70% of the responses, while 29% of responses represented intrinsic motives.

291 Table 5.26: Motives for leaving teaching: Sydney TESOLs Responses Motiv e(s)

Number

%

Extrinsic reasons

33

70

Positive motive: for a career move

14

30

8

17

6

13

To have a family

2

4

Thought that other field be more fulfilling

1

2

Being away from family and friends

1

2

Positive motive; didn’t want to work

1

2

Intrinsic reasons

14

29

You can’t do the same job forever

5

11

Because of bad experiences with students

3

6

Disappointed with change of management

3

6

Prefer teaching migrants to ELICOS

2

4

If positive aspects of TESOL disappeared

1

2

47*

100

Because of working conditions: short term contracts / money To move sideways, not out of TESOL / to combine TESOL with other related activity

Total responses * These cases include those who said “No, but ....”

Fourteen respondents (30%) said they might leave for a career move. Only nine of the 14 respondents had a specific plan, including industrial relations, business, musical work, overseas development work, psychology field, other teaching or administrative work.

Concerns about working conditions (17%) included factors such as not being appreciated by the employer, poor physical conditions and an inadequate salary, short-term contracts with no security and lack of staff development opportunities.

292 Six respondents (13% of responses) had wished to combine TESOL with other activities including professional development and training, materials development, developing language software, or counselling. Five respondents said they would like to move out eventually:

partly because I couldn’t face the same thing for the rest of my life, partly because I wanted to get out of teaching EFL.

Others stated they would move out of TESOL to take up a new challenge “because full time teaching is not challenging forever.” One said it was important to take on new experiences in life:

a whole new way of spending time ... it would be like a breath of fresh air.

Appendix J provides a detailed analysis of Sydney TESOL responses after being shown the list of Geneva TESOL responses.

Future aspirations This section records the responses to interview question 3. Eighty-two percent of respondents indicated their intention to stay as they were, to combine TESOL with another activity, or to change but within TESOL (Table 5.27). Only seven respondents (6%) said they might consider another career in the future.

293 Table 5.27: Future plans: Sydney TESOLs Responses Future plans

Number

%

TESOL combined with other activity

55

50

Status quo / no plans

30

28

Family / personal life priority

7

6

Other career

7

6

No promotion

6

5

Change but still in TESOL

4

4

109

100

Total responses

Fifty percent of the responses related to combining TESOL with another activity. The most frequent combination was to pursue further studies, mentioned by 11 respondents. Most mentioned masters level qualifications in TESOL or adding another field to diversify. In Australia, a masters degree was seen as an essential qualification by some:

With my present situation it’s expected I would do the MA in Applied Linguistics ... The problem is I don’t like linguistics. ... I’m thinking of doing a MA in Asian Studies.

Oh, and careerwise, I have to do an MA. In Britain people are doing MAs, but they’re going on to DOS positions. ... The top qualification was DTEFLA, and everyone did it and then there was a knock on effect as everyone had done one.

Seven respondents mentioned development (in-service training) or pre-service teacher training as an area for development.

Several of the schools were developing overseas links, so that some respondents could work overseas without resigning from their current position:

294 I could go and work abroad in one of the schools, possibly in the Ukraine. This would involve leaving Australia temporarily or maybe even permanently. For example, I might be a DOS for one of the schools being set up.

Other examples of combining TESOL with another activity included: • TESOL-related activities such as counselling students, training consultancy, administration, management, opening a school, teaching migrants or publishing materials • Non-TESOL related activities such as translating, or a musical career.

Thirteen respondents had no clear plans as several were in a phase of stability, or nearing retirement. One respondent was unclear because her future depended on her husband’s posting: My future depends totally on my husband’s next job. It could be anywhere.

Two respondents had recently returned from positions of responsibility overseas and were in a phase of reassessment. Thirteen respondents mentioned that they were happy to continue in the same position, either as a teacher, a coordinator, or in the same workplace:

I feel I have to put my time in here before moving on or changing what I’m doing.

Six respondents did not aspire to a management position, either through lack of interest in management, or because of not being ambitious:

I don’t really have ambitions ... if that happens it will be because I’ve not gone out to get it, it was the next logical step because I’ve been in it long enough.

However, as one respondent said:

295 if you avoid management it leaves you thinking what you will do.

Seven respondents said their family or personal life was their priority.

Only seven respondents said they would or might like to change careers, although none had a definite plan in mind. Reasons for wishing to leave were extrinsic: dissatisfaction with a change of management, insufficient salary and the unlikelihood of obtaining long term satisfaction from TESOL:

I don’t think I could put up with it - I don’t think I could motivate myself or be interested in it as a lifetime career and economically it doesn’t meet my needs.

Overall, therefore, the majority of the respondents were happy to continue as they were, or to branch out or pursue further studies, with only a few wishing to change career. This indicates high levels of intrinsic satisfaction.

Re-select TESOL? This section records the responses to interview question 14. None of the respondents in the Sydney study said they would definitely not re-select TESOL, although 31% said they were unsure. Sixty-eight percent said they would re-select TESOL, some with reservations (Table 5.28). These responses appear to demonstrate positive feelings towards the career. Table 5.28: Re-select TESOL or not? Sydney TESOLs Responses Re-select TESOL or not?

Number

%

Firm yes

11

34

Yes, but with reservations

9

28

“Passive” yes (lack of other opportunities)

2

6

Uncertain, do not know

10

31

Total responses

32

100

296 As for the other studies, there was a larger number of intrinsic reasons (68%) than extrinsic ones (32%) for re-selecting TESOL (Table 5.29). Table 5.29: Reasons for re-selecting TESOL: Sydney TESOLs Responses Reasons

Number

%

Intrinsic reasons

50

68

Learned a lot / about other cultures / languages

8

It’s rewarding / satisfying / stimulating /

8

interesting Like working with people / meeting people /

7

TESOL type people Enjoy it / like it

6

It suits me

5

It’s good for me personally

4

Like teaching

4

Enjoy languages / English

3

Like to help people

3

Like the variety

2

Extrinsic reasons

23

Ability to travel

8

It’s a comfortable / pleasant life

4

You can have a decent standard of living /

3

32

lifestyle Like the flexibility of the work

3

Passive “yes”: I don’t know what else I would

2

have done Easy to be a parent

1

A boom industry

1

A Clayton’s profession

1

Total responses

73

100

297 Three reasons were favoured, each by eight respondents: “Learned a lot about other cultures / languages”; “it’s enabled me to travel” and “it’s rewarding / stimulating / satisfying / interesting”. The first of these is classified as intrinsic, because learning about language and culture is an integral part of TESOL. The second reason is extrinsic, however, because many who wish to travel take up TESOL in order to facilitate this, while others take up TESOL while travelling as a means of earning a living.

The first two reasons are connected, as it is through travel that learning about other cultures and languages occurs:

it got me to try something new, it’s good, it got me to Japan and into Japanese. I love it because I can travel with it, I thought of going to France or I could go anywhere ...

In Australia, TESOL involves teaching students from a range of nationalities, which also provides a continuity of this experience.

Eight respondents found that TESOL was interesting and stimulating and provided job satisfaction. One respondent compared it with office work:

seeing people in their suits at 8 or 8.30 going to offices and banks and looking unhappy and 80-90% of the time I turn up with some degree of excitement, I look forward to my day.

The remainder of the intrinsic reasons were connected to themes of “liking”. Some respondents liked “working with people and meeting people”:

when I’m with a bunch of TEFL teachers the whole ambience is different than when I’m with non-TEFL high school teachers. ... high school teachers tend to be political whereas TEFL teachers ... haven’t followed the straight and narrow, or at least my generation haven’t.

298 Three respondents found TESOL enjoyable, but intended to move to another career:

I’ve had a good time and when I look back if ever I find the elusive career and look back on my TEFL days it will be with fond memories very definitely.

Other reasons were “it’s good for me personally”; “it’s a comfortable / pleasant life”; “I like teaching” or “it suits me”:

perhaps teaching is something it seems I guess I do, maybe it was not the best thing I could have done but I seem to fit into it and TESOL is a good branch of teaching.

Although some respondents found that the flexible working conditions and sessional contracts made them feel insecure, others liked this aspect of TESOL:

I’ve enjoyed the freedom and the flexibility the job has allowed me - I was able to take off extra time here and there.

Another respondent commented that “it’s a Clayton’s profession” and explained the attraction of TESOL as he perceived it:

I’ve often joked and called it a Clayton’s profession because it’s a profession you’ve got when you haven’t got a profession because it’s relatively easy to get in - you can do a four week course ... you could do that if you were anti-career. ... There’s something different about EFL tongue in cheek or something ... generally unconventional people end up in it.

Some respondents gave qualified affirmative answers. Almost one third (31%) said “I might choose something different” (see Table 5.30). One respondent would probably have stayed in her previous school teaching career if she had

299 not moved to Australia. Others identified dream professions they might take up instead such as being an architect, lawyer, psychology, professional sportsman or artist. Table 5.30: Conditional reasons for re-selecting TESOL: Sydney TESOLs Responses Reason (yes, but ... yes, if ...)

Number

%

10

31

Yes, but there are aspects I would change

6

19

Would have done it earlier

5

16

Would do it for part of my life

5

16

If I married the same man (influenced my

2

6

Combine it with something related

2

6

Wish there were more money

1

3

Wouldn’t have discovered it anyway

1

3

Total responses

32

100

Might choose something different

career choice)

Nineteen percent said “yes, but there are aspects I would change”. Some specified changes they would make, such as not going straight to university after school, teaching migrants or getting into translation and interpreting:

Five respondents said “I would have done it earlier”. TESOL is a profession that many come to later in life. Those who might combine it with something else mentioned teaching languages or interpreting and translating.

Those who said “if I married the same man” had each accompanied their husband and his career, and found TESOL fulfilling in that way:

If I married the same person and if I had the same choices I couldn’t do better than TESOL.

300 Ten respondents said they didn’t know if they would re-select TESOL or not, and four of these gave vague reasons for their uncertainty: two said they might choose something different, specifying which field. Another said it would change so many other things in her life, leading to uncertainty.

In summary, Sydney respondents generally felt favourably inclined towards TESOL as a profession, even to the point of considering re-selecting it, for all or part of their professional lives. The reasons given included job satisfaction, travel opportunities and learning about other cultures, as well as its attraction as a profession. Overall, respondents did not identify many negative aspects of TESOL and there were favourable responses to this question. This appears to be a clear indication of a high degree of job satisfaction with the intrinsic rewards of TESOL in spite of their high levels of uncertainty and reluctance to definitely answer positively.

COMPARISON BETWEEN HUBERMAN’S STUDY AND THE TESOL STUDIES Three of the research questions posed related to the three studies: beginner concerns, stocktaking and re-selecting the profession.

Beginning teachers’ concerns Both the Geneva and Sydney TESOLs expressed feelings of excitement, happiness and joy at being young and discovering teaching and, in many cases, being overseas. Negative responses related to anxiety and nervousness due to lack of confidence and experience. Similar numbers of responses related to positive and negative responses in all studies with marginally more negative than positive responses. This suggests a good deal of intrinsic satisfaction with TESOL, even in the formative years of the career. Huberman’s secondary school teachers expressed similar levels of intrinsic satisfaction. The findings from the three studies serve to confirm that teaching is intrinsically satisfying for most teachers from the beginning.

Overall, Sydney and Geneva TESOLs averaged similar numbers of concerns per respondent (4.5 and 4.9 respectively). In their responses regarding two

301 situations causing them concern in the early period, Sydney TESOLs mentioned similar numbers of pedagogical and positive memories, while Geneva TESOLs mentioned almost double the pedagogical concerns, and only 8% of positive comments. This suggests that Sydney TESOLs were better prepared and had a more positive feeling towards TESOL in the formative years.

Discipline was a major concern for secondary school teachers, but not for TESOLs. The major concern for respondents from all three studies concerned lack of knowledge, particularly for Geneva TESOLs. Geneva TESOLs may have indicated more classroom and methodological concerns due to the lack of formal training. Support systems were more formalised in Sydney, with head teachers and coordinators appointed with reduced hours of teaching to assist teachers. In Geneva, however, most support systems were informal, with no reduction in teaching hours. However, regardless of the system, beginner teachers seemed to undergo similar feelings as they had to familiarise themselves with the materials, work culture and subject knowledge with or without support. Beginner teachers seemed to feel they were lacking in support and guidance in both TESOL studies, but particularly Geneva TESOLs. Respondents in the three studies mentioned lack of preparation and overload or planning difficulties.

Additional concerns mentioned by Geneva TESOLs included extrinsic concerns such as problems of space, logistics and travelling between classes. These concerns were typical of the situation in Geneva, but not in Sydney.

When shown a list of concerns of secondary school teachers, TESOLs acknowledged all the items except for discipline problems. The phrasing was different, but the lack of experience and lack of confidence was similar for respondents in all three studies. This shows that teachers from very different backgrounds experience similar types of concerns at the beginning of the career.

302 It is interesting that, while the questions focused on negative concerns, positive comments were made unprompted. Huberman’s teachers made positive comments about similar aspects of the profession to those made by TESOLs. Positive comments related to positive feelings towards colleagues and staffroom atmosphere and the enriching nature of the TESOL experience. These complement the other positive memories of the initial phases of teaching mentioned by both Geneva and Sydney TESOLs.

Stocktaking Huberman’s teachers professed to have fewer moments of doubt about the profession than the TESOL respondents. They had most doubts between years 11-15, while TESOL respondents doubted most between years 7-10. While they doubted earlier, the doubts lessened as the career progressed for TESOLs, but doubting continued for some school teachers to the end of their career.

The reasons given for leaving varied among the three studies. In all studies, leaving for a positive motive such as a career move was a major factor. The other major motives for school teachers related to intrinsic factors such as schedules or school climate, and stress or boredom. Geneva TESOLs mentioned stress and boredom and focused more strongly on money and working conditions than Sydney TESOLs. Sydney TESOLs did not mention stress or boredom but were interested in moving sideways or in diversifying.

Re-select TESOL Huberman’s respondents were more inclined towards re-selecting teaching than TESOL respondents, although it should be noted that greater numbers of TESOLs in both groups were uncertain and similar percentages of Geneva and school teachers said they definitely would not re-select it, while no Sydney TESOL gave a totally negative response. One of the reasons which emerged for the greater uncertainty in the TESOL studies related to the circumstances under which respondents had discovered TESOL and their uncertainty about whether they would find themselves in those circumstances again, or whether they would discover TESOL.

303 Reasons for re-selecting In all three studies a greater number of intrinsic reasons was given, including enjoyment and contact with students. School teachers mentioned more intrinsic motives concerning helping people and doing something worthwhile, while TESOL reasons concerned personal enrichment gained such as learning about other cultures and language, or meeting other adults, either students or colleagues. Sydney TESOLs gave a wide range of reasons for re-selecting including a few respondents relating to working conditions. Geneva TESOLs gave fewer reasons and none related to working conditions. Reasons for not re-selecting Sydney TESOLs gave none as there was no negative response. School teachers mentioned another career path or other attractive options now available. They also mentioned reasons connected with boredom and stress. Geneva TESOLs said they would like to try something different, or that other opportunities were now available. Others mentioned they may never discover it as they only discovered it after moving to Geneva.

COMPARISON BETWEEN TESOL STUDIES Future aspirations On the subject of future aspirations, more Sydney TESOLs planned to continue in the profession than Geneva TESOLs (78% vs 56%). Future aspirations included further studies which were a significant factor for Sydney TESOLs and being able to combine TESOL with other activities, which was important for all TESOLs.

Is TESOL a career? Only forty-six percent of TESOLs in Geneva felt that TESOL is a genuine career, and most of these had some reservations. Fifty percent of TESOLs in Sydney believed without reservation that TESOL is a genuine career. A further 31% of Sydney TESOLs expressed with some reservations that TESOL is a career. The negative responses from Geneva TESOLs included lack of commitment to the profession, with high levels of casual employment. They referred to extrinsic aspects such as aspects of the working conditions, professional and material rewards. For Sydney TESOLs, there were fewer

304 negative responses, which referred to lack of opportunities for advancement, lack of material rewards, and lack of commitment.

Some respondents in both the Geneva and Sydney studies referred to the recent improvement in the professional level of TESOL. This was particularly evident in the Sydney study.

Sydney and Geneva TESOLs seemed to enjoy the profession, but the insecurity sometimes forced them to consider alternatives. In Geneva, many TESOLs had to piece together a job for themselves every year. This insecurity accounted for many of the doubts. Similarly, Sydney TESOLs had undergone many crises in the profession, threatening their jobs or causing them to leave.

These findings also suggest that TESOLs in Sydney were more satisfied with the profession, at least its extrinsic features, than those in Geneva.

These findings indicate mixed feelings with expressions of satisfaction with intrinsic aspects of TESOL, such as professional and personal rewards and concerns over the extrinsic aspects such as material rewards, with Sydney TESOLs also referring to the professionalisation of the industry offering more opportunities. It would be of interest to interview the same teachers today to assess if their perceptions had changed as a consequence of the recent crisis in the industry brought on by the Asian economic difficulties.

CHAPTER SUMMARY In the parts of the study which were comparable with the study of school teachers, it would appear that school teachers had greater satisfaction levels with the intrinsic aspects of the career than Sydney TESOLs, who had marginally greater intrinsic satisfaction levels than Geneva TESOLs. However, many of the doubts or uncertainty about re-selecting the profession related to uncertainty about whether they would discover it again in “another life”.

305 Therefore, a larger proportion of secondary school teachers show positive intrinsic satisfaction with their career than TESOLs, but there was also a larger proportion showing active dissatisfaction than either group of TESOLs. Both seem to relate to the more structured career available to school teachers, which can be comforting for some and stifling for others who feared stagnation.

Sydney TESOLs tend to show greater overall intrinsic satisfaction with the career than Geneva TESOLs largely because of the career structures and opportunities available in Sydney allowing for growth, but not always in Geneva - structured inservice training, promotion positions and better extrinsic factors such as working conditions. Sydney TESOLs consistently mentioned a wider range of factors in their responses than Geneva TESOLs. Nevertheless, general intrinsic satisfaction is quite high, even with Geneva TESOLs.

Despite these differences which are dependent on career structures, the major positive satisfactions for all groups of teachers are intrinsic to do with the work itself (teaching / learning, working with people, exchange of ideas etc) rather than extrinsic. This is particularly true for Geneva TESOLs where career structures are minimal. This is consistent with the two-factor theory of job satisfaction as described by Herzberg (1959).

There are doubts whether TESOL can be properly regarded as a career, particularly in Geneva, because of its largely unstructured and unpredictable nature. The unpredictability has recently again extended to Sydney also. This suits some but leads to insecurity in others. Nevertheless, in spite of the frequent references to working conditions and money in the TESOL studies there is a general view that TESOL is becoming more professional.

Chapter VI, which follows, explores professional development issues in TESOL, both from the perspective of TESOL teachers and of trainers / administrators entrusted with overseeing teachers’ professional development.

306

CHAPTER VI PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT INTRODUCTION

The TESOL studies aimed to identify the professional development preferences of TESOLs at their current stage of development, and to compare teachers’ perceptions with those of trainers/administrators. A further objective was to discern how closely professional development could be linked to phases and / or years of experience.

The general paucity of data on the practices of TESOL teachers has been commented on by Richards and Hino (1984, p. 136), who asserted that there was a need for more broadly based empirical studies of teacher behaviours and teacher needs as a basis for the development and validation of more relevant models of ESL/EFL teacher training.

Huberman (1995, p. 207) suggested that pedagogical mastery was increased by specific modes of solitary and communal work. He found that the most popular form of professional development was the “lone wolf” scenario, with teachers working alone and ‘tinkering’ in their classrooms interspersed with short readings and consultation with colleagues, rather than with specialists.

Huberman also argued that conventional inservice training was largely unsuccessful, especially when conducted intermittently by specialists far removed from the classroom. He recommended inservice training to support teachers’ “craft-like tinkering” as a way of expanding and improving their repertoires of instruction, suggesting that more productive moves might be made in extending teachers’ networks and promoting a more collaborative approach, so that they can learn from each other's skills.

307 Huberman did not ask his respondents about professional development. In the present study, with its stronger focus on professional development, TESOL respondents in both Geneva and Sydney were asked to identify aspects of professional development which they found useful at the time of the interview. In this way it was hoped to gain a better understanding of the spread of needs across the TESOL career, with respondents being interviewed at different points in their career.

The term “professional development” was defined by Sydney TESOLs and is reported in Appendix K. The definition given was in keeping with the categories reported below in Section 1: other duties / diversification, gaining more experience, inservice training, improvement / advancement, interaction with colleagues / support, reflection, further studies, keeping up to date and conference attendance.

Section 1 reports the findings of the TESOLs’ interviews, while Section 2 reports the findings of the trainers’ / administrators’ interviews.

SECTION 1: PERSPECTIVE OF TESOLS This section relates to research questions 11-15 (see page 10). Data presented in this section are derived from responses to the following interview questions: Interview question 15 for Sydney study Define the word professional development. Interview question 11 for Geneva study; 16 for Sydney study What professional development is useful for you now? Interview question 17 for Sydney study Here is a list of professional development activities mentioned by TESOLs overseas. Do you share these ideas? Any to add?

The findings from question 17 are reported in Appendix L as they are not comparable data.

308

GENEVA TESOL STUDY Professional development related as currently useful Table 6.1 summarises the responses to the question about professional development regarded as most useful to respondents. Table 6.1: Professional development described as currently useful: Geneva TESOLs (n. respondents=21)* Responses* Professional dev elopment mentioned Inserv ice training (positiv e and negativ e

Number

%

34

46

comments) Positive: Workshops

15

Positive: Specific courses

8

Negative: Current workshops not useful

11

Keeping up to date

10

14

Interaction w ith colleagues

9

12

Reflection

7

9

Conferences

4

5.5

Nothing

4

5.5

Ev erything

3

4

Further studies (DTEFLA)

2

3

Div ersification

1

1

TOTAL RESPONSES

74

100

•

Multiple responses (individual respondents may have made more than one response)

309 Inservice training The majority of responses (46%) related to specific inservice workshops, programs and conferences and included positive and negative responses. Positive responses The newer teachers and those who had not received professional development for many years preferred practical, hands-on workshops. Several of the newer respondents immediately following completion of the CTEFLA wanted to know more about the theory behind the practice. Some of these planned to continue to the DTEFLA. On the other hand, some of the more experienced teachers wanted to maintain their motivation by discovering new ideas.

Some respondents, especially the less experienced ones, were precise about the areas in which they wanted to develop:

Frankly I want to develop in two areas - teaching pronunciation area which I’ve overlooked, ... I’d like to do a little more work with idioms ... I’d like workshops possibly on difficult grammar points. Negative responses Eleven respondents expressed concern over the content of some workshops, particularly those which were theoretical or philosophical, which they perceived bore little relevance to their needs. Many of those who found practical sessions useful also critically appraised what was currently available:

Quite frankly, I’m fed up with teacher facilitator workshops. I’m fed up with “bla bla bla” workshops where not much comes out. I like practical things and realistic things, geared towards the class situation.

However, some fairly new teachers wanted a more theoretical basis:

I think I don’t like playing games endlessly, I like more of the theory. ... I like the theoretical and the practical link to be made.

310 The more experienced teachers were also becoming more selective about which workshops they attended:

Also for me, to go to sessions / training which are just strings of good ideas, I find almost selfdefeating, because unless I use them as a basis for development and reflection, they are exhausted quickly. Keeping up to date This was mentioned by 10 respondents, and is linked to attending inservice activities. Interaction with colleagues Interaction with colleagues (nine responses) was mentioned above all by the newer teachers to the profession. This could be expected, as they were still exploring ideas and methods. Several respondents mentioned that taking part in the present research project was useful in terms of reflection and talking to colleagues:

Things like this are useful. I’ve spent the whole week thinking as I was going to see you, and taking part in research, and these types of questions make you think what and why. Reflection Seven responses included an activity which involved some form of reflection. Reflection took various forms for TESOLs: experimenting in the classroom, reading books or journals and self-appraisal. These are activities which may lead to reflection on personal performance.

One more experienced teacher, who was also a trainer, had read recent literature on “reflection” and commented on the theory put forward by Wallace (1991) regarding his definition of the reflective teacher:

311 it’s not a question of imposing ideas from outside but of reflection leading to development, which is important. Whether it’s guided or happens with others may be potentially richer and more valuable.

One experienced respondent, who was also a trainer, preferred to read TESOL literature, and then to monitor her performance in the classroom on areas for improvement. This is a form of self-appraisal. Conferences Four responses related to attending conferences, but these were mainly conditional on obtaining financial support for attendance. Everything as so long with no professional development Three respondents from the international organisation, who had been without professional development for many years, were enthusiastic about the workshops they had been having and were grateful for any professional development:

The training sessions this term have been very useful, and very positive, because I lack formal teaching qualifications and there have been a lot of new ideas I can put into practice.

Professional development related to phases The respondents’ responses were matched against their current career phase, and then grouped to discover if any pattern of professional development need could be established at the different phases.

Of the respondents interviewed for this question (n=21), 10 Geneva TESOLs were in a phase of stabilisation at the time of the study, eight were in a phase of doubt and three in a phase of experimentation.. Table 4.5 in Chapter IV illustrates the phase respondents were in at the time of the study. Table 6.2 shows the professional development respondents mentioned for these phases.

312 Table 6.2: Professional development related to the phases of stabilisation, doubt and experimentation: Geneva TESOLs (n. respondents=21)* Phase and number of respondents

Stabilis-

Doubt

ation n=10

n=8

Professional dev elopment Inserv ice training (positiv e

Experimentation n=3

Responses* Pos: 11

Pos: 10

Pos: 2

Neg: 2

Neg: 6

Neg: 3

Positive: Workshops

6

8

1


5

2

1

Negative: Current workshops not

2

6

3

Keeping up to date

4

4

2


2

5

2

Reflection

4

2

1

Conferences

1

2

1

Nothing

1

3

-

Ev erything

2

1

-

Further studies

-

2

-

Div ersification

1

-

-

Total number responses

29

35

11

and negativ e comments)

useful

* Multiple responses (individual respondents may have made more than one response)

Stabilisation Ten respondents were in phases related to the theme of stabilisation, including stabilisation, acceptance and new challenges (within stabilisation), experienced

313 between years 3-25. As Table 6.2 shows, they mentioned a range of professional development activities with inservice training being the most frequently mentioned. A need for reflection and keeping up to date was also mentioned as important, but with far fewer references.

Reflection was valued by some of the more experienced respondents:

You need to constantly assess and not get too complacent. You need to assess yourself and your students... - I’m constantly trying out new things, to see whether they work or not, gauging the student response.

Doubt Themes of doubt accounted for eight respondents’ current phases at the time of interview, including resolved doubts, partially resolved doubts and continuing doubts, experienced between years 2-14. Table 6.2 indicates the broad range of professional development mentioned by these respondents. Eight respondents mentioned that workshops were useful, while six respondents found the current workshops not useful, indicating some dissatisfaction. Keeping up to date and interaction with colleagues were other popular responses. Interaction with colleagues was a more common response by those in a phase of doubt than by those in phases of stabilisation and experimentation. For example, one respondent said:

I'm very into working with colleagues because for many years I worked totally in isolation and it makes the greatest difference.

Experimentation Three respondents were in phases related to experimentation, including positive experimentation and developing / growing, experienced between years 3-9. Table 6.2 shows that they expressed a range of professional development activities, with workshops again the most frequently mentioned. However, most of the references were negative, not positive. Two respondents referred to the need for interaction with colleagues, and two saw the need for keeping up to date.

314

Section summary There were no obvious patterns when comparing the current phase of respondents with the professional development they mentioned as useful, except that those in a phase of doubt and stabilisation seemed keen to engage in inservice training and workshops. Those in a phase of doubt and of experimentation were more critical of the workshops.

Those in a phase of experimentation, however, did not find the workshops currently on offer useful. Inservice training and keeping up to date could both be construed as similar and both rated highly. Keeping up to date rated highly with respondents in all phases. Interaction with colleagues rated more highly for those in a phase of doubt or experimentation than for those in a phase of stabilisation. Reflection rated quite low for all except those in a phase of stabilisation. Despite these minor differences, there is little evidence here that perceived professional development needs varied systematically with career phases.

It should be noted that the general analysis of the overall interview transcripts reported later, does reveal a wider range of professional development needs than did the responses to the specific professional development questions.

Professional development related to years of experience Anecdotally, respondents believed that TESOLs would require different types of professional development according to their years of experience. This section therefore attempts to identify whether the professional development mentioned by Geneva TESOL respondents at their current level of experience could provide any patterns or consistency in responses.

Geneva TESOLs with less than five years’ experience Table 6.3 indicates the areas of professional development mentioned by Geneva TESOL respondents according to their length of experience. The two most popular forms of professional development for respondents with less than five years’ experience were inservice training and interaction with colleagues. This is consistent with Chapter VI, where respondents mentioned concerns as

315 beginner teachers including practical classroom concerns and lack of support and guidance. Keeping up to date was also mentioned by three respondents and three decided they were not interested. Table 6.3: Professional development preferences for respondents with less than five years’ experience (Geneva TESOLs n. respondents=8)* Responses* Professional dev elopment Inserv ice training

Number

%

Positiv e: 14

47

Negativ e: 1 Positive: Workshops

7


7


1


6

19

Keeping up to date

3

9.5

Not interested (priorities hav e changed)

3

9.5

Conferences

2

6

Further studies

2

6

Reflection

1

3

TOTAL RESPONSES

32

100


Geneva TESOLs with more than five years’ experience Table 6.4 shows that respondents with more than five years’ experience rated inservice training as the most useful. However, it is important to mention that four of these rated the current workshops as not useful. Keeping up to date was also important for seven respondents and reflection became more important. Interaction with colleagues was only mentioned by three respondents.

316 Table 6.4: Professional development preferences for respondents with more than five years’ experience (Geneva TESOLs n. respondents=13)* Responses* Professional dev elopment Inserv ice training

Number

%

Positiv e: 15

45

Negativ e: 4 Positive: Workshops

8


7


4

Keeping up to date

7

16

Reflection

6

14

Ev erything

3

7


3

7

Conferences

2

5

Div ersification

1

3

Nothing

1

3

42

100

TOTAL RESPONSES

* Multiple responses (individual respondents may have made more than one response) In summary, all respondents favoured inservice training, although both groups were critical of the current workshops. Those with less experience also mentioned interaction with colleagues, and those with more experience placed reflection higher.

Analysis of all interviews to identify areas of professional development An analysis of all respondents’ interviews was carried out to identify further evidence of professional development preferences across the whole professional life-cycle. Any type of experience that was mentioned with enthusiasm, or which appeared to take the respondent to a further level or challenge was identified. Table 6.5 shows the categories of responses which

317 emerged from the analysis of all interviews. These are discussed in detail in the next section. Table 6.5: Categories of professional development mentioned throughout the interviews: Geneva TESOLs (n. respondents=28)* Responses* Category of professional dev elopment

Number

%

Div ersification

85

66

Change

49

Other duties

22

Diversification in teaching

13

Further studies

21

16

Personal life

11

9

Gaining experience/confidence

9

7

Support structures

1

1

Conferences

1

1

128

100

TOTAL RESPONSES

* Multiple responses (individual respondents may have made more than one response) This analysis was quite revealing, as a different profile of professional development can be deduced from that derived from the specific professional development questions. When professional development is specifically mentioned in a question it may constrain teachers to think in terms of traditional, more formal professional development activities, rather than exploring more widely other opportunities for development such as career diversification. In the freer responses, diversification, including change, other duties, higher duties and diversification in teaching was the most frequently mentioned type of professional development with 66% of all free responses, further studies received 16%, followed by responses relating to aspects of their personal life being a catalyst for change (9%) and gaining experience (7%).

The following analysis examines in more detail these categories of responses identified freely in the interviews.

318

Diversification As Table 6.5 indicates, the professional development category of diversification included change of circumstances in the career, such as change of field, country and school, and external factors, as well as assuming other duties and diversification in teaching. Change The most frequently mentioned activity throughout all stages of their careers was change, resulting from stocktaking or reassessment. Change could open up opportunities, and at the very least offered the possibility of teaching in different areas. In many cases there could be possibilities for promotion, but in adverse economic times, change could also represent a change of field due to lack of opportunities in TESOL. Many returned later to TESOL with new skills derived from the fields they went into, which included journalism, management training, secretarial work, translation and writing, court stenographer, teaching children, computer training and the airline industry. This may be a special characteristic of TESOL, which, although disturbing at the time, could lead ultimately to renewal and increased satisfaction. Other duties The next most frequently mentioned form of diversification was other duties, including teacher training, which was the most popular form of diversification, followed by management training. Only one respondent mentioned writing courses or syllabi, which is surprising, because writing courses is a daily task for a TESOL teacher as courses have to be specially designed to meet different groups’ needs. Time was obviously not given for this as a separate activity, it being considered part of a teacher’s job. Diversification in teaching Seven respondents referred to teaching different levels, courses and experimenting. Whilst there were not many opportunities for promotion, five respondents had taken positions as senior teacher or DOS.

Four respondents mentioned that they relished their freedom as freelance teachers to engage in different activities.

319

Further studies The next most frequently mentioned form of professional development was further studies, which had been omitted from the list of specific professional development responses. Table 6.5 indicates that further studies were mentioned by nine respondents who had taken the Diploma in TESOL, and a further two who had plans to take it. Two respondents had studied to masters level overseas, and one had studied but abandoned a Ph.D. in the field. It is clear from these responses that there was little opportunity for further study in Geneva itself.

Personal life Time for one’s personal life was valued by some respondents, particularly those who had no monetary need to work. Some had families, while others had other activities they wished to pursue. For many, having a balanced life was an important part of feeling happy in their job. Even marital problems or divorce could be the catalyst for professional development as in many cases it brought economic pressure to earn. This often entailed further studies or seeking a more permanent position.

Section summary The types of professional development referred to spontaneously in the interviews by respondents bore little relation to their responses to the direct professional development questions. This indicates that respondents did not consciously consider as professional development those experiences gained while working, such as diversification of teaching, diversification in their non-teaching duties, temporary change of career, and, surprisingly, further studies.

TESOL is a field which often involves change - change of country, change of field, change of school all of which can provide fertile ground for professional development. New experiences, both personal and professional, often provide opportunities and challenges rarely found in stable long-term positions.

In the responses to specific professional development questions, inservice training was the most frequently mentioned, while there was no mention of inservice training or workshops in the general interviews. Further studies were

320 mentioned 21 times in the general interviews but were not specifically singled out as professional development. These results indicate that respondents had a fixed and fairly limited view of what might be classified as professional development. Perhaps the perception of what constitutes professional development needs further clarification. (To this end, respondents in Sydney were asked to define professional development before being asked to nominate what type of professional development was useful for them. )

SYDNEY TESOL STUDY Respondents in the Sydney study were firstly asked to define the concept “professional development”. This had not been asked in the Geneva TESOL study, but was added to the Sydney study in order to clarify what respondents perceived professional development to be after there seemed to be some confusion over this matter among Geneva respondents. The findings are reported in Appendix K. Sydney TESOL teachers and trainers / administrators were shown lists of responses given by Geneva TESOLs for comment. This was an attempt to see if their responses might become more imaginative if they had a stimulus. Because there is no point of comparison between the two groups, these findings are reported in Appendices L and O. The intention was to discover the aspects of professional development that TESOL teachers found most useful at various phases in the career cycle, and to indicate those aspects which may need further attention by trainers and administrators.

Definition of “professional development”. Sydney TESOLs were asked to define the term “Professional Development”. The findings are reported in Appendix K, Table K.1. In summary, professional development was perceived to include diversification (20% of responses), gaining more experience (15%), inservice training (14%), advancement (13%), interaction with colleagues (10%), reflection (10%), further studies (8%) and keeping up to date (6%).

321

Professional development related as currently useful Table 6.6 summarises the responses to the question “What professional development do you find useful now?” As can be seen from the table, respondents nominated similar professional development activities to those mentioned when they defined “professional development”, but inservice training was emphasised more in relation to TESOL. Table 6.6: Professional development described as useful currently: Sydney TESOLs (n. respondents=32)* Responses* Professional dev elopment

Number

%

Inserv ice training (all positiv e)

22

29

Workshops

11

Specific courses

10

Div ersification

14


11

20

Other duties

2

Writing books

1

Reflection

11

Observation

5

Reading books

5

Reflection

1


9

Interaction with colleagues

6

Liaison with other schools

3

Keeping up to date

8

9

Further studies

7

8

13

11

322 Table 6.6 (continued) Conferences

5

6

Training other teachers

4

5

Understanding and motiv ating students

2

2

Goal setting

1

1

Ongoing professional dev elopment

1

1

Trav elling

1

1

TOTAL RESPONSES

84

100


Inservice training As Table 6.6 indicates, inservice training was also the most frequently mentioned type of professional development by Sydney TESOLs overall. However, some were somewhat sceptical about the usefulness of inservice training: Inservice training is extremely variable, and if you’re busy and sitting in an inservice which is not relevant it can be excruciating, or if you know more about the topic than the presenter, but I’ve learned a lot and the most useful ones were by people who work here, rather than “experts”.

Diversification / other duties Diversification received 14 responses, including other duties, which was mentioned by two respondents: I’d much rather be part of the whole running of the organisation than the teaching of it and I feel our school really could exploit the skills of teachers here. One respondent felt writing courses was useful: my job writing courses is professional development because I’ve developed strategies and ways of teaching a lesson.

323

Reflection Reflective professional development included reflection, observation and reading books. Five respondents felt being observed or observing others was useful. Most disliked being observed, but felt that it was useful: on a day to day level, observing other teachers and horrors - others observing me and it would be useful if it were more regular and not the make or break ones where you shake in your shoes.

Five respondents, mainly from years 0-10, felt reading books, journals, or textbooks was useful for them: I find reading useful - ... it doesn’t take huge amounts of time and I can fit it in my day.

Interaction with colleagues Six respondents said interaction with colleagues was important. One respondent felt that it had helped to make him feel less isolated: when you talk to others it doesn’t take long for them to admit they’ve had problems too. Three respondents also mentioned liaison with teachers from other schools: It’s interesting to see outside the microcosm of the classroom - we’re often locked in our own room and don’t meet others in other areas - college liaison is good.

Keeping up to date Eight respondents mentioned keeping up to date: It probably happens in every field, but in all language learning, not just TESOL, there’s a new theory or methodology, even if it overlaps and is a refinement of what happened before, it’s silly to think the developments in the 1970s are the end of the line and nothing can go further.

324

Further studies Doing further studies was mentioned by seven respondents. They referred to studying at diploma, graduate diploma level, or masters level, the latter being the most popular.

Conferences Five respondents said conferences were useful for them at present. This was linked to finding out about current developments and to exchanging ideas: Conferences, exchanging ideas at a higher level or ideas from far and wide rather than being isolated. On the other hand, two respondents specifically indicated that conferences were not useful: I don’t like the ELICOS conferences ... I found it too much to take in...

Training other teachers Four respondents said that training other teachers was or would be useful. Training other teachers helps with your own professional development and that’s good

Professional development related to phases Thirteen Sydney TESOLs were in a phase of doubt at the time of the study, 10 were in a phase of experimentation and 9 were in a phase of stabilisation. Chapter IV Table 4.11 has a detailed analysis of the current phases of Sydney TESOLs. Table 6.7 relates their current phases to the professional development they mentioned.

325 Table 6.7: Professional development related to the phases of stabilisation, doubt and experimentation: Sydney TESOLs (n. respondents=32)* Phase and number of respondents

Stabilisation

Doubt

n=9

n=13

Professional dev elopment

Experimentation n=10

Responses*

mentioned Inserv ice training

8

10

4

Workshops

5

4

3

Specific courses

3

6

1

Div ersification

3

6

5

Diversification

3

5

3

Other duties

-

1

1

Writing books

-

-

1

Reflection

2

2

7

Observation

1

2

2

Reading books

1

-

4

Reflection

-

-

1


1

4

4


1

2

3


-

2

1

Keeping up to date

4

3

1

Further studies

2

2

3

326 Table 6.7 (continued) Conferences

-

3

2


1

2

1

Understanding and

-

1

1

Goal setting

1

-

-

Ongoing professional

1

-

-

-

-

1

23

33

29

motiv ating students

dev elopment Trav elling Total number responses


Stabilisation Nine respondents were in a phase of stabilisation or balance, with some being ready to branch out. Balance included two who wished to balance family life with teaching and one with outside interests. These phases came during years 1-13. The professional development mentioned included inservice training (7 respondents), keeping up to date (4) and diversification (3) (see Table 6.7).

This is partly

consistent with the professional development mentioned by those in a phase of doubt.

Doubt Sydney respondents mentioned themes relating to stocktaking, unresolved doubts, being uncommitted to the profession, transition, taking a breather and stagnation, all of which seemed to indicate degrees of current dissatisfaction with the career or reassessment of options. These themes were experienced between years 2-17. Those in a phase of doubt mentioned inservice training as the most useful at this phase (10 respondents). This was followed by diversification (6), then interaction with colleagues (4). Keeping up to date and conferences were also rated as important by three respondents each. This is

327 partly consistent with those in a phase of stabilisation, except that more were interested in conferences and interaction with colleagues.

Experimentation Ten respondents mentioned themes related to further experimentation, new challenge and being ready to branch out, between years 2-18 of the career. Contrary to the respondents in a phase of doubt or stabilisation, reflection was the most frequently mentioned form of professional development for those in a phase of experimentation (7). Diversification came next (5), followed by interaction with colleagues and inservice training (four each). Those in a phase of experimentation were less interested in inservice training than those in a phase of doubt or stabilisation. Further studies were also rated as useful in this phase.

Section summary Unlike the Geneva TESOL study, Sydney TESOLs did appear to find certain types of professional development more useful at different phases. Respondents in a stage of experimentation were more interested in reflection and diversification than workshops, but the remainder mentioned inservice training as most important and a range of other types of professional development.

The wider range of professional development types referred to by Sydney TESOLs than those by Geneva TESOLs is probably a simple reflection of the greater variety of opportunities actually available there.

Professional development related to years of experience Tables 8.8 and 8.9 show that Sydney respondents from the beginning to the later years of the career all favoured inservice training first followed by diversification.

Respondents with less than five years’ experience preferred reflective means of professional development, including observation and reading. Those with more

328 than five years’ experience found interacting with colleagues more useful followed by keeping up to date, reflection and further studies. Table 6.8: Professional development preferences for respondents with less than five years’ experience (Sydney TESOLs n. respondents=9)* Responses* Professional dev elopment

Number

%

Inserv ice training

8

30

Workshops

4

Specific courses

4

Div ersification

5

18

Reflection

5

18

Further studies

2

7

Understanding and motiv ating students

2

7

Conferences

1

4


1

4

Keeping up to date

1

4


1

4

Trav elling

1

4

TOTAL RESPONSES

27

100


329 Table 6.9: Professional development preferences for respondents with more than five years’ experience (Sydney TESOLs n. respondents=23)* Responses* Professional dev elopment

Number

%

Inserv ice training

14

24

Workshops

8

Specific courses

6

Div ersification

9

16


8

14

Keeping up to date

7

12

Reflection

6

10

Further studies

5

7

Conferences

4

7


3

5

Goal setting

1

2

Ongoing professional dev elopment

1

2

TOTAL RESPONSES

58

100

* Multiple responses (individual respondents may have made more than one response) There was no obvious discrepancy between those with more or less experience. However, the numbers of respondents were small. Reflection was the only surprise, as it might be expected that respondents with more experience would be more attracted to reflective types of professional development. This was not the case.

Analysis of all interviews to identify areas of professional development An overall picture of professional development responses in the general interview questions is presented in Table 6.10 below, followed by a detailed analysis of each component. The analysis of the interviews revealed a greater

330 number of incidental comments about professional development than in the Geneva study.

Table 6.10: Categories of professional development mentioned throughout all interviews: Sydney TESOLs (n. respondents=32)* Responses* Category of professional dev elopment

Number

%

Div ersification

200

58

Change

61

Other duties

59

Higher duties

33


47

Further studies

49

14

Gaining practical experience / confidence

33

10

Support structures

27

8

Hav ing space for personal life

15

4

Reflection

11

3

Workshops

6

2

Conferences

3

1

344

100

TOTAL RESPONSES

* Multiple responses (individual respondents may have made more than one response) Contrary to the findings from the specific professional development question, diversification was the single most incidentally mentioned aspect of professional development. This was followed by further studies (14% of responses), and gaining practical experience (10% of responses).

Diversification (n=200) Diversification represented 58% of responses and included change, diversification in teaching, diversification in duties, and higher duties.

331 Change Having a change of country, and / or a change of school could open up new opportunities. For those with positions of higher responsibility, making a decision to return to their home country could also signal a change back to full-time teaching initially. In some cases, the change might be due to the closure of the school, or to a school offering more challenging promotional opportunities. Most of the change was discussed with optimism, even by those returning to full-time teaching.

Change of country offered new opportunities to many respondents: I was going out to factories teaching English for Specific Purposes, and teaching very advanced students, all of which I’d never done before, and teaching monolingual classes, and the variety and range added to the beginning helped me develop my working life.

Eight respondents mentioned a desire to do something more challenging, indicating a readiness for the next stage of development: I’ve done a lot of thinking about my future. The last five years have been stimulating and challenging but I’m at the point that I’d like another challenge.

Another had recently returned to Australia: Professionally at the moment I feel I’ve just come back, this is my sixth month and I feel unsettled with no clear direction. ... I want to get out of full time teaching and on to something more challenging for which my qualifications and experience stand me in good stead. Where and how time will tell.

Nine respondents had gone back to full time teaching from a management position, or because of changing country.

332 The TESOL industry, like other industries, went through depressions and boom times, largely connected to issues such as visa restrictions or lifting of restrictions, the Gulf War and the economic recession in the early 1990s. In the late 1980s, the economic climate was good and many new schools opened, particularly in Sydney: Fortunately while I was away, the TESOL boom started and I found I could get any job when I got back. When I came back to Sydney there were very few jobs in French or Italian but there were many openings in TESOL and I felt I should focus on TESOL.

The number of schools went from a handful to more than 30. This meant increased employment opportunities for TESOL teachers, but was followed in 1989 by the events of Tiananmen Square and the subsequent crash of the Chinese ELICOS market. Schools closed and teachers had to find alternative employment. Subsequently, in the early 1990s the industry became more highly regulated with restrictions on all schools regarding quality of premises and services and qualifications of teachers.

Five respondents also referred to TESOL being a changing field:

since I’ve been back many people in different schools have been saying how much is happening since the early 1990s and that the profession has identity and is growing and diversifying and may have possibilities.

Some were worried about the changes:

333 Language teaching has a lot of different strands and in those days the world seemed simpler. I was fired up about it as a profession, but I’d hesitate to use that word now.

Reassessment or stocktaking was mentioned by four respondents; one considered leaving the profession, then decided to stay in it, qualified to a higher level and has since found it very satisfying, another was “healing” after resigning from a management position: I’m here to heal, get my act together, make money and decide what I’m going to do.

Four respondents mentioned an interest in going overseas: I am interested in working overseas and I found out that this school has ventures in Asia - that was heartening and I like the variety of different programs.

Other duties Doing duties in addition to teaching (management, marketing, administration and translation) were mentioned by five respondents in the direct question about professional development. In the overall analysis of interviews, however, there were 59 such responses, 17 respondents mentioning writing courses or syllabuses, while only one respondent mentioned this in the professional development interviews.

Teacher training was mentioned by only four respondents in the professional development question. In the overall analysis of the interviews, however, 16 respondents mentioned this as being a useful developmental tool.

Teachers can train to be external examiners for internationally recognised examinations. Testing was therefore another area which 10 respondents

334 mentioned in the overall interviews, although none mentioned this in the professional development question.

Higher duties In the specific professional development question, no respondents mentioned experience in higher level positions. However, in the general interviews there were 33 responses relating to higher duties including 13 with experience in Director of Studies positions, and 20 as senior teacher or coordinator. Some respondents felt that Australia offered more promotional positions such as coordinator, which generally did not exist in some countries: we don’t have that system in Britain and there’s been more texture and variety to my career since I’ve come here.

Diversification in teaching Diversifying or trying new areas of teaching was mentioned 47 times in the responses to the general career question, but by only seven respondents in the specific professional development question. This was linked to the themes of experimentation, further experimentation and new challenges. Variety in teaching included being able to teach at more advanced levels as teachers gained experience, and in different areas of specialisation. Some teachers marked their progress through different stages by the areas of teaching they had undertaken:

(I underwent a) developmental phase teaching all the levels, and after six months I was made coordinator where I developed materials and syllabus documents where required. It was a great challenge because I worked on every level and every class and had a fast learning curve.

Further studies Undertaking further studies during the career cycle represented 15% of responses, but was mentioned only by seven respondents in the specific professional development question. These ranged from certificate level qualifications, taken by six respondents after 1-2 years’ teaching; diploma level qualifications taken by 15 respondents between 2-11 years’ experience; nine

335 respondents undertaking masters level qualifications, the majority during 5-10 years’ experience. A further seven respondents planned to take a masters degree; three were respondents undertaking a graduate diploma in TESOL, and nine respondents were undertaking other courses in languages, TESOL, counselling and other fields.

Almost all reported beneficial feelings arising from undertaking further studies:

It was taking everything I’d been doing for two and a half years in Spain and putting it into a neat framework. (Certificate)

I’m very glad I did it and I learnt time management skills and now I find the work more interesting and have a much deeper understanding of language and how it works. (Masters degree)

Gaining practical experience / confidence Gaining experience / confidence received 33 responses. This aspect of development was mentioned above all at the beginning of the career, with 26 of the responses concerning the first four years of experience and the remaining seven responses during the 5-10 year part of the career.

Support structures Support or guidance was mentioned 27 times. Thirteen responses were from respondents with less than five years’ experience and only one response from those with 5-10 years’ experience. Some of the respondents who were lacking in initial training particularly noted the lack of support or guidance: I learned a huge amount because I was working with someone who was more experienced, and who gave me guidance, and pointed me in the right direction, and said what was useful and what was not useful.

Another who had just completed an initial Certificate-level training course, was left to his own devices:

336 we were left to our own devices - I remember I took a couple of days off because I couldn’t cope. The DOS was interested in writing books and couldn’t give a damn - she had a younger assistant kind of person and she tried to help but there were 20 people straight off courses.

The following respondent was untrained, as apparently were her colleagues: I think at the very beginning it was not evident to me what a teacher had to do to get ready to go in and teach ... I didn’t realise you sat down and thought about what the class might need and what you might do with them. There was no photocopier and no materials. When I asked for guidance I was told: “oh, it’s easy you can do all sorts of things, for example, do 20 questions, they love that.” I had no direction, no idea.

The importance of good relationships with colleagues was mentioned mainly in the early stages of the career (12 responses were by respondents with less than five years’ experience.): I was networking and went through a huge learning curve and was learning from the people I was working with ... and it proved to be the base of the valuable networking I’ve done over the years.

Having space for a personal life Table 6.10 shows that 15 responses related to having time for a personal life. One respondent wanted to have time for the family, while the others had outside interests they wished to pursue, such as learning a language, a career in music or having more spare time. Four respondents were clear that they preferred to remain teachers, and not climb the ladder to give space for their personal lives. The greatest number of responses for this type of professional development was for respondents with more than 11 years’ experience. This is akin to Huberman’s respondents, who seemed to detach themselves more as they became more experienced, finding outside interests.

337

Reflection Reflection was an aspect of professional development which had variations in the response rate. When respondents were specifically asked what professional development was useful for them at their present stage of development, only one mentioned reflection. However, in the overall analysis of the interviews, eight respondents felt reflection was of positive benefit to their development. Perhaps the difficulty lay with the definition of reflection. The types of reflective activities mentioned were developing the ability to become more self-critical and self-evaluative; reflection on performance in the classroom and how to improve; reflection on methods and the effect they had on students’ motivation; and delving more deeply into teaching issues, with research and experimentation in the classroom. The other day I ... sat on a bench and went blank and had the space to reflect and jotted ideas for my class ... it’s hard getting the time and space to reflect, your mind gets full of things.

Workshops In the previous question about professional development preferences, respondents rated workshops as very high in usefulness. In fact, respondents mentioned specific courses, theoretical and practical workshops as well as learning about computers. This is contrasted with evidence from the interviews, where only four respondents mentioned workshops. There is evidence from some of the interviews that some colleges held workshops only infrequently, which may explain the scant mention of this as a professional development option. On the other hand, many respondents were also quite critical of many of the workshops which were offered.

Conferences Only three respondents mentioned conferences they had attended, which is not surprising given evidence from some of the interviews that some colleges did not send many to conferences.

338

SUMMARY OF PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT PREFERENCES IN THE TESOL STUDIES Professional development related as currently useful The general definition of professional development given by Sydney TESOLs (in Appendix K) included a broader range of professional development activities than those mentioned in response to the specific question on professional development. It included gaining more experience by developing new skills and developing practical classroom skills (15%) and improvement (13%). Inservice training only received 14% of responses, while diversification received 20%.

Professional development related to phases Respondents from the Geneva TESOL study were particularly interested in inservice training. However, many of the responses were negative regarding the usefulness of workshops currently available. Those in a phase of experimentation were equally interested in inservice training as in other aspects of professional development. This is consistent with the Sydney TESOL study, where inservice training was the most common form of professional development preference for those in a phase of doubt and stabilisation, but not for those in a phase of experimentation.

Experimentation Those in a phase of experimentation therefore searched for something more than the comfortable inservice format. In fact, Geneva TESOLs had more negative comments regarding inservice training than positive. Geneva TESOLs were equally interested in inservice training and keeping up to date (which could include inservice training, but also other forms of professional development such as reading, or going to conferences etc), and interaction with colleagues. Sydney TESOLs favoured reflection and diversification.

Doubt One might expect those in a phase of doubt to be attracted to one of two directions; either to withdraw from professional development totally and search for other options or to seek out inspirational forms of professional development.

339 Inservice training was the most common form desired in both studies. However, there were many negative responses from Geneva TESOLs. This was followed by diversification for Sydney TESOLs, interaction with colleagues and keeping up to date for respondents in both studies. Sydney TESOLs showed more imagination in naming diversification as the second most favoured professional development including diversification in teaching and other duties. This shows a desire to branch out. Geneva TESOLs had fewer opportunities and many had not experienced professional development for many years, which may explain why three Geneva TESOL respondents said they were not interested in professional development, while Sydney TESOLs did not indicate a lack of interest.

Stabilisation Both studies named inservice training as the most common form of professional development; however, Geneva TESOLs had almost double the number of respondents, with only two of these offering negative responses. Again, this is probably due to lack of opportunities for more diverse forms of professional development.

Both studies named keeping up to date next, which could include inservice training, but also a range of other activities. Diversification was next for Sydney TESOLs, while Geneva TESOLs mentioned reflection in equal numbers to keeping up to date. Many Geneva TESOLs worked in isolation or were frustrated with inservice training which was frequently the only form of professional development available. Therefore, Geneva TESOLs probably mentioned reflective forms of professional development as other forms were not available.

In summary, TESOLs in both studies showed a keen interest in inservice training while in a phase of doubt and stabilisation, although Geneva TESOLs were very critical of these while in a phase of doubt.

The difference noted was that TESOLs in a phase of experimentation were less interested in inservice training and searched for other types of professional

340 development. Sydney TESOLs preferred diversification and reflection, and nominated inservice training as equal third in ranking along with interaction with colleagues. Only three Geneva TESOLs were in a phase of experimentation; however, responses for inservice training were far lower than in other parts of the study on professional development and other forms of professional development were considered as important in this phase.

Professional development related to years of experience Respondents with less than five years’ experience The most popular form of professional development for both groups of inexperienced teachers was inservice training, but Geneva TESOLs gave a far higher response rate. Geneva TESOLs had a smaller range of professional development than Sydney TESOLs. Inservice training was mentioned by greater numbers, probably due to a lack of other possibilities. Interaction with colleagues and keeping up to date were popular, while some respondents were not interested in professional development. Sydney TESOLs had more opportunities for diversification, which may account for the higher number of responses in this category, while diversification was not mentioned by Geneva TESOLs. Sydney TESOLs were interested in reflection, while only one Geneva TESOL was. Sydney TESOLs with less experience showed more inclination towards reading books, observations, teacher training and understanding and motivating students, none of which was mentioned by Geneva TESOLs. This indicated that Sydney TESOLs were more mature in their professional development than Geneva TESOLs, who showed less variety in their responses.

It is surprising that more references were not made to diversification and expanding one’s repertoire. Getting a broad experience was important for beginner teachers, but this was mentioned only by Sydney TESOLs, possibly because the opportunities were not available in Geneva, or perhaps because they did not recognise these as professional development.

341

Respondents with more than five years’ experience Again, Geneva TESOLs mentioned a more limited range of professional development types than Sydney TESOLs. Inservice training was the most frequent response by both Sydney and Geneva TESOLs with more than five years’ experience. Geneva TESOLs also indicated that they did not find the current workshops useful. There seemed to be a negative under-current among Geneva TESOLs, probably due to their inferior working conditions and expectations of their attending professional development at their own expense.

Keeping up to date was mentioned by both Sydney and Geneva TESOLs. Reflection was important for respondents in both studies.

Sydney TESOLs mentioned diversification as a strong preference as well as further studies and training other teachers, none of which featured in the Geneva TESOL study, except for one reference to diversification. This is probably because of the many opportunities for further study as well as for diversifying which were available in Sydney but not in Geneva.

In summary, neither Geneva nor Sydney TESOLs indicated any consistent pattern of professional development which could relate to years of experience. Both groups favoured inservice training regardless of years of experience; however, Geneva TESOLs mentioned inservice training twice as frequently as Sydney TESOLs. Following this, the preferences varied between the two studies, with Sydney respondents mentioning diversification, which was only mentioned by one Geneva TESOL with more than five years’ experience. As might be expected, Sydney TESOLs with more experience valued diversification, but Geneva TESOLs did not, probably due to lack of opportunities.

Reflection was valued by Geneva TESOLs with more than five years’ experience, and by Sydney TESOLs across the board. There were no other consistent patterns which could be identified, except that all valued interaction with colleagues, and keeping up to date. Further studies were mentioned by all

342 Sydney TESOLs and by Geneva TESOLs early on in the career, but not later, probably due to lack of opportunities.

Sydney TESOLs mentioned a greater range of professional development. However, this did not seem to relate to the years of experience, but to their greater maturity (perhaps because many were trained to masters level) and to the greater opportunities available.

Analysis of all interviews to identify areas of professional development The analysis of the general interviews in both studies revealed a far greater range of professional development than that mentioned in the professional development question, in particular, by Geneva TESOLs. The number of references to professional development in the general interviews was 344 by Sydney TESOLs and 128 by Geneva TESOLs, indicating far more opportunities and / or interest by Sydney TESOLs. In both studies, diversification, including change, diversification in teaching and other duties was the most frequently mentioned. Sydney TESOLs also referred to higher duties and were more imaginative overall, again reflecting their far greater opportunities.

In summary, Sydney TESOLs mentioned a greater variety of professional development activities than Geneva TESOLs, and their responses were more mature. They were more interested in reflective forms of professional development, and mentioned observations, reading and other more independent types of professional development more frequently than Geneva TESOLs. This was almost certainly due to the greater opportunities available in Sydney.

Geneva TESOLs were critical of the professional development available and some mentioned a lack of interest in professional development. This could probably be attributed to the fact that Geneva TESOLs were more likely to have to self-fund their professional development. However, Sydney TESOLs were

343 keener on further studies, which involved self-funding, but the employing institution often assisted with paid release from teaching to attend lectures.

Section summary The results reveal that the types of professional development teachers found useful varied according to their background, training, years of experience and exposure, and knowledge of what training was available.

In the analyses of the phases respondents were currently in and the corresponding professional development they found useful, respondents in a phase of experimentation diverged from those in a phase of doubt and stabilisation, nominating more diverse forms of professional development than inservice training.

Despite some reservations expressed by Geneva TESOLs, respondents across all categories seemed to find inservice training the most valuable in both studies, followed by keeping up to date and interaction with colleagues. Sydney TESOLs were more interested in diversification, because of the range of opportunities available in terms of promotion, other duties, different types of teaching, course writing and other activities. These did not seem to be available in Geneva. However, some of the diversification opportunities which respondents undertook were not in TESOL itself, for example, if they decided to have a change of career before returning.

A greater variety of responses was recorded in the interviews than in the response to the specific professional development interview question, particularly aspects of diversification and further study. This suggests that the TESOL respondents may not be fully aware of the range of professional development activities they undergo, and that they may limit their perception of what constitutes professional development to the types of activities to be found on the lists they produced. In contrast, their general interviews suggest a range of circumstances activities which seem to spur them on to further development,

344 such as change. Inservice training, which was the most frequently mentioned professional development in both TESOL studies, was rarely mentioned in other parts of the interviews. Finally, Sydney TESOL respondents (and, to a lesser extent Geneva respondents) seemed to have opportunities for ongoing formal training throughout their careers, while this was not reported in Huberman’s study.

345

SECTION 2: PERSPECTIVE OF TRAINERS AND ADMINISTRATORS INTRODUCTION Trainers and / or administrators were interviewed because they were responsible for the organisation and / or delivery of professional development. Aspects of professional development were budget-linked and trainers and / or administrators were normally in control of the budget or influenced how it should be spent. Background information about their roles and responsibilities is discussed in Appendix M, and a profile of institutions and professional development programs is given in Appendix N.

Huberman did not explore this perspective. In the Sydney and Geneva TESOL studies, however, this topic was the subject of a separate interview for teachers and / or administrators. Few positions existed for full time trainers / administrators in Geneva, but in Sydney the roles were more clearly defined, and the eleven respondents interviewed were not interviewed as teachers.

In Geneva, eight of the 10 trainers / administrators interviewed were also interviewed as teachers and this may have brought the trainers / administrators and teachers’ responses in Geneva closer together.

The aims of the interview with trainers / administrators were to identify the aspects of professional development that were useful or desirable and to enable them to convey their perception of teachers’ professional development requirements. In this way it was hoped to gain a deeper understanding of professional development, which is treated very sparsely in the literature on TESOLs, and to identify areas that might need more attention by educational administrators in the field.

Once again, an attempt was made to gauge professional development needs at different stages of the career. In the Geneva TESOL study this was more difficult as, because the question, do they (teachers) need different sorts (of professional

346 development) at different times in their career? was asked in a general fashion, the answers were quite general. Consequently, in the Sydney study, the question was modified to ask trainers / administrators to identify what sorts of professional development teachers needed with particular years of experience. In this way, respondents were expected to be more specific in their answers.

This section deals with data relevant to research questions 12-15 (see pages 9-10). Trainers’ / administrators’ interview Interview questions 18-23 for Sydney study 18 What experience /qualifications did you have b efore taking up adult TESOL? (job titles, dates and qualification details) 19 What TESOL-related qualifications do you have; where and when did you do them? 20 How many years’ adult TESOL experience do you have, when and where? 21 What teacher training and / or administrative positions have you held, when and where? 22 How long have you b een in your current position, and what is your title? (if less than three years how long were you in your previous position?) 23 Describ e your current role as trainer and/or administrator Interview question 13 for Geneva study; 25 for Sydney study 13 What professional development programs have you b een involved in, and how successful were they? 25 What professional development programs have you b een involved in in your current or most recent positions, and how successful were they? Why were they successful or why not? Interview question 12 for Geneva study What sort of professional development do teachers need, and do they need different sorts at different times of their career?

347 Interview questions 27 & 28 for Sydney study 27. What sort of professional development do teachers need, and do they need different sorts at different times of their career? What sort of professional development do they need at: 0-4 years’ experience 5-10 years’ experience 11 + years’ experience Interview question 14 for Geneva study; 29 for Sydney study What do teachers want as professional development? Interview question 15 for Geneva study; 31 for Sydney study What would you do ideally for teacher development, taking away constraints, like money?

Sydney TESOLs were also asked to comment on a number of lists of responses from the Geneva study. These were interview questions numbers 24, 26, 28, 30 and 32 in the Sydney study. As these cannot be compared with the Geneva study, the questions and responses are presented in Appendices M, N and O.

GENEVA TESOL STUDY Ten Geneva trainers and / or administrators were interviewed. From the responses to interview question 13, a preliminary profile could be painted of the role of trainers / administrators and training in TESOL, the professional development available and the issues and concerns of trainers / administrators.

A definition of the term “professional development” has been reported in Appendix K.

348

Teachers’ professional development needs The following findings refer to interview question number 27. Professional development needs of employees in the international organisation One important issue raised in the context of the international organisation was that of the effect of permanency on teachers’ desires for professional development:

half the teaching staff are (international organisation) staff members and half are not, and the half that are not are much more interested in gaining training and cooperating. They have everything to gain and nothing to lose by cooperating and participating. ... Some desire training, while some don’t - the ones that need it most don’t desire it.

The inference is that as teachers became more secure in their employment, they lost their enthusiasm for development. Many perceived that they did not need training. Professional development needs of employees in private schools Another respondent acknowledged the difficulties involved in unpaid professional development for the casually employed. The teachers felt they should be paid for professional development, while the trainer viewed it as the teachers’ own obligation:

I see it as investing my time in people who aren't necessarily going to work for the school. I've dealt with part-timers who come in on the angle that it's to my credit I'm here and you should be grateful to have me and should be paying me to be better. You're getting the profit etc and should be grateful.

According to two respondents, there was a discrepancy between training and development, as many people were untrained at the basic level:

349 There were so many unqualified people five or six years ago, it reached a peak point, development becomes increasingly difficult and the career stumps, the next stage of development management is to look at what the individual needs there's a discrepancy between training and development. It's the “icing and no cake to put it on” analogy (people with no basic training). If you can't relate it to anything, it's not exploited to its full potential.

One of these respondents stated that the key of professional development was that teachers’ needs had to be respected and met, or there would be no growth. He felt a lot of goodwill went into professional development:

I’m conscious people do it because they want to be better teachers, a lot of will goes into it, you have to take them from where they are, even if you feel they need it at a different level, because otherwise you're asking people what they want and not giving it to them or saying that they don't need it.

Some mentioned that those who need professional development most often fail to recognise their need:

Half the people there were interested in cultural awareness and were culturally aware already, and it was a waste of time finding out if we were culturally aware, because we were and it was sad because all those who needed it weren't there.

On the other hand, there were those who undertook professional development, but who didn’t change as they were set in their ways:

But you can't force people to go, they won't reflect and be motivated. Lots of people with five years experience teaching are so set in their ways and annoyed because you've told them to reflect.

350 In summary, the main issue for those in private schools was that of funding the attendance of teachers, most of whom were expected to attend professional development in their own time. The other issue was that of providing different types of professional development to suit the different needs with the budgetary constraints. Professional development needed at different times in the career In response to interview question 12, many Geneva TESOL respondents agreed that teachers needed different types of professional development depending on the stage they were at, but many also believed it was not directly related to years of experience, but varied from individual to individual, whether or not they continued to develop. Many trainers / administrators repeatedly mentioned that development was individual.

One respondent agreed that teachers needed to be grouped according to the number of years’ experience; however, the director wouldn’t agree:

They need different sorts, because often we group people with 20 years’ experience with someone after one year, and needs are obviously different. ... We have tried to suggest to the Director that we need different sorts, but she won’t hear of it.

Another respondent agreed that different kinds of professional development were needed according to their career aims. He felt that part-time teachers needed a different approach from those who considered TESOL more of a career:

If it's a part time teacher as a lot of them are - a part-time teacher wants to teach part-time and doesn't want to do more than teaching - so they need to feel challenged, to have fresh ways in for their teaching, they want that class of professional development, because they don't want to go further.

However, those that wanted to branch out into different areas such as “materials development, or test writing” needed another type of professional development.

351 This respondent felt that professional development was linked to their career and which direction they wanted to take.

Some respondents emphasised the individual nature of professional development needs:

it's very individual - ... some people are far into their career and need very basic training, and others after two years are very advanced. So it depends on how advanced or reflective they are.

Needs were seen to depend on many factors, including the amount of prior training in their background, the type of initial training and whether it fostered development. For example, those with a DTEFLA qualification were thought to be more likely to be reflective than those with only a CTEFLA qualification, because of the different nature of these two programs.

Other factors affecting rates of development or stagnation included the working environment they were in, whether it fostered interaction with colleagues and growth or whether they worked in isolation or in a stagnant atmosphere with a fixed curriculum. Many TESOLs working in private schools spontaneously described the joys of the TESOL staffroom, “cutting bits of paper, the colleagues, the atmosphere”. Constantly talking about new ideas and lessons, with colleagues who were equally enthusiastic was likely to foster a sense of moving forward and encourage teachers to keep up to date and to discuss new ideas. Although there were some beginners’ concerns about lack of sufficient guidance and support, the school A staffroom was mentioned as being one such place, contrasted with the international organisation staffroom, where teachers had been exposed to no professional development in the last few years.

One teacher from the international organisation described the frustration of trying to discuss professional issues with colleagues over lunch:

352 I feel like the big bad wolf and a black cloud talking about teaching, when teacher x wants to eat her lunch.

In the international organisation, teachers had a coffee room for a central meeting place but did their lesson preparation in their classrooms, while in school A the teachers’ preparation room also served as a coffee room, and they had no fixed classroom. In school B there was a preparation area, but it was also part of the office with the Directors in it, and one teacher respondent felt the only useful interaction with colleagues she might have would be over the photocopying machine.

These considerations suggest that educational administrators should give greater consideration to the quality of the space devoted to teachers’ staffrooms and the amount of interaction and exchange of ideas the atmosphere creates. If teachers’ resources were more centralised rather than being in individual classrooms, this would also seem to encourage greater interaction.

In Tables 6.11 and 6.12, the teachers’ responses to what professional development was useful for them have been placed alongside the trainers’ / administrators’ responses for comparison. Geneva TESOLs with less than five years’ experience Table 6.11 relates to the beginner teachers with less than five years of experience.

353 Table 6.11: Type of professional development needed for teachers with less than five years’ experience: Geneva TES OL study Responses*** Type of professional development needed for

Trnrs /

beginning teachers

admrs*

Inservice training / workshops

Teachers**

5

Positive: 15 Negative: 1

Guidance and support / interaction with

4

6

Reflection

2

1

Other

1

-

Keeping up to date

-

3

Not interested

-

3

Conferences

-

2

Further studies

-

2

12

33

colleagues

Total responses

* Number trainers / administrators = 10; **number teachers = 8 *** Multiple responses (individual respondents may have made more than one response) Inservice training / workshops As might be expected, inservice training / workshops was the most frequently mentioned aspect of professional development, receiving five responses by trainers / administrators and 15 positive responses by teachers: At the beginning they are really interested in very practical things, like what they can do in the classroom, and they need to learn more about the grammar, how to teach it... (comment by trainer)

Teachers, therefore, appeared to value this aspect of professional development more than trainers / administrators. Trainers / administrators clearly underestimated how attached to inservice training teachers in the beginning phases were.

354 Guidance and support Both teachers and trainers / administrators rated the next most important professional development for beginning teachers as guidance and support including interaction with colleagues and support with materials. The latter is not surprising as beginning teachers often feel bewildered with the range of teaching materials in the field:

After CTEFLA, they need guidance, a DOS or someone they can go to. Reflection Reflective forms of professional development were mentioned by two trainers / administrators while one teacher mentioned reading books and journals. One trainer felt the DTEFLA practical experience did not lead to reflection:

As a trainee, not in EFL, I had to follow each teaching session with comments, it was a type of confessional -feedback on why it had worked well or not, it was sound and did lead to reflection. In DTEFLA, the idea is teach a session and thank god it’s over. We need to inspire teachers not to forget but to reflect .

Conferences, keeping up to date and further studies were mentioned by teachers, but not trainers / administrators.

Three beginning teachers were not interested in professional development at all.

Beginning Geneva teachers, therefore, generally shared the trainers’ / administrators’ beliefs, nominating hands-on inservice experiences as being the most important followed by support and guidance and reflection. The teachers, however, were somewhat stronger in support of specific workshops than trainers / administrators appeared to be. And teachers mentioned a greater range of professional development than trainers / administrators did.

355 Later / generally Table 6.12 shows the responses of trainers / administrators to professional development needed for teachers later in the career or generally. This has been contrasted with the teachers’ responses with more than five years’ experience.

Table 6.12: Type of professional development needed for teachers with more than five years’ experience: Geneva TES OL study Responses*** Type of professional development needed Trnrs / Teachers** for teachers with 5-29 years’ experience admrs* Interaction with colleagues 5 3 Keeping up to date 4 7 Diversification 3 1 Reflection 3 6 Inservice training / workshops Positive:15 Negative: 4 Everything 3 Conferences 2 Nothing 1 Other: linguistic basis; linguistic angle 3 Total responses 18 42 *Number trainers / administrators = 10; **Number teachers = 13 *** Multiple responses (individual respondents may have made more than one response) The most surprising aspect of the responses was that, while teachers gave 15 positive responses relating to workshops these were not mentioned by trainers / administrators. Reflection and keeping up to date were the next most important aspect for teachers, but trainers / administrators rated these less highly. Trainers / administrators seemed to undervalue their importance later in their careers.

Interacting with colleagues Trainers / administrators regarded contact between colleagues and exchanging information as more important for later on in the teachers’ career than did

356 teachers. One trainer felt teachers should become more independent, contribute to professional development themselves, network with colleagues from other schools, and go to meetings:

Remember teaching’s very public, the more you develop and the more strings you have to your bow, the better you’re seen by the public, you’re an asset to the school and there is mutually good treatment on both sides... Having your own network and taking advantage of the school’s ... The school should encourage independence.

In return, the administrator felt teachers’ work should be acknowledged in a newsletter. Diversification Another professional development method mentioned by more trainers / administrators than teachers was acquiring different types of teaching experience, or experience in course design. Reflection This was valued somewhat more by teachers than by trainers / administrators. However, some trainers / administrators felt that teachers could learn from the classroom, either from observing others teach, or by analysing what works with their students:

Teachers often put the responsibility for whether a lesson worked or not on the materials or the students, but there is more to it. They need a program of teacher development that encourages teachers to self-develop - to encourage reflection to think through their own process.

Another respondent felt that teachers could learn from feedback on evaluation forms:

How to be responsive to feedback on evaluation, and how to evaluate student needs.

357 Section summary In summary, trainers / administrators and teachers agreed that, early in the teacher’s career, inservice training workshops and interaction with colleagues were important. However, teachers identified a wider range of professional development types than did trainers / administrators, suggesting that their full needs were not being recognised by those responsible.

Teachers later in their career were keen on inservice training, which was surprisingly not mentioned by trainers / administrators. The more experienced teachers mentioned a wider range of professional development experiences than trainers / administrators. In both cases, teachers mentioned a wider range of professional development and gave more responses to what type of professional development was useful. The type mentioned was not matched by the trainers’ / administrators’ responses either.

Professional development wanted Interview question 14 referred to “wants”, not “needs”. The range of perceived desired professional development was not as broad as the range of needs described for teachers by trainers / administrators. Some felt teachers were not interested in professional development, either because “no-one is going to finance you and private teaching doesn’t pay much”, or “because they think they don’t need it.” These attitudes were not, however, reflected in actual teacher responses. Summary of trainers’ / administrators’ perceptions Table 6.13 sets out the type of professional development the trainers / administrators felt teachers wanted and contrasts this with the teachers’ own views of their professional development needs.

358 Table 6.13: Type of professional development wanted by Geneva TES OLs as perceived by trainers / administrators Responses*** Type of professional development wanted Trnrs / Teachers** admrs* Inservice training / workshops 7 Positive: 23 Negative:11 Not interested 6 4 Diversification / experience 4 1 Depends on stage 3 Keeping up to date 2 10 Conferences 1 4 Administrative support 1 Interaction with colleagues 9 Reflection 7 Everything 3 Further studies (DTEFLA) 2 Total responses 24 74 * Number of trainers / administrators = 10; **Number of teachers = 21 *** Multiple responses (individual respondents may have made more than one response)

Inservice training / workshops Inservice training / workshops were the most frequently mentioned form of professional development that trainers / administrators believed Geneva TESOLs wanted. This view was even more strongly expressed by the teachers.

Many trainers / administrators felt that teachers wanted practical sessions with handson ideas. Two trainers / administrators said:

They like to have games, they like ideas about teaching grammar, they're always interested in grammar ...I only know what they tell me they

359 want - phonology chart, how to teach phonology, things like that, a reader and how to look at that.

I have a feeling they want more gimmicks that work on the spot ...They want something that isn't going to take up too much of their time - something that's going to be amusing.

Some trainers / administrators felt that teachers wanted sessions led by experts with important names for inspiration:

they think gosh Adrian Underhill, that's a big name and so they think I'll go to his workshop and instantly I will be more developed and they often take what's given as gospel, and don't think through the relevance or use of what's being given.

However, 11 teachers felt the current workshops were not useful, preferring applied theory. Perhaps the trainers / administrators have misperceptions about the most relevant workshops for teachers. They are not interested More than half of the trainers / administrators felt that teachers were not interested in professional development as they were too busy or were not paid to attend. This view was shared by only four out of 21 teachers. One trainer said that the permanent staff members were the ones who were the least interested:

half the teaching staff are international organisation staff members and half are not, and the half that are not are much more interested in gaining training and cooperating. They have everything to gain and nothing to lose by cooperating and participating. Perhaps security is perceived to be associated with a lack of interest in or perceived need for development.

Lack of financial support was also deemed to be significant:

360 I feel many of them are not interested enough in the area, particularly teachers in the private sector, because no one is going to finance you and private teaching doesn't pay much ... it takes a pretty devoted teacher to find enough time and money to invest in professional development.

However, the teachers themselves did not mention the financial aspect in the interviews. Trainers / administrators could be failing to meet teachers’ professional development needs because of a perceived lack of interest, which may not be the case judging by the responses. Diversification Diversification was mentioned by trainers / administrators but not teachers. Some felt teachers needed to be involved in designing professional development programs themselves:

I’ve had very positive feedback from people involved in the design of programs and looking at course objectives themselves and the feedback was very positive.

Two trainers / administrators felt that more experienced teachers needed to go more deeply into issues in professional development:

The more experienced teacher needs quite challenging things ... they need things to keep the motivation going, and to keep them interested in teaching as a job it's not easy to keep the spark going. Depends on what stage they’re at - different things Three trainers / administrators felt teachers needed different professional development according to their stage of development, which was not mentioned by teachers. One stated that teachers did professional development because they wanted to become better teachers. He felt it was essential to meet their individual wishes, rather than imposing development of another kind on them.

361 I’m conscious people do it because they want to be better teachers, a lot of will goes into it, you have to take them from where they are, even if you feel they need it at a different level, because otherwise you're asking people what they want and not giving it to them or saying that they don't need it.

Teachers mentioned a range of professional development which was not often mentioned by trainers / administrators, such as keeping up to date (two trainers / administrators mentioned this), interaction with colleagues, reflection, everything, further studies and conferences (mentioned by one trainer). Administrative support One trainer specifically mentioned administrative support:

Teachers need a secure pattern they can see - who to go to what for, a clear framework around them and they need to be kept informed about any changes in it.

None of the teachers mentioned this as a form of professional development, but some newer ones mentioned it as a general need in other parts of the study. Section summary Trainers / administrators sometimes seemed to trivialise the desires of teachers regarding their professional development, saying they wanted hands-on practical workshops, talks by famous writers or something amusing and not too time-consuming or that they were not interested in professional development at all. However, some teachers, even some who were less experienced, demonstrated a more critically aware and reflective response than the trainers / administrators gave them credit for. Seven teacher responses related to the need for more reflection, wanting something with a theoretical basis. Eleven respondents had found some workshops, such as those on interpersonal skills, somewhat superficial. Teachers mentioned a greater range of professional

362 development too. So there was a danger that trainers / administrators were misreading teachers’ perceived needs, and oversimplifying the offerings.

Ideal professional development for Geneva TESOLs This question required trainers / administrators to be more imaginative, describing the kind of professional development which would be best for teachers if there were no funding constraints. In these responses, trainers / administrators came a little nearer to teachers’ expressed wishes, mentioning a greater range of professional development. Trainers / administrators may have dismissed some of the types of professional development earlier because of perceived funding restraints. Table 6.14 provides a comparative analysis of the “ideal professional development” envisaged by trainers / administrators and the professional development regarded by teachers as being most important to them. This question was not asked directly of teachers, so the teachers’ comments, when asked what professional development is useful for them now, are repeated for comparison.

363 Table 6.14: Geneva TES OL trainers / administrators’ ideal professional development for teachers compared to teachers’ unsolicited responses Responses*** Ideal professional development

Trnrs /

Teachers**

admrs* Inservice

14

34

2-3 day courses / longer courses / specific courses

6

8

Workshops with famous names on non-TESOL

5

topics Better researched presentations with theoretical

1

basis Pay people to attend training, and free sessions

1

Time to relearn the language in your mother tongue

1

country Other: workshops

-

15


-

11

Diversification

6

1

Look at field other than teaching

3

Look at different fields of teaching

2

Materials development

1

Reflection

3

Get teachers together to observe each other

1

Greater range of journals

1

Teach in blocks with time built in for reflection

1

Reflection

-

5

Conferences Sponsor people to go to conferences Individualised programs / homogeneous group Individualised programs Market courses to get homogeneous group

2 2 2 1 1

4

7

2

-

364 Table 6.14 (continued) Interaction with colleagues

1

Team-building

1

School events

1

Time, infrastructure and money to put on school

1

9

-

events Keeping up to date

-

10

None

-

4

Everything

-

3

Further studies

2

2

Sabbatical year for further education

2

-

Total responses

31

74

* Number trainers / administrators= 10; ** number teachers = 21 (unsolicited responses) *** Multiple responses (individual respondents may have made more than one response) The most common new suggestion was the need for time to concentrate on professional development. Inservice training received the most responses. Another aspect mentioned was the need to lift financial constraints which would enable teachers to be funded to go to conferences and attend more professional development programs, as well as assisting with marketing professional development courses, allowing for individualised professional development programs, and enabling teachers to observe each other. Inservice training / workshops / courses Trainers / administrators mentioned some additional types of inservice training activities. Longer seminars / going more deeply into issues Many people criticised the current workshops and wished to have longer sessions with time to go more deeply into issues:

365 I feel personally there's a lot of time and money wasted on very short term Friday afternoon let's look at this in two hours and not enough continuity, and it's better to have a group of teachers free for one week to work on something, and get somewhere. Organise sessions with famous names One respondent felt that with funding specialists could be contracted to examine a range of personal development concerns as well as methodological concerns:

something on communication and personal development, group dynamics, something on team building in the school, learning to express their needs, making them more aware, and some at the methodological level ... I think it would be nice to have outsiders come in too, someone bigger and better than us for a couple of days. Better researched presentations One said that she felt that conference papers were often given without the research basis they required. She felt that ideally the academic and practical sides needed bringing together more:

There are a lot of sessions given at conferences with very little research supporting it. They are presentations of good ideas that work. ... Academic research needs to meet the practical side more. Funding issues The issue of funding was raised, with some respondents feeling that the employing institution should pay for attendance at conferences or professional development, and others feeling it was up to the individual to take responsibility:

paying people to attend - that's what happens in the real world - my husband gets everything paid for when he goes to a conference, in industry that's what happens. Can you imagine them saying to him - oh

366 could you pay for the trip, and pay for your hotel, and your training. It's a miracle anyone comes along, and it's all in their own time. Diversification Looking at other fields Some respondents felt that examining other fields would be useful, such as relearning one’s language in one’s mother country, management teaching or communication skills. Reflection Reflection received more references than in other sections and included some ideas which would require funding. Teaching in blocks with built-in time for reflection One respondent felt there was no time in the teaching profession built in for reflection:

Teaching for blocks but having time during the teaching block to stop and think, so perhaps four days teaching, half a day's materials development, and half a day getting together and sharing ideas if it's a full time thing, but it's not what happens now. We work day one week one to the last day of the course without time to breathe and you need a breathing space during the week..

The same respondent felt that because of time constraints, it would be fruitful to get groups of teachers with similar needs together to monitor each other. More journals and resources One respondent felt that schools could be judged on their attitude to professional development by the range of professional journals they make available to their teachers.

367 She felt that the attitude of the school was more important than the budget for professional development, as even a school with a low budget could maintain a professional development program. Conferences In other questions, trainers / administrators did not mention conferences, perhaps because of a lack of funding. However, in this section, two respondents felt that sponsoring people to go to conferences or courses would be of use.

With more money I’d be able to sponsor someone to go to a conference further away, the British Council type events.

Further studies S abbatical time out Some saw the value of a sabbatical term out:

if we could get them a term off to go to school, it would be so beneficial and make them happy, refresh their minds, they would be happy to know the organisation cares about them. Everyone wants to do a competent job, and if they have the tools, if they have what they need, it would be so much better, and they would recognise it would be better. You have to give them what they want, they could choose to improve their skills in areas they wanted. Additional concerns raised One respondent summed up the general feeling of frustration with current conditions and the possibilities if funding were no object:

Oh, we could do so much - seminars, off-site training, ... there's no end to it. If the money were infinite and the teachers could choose their own training, they would all be very happy to get training, and I would be

368 happy to meet the needs of the clients, if we could, for example, every year have teachers get in-service training.

The budget prevented them from carrying out these wishes:

But at the moment money is a big constraint. We have to justify every project and get approval and establish a track record for the budget for the next biennium.

A concern was that teachers were expected to self-fund their own development. Some respondents who were teachers as well as trainers / administrators raised the issue that freelance teachers already had to prepare and travel to work sites with no recompense, and could not be expected to pay for their professional development too.

I feel many of them are not interested enough in the area, particularly teachers in the private sector, because no one is going to finance you and private teaching doesn't pay much, and it's a big time grabber, you have so many hours to put in to keep up with your own preparation and teaching, that it takes a pretty devoted teacher to find enough time and money to invest in professional development.

Section summary With no financial constraints, the ideal professional development mentioned by trainers / administrators focused mainly on inservice training and longer courses. A few mentioned exploring fields other than teaching and some would have liked to organise special events or put time aside for reflection. However, there were no clear indications that they would implement anything more imaginative than the current offerings. Either teachers were well served with professional development offerings, or trainers / administrators were lacking in inspiration. Most disturbingly, their ideas did not closely match the type of professional development which teachers mentioned as being useful, such as reflection, interacting with colleagues and keeping up to date. The possible implications of this important mismatch will be discussed in the conclusion.

369

SYDNEY TESOL STUDY In the Sydney TESOL study, unlike the Geneva study, the trainers / administrators interviewed were a discrete group which did not overlap with teachers. Eleven Sydney trainers and administrators were interviewed. They seemed clearer than the Geneva respondents in their understanding of the concept professional development. This was probably because each institution had some kind of professional development program in place. One sent its teachers to another institution for professional development.

Teachers’ professional development needs For Sydney respondents, the interview question asked of trainers / administrators in both studies was clarified further to distinguish between the different years of experience. Respondents were asked to discern what types of professional development is appropriate for different stages of development.

All trainer respondents agreed that needs differed with different career stages. One respondent felt it was a mindset:

Some are resentful they are expected to develop professionally and go to conferences and seminars because they don’t have to in other jobs.

Another mapped out teachers’ needs starting with an initial pre-service qualification, followed by a range of experience, then another Diploma level qualification:

still classroom based, but that gets them to look at the rationale behind various approaches and what theoretical support they have. And for those interested there should be something more theoretical like an MA where they can look in detail at Second Language Acquisition research and linguistics. Sydney TESOLs with less than five years’ experience Table 6.15 summarises the responses given by all trainers / administrators (n=11) for teachers with less than five years’ experience, and compares this

370 information with the responses given by teachers in this category of experience about their professional development needs. Table 6.15: Type of professional development needed for teachers with less than five years’ experience: S ydney TES OL study Responses *** 0-4 years’ experience: type of

Trnrs /

Teachers**

professional development

admrs*

Experience / diversification

9

5

Support and guidance (interaction with

8

1

Inservice training

7

8

Reflection

5

5

Further studies

5

2

Everything

1

-

Understanding and motivating

-

2

Conferences

-

1

Keeping up to date

-

1

Other / travel

-

1

Teacher training

-

1

Total responses

35

27

colleagues)

students

*Number trainers / administrators = 11; **number teachers = 9 *** Multiple responses (individual respondents may have made more than one response) When asked to identify the type of professional development most useful for those with less than five years’ experience, trainers/ administrators identified experience and diversification as most important, followed by support and guidance and inservice training. Teachers, however, identified inservice training as most important, followed by experience / diversification and reflection.

371 The diversification mentioned by trainers / administrators was limited to hands-on classroom experience with a range of levels, while teachers mentioned additional duties to teaching, such as teacher training and coordination.

Support and guidance by colleagues was the third most mentioned category of professional development by trainers and administrators, while only one teacher valued interaction with colleagues.

Five teachers and five trainers / administrators referred to reflection. This was placed third by teachers in this category. Teachers, but not trainers/ administrators, valued reading b ooks / journals, particularly to clarify a grammar point before teaching.

Although only two teacher respondents were interested in doing further training, five trainer/ administrator respondents felt this was necessary after several years’ experience.

Teachers also valued conferences, and specific courses / seminars, while trainers/ administrators did not specify these areas. Section summary Teachers and trainers/ administrators agreed that important professional development included consolidation of b asic teaching skills by attending workshops, diversification in experience and reflection. Trainers / administrators but not teachers felt that further studies were important. However, teachers but not trainers / administrators felt that support and guidance by colleagues was important, as well as understanding and motivating students, conferences, keeping up to date, travel and teacher training. The inexperienced teachers’ views of their own needs were therefore more imaginative than those of their trainers / administrators.

372 Professional development appropriate for respondents with 5-10 years’ experience Table 6.16 shows the different perspectives of trainers / administrators and teachers concerning appropriate professional development for teachers with 5-10 years of experience. Although there were some areas of consistency between teachers and trainers / administrators, there were some surprising differences. Table 6.16: Type of professional development needed for teachers with 5-10 years’ experience: S ydney TES OL study Responses*** Type of professional development

Trnrs /

needed

admrs*

Teachers**

Diversification

17

3

Further studies

6

3

Inservice training

2

6


2

4

Teacher training

2

-

Career focus

2

-

Conferences

1

3

Reflection

1

3

Keeping up to date

1

4

Departmental meetings: goal setting

-

1

34

27

Total responses

* Number trainers / administrators = 10; ** number teachers = 12 *** Multiple responses (individual respondents may have made more than one response) The trainers / administrators felt teachers in this category needed diversification more than any other type of professional development, while teachers made only three references to this aspect of professional development. The teachers, on the other hand felt inservice training was more important, with six responses relating to this while six trainers / administrators made reference to further studies, and teachers only three. Teachers also regarded keeping up to

373 date and interaction with colleagues as important, while trainers / administrators valued these less. Reflective forms of professional development and conferences were mentioned by three teachers and only one trainer. Section summary Responses for this category show quite distinct views of teachers from those of trainers / administrators. Trainers / administrators above all believed that teachers needed to diversify and undergo further studies, which were not the most popular responses for teachers. Professional development appropriate for respondents with 11+ years’ experience Table 6.17 shows that trainers / administrators believed that diversification was the most important facet of professional development for those with more experience, while teachers continued to favour inservice training. Inservice training was only mentioned by one trainer, but was the most valued form of professional development by teachers with 11-29 years of experience.

374 Table 6.17: Type of professional development needed for teachers with 11-29 years’ experience: S ydney TES OL study Responses*** Type of professional development

Trnrs / admrs*

Teachers**

Diversification

14

6

Other / holiday / new job

10

-

Reflection

4

3

Further studies

2

2

Various / non-specific

2

-

Inservice training

1

8

Training teachers or trainers

1

3

Keeping up to date

1

3

Broader knowledge of industry

1

-


-

4

Conferences

-

1

Ongoing professional development

-

1

36

31

needed

Total responses

* Number trainers / administrators = 11; ** number teachers = 11 *** Multiple responses (individual respondents may have made more than one response) Trainers / administrators also felt it was more important for teachers to have other interests, or to take a sabbatical or holiday, and some even felt teachers should get another job, while this was not mentioned by teachers. Trainers/administrators demonstrated a certain cynicism, which was not expressed by teachers, about their dedication to the field:

Workshops on how to open a successful coffee shop. (Laughs) Most of the cafes in Balmain and Glebe are run by ex-EFL teachers! Another said:

375 10-11 years they need a new job. They’d be getting pretty stale if they had not got into some sort of supervisory position by then. If they’re still a classroom teacher after 10-20 years then they must be stale.

However, the two teachers in the 20-29 years’ experience range professed to be very happy teaching, one with family obligations and working part-time and the other with no desire to climb the ladder. Teachers and trainers / administrators rated reflection as important. Aspects of professional development rated highly by teachers, but not by trainers/ administrators included the following: interaction with colleagues was mentioned by four teacher respondents and conferences by one teacher. Section summary Trainers/ administrators appeared to feel that many of the areas of professional development they identified for teachers with 5-10 years’ experience were no longer relevant, while the teachers were still keen to develop along those lines. Inservice training was not considered important by trainers / administrators, nor was interaction with colleagues. Trainers / administrators focused more on diversification and exiting the career or turning to personal interests.

Trainers / administrators seem to expect teachers to grow in their professional development expectations, but teachers do not. Trainers / administrators even commented that teachers still in the profession with more than 11 years’ experience should require different experiences outside TESOL. However, the teachers seemed to be generally satisfied with teaching and still felt inservice training was the most useful. It is important to remember, however, that the teachers’ more general responses throughout the interviews revealed a very different picture with a recognition of the importance of diversification seeming to come from various changes to the career.

Professional development wanted Table 6.18 records what trainers / administrators perceived teachers wanted for professional development compared with teachers’ responses.

376 Table 6.18: Type of professional development wanted by S ydney TES OLs as perceived by trainers/administrators Responses*** Type of professional development wanted Inservice training / other training

Trnrs / admrs* 24

Teachers**

Some are not interested / no time

7

-

Depends on their stage

6

-

Further studies

4

7

Keeping up to date

4

8

Career focus

3


3

9

Diversification

2

14

We ask for ideas on this

2

-

Reflection

1

11

Conferences

-

5

Understanding and motivating students

1

2

Teacher training

-

4

Goal setting

-

1

On-going professional development

-

1

22

Travel 1 Total responses 57 85 * Number trainers / administrators = 11; ** number teachers = 32 *** Multiple responses (individual respondents may have made more than one response) Inservice training was the single most mentioned type of professional development that trainers / administrators perceived teachers wanted. This perception matched the teachers’ own responses. This is an interesting finding as in the other cases, trainers / administrators felt that teachers would benefit from other forms of professional development. However, some of the types of inservice training asked for by teachers was different from that suggested by trainers / administrators. Practical / hands on professional development was

377 the most frequently mentioned by trainers / administrators and was also valued by teachers. Trainers / administrators also valued theoretical workshops in linguistics but teachers did not mention these. The special courses referred to by trainers / administrators were of a different type from those mentioned by teachers, who wanted more practical courses. Trainers / administrators mentioned conflict resolution, stress management and other topics of a similar vein.

The remaining professional development was mainly mismatched as teachers continued to mention a greater range of professional development than trainers / administrators. Two administrators responded that it was important to consult with the teachers to discover their wants. One administrator had conducted a survey to identify the professional development teachers wanted and he stated that it depended on what their roles were:

Teachers wanted practical stuff, classroom things, and I think they wanted a mix and more experienced people tended towards formal professional development eg study leave, conferences and bringing external people in, and workshops addressing practical things. With more formal things, getting a more theoretical base, a deeper base.

Seven trainers / administrators felt that teachers had a lack of interest in professional development. However, teachers did not mention any lack of interest.

Six trainers/administrators felt that teachers’ wants would vary according to the stage teachers were at. The most obvious differences between trainers’ / administrators’ perceptions and those of teachers were in regard to diversification, which was referred to 14 times by teachers, but only twice by trainers / administrators; reflection, which teachers referred to 11 times, but trainers / administrators only once; and interaction with colleagues, with nine responses by teachers and only three by trainers / administrators.

378 Keeping up to date was mentioned by four trainers/administrators and eight teachers. This was linked to theoretical and practical workshops, but included broader issues such as methodology, keeping informed about new examinations, sociolinguistics and psycholinguistics, and information technology.

Seven teachers were interested in further studies, while only four trainers / administrators mentioned this. Teachers but not trainers / administrators were also interested in conferences.

In summary, there was a misperception by trainers / administrators of the professional development priorities of teachers. However, as the next section indicates, some trainers/administrators might have felt that some of these aspects of professional development were desirable but not affordable.

Some trainers/administrators felt that teachers wanted something not too time consuming, or that they are not interested as they are too b usy, but teachers did not voice these views. This suggests that trainers / administrators may tend to underestimate the level of teacher interest in professional development.

Ideal professional development for Sydney TESOLs The findings are presented in Table 6.19, together with a comparison with responses from the Sydney teachers about what kinds of professional development was most useful for them.

379 Table 6.19 : S ydney TES OL trainers / administrators’ ideal professional development for teachers Responses*** Professional development area

Trnrs / admrs* 15

Teachers**

Workshops / famous speakers

10

12

Longer courses / specific courses

1

10

Management workshops for senior teachers

1

Theoretical side (linguistics) later

3

School events

13

Have time, infrastructure, money to put on school events / inservice training / housekeeping Opportunity to take staff away for reflection

12

Further studies

9

Money/sabbatical to support external study

5

Further formal training after 2-3 yrs

3

More interactive MA courses

1

Conferences

8

5

Reflection

7

11

Peer observation / observing others

4

5

Reading books and journals: access to good

1

5

Inservice training

22

-

1 7

libraries / time for reading Carry out own research

1

Being observed

1

Reflection

1

Discussion with colleagues

4

9


2

6


3

Mentorship system

1

Team teaching

1

380 Table 6.19 (continued) Diversification

4

Explore different areas to teaching eg

4

14

management; IT; personal development; finance; marketing; cross cultural skills; MBAs Consultation with teachers for professional

3

-

development preferences Staff identify areas they want developing in /

3

consultation with teachers Depends on stage

2

-

Give teacher trainers time for own professional

1

-

Keeping up to date

-

8

Other (travelling; understanding students;

-

5

Teacher training

-

4

Total responses

66

85

development

ongoing professional development; goal setting)

* Number of trainers / administrators= 11; ** number of teachers =32 *** Multiple responses (individual respondents may have made more than one response) Some of the kinds of professional development desired by teachers were apparently not considered a possibility by trainers / administrators, perhaps because of time or money constraints, as they were not mentioned frequently in response to the other questions in this section. However, some are identified here as examples of ideal professional development; for example, reflection, such as ob servations, reading b ooks / journals, sponsoring people to go to conferences, and materials development.

The trainers / administrators mentioned inservice training as the most desired form of professional development for teachers if they had no constraints, which coincided with the teachers’ own perception. This seems to indicate that

381 trainers / administrators perceived that their budgetary constraints prevented them from conducting inservice training.

Twelve trainers / administrators referred to the desire to have the time / infrastructure and money to support school events, but neither was mentioned by teachers probably because this is an organisational issue of greater interest to trainers / administrators.

Trainers / administrators were also keen to encourage teachers to study externally. Teachers shared a wish to study. This was followed by sponsoring people to go to conferences, which was mentioned by eight trainers/administrators and five teachers. One administrator said, somewhat cynically:

I could fly people all over the world - we wouldn’t get much teaching done - to the TESOL conferences in Japan and the USA. I’d send a limited number to each one.

Another administrator said:

interstate conferences with five star accommodation and frequent flyer points and exotic locations. And in return they do not want to do workshops or presentations at said conference. (laughs).

Trainers / administrators made seven references to reflection, including peer ob servation and reading b ooks and journals, which they had neglected to refer to in responses to earlier questions. This is possibly because organising such professional development is very expensive as teachers would have to be released from teaching to engage in peer observation. There is also the possibility that trainers / administrators underestimated the value given to reading as a form of professional development.

On the other hand, facets of professional development prominent in the previous responses were less prominent here presumably as they were not

382 perceived to cost much money. For example, diversification was mentioned as an ideal form of professional development by only four trainers / administrators, but had been referred to 14 times by teachers, interaction with colleagues was mentioned by only four trainers / administrator but had been referred to on nine occasions by teachers.

COMPARISON OF GENEVA AND SYDNEY TESOL STUDIES Professional development needs Geneva trainers / administrators and teachers both stated that inservice training was the most important professional development for inexperienced teachers, although trainers / administrators underestimated the level of interest in inservice training, and the range of professional development mentioned by trainers / administrators was more limited than that of teachers. More experienced teachers continued to favour inservice training, while trainers / administrators felt interaction with colleagues was the most necessary. Not one trainer / administrator mentioned inservice training for this group, demonstrating a wide misperception of teachers’ desires.

Sydney trainers / administrators felt teachers in all categories of experience required diversification foremost, followed by interaction with colleagues and inservice training for inexperienced teachers, further studies for those with 5-10 years’ experience, and a complete change or new job for more experienced teachers. This mismatched with what teachers stated they wanted as all of them nominated inservice training as most useful, and no-one felt in need of a complete change. Therefore, the apparent cynicism of trainers / administrators was not shared by teachers.

In summary, Sydney and Geneva trainers / administrators had quite different perceptions of the professional development requirements for teachers with different experience levels. Sydney trainers / administrators may be closer to the reality than Geneva trainers / administrators as they mentioned diversification first and foremost, which was the most frequently mentioned development throughout the general interviews. However, teachers did not

383 identify diversification as professional development as they rarely referred to it with the same frequency when asked directly about their professional development needs.

Professional development wanted When asked what professional development teachers wanted, Geneva trainers / administrators realised teachers wanted inservice training, but they underestimated the level of interest in this form of professional development. Teachers mentioned a range of professional development which trainers / administrators did not even consider, such as interaction with colleagues, reflection and further studies. Trainers / administrators also overestimated a perceived lack of interest by teachers.

Sydney trainers / administrators very closely perceived the level of interest of teachers in inservice training, but underestimated or missed completely other aspects of professional development rated highly by teachers, such as diversification, reflection, interaction with colleagues and further studies. Many trainers / administrators felt teachers were not interested, which was not the case judging by the teachers’ responses.

Therefore, trainers / administrators from both studies were aware that teachers wanted inservice training primarily, but their perceptions diverged substantially from teachers’ desires in other areas.

Ideal professional development Free of budget constraints, Geneva trainers / administrators continued to rate inservice training most highly as did Sydney trainers / administrators. Sydney trainers / administrators also mentioned school events during non-teaching periods, followed by further studies, conferences and reflective aspects of professional development. In this section, therefore, the professional development mentioned by Sydney trainers / administrators more closely matched that of teachers while Geneva trainers’ / administrators’ responses did not closely match the teachers’ responses and the range of professional development activities proposed continued to be fairly limited in both studies.

384

CHAPTER SUMMARY The TESOL teachers from both studies mentioned the following aspects of professional development spontaneously and in order of frequency when questioned directly about what was currently useful for them (see Table 6.20, left hand column). Table 6.20, right hand column, lists in order of frequency the factors which emerged from the analysis of the interviews of all TESOL teachers. These factors were not referred to directly, but were mentioned in the course of recounting their life history. Table 6.20: Factors perceived as important by TES OL teachers from both studies Factors identified by TESOL teachers

Professional development factors

when specifically questioned about

mentioned by TESOL teachers


during their general interviews

Inservice training

Diversification (including change; higher / other duties; teaching)

Keeping up to date

Further studies


Gaining experience / confidence

Reflection

Support structures

Diversification (other duties)

Personal life

Conferences

Reflection

Further studies

Workshop

Nothing

Conferences

Training other teachers Everything Understanding and motivating students Goal setting Travelling

The most noticeable difference between TESOLs’ responses to the specific question on professional development and their comments in more general questions is as follows:

385 •

Diversification (including change; higher / other duties and teaching) was mentioned extensively throughout the general interviews by teachers, but given far less importance in the direct question. Diversification often led to increased levels of satisfaction, but not necessarily immediately as change sometimes brought moments of stress initially before longer-term benefits were felt.

•

Inservice training was perceived to be the main type of professional development when teachers were questioned directly, but in the general interviews this type of professional development was virtually never mentioned

•

Further studies were mentioned much more frequently in the general interviews than in the specific question on professional development

•

Support structures were mentioned during the interviews but not in the direct question on professional development.

Huberman (1995) identified four professional development cycles in an attempt to develop a professional development model. These were described in more detail in Chapter II. They are the open individual cycle, the closed individual cycle, the open collective cycle and the closed collective cycle (Huberman, 1995, pp. 208-218). The summary of professional development mentioned by TESOL respondents above can be related to Huberman’s paradigms by organising the professional development activities mentioned by TESOL respondents into four main categories. Table 6.21 therefore shows the professional development mentioned by TESOL respondents both from the direct question on professional development and from the general interviews. The combined responses have been organised into four categories.

386 Table 6.21: Four main categories of professional development mentioned by TES OLs 1 Development focused on 2 Diversification beyond the

3 Professional support

←Environmental factors

teaching

and interaction within the

impacting on success

organisation

← change of school /

classroom

• increasing expertise with • coordination of teachers & different levels of students • “tinkering” & experimentation • further development of

programs • administration, placement of students, assessment & report writing • curriculum development

• formal or ad hoc support country, often leading to systems • discussion with

“back to teaching” ←increased opportunities in

colleagues & swapping

new environment after

of ideas

settling in period

areas of expertise in

• developing self access materials

4 Training / further

←downturn in economy

teaching

• taking up promotional positions

studies beyond the

affecting school enrolments

• teacher training

organisation

and increased insecurity

• counselling

• inservice training

←“boom” periods, leading to

• organising student activities

• further formal studies

increased opportunities for

• organising student

• workshops and

mobility and professional

• observation and feedback of trainees • observation by management or by peers

accommodation

seminars

• observing others

• external liaison

• reflection on teaching

• attending conferences

as learning about

reading books & journals

• organising exams / examining

computers

on teaching issues

• specific courses such

development ← availability of promotional opportunities / study

387 The four main areas are as follows: •

Development focused on teaching, where the “lone wolf” scenario teachers work on their technical skills and carry out experiments, at all stages, but particularly in the early stages of teaching. Reflective types of professional development were mentioned, including reading books and journals to assist in curriculum development for the classroom, reflection on classroom teaching and observation by others and of others in the classroom. These relate to Huberman’s closed individual cycle.

•

diversification beyond the classroom, including additional duties where TESOLs combine teaching with coordinating, administration, curriculum development, teacher training, counselling or other duties. This relates broadly to Huberman’s open individual cycle, but includes elements of all cycles as the duties may be broad and involve different types of interaction.

•

professional support and interaction within the organisation, where, in initial phases, TESOLs receive support and guidance from their colleagues or coordinators, and later they exchange ideas and information with their peers. This relates to Huberman’s open individual cycle.

•

training / further studies beyond the organisation, where they regularly update their knowledge and skills through formal training programs from diploma to masters level. This relates to Huberman’s closed collective cycle as teachers from different schools have the opportunity to interact and to conduct experiments. It also relates to Huberman’s open collective cycle as specialists manage the learning.

Environmental factors impacted on professional development. If the teacher had a combination of favourable external environmental factors, and opportunities for diversification, further studies and additional duties, then there was evidence of multiple phases of further experimentation and new challenges, which often continued even in later years. For example, both of the Sydney TESOL respondents with most experience had had many life changes provoked through personal circumstances, and mentioned positive spurts of further experimentation and energy throughout their careers. A change of country or change of school could also be a catalyst for positive professional

388 development and in some cases promotion, or, in other cases, for reassessment and return to teaching. Economic fluctuations could also generate opportunities for diversification; in negative times TESOLs may be forced to leave secure positions and search for new opportunities or travel overseas, while in positive times TESOLs have increased opportunities for diversification.

The types of professional development mentioned in the study can be related readily to Herzberg’s two-factor motivational theory (1959). Diversification in the classroom and Diversification b eyond the classroom tend to relate to Herzberg’s motivators or intrinsic factors. Professional development in the staffroom and training / further studies tend to relate to Herzberg’s extrinsic or hygiene factors, and in the case of the factors mentioned contributed to the teacher’s satisfaction.

In summary, professional development preferences were varied. They depended not so much on the phase or stage of career, but rather on a combination of factors including environmental influences, external factors affecting the teacher, available opportunities, environmental change factors affecting teachers, such as the teacher changing school or country, which could lead to a phase of “back to teaching”, “taking a breather”, or to further opportunities. There were other factors affecting teachers’ professional development opportunities: either a downturn in the economy or special circumstances affecting schools, such as a change in visa regulations leading to reduced enrolments and increasing insecurity, or a rise in enrolments leading to expansion in schools and their activities. The latter generated increased opportunities for mobility between schools and for promotional opportunities.

These findings bear similarities to Huberman’s “lone wolf” scenario, with teachers in all three studies finding diversification useful, accompanied by discussion with colleagues and reading. Inservice training and workshops feature more favourably for TESOLs than in Huberman’s study, and further

389 studies were very important, particularly in the Sydney study, to enable TESOL teachers to diversify further or develop greater depths of understanding. Huberman states that the “lone-wolf” scenario will remain entrenched, and in the current organisation of schools teachers are professional “craftspeople” (Huberman, 1995, p. 208) who, like artisans, work mainly alone in a self-tailored work environment.

Overall, there was a fairly pronounced difference between what trainers / administrators perceived to be teachers’ desire for their professional development and what the teachers themselves report. Trainers / administrators had a less imaginative perception of professional development than teachers. This is disturbing if what is offered by trainers / administrators is so different from what teachers desire. If it is true for the profession at large, these attitudes would lead to disappointment and even disillusionment among TESOL teachers about their professional development opportunities.

Trainers / administrators also felt that teachers were not interested in professional development, which was not echoed by teachers, above all in the Sydney study. Teachers professed to be interested in more aspects of professional development than trainers / administrators gave them credit for. For example, teachers in the Geneva study were interested in inservice training later in the career, but this was not recognised by trainers / administrators. Geneva teachers were also more interested in reflective forms of professional development than trainers / administrators acknowledged.

Sydney trainers / administrators felt that teachers with more experience needed diversification, but teachers were more interested in inservice training. Sydney trainers / administrators also felt that teachers with more than 11 years’ experience needed a complete change, such as a new job, but teachers did not mention this.

Overall, Sydney teachers wanted inservice training, diversification and reflective forms of professional development. However, Sydney trainers / administrators

390 felt they wanted inservice training more than any other form. Teachers mentioned a far greater range. Finally, Huberman’s concept of teachers tinkering in the classroom interspersed with consultation with colleagues and reading, relates more closely to desires expressed by teachers than to the perceptions of trainers / administrators.

THE PROFESSIONAL LIFE-CYCLES AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF ADULT TEACHERS OF ENGLISH TO SPEAKERS OF OTHER LANGUAGES (TESOL)

VOLUME II

CAROL K WAITES

A dissertation in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of New South Wales

June, 1999

xxi

391

CHAPTER VII CONCLUSION In this chapter, reflections on methodological issues arising from the study and limitations of the study are presented. The findings from the TESOL studies are discussed as well as implications for educational administrators, further research and career phase theory.

METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY The methodology followed in this research was qualitative, many of Huberman’s methods of analysis being employed and developed further. However, the exact nature of Huberman’s enquiry was impossible to ascertain as the detailed analysis was unavailable for scrutiny. Where relevant, the same wording of the interview questions was retained, and the respondents were interviewed under similar conditions. However, the analysis of the data, the categorisation and the reporting of findings did not follow Huberman’s study exactly as the circumstances were not the same.

In Huberman’s study, 160 teachers were interviewed by many researchers, who were trained for reliability issues. In the TESOL studies, the same researcher carried out all the interviews. In the Geneva study, as the study unfolded, on many occasions respondents were interviewed separately for different questions (see Chapter III Tables 3.1 and 3.2 for details). In the Sydney study, an interview schedule was used with respondents interviewed on one occasion, with one exception. No adverse effects were observed from these variations and Geneva TESOLs did not change their opinions from one interview session to the next.

Issues concerning the respondents In the Geneva study, there were no clearly defined roles, with many teachers also performing freelance or doing additional training or administrative duties, leading to respondents sometimes being interviewed both as teachers and as trainers / administrators. This could, to a degree, have compromised the

392 validity of some responses given to the professional development questions. In the Sydney study, trainers / administrators had different recognised positions, so respondents were not duplicated and could be interviewed in one capacity only. Therefore, the responses to the professional development questions may be more valid in the Sydney case.

If possible, in any future study on professional development, separate groups of teachers and trainers / administrators should be interviewed for the different perspectives. This may be impossible in situations overseas where there is a shortage of qualified TESOLs, making differentiation of roles less likely. Respondents with multiple roles may have to be treated differently. Perhaps the two situations are not fully comparable in this respect.

Interview schedule and conducting the interviews Respondents were not given the interview schedule in advance, which was regarded as important as their responses could be coloured by discussion with others if they had time to prepare. In some cases, however, respondents seemed unprepared for some questions. In particular, the question on beginning teaching sometimes led teachers to comment that they could not remember as far back as that, or led them to dismiss aspects they may have found painful. The time given for each question was perhaps too short and the interview could have benefited from a lengthier introduction and more specific scene setting. For example, it may have been useful to take respondents back to the first class they gave, and explore what their feelings and emotions were. With more time, more detail could be elicited.

In the case of professional development, the range of responses to the specific questions on professional development was fairly limited, leading to a further analysis of all the interview transcripts for instances which seemed to refer, even obliquely, to professional development. This produced a wide range of examples. It may have been useful for respondents to undergo a training session before being interviewed to reflect on the types of career long experiences which may be of benefit for professional development. This may have stimulated them to think more broadly of professional development rather

393 than limiting themselves to inservice training and other more concrete types of professional development. Undergoing such sessions could of course lead them to give responses to please the interviewer, which nevertheless may have been a danger it was worth taking. Taking particular difficult situations teachers encountered in their career and finding out the strategies employed to overcome these difficulties may be another useful method to discover the kinds of professional development activities required by teachers.

Where new questions were added to the TESOL studies, similar techniques were employed to condense and analyse the data. This was particularly important in Chapter V, as questions on two new topics were added (questions 2-4 in the Geneva study and questions 3, 12 and 13 in the Sydney study). The question about the future plans of TESOLs was added because it followed on naturally from their account of their actual careers, and because it could shed additional light on the question about whether they would re-select the profession. This proved to be a wise decision as the question about re-selecting the profession raised additional problems because some respondents used creative and imaginative interpretations to this question.

The question in which TESOLs were asked to comment on a list of secondary school teachers’ beginning concerns (question 10 in the Geneva study and 8 in the Sydney study and reported in Appendix H) was not particularly useful as the wording of the issues was different from the common terminology in the TESOL field, leading to many different interpretations of the issues. It is advisable, therefore, not to rely on wording from one teaching field to the next, as the issues may be similar but the language used to describe them is often different. The earlier question asking them to nominate their own beginner concerns (question 9 in the Geneva study and 7 in the Sydney study) was more valid and the language used consistent between the two studies in most cases.

In the Sydney TESOL study, a decision was made to show the respondents lists of Geneva TESOLs responses for comment after they had answered the question. The findings have been reported in Appendix I as they are not comparable to the spontaneous responses. While the findings are interesting

394 and changed the emphasis given to some of the responses, they demonstrate the dangers of giving respondents pre-determined lists to respond to. Many of the aspects they raised in the initial question may never have been discussed, as their attention was diverted to items the list suggested. There were also some misinterpretations of some of the issues raised, for example company personnel being interpreted by Sydney TESOLs as the management of the language school while the Geneva TESOLs referred to the management of the company to which they had been subcontracted to deliver language classes. If the study had involved ticking lists rather than in-depth discussion, these differing interpretations may never have been discovered. These findings should serve as a warning to researchers who rely solely on quantitative lists of factors for consideration. If lists are used, an opportunity for discussion should also take place to ensure correct interpretation of the content of the list. If the list is devised by someone who is not directly involved in the field, the language may lead to further misinterpretations.

In most cases, the lists produced the least interesting results, which should be a warning to future researchers. Very open-ended questions, on the other hand, were also difficult to tame at the time of analysis, as respondents sometimes approached the question from different angles. The most useful questions were those which started from an open-ended question and then became more specific. For example, even the preliminary question asking respondents to describe their careers by phases (question 1 in the Geneva study and 2 in the Sydney study) required the interviewer to focus their responses by breaking up their careers into specific phases and giving a name to different phases. The respondents were often carried away in reverie and omitted to give a name, drifting onto the next experience. This demonstrates that the interviewer has to be properly trained in order to focus the responses where necessary.

Asking respondents to carve their career into phases and nominating themes to describe the phases was helpful in encapsulating the essence of their feelings at the time, which were often multi-faceted. This identification assisted the

395 researcher in the categorisation of the data, which is discussed in the next section.

Analysing the data The interviews in the TESOL study were transcribed to replicate the exact wording of the respondent, and many different methods were used to condense and analyse the data as described in Chapter III. The general principles employed were the same as those Huberman used, but the TESOL analysis was independently carried out. The most important aspect was to retain the respondents’ wording at all times, and direct quotations taken from the interviews were used when making decisions about how to analyse the data. The quotations were reduced when making final decisions, but key words were used in the analysis of phases. The data analysis system evolved as the study evolved, particularly in the case of synthesising the data for career cycles. In many cases, the researcher revisited the Geneva TESOL interviews to analyse the data in a clearer fashion after experimenting with the Sydney interviews. This shows that the methods used for analysing the data when dealing with such voluminous amounts of data should not be totally pre-determined and rigidly adhered to as the transcripts themselves will suggest more effective ways of synthesising the data. It is important that the nature of the data themselves shapes the process of interpretation.

The categorisations used in the Huberman study (1993) were considered in detail for each question. In many cases aspects could be retained, particularly where there were intrinsic or extrinsic categorisations. However, there were many instances where the Huberman categorisations did not fit the TESOL samples, and new categories or methods for analysing the detail were devised. In particular, the most difficult decisions related to the minute detail. It was of utmost importance to retain the original meaning behind the different quotations and not to try to fit them into categories for the sake of orderliness. In this way the integrity of the data was maintained.

396

PROFESSIONAL LIFE-CYCLES OF TESOLS Research questions 1-4 addressed the professional life-cycles of TESOLs. Following Fessler’s guide to model building which was detailed in Chapter III (Fessler, 1995 in Guskey and Huberman, 1995) and which provided a framework for conducting the research, the following preliminary framework has been developed to identify the major issues explored and the interrelationship between the professional lifecycles, the contextual factors and the motivational entry factors affecting TESOLs (see Figure 7.1). The model includes the following variables: firstly, the various active, material and passive motivations for entering the career, secondly, the career cycles and their phases described and identified by respondents; thirdly, positive and negative aspects of job satisfaction; and finally, the professional and personal contextual factors impacting on the career cycles and job satisfaction levels, which include both professional and personal factors.

397

Motivational entry factors: active, material and passive motivations ⇓

⇓

⇓

Career cycles

Job satisfaction

Phases / themes

⇔TESOL: POSITIVE ASPECTS Intrinsic and extrinsic rewards Future plans including TESOL Reasons for re-selecting TESOL Professional development opportunities ⇔TESOL: NEGATIVE ASPECTS Lack of intrinsic or extrinsic rewards Reasons for leaving TESOL Future plans excluding TESOL Reasons for not re-selecting TESOL Lack of professional development opportunities

⇑

⇑

⇑

Contextual factors Professional factors

Personal factors

Figure 7.1: Preliminary model of career cycles of TESOLs

This model bears similarities to both Huberman’s and Fessler’s models in that all three explore career cycles in detail. In addition to this, Huberman’s study and the current study focus on specific aspects of satisfaction within the career cycle. Fessler’s model also explored the influence of the organisational and personal environments on the career cycle, while the current study explores the impact of personal and professional factors on the career cycle.

398 Each part of this preliminary model is analysed in the following sections in answering the research questions. While there were clear differences between the two TESOL groups, particularly in their qualifications, working conditions and levels of stability of contract, there were sufficient similarities between responses to paint a preliminary picture of TESOLs working in an Anglophone and nonAnglophone milieu and to speculate on a more generalised model which may apply to similar professions.

Research question 1 What motivated TESOLs to enter the profession?

Figure 7.2 illustrates the major motivations for entry to the profession of TESOL, which included the following active, material and passive motivations. This part of the model gives an indication of the types of people attracted to the career, their background and reasons for entering the career. The motivations identified varied considerably from those mentioned by Huberman’s respondents, in particular in the areas of desire for a change and opportunities for travel, which were the most important ones for TESOLs.

399 • Active motivations Seeking change

Suggestion from other

Preferred teaching adults to children

Helping others

Career potential

Love of language / teaching

Previous experience

Meeting people • Material motivations

Need a job

Family life in parallel

Travel opportunities

Job freedom

Conditions better than in

Security / work permit

schools Access to higher status • Passive motivations Fell into it

By process of elimination ↓

↓

↓

↓

↓

↓

↓

TESOL CAREER

Figure 7.2: Preliminary model applied to Geneva and Sydney TESOLs: analysis of motivational factors for entry

TESOLs often, but not always, started the career later in life. This was particularly true of those in Geneva as they often arrived in Geneva with their spouses later in life. The main motivation for entering the career was a desire for change (active motivation). Sydney TESOLs were also keen to travel (material motivation), and this was particularly true for the younger career entrants, some of whom were considering leaving TESOL after finishing their travels. Many Geneva TESOLs also “fell into TESOL” (passive motivation) as their other career options were limited in a country where English was not the main language. However, once they had fallen into it, they were mainly very enthusiastic towards TESOL.

The types of motivations for entering the career differed among the three studies. However, the TESOL respondents in both studies mentioned similar motivations which typically differed from those mentioned by secondary school

400 teachers, in particular wishing for a change and being able to travel and reside overseas.

Sydney TESOLs were more actively motivated to enter the profession than Geneva TESOLs or secondary school teachers, while Geneva TESOLs mentioned a higher incidence of passive motivations due to their circumstances.

The active motivations were more intrinsic in nature for secondary school teachers, reflecting a desire to work with young people as well as enjoyment of the subject matter. However, Sydney and Geneva TESOLs were more extrinsically motivated, actively seeking a change. In Geneva there was less choice and circumstances often dictated that TESOL was the only option in a non-English-speaking environment, while in Sydney in an Anglo-environment, respondents had more choice and actively chose TESOL as a catalyst for change in their lives. Sydney TESOLs gave a greater range of active motivations and included more intrinsic factors, such as enjoying the profession and people in it, than did those in Geneva.

The types of material motivations mentioned varied substantially among the three studies. Huberman’s teachers were typically attracted to the working conditions and tenure associated with school teaching, while TESOLs, particularly those in Sydney, were mainly attracted to the travel opportunities afforded by TESOL. Respondents in all three studies were attracted to the flexibility and freedom of teaching.

Lortie (1973) highlighted the importance of considering gender differences in any study of motivations for entry to or for leaving the profession. Only two percent of responses from Huberman’s study and from the Geneva TESOL study actually referred to the fact that TESOL is a feminine profession allowing a career and family life in parallel. Even fewer responses from the Sydney TESOL study (0.5%) specifically referred to this factor. TESOL does not follow the conventional school timetable as school teaching does, but may allow flexibility and job freedom to choose a variety of timetables, within certain

401 limitations. However, in none of the three studies were these issues raised as significant for career choice. This suggests that the respondents were not consciously recognising gender issues as important but it cannot rule out less conscious gender influences on the nature of response. Some gender differences were evident in the study: for example, the males were more interested than females in promotional positions, particularly in Sydney, and the males in Geneva had obtained or aspired to promotional positions with more security than most of the females.

Passive motivations were not very frequent in any of the studies, but Geneva TESOLs, due to their circumstances, “fell into” the profession more often than those in the other studies. Once they had fallen in, they were often very satisfied with the profession.

Respondents from both TESOL studies therefore demonstrated more certainty about their choice of profession as in many cases it was a mature decision. School teachers generally entered teaching as a first career after university studies undertaken immediately after completing school. TESOLs rarely discovered TESOL until much later in life, having had one or several previous careers, often including school teaching.

Acker’s research (1992, 1995) suggests women have an “accidental” quality to re-entering the career after family building. The large number of Geneva TESOLs mentioning a similar entry (as opposed to re-entry) to TESOL is related to their circumstances of being in Geneva having followed their husband and being without other career options. Many were re-entering the field of teaching in the area of TESOL, not mainstream teaching, following their move to Geneva. Therefore, while their circumstances differed from Acker’s, they had the same “accidental” quality to their career entry. Those in Sydney had a lesser but still noticeable incidence of responses along these lines. Most Sydney respondents had entered the career as a more considered choice. Many Sydney respondents, however, discovered TESOL in order to travel, which was not the case for Geneva TESOLs, most of whom had already travelled. A further 10% of Geneva TESOL responses and 8% of Sydney

402 responses related to respondents entering because of an external suggestion. It should be noted that male respondents were also likely to have an “accidental” entry to TESOL, so this was not a purely female phenomenon.

Although gender does not appear to have exercised a clear direct influence on the nature of motivations, there can be little doubt of its indirect influence, particularly in Geneva where most entrants to the TESOL profession were women who came to Geneva only because their husband’s career led them there.

Research question 2 What are the phases TESOLs pass through in the course of their career? Tables 7.1, 7.2a and 7.2b present a phases model comparing the typical phases of TESOLs to those of Huberman’s school teachers. The Huberman model is a synthesis by the author of this study of Huberman’s findings as summarised in Huberman (1993, pp. 244-247).

403 Table 7.1: Modal sequences of the teacher career cycle: a schematic model School teachers: Huberman (1993, ref. pp. 244-247) Survival and discovery (1-3 years’ experience)

Stabilisation (4-6 years’ experience)

Experimentation & diversity / renewal and reform (7-18 years’ experience)

Self-doubt following stabilisation / Reassessment following disillusionment with attempts at reform (7-25 years’ experience)

Internalisation or serenity and affective distance following period of self-doubt (not timebound)/ Less activism and less commitment in pursuit of greater serenity in second half of career (19-30 years’ experience)

Greater caution (conservatism) towards reform / energetic / open / committed and optimistic (30-40 years’ experience)

Focusing down • Positive focusing • Negative focusing • Disenchantment (bitter or serene) (34-40 years’ experience)

404

Huberman’s phases The schematic model devised by Huberman to represent the professional life cycle of school teachers consists of relatively clear cut phases, although Huberman states that it is a

fragmentary, embryonic and, above all highly speculative and normative sequence (Huberman, 1993, p. 13).

The main phases traversed by school teachers according to Huberman include: • survival and discovery, between years 1-3 • stabilisation / consolidation of a pedagogical repertoire, between years 4-6 • experimentation and diversity, between years 7-18 • self-doubt and reassessment, between years 7-25 • serenity / affective distance between years 19-30 • conservatism between years 30-40 • disenchantment (serene or bitter), between years 34-40

Huberman’s findings (1993) corroborated the first three phases of his 1989a model but identified a slightly different ending, which included all forms of disinvestment: • focusing down, with several sub-patterns: positive focusing; negative focusing or disenchantment.

Huberman therefore found different subpatterns and emphasised the fact that some findings are specific to a given cohort of teachers, who have lived through the same set of events and in similar social environments.

TESOL phases model The TESOL groups did not demonstrate such clear cut phases and appeared to go through multiple “mini-cycles” as well as maxi-cycles (see Table 7.2a). Table 7.2a is a further refinement and synthesis of the Geneva and Sydney phases presented in Table 4.17 on page 232.

The major phases in the TESOL studies were:

405 • survival and discovery, between years 1-2 • experimentation, between years 2-7 (often repeated instances) • stabilisation, between years 3-20 (often repeated instances) • new challenges, between years 2-24 (often repeated instances) • training, between years 1-19 • doubts / reassessment / stocktaking, between years 2-25 (often repeated)

The TESOL phases were recurring.

406 Table 7.2a: Preliminary model of career cycles for Geneva and Sydney TESOLs combined Career cycles of Genev a and Sydney TESOLs (1993-1996) Survival and discovery (1-2 years’ experience) Training (1-2 yrs) Exit and re-entry (1-6 yrs) Experimentation (2-7 yrs) Doubts (2-11 yrs) Uncommitted (2-6 yrs) Back to teaching (5-8 yrs) Further experimentation / more confidence (2-6 yrs) Training (3-8 yrs) Stocktaking / reassessment (3-6 yrs) Stabilisation (3-9 yrs) Stabilisation (11-19 yrs) Experimentation / new challenges (2-16 yrs) Further training (3-16 yrs) Disillusioned (1-9 yrs) New challenges (4-15 yrs) Stocktaking/ reassessment (7-18 yrs) Stabilisation (8-20 yrs) Further training (8-19 yrs) Second wind / New challenges (11-24 yrs) Reassessment (7-25 yrs) Acceptance / balance (6-28 yrs) ⇑

⇑

⇑


It was noted that the phases did not occur in any particular linear fashion and that many were recurring. This is different from the main phases in Huberman’s study. Therefore, a different type of presentation, such as the one in Table 7.2b below in which the phases are categorised, may be more

407 appropriate. Table 7.2b is a further synthesis and refinement of Tables 4.6 on page 157 and 4.13 on page 204 where the Geneva and Sydney TESOL phases were presented in a linear fashion, but subdivided into positive and negative ones.

Table 7.2b consists of positive ones and negative phases and a third group of phases involving reassessment or training:

• Positive phases Discovery and experimentation (between years 1-7) Further experimentation and new challenges (between years 2-24) Stability (between years 3-20) Acceptance (between years 6-28) • Reassessment / training phases Training (1-8 years) Exit and re-entry (1-6 years) Further training (3-19 years) • Negative phases Doubts (2-11 years) Disillusioned (1-9 years) Lack of commitment (2-6 years)

408 Table 7.2b: Preliminary model of career cycles for Geneva and Sydney TESOLs combined Career cycles of Genev a and Sydney TESOLs (1993-1996) • Positiv e phases

• Reassessment / training phases

• Negativ e phases

Discov ery and experimentation

Training

Doubts (2-11 yrs)






Lack of commitment




(2-6 yrs)



Reflectiv e phases

(2-16 yrs; 4-15 yrs)




(11-24 yrs)

(3-6 yrs; 7-18 yrs; 7-25 yrs)

Stability Stabilisation (3-9 yrs; 11-19 yrs; 8-20 yrs) Acceptance Acceptance / balance (6-28 yrs) ⇑

⇑

⇑


409 In summary, apart from the beginning phase of survival and discovery, the major phases identified by the TESOL groups were recurring for many TESOLs and difficult to place in a linear sequence. In contrast, the phases in Huberman’s model could generally be attributed to specific time-periods of the career. For example, stabilisation typically occurred during years 4-6 of the cycle, while for TESOL respondents this phase could occur at any time during the career cycle, and often there were recurring instances of it when a respondent changed jobs, countries or schools many times in a life-time. While the TESOL studies did not include respondents with more than 30 years’ experience, the incidence of recurring cycles typical of many TESOLs showed no signs of abating further along the career path for those with more than 20 years’ experience.

Contextual factors The TESOL respondents’ career paths were influenced by specific environmental and contextual factors, both personal and professional, relating mainly to Herzberg’s hygiene factors or potential dissatisfiers. This finding verifies the contention made by Fessler and Christensen (1992), Huberman (1993), Johnston (1997) and Measor (1985) that environmental factors played a role in career paths. When positive, these contextual factors laid the ground for job satisfaction in the long-term, but, when negative, they tended to lead to dissatisfaction. This is consistent with Herzberg’s two-factor theory. For example, professional development opportunities may in the long term lead to promotion and growth and greater intrinsic job satisfaction, or it can raise expectations which are never realised, while contextual change factors can lead either to job satisfaction or dissatisfaction.

The findings of the study further highlight the dynamic nature of career cycles, as discussed by Fessler and Christensen (1992) and Fessler, (1995). This is particularly pronounced in the case of TESOLs because of the nature of their careers and the unstable conditions in which they often find themselves working. The Geneva setting highlighted this, as did Johnston’s study of Polish EFL teachers (1997) with their “unstable, marginalised, impermanent

410 occupation” (Johnston, 1997, p. 707). Industry booms and depressions also affected TESOLs in Sydney.

In summary, unlike most school teachers, all TESOLs experience significant fluctuations in the industry during their professional life-cycles, some many times over. Many experienced dramatic changes in working conditions, leading to stocktaking, reassessment, and often the need for training. However, although change, turmoil and uncertainty may be thought to cause disillusionment, cynicism, and negative exits from the career, conversely, these adverse environmental factors appear to lead many TESOLs to resilience, optimism, positive coping, and acceptance of challenge, and ultimately to more positive career endings.

Figure 7.3 represents a model illustrating the contextual factors which influenced the professional lifecycles of TESOLs. These covered a wide range of personal issues as well as professional factors. These are discussed in detail following the model.

411


⇓

influence

influence

⇓

Career cycles and job satisfaction ⇑ influence ⇑ influence ⇑

Contextual factors Professional factors •

General working conditions

Personal factors •

Isolation (Geneva)

Family and affective factors / personal crises

Freelance / Contract / Tenure

Family commitments

Working conditions in company teaching

Partner’s career

(Geneva)

Health of self / of family

•

Divorce / separation / romantic problems

School management issues

Relationship with management Working conditions in school •

Change

•

Change

Change of schools / specialisation Industry

Change of country

booms and crises

Ability to adapt locally

•

•


Individual interests / needs

PD opportunities

No need to earn money (Geneva)

Promotional opportunities

Need for a break / holiday

Diversification

Outside interests

Studies / Further studies

Other career Travel

Figure 7.3: Contextual factors (personal and professional) affecting TESOLs’ professional life-cycles Professional factors The professional variables affecting the respondents ranged from internal factors such as professional development opportunities within the school to external forces such as industry booms and crises. Other internal factors included the attitude of the school’s managers towards their employees:

412 working conditions and promotional opportunities and opportunities for diversification within the school. In some circumstances, for example, an industry boom, respondents may have greater potential for career development. A crisis may lead to change and possible anxiety and dissatisfaction in the short term, but may have positive repercussions in the long term. Because they lie outside the job itself, these variables are identified with Herzberg’s hygiene factors (Herzberg, 1959), and in some cases would be classified by Dinham in his third cluster of in-school variables (Dinham, 1998).

•


The general working conditions of the profession affected respondents in both settings. However, there were similarities and differences between the two TESOL settings. Geneva respondents had a peculiar set of circumstances, common to non-Anglophone settings but which were not found in Sydney. They mentioned isolation, some because of working alone in a small town or city at some part of their career with not much contact with others in the field, others because of the freelance nature of their work. The latter were required to travel from company to company giving classes to the employees, but rarely went to the TESOL school or interacted with colleagues. Physical conditions (including space and room allocation) in these companies were often unsatisfactory.

Inadequate working conditions also included lack of fringe benefits, superannuation, and sick or recreation leave. Many of the freelance Geneva respondents and had no work contract and were paid by the hour. For others contracts were restricted to one year. Salary scales were either non-existent or negotiated on an individual basis with the director. There was a small group in Geneva which had excellent conditions and tenure, but this was the exception rather than the rule.

In Sydney the working conditions were generally better, with a teachers’ award, established salary scales and sick and recreation pay. Some schools offered

413 ongoing contracts or even tenure, but most teachers started out on a freelance basis.

•


Respondents from both Sydney and Geneva mentioned school management issues. These related either to dissatisfaction with the attitude or ethics of the manager of the school or with the management of the school generally. In some cases this affected the general attitude of the staff member over a long period of time contributing to dissatisfaction with aspects of the career, while in other cases it led to career exit on a temporary or permanent basis. However, school management issues (in Fessler’s model (1985) in the organisational environment) were not as important an issue for respondents in the current study as for Fessler’s respondents. TESOLs were more concerned about more general working conditions, which were not included in the Fessler model (1985), but which are identified as hygiene factors in Herzberg’s model (Herzberg, 1959).

•

Change

Change was a constant feature in many TESOL respondents’ lives. Some changed country for a range of professional or personal reasons, which in some cases entailed a period of time when they would take a step backwards in their career before moving ahead again. This tended to give them a chance to stocktake and was a valuable part of the process of professional development for some.

Change also led for some to a period of uncertainty, dissatisfaction or even exit from the field. Industry booms and crises affected respondents in both TESOL settings. These had a profound effect on many respondents, often precipitating a change of country, workplace, position or responsibilities, and causing some to leave the field.

414 Change brought negative and positive consequences, but most of those interviewed had overcome any hardships and had proceeded to more challenging and satisfying outcomes.

•


In Sydney there were a large number of professional development opportunities available both within the schools and externally, such as postgraduate degrees which could be undertaken in the evenings. Although extrinsic to the job, some professional development activities were directly concerned with teaching itself, such as those which focused on curriculum development, diversification in teaching or preparation for promotion. These opportunities often had a profound effect on the career cycles of respondents. In Sydney there were more opportunities than in Geneva, probably because Sydney is a major city in an Anglophone country. These opportunities included further study at postgraduate level, which were taken up by many respondents. There were also more opportunities for promotion and diversification in Sydney than in Geneva, (see Table 7.3) including managerial positions, coordinator positions, and movement sideways into counselling and other roles as well as curriculum development and other specialised courses. Some respondents in Sydney had opportunities to market schools and courses overseas as well as the opportunity of teaching ESL as well as EFL.

Some of the functions set out in Table 7.3 were also carried out by Geneva respondents, but mostly with no paid time off to perform them. Some of the additional roles outlined in Table 7.3 focused on intrinsic factors to do with teaching itself, such as course design, materials development and TESOL courses, while others focused on extrinsic factors connected to the work environment, such as accommodation issues, or liaison with external bodies.

415 Table 7.3: Roles of TESOL teachers and range of developmental programs undertaken by TESOLs in Sydney Roles of TESOLs in addition to teaching

Formal programs taken by TESOLs

• Course design (including publishing texts)

• Business courses

• Materials development (for courses and self-

• English for Academic Purposes

access packages) • Self-access centre counselling and materials writing

• Direct entry to university • General English (beginners to advanced)

• Assessment and placement of students

• Australian Studies

• Coordinating a team of teachers

• Cambridge examination preparation

• Administrative duties connected to conducting

courses

all courses: documenting courses, report

• Study tours

writing, class rolls, etc

• High school English programs

• Responsibility for accommodation • Student counselling including career and further studies counselling, supporting social welfare of students etc • Organising social activities for students • Liaising with external bodies / clients etc • Marketing courses (in Australia and overseas) • Teacher training

Geneva had more limited offerings, which is probably typical of settings in non-Anglo environments. There were few further study opportunities at postgraduate level, but many one-off sessions from publishers or within schools on topics of general interest. However, there was the issue that freelance workers, who were in the majority in Geneva, were not paid to attend professional development sessions and were expected to do so in their own time. This tended to inhibit attendance.

416 Personal factors The personal variables affecting respondents were broadranging. In Sydney there were several instances of respondents exiting the career temporarily because of a need to reassess their options. Others exited for extended travel or for health reasons. The personal motivations for entering the career could also have a lasting effect on career cycles and job satisfaction levels.

•


The respondents in Geneva included a significant cohort of women who had come to Geneva accompanying their partners. Family commitments included temporarily exiting the career for maternity reasons or to raise a family. In some cases, women found it difficult to manage a family with the types of timetable restrictions of a TESOL, particularly evening teaching. This caused some to exit the career temporarily or substantially reduced their availability, and thereby limiting their possibilities of securing a contract. In one case, the respondent turned the circumstances of being a mother at home into a flourishing career in textbook writing and editing.

Some respondents had to travel to follow their partner’s career. In some cases they managed to find satisfying jobs during their career cycle in spite of frequent changes, but in other cases they were dissatisfied with having their security frequently broken in an untimely way, having to start again, even when quite senior in the career. In another instance in Geneva, the partner’s career involved travel overseas and the TESOL respondent wished to accompany him but was unable to because of the restrictions of a teaching timetable.

Health problems in some cases necessitated respondents’ temporarily exiting the field, usually without sickness benefits or financial assistance.

Divorce or separation had profound consequences for some respondents. Some respondents in Geneva affected in this way went from casual teaching mainly for interest reasons to making TESOL a career in order to be the

417 breadwinner. This transition from family duties to enforced full-time working commitment tended to prove unsettling for a period of time. However, once such respondents had adjusted to the new situation, they often had a very satisfactory career.

Romantic problems could affect respondents at any time during the career cycle. This could have a minor or major effect, causing just a temporary interruption during the career or a major life change.

•

Change (travel-related issues)

Respondents frequently changed country during their career cycles, but in many cases they eventually settled down into a more stable situation. However, when they were beginning their career, many travelled for pleasure and adventure, with TESOL being the means to enable this. Some had problems adapting locally and in some cases when the change was on a more permanent basis (such as emigrating to Geneva because of the partner’s career), the period of adjustment was lengthy.

•

Individual interests / needs

Some respondents had no need to earn money, particularly in Geneva, and had taken up TESOL for social reasons. However, these teachers could be as committed to the profession as any others. Others entered the profession as they perceived it could give them space for their outside interests, which in some cases related to another parallel career, for example, art (painting, acting) and music.

Some felt the need for a break from the career or for a long holiday or to pursue another career and left TESOL temporarily for that reason.

In summary, Geneva respondents mentioned more family or personal factors as well as factors relating to working conditions. Sydney respondents, however, mentioned more professional factors as well as those connected to industry booms and crises. One explanation for this different emphasis could

418 be that many Geneva respondents were in TESOL there because they had followed their partner’s career.

Research question 3 What are the similarities and differences in the career cycles of Huberman’s school teachers to TESOLs? There were similarities in the nature of the phases and themes encountered in Huberman’s study and the findings of the TESOL studies, but there were differences in the order, timing and patterns of how they revealed themselves, further highlighting the dynamic nature of the career cycle (cf. Fessler, 1985).

Beginnings The beginning phases of discovery and experimentation were similar for TESOLs and school teachers (for example, Adams, 1982; Fessler, 1985; Field, 1979; Fuller, 1969; Huberman, 1989; Veenman, 1984) as were the self-doubts experienced by many TESOLs early in their careers.

Stabilisation, new challenges and stocktaking / reassessment A feature of the Huberman and other studies was the phase of stabilisation secondary school teachers entered after gaining permanency in the profession (for example, Ball and Goodson, 1985; Burden, 1981; Fuller, 1969; Huberman, 1989c and Sikes, 1985). There was not such a clear progression to stabilisation for TESOLs apparently because the field did not afford the same level of permanency or membership of a guild as was available to the secondary school teachers (for example, Huberman, 1989c). TESOLs were more likely to continue to diversify, maybe to change their situation, stabilise for a while, then to experience new challenges or perhaps reassessment of their situation. These phases seemed to recur throughout the career. Sikes (1985) found that teachers often became “activists” at this stage, due to a need perhaps for variation and new challenges, and tried to lobby for improvements. TESOLs rarely mentioned this type of activity as they were more likely to be trying to keep their jobs or changing workplaces to seek improved conditions rather than lobbying from within. New challenges therefore arose more from a change of country or school, a promotion or diversification in their teaching duties.

419 The reassessment mentioned by many TESOLs could be related to the fear of stagnation referred to in the school teacher literature (for example, Cooper, 1982; Huberman, 1989b, 1989c and Watts, 1980).

Stocktaking (or reviewing one’s career and contemplating other careers) occurred for respondents in many studies (for example, Adams, 1982; Hamon and Rotman, 1984; Huberman, 1989; MacDonald and Walker, 1974; Prick, 1986 and Sikes, 1985). There are some indications that males are more affected than females. The TESOL studies revealed many instances of stocktaking or reassessment, often scattered throughout the career. This was attributable in some cases to feelings of disillusionment with the management of the school or to a wish to change (not necessarily out of TESOL). In others there was a desire to change career, but often with no certainty as to possible direction. TESOL males were affected as well as females. The sample of males was small, but these feelings were noticeable among the sample.

Negative themes In addition to stabilisation, Huberman’s secondary school teachers mentioned instances of negative themes such as disenchantment and defensive focusing. In the TESOL studies, respondents had not perhaps reached these later phases in their careers. However, from the career cycles and external forces impacting on these, it is possible and perhaps even probable that they would not experience these phases in the same way as many teachers do. TESOL is a relatively new profession and while the average age of TESOLs was similar to that of the secondary school teachers, most had not been in the profession all of their lives but had experienced one or several different careers before entering TESOL. Moreover, even the few with more experience did not exhibit the signs of disenchantment or of serenity or affective distance shown by many of the secondary school teachers (for example, Lightfoot, 1985 and Prick, 1986). The two teachers in the Sydney study who had had more than 20 years’ experience did not demonstrate such tendencies. It is important, therefore, for a further study to explore TESOLs who reach the later stages in their career.

420 This will be more feasible as the profession evolves and TESOLs age in their jobs.

New challenges and training Poor working conditions could spur respondents to seek new challenges, and some TESOLs exited the field temporarily, with the result that they rarely stabilised for long. In addition, the increasing professionalisation of the field encouraged many in Sydney to become more qualified. Taking further qualifications almost always had a positive effect on respondents in both TESOL studies, and led to some exploring of new options and taking up of new challenges.

Owing to the relatively recent regulation of the industry (Davison, 1998), all Sydney TESOLs had to be qualified and many had masters level qualifications. This was the first factor which caused many to undergo frequent surges of enthusiasm within the field, and to take up new challenges. The volatile nature of the industry in Sydney was also a factor causing many teachers to change their work situation, which often led to new challenges and reassessment or other responses, but rarely to long periods of stabilisation.

Balance / acceptance On the other hand, many Geneva TESOLs lacked professional career ambition, preferring to be parttime teachers, combining their teaching with family or other activities. Some felt that this approach gave balance to their lives. Other respondents held the view that the prevalence of such part-time teaching in TESOL downgraded its status. Nevertheless, both balance and acceptance were phases experienced by Geneva TESOLs. These two themes were comparable to Huberman’s phase of stabilisation.

Effects of change: new challenges or reassessment As the detailed analysis of the interviews revealed, TESOL respondents in both studies seemed to have experienced more instances of major change than secondary school teachers; change of country, change of school, change of career and change of position. This led to a range of phases including diversification, experimentation and new challenges on the one hand, or to

421 reassessment and a return to teaching on the other. Though people are known to fear constant change and uncertainty, it appears that less stable and predictable environments may actually lead in some instances to greater flexibility and resilience, more regular periods of challenge and renewal, and in the end, more enduring job satisfaction.

Figure 7.4 provides a preliminary model of the career cycles of Sydney and Geneva TESOLs from the current study, indicating the factors affecting them. The career cycles include positive, reassessment / training and negative phases and aspects of job satisfaction are considered in further versions of this model.

422


⇓

⇓

Career cycles Positiv e phases

Reassessment / training

Negativ e phases

phases Survival and discovery

Training

Doubts / Disillusioned

Experimentation

Further training

Uncommited

Further experimentation / more


confidence

Back to teaching

Experimentation / new


challenges Second wind / new challenges Stabilisation Acceptance / balance

⇑

⇑

⇑

Contextual factors Professional factors

Personal factors

Figure 7.4: Preliminary model of the career cycles of Sydney and Geneva TESOLs with the factors affecting them.

Research question 4 How valid is Huberman’s career phase model currently in view of the changing employment situation globally from more tenured secure employment to less security, greater casualisation and a consequent greater need for mobility? Overall the TESOL career cycles had more variety in them than those of the secondary school teachers. TESOLs went through mini-cycles of phases which were often linked to events, in particular instances of change; for example a promotion may lead to new challenge, or a change of country could lead to a

423 whole chain of phases from beginnings, then diversification followed by a promotion.

One respondent with more than 10 years of experience from the Sydney study expressed how she repeatedly had to begin again:

My future in Sydney is probably not more than two years, and with some apprehension I’ll start again, digging in again, establishing credibility again, but I never imagine I won’t find work, but I might not find what I want.

A change in the economy could lead to a downturn in the industry, which could lead to retrenchment or to TESOLs having to seek work elsewhere. They may therefore enter one mini-cycle, going through a beginning phase, then one of experimentation and diversification as they “learn the ropes”, followed by a brief phase of stabilisation before the next change, which may lead them to a period of reassessment before moving into a new mini-cycle.

TESOLs, therefore, also progress through a career, but they may go back through a cycle, then move forward, and then back many times. One possible reason for this difference between TESOL and secondary school teachers is that the secondary school teacher models of Huberman and others were all based on the school scenario of an earlier era or on one which may continue to pertain only in large, stable school systems. Teachers had stable jobs and progressed steadily through cycles, which in many cases had a predictable trajectory. This could be attributed principally to the stable tenured employment with security, a regulated promotion system, and other related benefits. It could be that Huberman and others have over-simplified their model in reducing the experience of secondary school teachers to a clear phases model. If not, and his respondents do, in fact, experience these major phases in the broad sequence he proposes, then their overall experience is very different from that of the TESOL respondents.

424 TESOLs, unlike Huberman’s secondary school teachers, demonstrate behaviour which may reflect changes occurring more generally in contemporary society with its lack of tenure of employment, its lack of secure working conditions, its mobility and its sensitivity to economic forces (for example, Cleary, 1998 and Thurow, 1996). As a result people must be adaptable, qualified in diverse areas, mobile and ready to start several times over. These qualities were all aspects of TESOL, and, while being clearly apparent in the unstable circumstances of Geneva, were also evident in Sydney where there were more opportunities for mobility and where many respondents had already undergone several crises even in the early years of their career.

JOB SATISFACTION Research questions 5-11 addressed job satisfaction of TESOLs. Analysis of research question 10 is discussed later in this section as well as being subsumed in the discussion of research questions 5-9 below.

Research question 5 Do respondents consider TESOL to be a career? Figure 7.5 illustrates the positive and negative aspects referred to by respondents about TESOL as a career. Respondents in both studies mentioned more intrinsic rewards than extrinsic ones as reasons for believing TESOL to be a career. Sydney respondents appreciated the material rewards of the profession, particularly opportunities to travel, more than Geneva TESOLs. However, few respondents in either study mentioned those material benefits which are linked to pay or working conditions.

425 Positive aspects of TESOL as a career •

•

Intrinsic rewards

Extrinsic rewards

Professional rewards:

Material rewards (eg travel)

expansion; advancement

Commitment

Personal rewards

(eg full-time employment) Negative aspects of TESOL as a career

• Intrinsic rewards

• Extrinsic rewards

Lack of professional rewards: advancement

Lack of material rewards Lack of commitment (eg freelance)

Lack of personal rewards Figure 7.5: Positive and negative aspects relating to TESOL being a career

More Sydney TESOLs than Geneva TESOLs were convinced of TESOL being a genuine career, but both studies indicated optimism for the future of TESOL, with respondents in both studies believing TESOL was becoming more professional. Sydney TESOLs particularly referred to the growing professionalisation of the industry, which they felt was offering more opportunities. It would be of interest to interview the same teachers today to assess if their perceptions had changed as a consequence of the recent crisis in the Sydney industry brought on by the Asian economic difficulties.

This sense of optimism about TESOL being or becoming a profession is not necessarily echoed by other TESOL studies. McKnight (1992) states that his study supported common assertions that TESOL has no proper career structure and he further commented on the low morale, low status and lack of opportunities for study leave (McKnight, 1992, p. 30). Furthermore, the study conducted by the Centre for British Teachers (1989) found a heavy attrition rate of teachers by the age of 45. The current study did not explore attrition rates, but it did indicate that many people were joining the profession later as a second career. As indicated earlier, in Geneva many were women following their husbands, while in Sydney several were school teachers wishing for a career change.

426 Acker (1992, 1995) found that the few male teachers she encountered could not be characterised as more career-minded than the women. These findings are not, however, corroborated by the current research as the few TESOL male respondents were, in fact, more career-minded than many of the female respondents. Many could be found in the group of trainers / administrators interviewed (the only male trainer interviewed in the Geneva study was younger than the other respondents yet in a senior post, while the gender balance of Sydney trainers and administrators was more even, but the males were younger than the female respondents), while many of the males still in the teaching group were disillusioned or stocktaking at the time of the study. All had sought career advancement or diversification or talked of exiting if their career ambitions were not realised. This was not the case for most of the female respondents, some of whom stated that they did not wish to be promoted.

Research question 6 What concerns do beginning TESOL teachers have? The beginning phase of the career seemed to be fairly consistent with Huberman’s findings about school teachers. Therefore, even though respondents may have had previous teaching experience and training in another context, as many of them did in both TESOL studies, they seemed to go through an initial phase of finding their feet, learning the ropes and gaining confidence in themselves. The TESOLs had less focus on discipline problems than did secondary school teachers. Many of those who had worked previously as school teachers mentioned previous school discipline problems as a prime motivator for leaving schools and entering TESOL.

The number of positive and negative responses given were very similar in the three studies, with marginally more negative responses in the beginning phases. This suggests a considerable degree of satisfaction with the career even in the formative years.

427 Sydney TESOLs detailed considerably more positive aspects than Geneva TESOLs in the examples given. There was more variety in the types of responses given by Sydney TESOLs than by Geneva TESOLs, almost certainly because of the richer work environment available in Sydney. However, there were similarities in the types of concerns expressed.

Pedagogical concerns were similar in the three studies including the familiarisation process with teaching materials and methods. Planning and preparation issues were also mentioned by respondents in the three studies. The differences were that Huberman’s respondents were concerned about their relationship with their colleagues, and their attitude towards professional roles and status. Discipline was a major concern for them, but not for TESOLs. Many Geneva TESOLs worked in isolation and were thus more concerned about a lack of support and their relationship with their students than Sydney TESOLs or secondary school teachers. Logistics were another concern voiced by several Geneva TESOLs as they had to travel between classes.

Personal themes included financial matters in all three studies and marriage or family concerns. Adapting locally was a concern for Geneva TESOLs and school teachers, but was not mentioned by Sydney TESOLs. Many of the Sydney TESOLs were on their home territory when they entered TESOL, while Geneva TESOLs had often followed their spouses and were in a new environment. Affective themes included positive and negative responses about the quality of the experience and self-perceptions. Stress and a lack of confidence were frequently mentioned, which would be expected at the beginning of a career. However, 30% of Sydney TESOL and 8% of Geneva TESOL responses were unsolicited positive comments.

Sydney TESOLs were better prepared at entry and had better support systems than Geneva TESOLs, which may explain why they were more positive towards TESOL in the early stages of the career. However, although there were many secondary qualified teachers taking up TESOL, they encountered similar issues at the beginning of their career to teachers with no preparation and secondary school teachers who entered the career directly following university.

428 The concerns of respondents in all three studies were therefore fairly similar, concentrating on familiarising themselves with materials and methods in the classroom and gaining in confidence.

Research question 7 Do they have moments of doubt about the profession? In spite of their overall general career satisfaction, the TESOL respondents in both studies appeared to have more numerous moments of doubt than secondary school teachers. Working conditions were the main reasons for moments of doubt for TESOL teachers. This is not surprising considering the security of school teachers’ working conditions compared with the high levels of casual and contract work in the TESOL field. Even in Sydney where the conditions were much better than in Geneva, one quarter of respondents mentioned working conditions as leading to moments of doubt.

Figure 7.6 illustrates the main reasons, both personal and professional, for considering leaving TESOL:

Reasons for considering leaving TESOL • Professional reasons

• Personal reasons

Money and working conditions

Family reasons

Positive motives (career change; move sideways)

Reluctance to work

Lack of confidence Stress / boredom / loneliness Institutional reasons Bad experiences with students Disappointment with management Figure 7.6: Negative aspects of TESOL: moments of doubt

The frequent moments of doubt and reassessment in TESOL were also as a result of external crises, such as the Asian crisis which started in 1997 (for example, Coorey, 1997), change of country or of position, which often led to a

429 period of reassessment and doubt, and in some cases even to respondents exiting the career for a while before re-entering. Overall in the study, these moments of doubt or stocktaking often preceded more positive phases of new challenge, stabilisation or further experimentation.

Johnston (1997, pp. 698-699) and the current Geneva TESOL study both found an instance of a disillusioned male teacher citing that only women can afford to be in TESOL because they have their husband’s financial support. Some women also commented that those taking up TESOL for more social rather than economic or professional reasons possibly downgraded the status of the profession, but generally the women affected perceived TESOL in a positive light in the Geneva study as it gave them an interest outside the home. However, for some males it meant a downgrading of the profession and low salary levels. Johnston (1997, p. 699) speculated that the low levels of pay in teaching may be due precisely to the fact that teachers are predominantly women.

Doubts were mainly clustered around the beginning phase and between years 7-10 for TESOLs, while school teachers had most doubts at the beginning and between years 11-15. Other periods of doubt for school teachers were after year 15, while Geneva TESOLs had a lower incidence after year 15, and Sydney TESOLs did not mention doubts after year 16. The doubts for TESOLs often related to extrinsic aspects such as dissatisfaction with working conditions and attempts at a career move to improve the situation. These attempts were scattered throughout the career cycle, particularly for Geneva TESOLs. In the later phases of their career, they often settled into phases of acceptance or stabilisation.

Research questions 8 and 9 Question 8: What are their future career plans? Question 9: Would they re-select TESOL if they had their lives to relive? Question 8 was asked only of TESOLs, whilst question 9 was asked of respondents in all three studies.

430 When questioned about their future plans, the majority of TESOLs expressed a desire to remain in TESOL or to combine it with another activity, suggesting high levels of satisfaction with the career. Figure 7.7 illustrates the future plans of TESOLs. Future plans • TESOL-related

• Non-TESOL related

• Neutral

Continue in TESOL

Other career

Uncertain

TESOL combined with other

Family life priority

activity

Preference to travel

Figure 7.7: TESOLs’ future aspirations

Parallel activities could be related to TESOL, such as materials writing, or moving into training or development, or not related to TESOL, such as translation or music. Pursuing further studies was mentioned by many Sydney TESOLs, because of the variety of types of programs available and the need to upgrade qualifications to remain competitive. Sydney TESOLs also mentioned a greater variety of TESOL-related positions to which they aspired, such as counselling, management and promotional positions, which were not available in Geneva. Greater numbers of Sydney TESOLs planned to continue with TESOL than Geneva TESOLs, but both studies indicated that the majority wished to continue.

Many respondents in the current TESOL study evidenced levels of uncertainty in their responses to this question as did respondents in the study conducted by the Centre for British Teachers (CfBT, 1989). They were often unsure or vague about future career direction. This is possibly because of a lack of an institutionalised career structure in TESOL. CfBT (1989, p. 17) found that for most TESOLs who have done their five or ten years at the coalface and have normally collected their qualifications, there is probably nowhere to go but sideways.

Acker’s research (1992, 1995) revealed that gender issues included female respondents being reluctant to make long-term plans with any certainty and

431 older women blaming their gender for impeding their progress in the career structure. Some of Acker’s younger female teachers had no well-developed ambitions but several years later had become deputy head teachers. There are parallels in the current research into TESOLs. Some female respondents stated that they did not wish to be promoted while two others said they were happy to be back in teaching after a period overseas and had no ambitions. Both of these have since taken up senior positions.

Huberman felt that asking teachers whether they would re-select the profession or not was an “unequivocal way” of measuring satisfaction. However, this was not the case in the TESOL studies as some respondents said they would not re-select the profession for reasons other than lack of satisfaction. Some were women who had had few opportunities open to them other than teaching and were attracted to the idea of choice itself rather than having any concrete ideas for change, while others said they would do something different just to have a new experience. Many of the Geneva TESOLs said that had they not been in Geneva with their spouses, they would probably not have discovered TESOL in the first place. Therefore they were unsure how to respond. This may account for the larger number of responses indicating indecision in the TESOL studies compared with Huberman’s study. Therefore the greater uncertainty in the TESOL studies was probably not due to less satisfaction but more to uncertainty about whether they would find themselves in the same circumstances again. For secondary school teachers this appeared to be a more straightforward question and perhaps for that reason a greater percentage said they would re-select the profession even though their career cycles showed growing negativism for many towards the end of their careers.

Figure 7.8a illustrates the reasons respondents gave for re-selecting TESOL, while 7.8b gives the reasons for not re-selecting or conditional reasons for re-selecting TESOL:

432 Re-select TESOL? • Intrinsic reasons

• Extrinsic reasons

Enjoyment / rewarding

Flexibility

Learning about other cultures


Meeting people

Comfortable lifestyle

Suits me


Desire to help

Boom industry

Love of teaching

Variety; creativity

Love of language

No other choice

Figure 7.8a: Reasons for re-selecting TESOL

Re-select TESOL? • Conditional reasons

• No

Aspects I would change

Wouldn’t have discovered it

Would have done it earlier

Why do same thing again?

For part of my life

Women’s opportunities are changing

If married same man

No, other choice

Not enough money Wouldn’t have discovered it Figure 7.8b: Reasons for not re-selecting or conditional reasons for re-selecting TESOL

Intrinsic reasons for re-selecting included the pleasure of contact with children / adults for respondents in all three studies, a desire to help people and a love of the subject matter. Sydney TESOLs were keen to travel and some enjoyed the lifestyle of TESOLs. Reasons for considering change without necessarily reflecting negative feelings towards the profession, for Sydney TESOLs included the fact that there were more choices available now and a wish to try something new. Geneva TESOLs expressed similar conditional reasons. For school teachers such conditional reasons related more to fear of routine and a desire to combine work and pleasure.

433 The conditional reasons for re-selecting the profession included finding themselves given the same circumstances as in this life. In fact, some felt that they would never have discovered it had it not been for these circumstances (for example, having followed their husbands to Geneva, having given up their previous careers, having had it suggested to them, etc).

Intrinsic reasons for re-selecting the profession were more frequent than extrinsic reasons in all three studies, which is in keeping with the findings of other major studies on job satisfaction with teaching (for example, Farrugia, 1986; Kyriacou and Sutcliffe, 1977; Lortie, 1975; Pennington, 1991 and Sergovianni, 1964). Sydney TESOLs gave a far greater variety of reasons, both intrinsic and extrinsic, and more numerous responses than Geneva TESOLs for re-selecting TESOL. The extrinsic reasons, however, reflected the better working conditions Sydney TESOLs enjoyed when compared with their Geneva counterparts. Extrinsic factors such as change, both in personal circumstances, travel or promotion in the school, as well as a change in the economic situation, crises or booms in the industry also affected respondents and their potential for advancement. These contextual factors, which have been explored in more recent literature on job satisfaction (for example, Dinham, 1995, 1998), can be related to Herzberg’s hygiene factors, often being external to the work environment, but having an impact on it.

Research question 10 How do the findings for research questions 6, 7 and 9 compare to Huberman’s findings for secondary school teachers? In summary, despite having more ups and downs including moments of doubt and fear than secondary school teachers, and despite poor working conditions, TESOLs appeared overall to be as satisfied or, in some cases, more satisfied with the profession than secondary school teachers. The lack of security in the profession may have kept their interest alive as there were no instances evident of long-term stagnation or boredom with the profession. Those who were in a negative period showed signs of embarking on the next change in their career.

434 Sydney TESOLs consistently gave a greater variety of responses for each question than Geneva TESOLs, which was indicative of the richer environment for opportunities for promotion, for moving sideways in the career and for undertaking further studies, the better working conditions and the greater professionalism in Sydney. This resulted in what appeared to be an overall slightly greater satisfaction for Sydney TESOLs than for Geneva TESOLs.

Huberman found that job satisfaction was contingent on three factors later in the career (Guskey and Huberman, 1995, p. 205): • enjoying privileged relationships with cohorts of students • sudden improvement in students’ performance • seeking a role shift when feeling stale

The first two were not important for TESOLs, who rarely mentioned student relationships or student achievement, focusing instead on the intrinsic and extrinsic rewards relating to personal satisfaction, such as opportunities to travel, enjoying relationships with colleagues in TESOL, enjoying languages or learning about other cultures.

The third factor was significant for TESOLs, as the findings revealed that TESOLs frequently changed jobs, country or schools when feeling stale or in economic downturns.

A comparison of findings on phases and job satisfaction The findings from Chapter IV on phases and itineraries of school teachers and TESOLs predicted that TESOLs may have smoother career paths as there was a higher incidence of themes related to harmony than doubts, unlike the secondary school teachers whose itineraries included more themes of doubt than harmony.

However, in Chapter V where respondents were questioned specifically on aspects of job satisfaction, school teachers answered more positively than TESOLs on questions such as whether they had considered leaving the profession or whether they would re-select it. However, TESOLs had higher

435 levels of uncertainty, possibly due to the fact that it was a career which was often hard to discover, and which had less secure working conditions. In the TESOL studies, respondents were also questioned on their future plans and their attitude towards TESOL as a career. Sydney TESOLs answered more positively than Geneva TESOLs, who were nonetheless fairly positive.

The findings suggest that some of Huberman’s teachers may have had more deep-seated doubts than TESOL respondents, above all at the end of the career, whereas most TESOLs experiencing doubts were likely to re-enter fresh positive phases as they made changes to their lives, even later in their lives. In Chapter VI, diversification including change was reported as a major influential factor in TESOLs’ careers. In most cases change had a positive outcome with respondents preparing themselves for the next challenge. The levels of uncertainty, but not necessarily dissatisfaction, experienced at different times during the career cycles were, however, very high for TESOLs due to the unstable working conditions, lack of job security and instability in the industry generally, which is tied to the economic situation.

In the final analysis, apparently due to the reasons outlined in the previous paragraph, school teachers seemed more prepared to commit themselves to positive or negative responses, while TESOLs seemed to waver in uncertainty in their responses. These differences were probably due to their differing situations. This did not necessarily mean that TESOLs were less positive about the career, but that they demonstrated less certainty about their future paths. Many had tentatively attempted to leave the profession during the career, but often for reasons of uncertainty about future prospects rather than because of dissatisfaction with the career itself.

These findings reinforce the dynamic nature of the career cycle as defined by Fessler and Christensen (1992) and both the strengths and some inadequacies of Huberman’s framework (1993).

436

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT Research question 11 What are the professional development needs of TESOL teachers at their current phase? Figure 7.9 shows a preliminary model of TESOL categories of responses for professional development in Sydney and Geneva, with the environmental factors impacting on the likely successful outcome. In the centre of the model are the main categories of professional development during their career cycles mentioned by TESOLs in the study. These include diversification in the classroom and beyond the classroom, professional development in the staffroom and collegiality as well as training and further studies TESOLs undergo.

The likely success of this professional development is affected by their environmental situation. If they are undergoing change they may need professional development to support them through the change. For example, if they change country or school they may work in a position requiring new skills for which they will need preparation and support from others. Change may bring with it new development opportunities or a lack of such opportunities. A boom period may bring new opportunities, whereas a downturn in the economy may lead to reduced opportunities or even job loss. Where they live or their personal circumstances may determine whether there are further study opportunities or a lack of these.

437

Career cycles ⇑

⇑

⇑

⇑

TESOL professional dev elopment opportunities Diversification in classroom Diversification beyond the classroom Professional development in staffroom / collegiality Training / further studies ⇑

⇑

⇑

⇑

Env ironmental factors impacting on success • •

Opportunities / Lack of opportunities in the new environment •

• •

Change

Downturn in economy / Boom periods

Promotional opportunities / Lack of promotional opportunities Opportunities for further study / Lack of further study opportunities

Figure 7.9: Preliminary model of TESOL professional development and associated environmental factors impacting on success

The professional development mentioned by Geneva TESOLs was more limited in range than that mentioned by Sydney TESOLs, almost certainly due to the superior working conditions and the greater range of promotional opportunities and professional development opportunities available in Sydney. Geneva TESOLs also indicated some cynicism towards professional development, partly attributable to expectations that they would self-fund their professional development and partly because some respondents had not experienced professional development for more than 10 years and felt no need for it.

438 TESOLs appear to have a narrow view of the term professional development, limiting it mainly to formal inservice workshops. However, there is considerable evidence from responses to the general interview questions that TESOLs are aware of a range of less formal activities which can promote professional growth and development, including changing countries, occupations and positions. There was criticism of the workshops and formal inservice training offered, which was also evident in Huberman’s study. However, many TESOL respondents professed to enjoy workshops as they offered an opportunity for interacting with others outside their institution. Diversification was mentioned as being important to TESOLs, particularly in the Sydney study where there were more opportunities, such as movement into administration, counselling or training.

According to the literature, collaboration between teachers is essential for successful professional development (for example, Fullan and Hargreaves, 1991), and structures supporting collegiality are also positive factors (Anastos and Arcowitz, 1987; Eisner, 1988; Johnson and Johnson, 1987; Leiberman and Miller, 1984 and Little, 1984). In this research trainers / administrators rate these types of professional development low in priority overall, whereas the TESOL teachers seemed to value them consistently. This is further evidence that the TESOLs in the study were more aware of their professional development needs than many trainers / administrators gave them credit for. In the TESOL model (see Figure 7.9), the following aspects support these notions: diversification in the classroom included observation and feedback by management, by trainees and by peers, as well as observing others. However, respondents contended that there was little time for this type of valuable professional development, and when it did occur, it was generally at the beginning of the career. Diversification beyond the classroom included coordination of teachers, teacher training and taking up promotional positions, which all involved collaboration with peers, if not always on an equal basis as most of these were promotional positions; professional development in the staffroom specifically related to informal discussions with colleagues and exchanging ideas, which was viewed positively by teachers in the study, but not

439 given much attention by trainers / administrators. Training / further studies also included instances of collegiality, particularly when carrying out research projects with colleagues or in teams.

Huberman’s model for professional development (1995, pp. 208-218) can be applied to the TESOL groups. The collective cycle mainly involved groups of teachers from different backgrounds and schools working together, sharing experiences and experimenting together. Further study opportunities offered this type of experience in TESOL. As indicated earlier, TESOLs in Sydney had more opportunities to undertake professional development in keeping with the models proposed by Huberman and others (for example, Fullan and Hargreaves, 1991), while those in Geneva were more restricted, with teachers often operating in isolation, with few opportunities for professional development other than the occasional inservice session or workshop.

Another important aspect of professional development is personalised development programs for individual teachers (for example, Eraut, 1993, Fessler, 1995 and Levine, 1989). This type of professional development is consistent with that promoted in the TESOL literature (for example, Edge, 1992 and Richards, 1991) and was regularly practised by one trainer / supervisor in Geneva. However, Nunan (1991) supports peer, not supervisory collaboration. The Geneva TESOLs undergoing this type of professional development were freelance, and many of these felt resentment for having to give up their private time for professional development with no recompense. Several other trainers / administrators in both TESOL studies mentioned that they would like to conduct more tailored programs, but they also acknowledged the funding constraints.

Another aspect of professional development highlighted in the general literature included developing new skills and incorporating new ideas into practice (Fullan, 1985; Goodlad, 1984; Joyce, 1986; Sirotnik, 1987 and Welsh, 1986). While timetables generally allow little time for this type of professional development, there were instances in Sydney of funded projects allowing

440 curriculum development over periods of time. This was unusual, however. Further studies may also allow for this type of professional development.

The literature also states that, while professional development sponsored by outside agencies is acknowledged as important, the most important type is that which is built into the school itself (Bolam, 1982; Goodlad, 1983 and Joyce, 1986). The main schools involved in the study in Geneva had their own professional development programs, but many of the teachers were operating freelance across many schools. In Sydney all but one school had their own professional development programs. However, further studies involving lectures outside the school were deemed by respondents to be an important part of their professional development.

In summary, the principal types of professional development promoted in the TESOL literature were not really taking place on either site, as action research (for example, Burns, 1998; Wallace, 1998) in which teachers collect data and reflect on their own and colleagues’ philosophy to teaching was rarely referred to by either Geneva or Sydney TESOLs. The main type of professional development mentioned in both workplaces were workshops and other formal and informal gatherings of language teachers. These were also mentioned in the TESOL literature (for example, Murphy, 1994).

Research question 12 Is there a link between professional development needs perceived as useful and the phase respondents are in? There was some link between the phase respondents were in and the type of professional development mentioned, but the link was not strong. Respondents in a phase of doubt or stabilisation in both studies mentioned different kinds of professional development from those in a phase of experimentation. Inservice workshops were typically favoured by those in a phase of doubt or stabilisation, most probably in an effort to refresh themselves and restimulate their interest in the profession. They often mentioned specific courses which included personal development, management training, computer training and other issues not directly related to TESOL. Those in a phase of

441 experimentation, however, preferred reflection and diversification in the case of Sydney TESOLs and inservice training, keeping up to date and interaction with colleagues in the case of Geneva TESOLs.

When looking at experimentation and professional development, all respondents favoured inservice training although there were many criticisms of the inservice workshops actually offered. Those with less experience favoured interaction with colleagues, while those with more experience placed personal reflection higher.

Professional development needs appeared to be related to a range of factors including external economic forces, personal factors such as change or promotion, going back to teaching or a personal reassessment. Any or all of these factors may influence the type of professional development preferred at a given moment in the TESOL career and there is little evidence of consistent patterns emerging according to stages, phases or ages. This has significant implications for educational administrators, as a diverse program of professional development needs to be available at all times for TESOLs as it is difficult to predict the type of professional development they may require at any given phase of the career. This is almost certainly linked to the more unpredictable careers TESOLs follow compared to their school teacher counterparts.

Research question 13 What professional development do TESOL trainers/administrators perceive the teachers need at the various phases of their career, and what do they perceive teachers want? Geneva trainers / administrators mentioned inservice training for those more inexperienced TESOLs and other types of professional development for more experienced TESOLs. However, the TESOLs themselves continued to value inservice training above all. Sydney trainers / administrators felt that both inexperienced and more experienced teachers needed diversification most, while the teachers appeared to prefer inservice training in their responses to specific professional development questions. However, an examination of the

442 professional development mentioned in the general interviews reveals a far greater interest in diversification following change than teachers specifically referred to in both studies. This indicates that the Sydney trainers / administrators may be consciously aware of some of the types of professional development that teachers need and want, but do not readily identify as professional development.

Research question 14 What ideal aspirations do trainers/administrators have for professional development programs? Trainers / administrators continued to rate inservice training as most important, but produced a slightly more imaginative list for this question than for the previous ones, nominating school events and sabbaticals, for example. One of the constraints faced by trainers / administrators was that many schools conduct courses with no break, leaving little time for professional development. Being able to hold school events outside teaching time was an attractive option. Sydney respondents also mentioned formal studies. Conference attendance also featured more prominently than in responses to other questions, as many apparently considered it too expensive an item to mention previously.

Sydney trainers / administrators more accurately predicted teachers’ perceived needs than did Geneva trainers / administrators. However, in spite of the additional types of professional development mentioned in answer to this question, the range continued to be fairly limited. Perhaps not surprisingly, respondents appeared to be unable to imagine a situation with no budget constraints.

Research question 15 How closely does the professional development mentioned as useful by TESOL teacher respondents match the perceptions of trainers / administrators? In the Geneva study, the types of professional development mentioned were more limited in scope than they were in the Sydney study, but both studies demonstrated a mismatch between what the trainers /administrators perceived

443 the teachers needed and wanted and what the teachers themselves considered they needed.

Some of the Sydney trainers / administrators were cynical about the general level of interest of teachers in professional development, but this was not mirrored by the responses of teachers themselves. In Geneva some teachers were not interested in professional development, but trainers / administrators perceived a greater lack of interest even than the reality. In many cases, the trainers / administrators were more limited in their perception of what constituted professional development than were the teachers, as evidenced by their general comments on their career path.

While professional development for school teachers is often based on career phase theory, there was no evidence of TESOL trainers / administrators using any particular theoretical basis or consistent methodology for their choice of professional development offerings. Rather, their professional development programs seemed to be based, in some cases, on teachers’ requests and in other cases on the trainers’ whims, leading to programs devised without adequate resources or consultation and without any clear rationale.

Summary of major findings Encapsulated from the findings in relation to each of the research questions, reported above, the major findings of the present study include the following:

1

The study demonstrates that Huberman’s theoretical framework and methodology can be

creatively applied to a different situation. Huberman’s framework provides a useful framework for analysis, regardless of the specific environmental factors even though his teacher career phase model did not adequately predict the typical career phases experienced by TESOLs.

2

The research provides verification of the contention made by Huberman and separately by

Fessler and Christensen that environmental factors play an important role in determining an individual’s career trajectory. It also suggests that groups experiencing specific environmental conditions may follow different

444 kinds of career paths from other groups experiencing different environmental conditions. This has implications for program managers and policy makers.

3

The study provides valuable insights into the specific career trajectories experienced by

TESOLs and the special factors which influence these trajectories. The typically late career entrance and the problematic and transitory nature of the profession are two factors contributing to the development of TESOL career patterns which, to a large degree, are different from those typical of school teachers. In spite of the inherent uncertainty in their profession, TESOLs were very committed to their discipline, students and lifestyle. Many valued the flexibility of the profession in spite of its lack of stability.

4

The study provides support for a theoretical model which may assist future research into teacher

career cycle theory and career cycle theory generally. The critical differences identified in the variables between the Huberman model and the TESOL model may be indicators which predict differences in the type of career trajectory which groups demonstrating some or all of those differences are likely to undergo. This suggests that traditional career models may need modification in light of recent developments in career stability generally, to take account of less traditional and stable careers like TESOL.

5

The current study also suggests that the traditional career cycles often used by policy makers

and program managers in the field of education to determine professional development needs and for human resource management need to be reviewed in view of the typically changing work situation towards less security and more flexibility in the workplace. The findings have implications for identification, recruitment, preservice training and the continuing professional development of TESOLs and other groups with similar career characteristics.

6

There is considerable difference between the way in which TESOLs perceive their professional development needs and the way in which their

445 trainers / administrators perceive them. This gap needs to be closed if the professional development provided for TESOLs is to be seen by them as relevant and useful.

IMPLICATIONS DERIVED FROM THE FINDINGS Implications for career phase theory The findings of the TESOL studies on career cycles may be the most significant in the study. The career phases of TESOLs were in many ways very different from those of secondary school teachers generally, and also from those of other careers reported in the classical career phase literature. Up to the 1980s jobs were more secure and tenured, particularly in large organisations. Workers in the public service, in the banking industry and in school and tertiary education, for example, entered the career after completing secondary or tertiary studies and often remained in the same career for life (Barrowclough, 1998). These life-long careers offer stability but often appear to lead to boredom, and even cynicism, particularly towards the latter years. Huberman’s and other studies give clear indications of this type of progression. Of course, the career cycle is not necessarily a common, linear process and for some, there were instances of major external change, such as those experienced in Huberman’s study, and opportunities for promotion for some members of the career. These events and opportunities offered some diversification and renewal, but there was also a good deal of stability for many, with little change. Professional development programs have therefore typically been geared to this type of more predictable (and for many, more static) career.

TESOLs, however, have never experienced this type of career, as their stories reveal. Their typical employment situation has always been unstable and the industry responsive to economic changes. They have been forced to be mobile, which often suited them as they tend to travel to find new challenges or just to find a job. In more recent years, in Sydney the situation had become more stable and secure, with contracts and permanency being offered to many respondents. However, during the writing of this thesis the industry experienced a new unexpected crisis as a result of the Asian economic

446 downturn, leading to many redundancies and once again to TESOLs going overseas to find employment or other types of change. Therefore, the career phases of TESOLs reflect the very different nature of their situation and the different factors in their environment.

The trajectories of many TESOLs therefore fluctuated throughout their career, with respondents undergoing mini-cycles, often starting a new phase with a new beginning, then engaging in experimentation followed by a brief moment of stability. This may be followed by a period of reassessment coinciding often with external turmoil, (but sometimes because of the beginnings of boredom while in a stable situation), before encountering the next change and mini-cycle. There were very few instances of respondents entering the career and stabilising long-term. Even those who did not lose their jobs had watched their colleagues being affected by the economic downturns and could not allow themselves to become bored or complacent. They had to constantly upgrade their qualifications or diversify their experience in order to remain employable.

This may have a powerful message for career phase theory as many of the industries that previously enjoyed secure employment conditions have entered a new era. According to Michael Pusey (Professor of Sociology at the University of NSW), one in three jobs in Australia is now part-time or casual, as opposed to one in 20 in the 1970s (Barrowclough, 1998). And according to Elaine Thompson (Associate Professor of Political Science at the University of NSW), for many people it is no longer possible to talk about a “career”:

In my profession, in your profession, in the public service, in big organisations like banks, it’s simply not the case now… At the best, people have to expect and prepare to be retrained or look for completely different work and expect to have long periods of unemployment. There are no guarantees anymore (Barrowclough, 1998).

In these changing conditions, new studies need to be carried out in order to rethink the traditional career phase models to make them more relevant to prevailing and future employment conditions. The whole basis of career phase

447 theory may need to be reconsidered in these changed circumstances. A TESOL model arising from this research (figure 7.10) is therefore offered as an example of a profession demonstrating tendencies and with environmental and personal variables which may inform or provide some indication of future research directions.

Figure 7.10 represents a complete model showing the variables referred to in this study; the motivational entry factors for TESOL, including the active, material and passive motivations; the career cycles with main categories of phases and job satisfaction factors considered in the career as well as the contextual factors affecting the career cycles and job satisfaction.

448 Figure 7.10: Preliminary TESOL model of career cycles and factors affecting them

Motivational entry factors: active, material and passive motivations • Active motivations

• Material motivations

• Passive motivations

Seeking change

Suggestion from other

Need a job


Fell into it

Preferred teaching

Helping others

Job freedom

Conditions better than in

By process of

adults to children

Love of language; teaching

Access to higher status

schools

elimination

Career potential

Meeting people


Security / work permit

Previous experience ⇓

⇓ (continues)

⇓

449 Career cycles • Positiv e phases

• Reassessment / training phases

• Negativ e phases

Discov ery and experimentation

Training

Doubts (2-11 yrs)






Lack of commitment




(2-6 yrs)



Reflectiv e phases

(2-16 yrs; 4-15 yrs)




(11-24 yrs)

(3-6 yrs; 7-18 yrs; 7-25 yrs)

Stability Stabilisation (3-9 yrs; 11-19 yrs; 8-20 yrs) Acceptance Acceptance / balance (6-28 yrs) ⇓

⇓

⇓

Job satisfaction (see ov erleaf) Figure 7.10 (cont.) (continues)

450 ⇓

⇓

⇓

Job satisfaction ⇔TESOL: POSITIVE ASPECTS

⇔TESOL: NEGATIVE ASPECTS

Intrinsic and extrinsic rewards

Lack of intrinsic or extrinsic rewards

Future plans including TESOL

Reasons for leaving TESOL

Reasons for re-selecting TESOL

Future plans excluding TESOL

Professional development opportunities

Reasons for not re-selecting TESOL Lack of professional development opportunities

⇑

⇑

⇑

Contextual factors (see overleaf) Figure 7.10 (cont.) (continues)

451

⇑

⇑

⇑

Contextual factors Professional factors •


•


Personal factors •


•

Individual interests /

Isolation (Geneva)

PD opportunities

needs

Freelance / Contract / Tenure

Promotional opportunities

Family commitments

No need to earn money

Working conditions in company

Diversification

Partner’s career

(Geneva)

teaching (Geneva)

Studies / Further studies

Health of self / of family

Need for a break / holiday

Divorce / separation / romantic

Outside interests

problems

Other career Travel

•


•

Change

•

Change

Relationship with management

Change of schools / specialisation

Change of country

Working conditions in school

Industry booms and crises

Ability to adapt locally

452 The preliminary model proposed in the current study has similar classifications of variables to the models presented by Huberman (1993), Fessler and colleagues (1992, 1995) and to the discursive findings from the Johnston TESOL study (1997).

Johnston (1997) felt that because of the nature of the TESOL career with its high rate of attrition and so few older teachers, and with professional opportunities to move only sideways, it would be futile to try to:

shoehorn the working lives of large numbers of teachers into a model such as the Teacher Career Cycle, which is designed to describe a lifelong career (Johnston, 1997, p. 685).

This study supports this view. However, because this study is not limited as was Johnston’s, to locations in non-Anglophone countries, and because the contextual factors and the individual trajectories were taken into account with rigorous attention to the details revealed in the interviews, it has been found possible to develop a modified model from the Fessler and Huberman models which does clarify TESOL careers. The dynamic nature of the career is linked to the particular contextual and environmental factors affecting the TESOL respondents.

The dynamic nature of the career cycle is highlighted in this study to an even greater degree than that proposed by Huberman and Fessler and colleagues, because the nature and types of variable affecting respondents are different. The models therefore, to a degree, complement each other although the TESOL model may be closer to the experience of many contemporary workers than those presented by Huberman and Fessler.

This model may therefore provide a useful framework for further research into the career cycles of TESOLs or for other more itinerant or freelance professions. It may also provide a useful framework for future employment generally as careers the world over become more flexible, casualised and problematic.

453 By noting the critical differences between the Huberman model and the current TESOL one, it is possible to identify variables which may lead to different outcomes from the ones suggested by Huberman.

For example, in the case of motivations for career entry, the critical differences in the active motivations lie in those seeking change, entering the profession on the suggestion of others. The critical difference in the material motivations lies in the desire to take up travel opportunities. There were also more passive motivations such as “falling into” the profession because of following a husband’s career to an international location.

In the area of career cycles, as discussed before, Huberman’s respondents had a more linear and predictable sequence of career phases, while the TESOL respondents had identifiable phases, but which continued to be recycled and were not linear at any phase.

Other identifiable critical differences are in the moments of doubt mentioned by respondents in the TESOL studies. Those most in evidence for TESOLs, but not for Huberman’s respondents, included concerns about money and working conditions; stress, boredom or loneliness (particularly for Geneva TESOLs); lack of confidence and disappointment with a change in the management of the school.

Another question posed to respondents in both studies where critical differences can be identified is that of whether or not respondents would re-select the profession. The TESOL respondents, but not Huberman’s respondents, in particular identified the following reasons for re-selecting the profession:

• learning about other cultures • travel opportunities • flexibility

454 • having no other choice • suitable profession for a woman • need to find an occupation compatible with husband’s profession

Finally, contextual factors in the models provide a revealing aspect of critical differences. Huberman’s model does not consider many contextual factors outside of the impact of two critical historical events; the major reform of the secondary system in 1962 and the May 1968 movement. It must be acknowledged that these reforms had considerable impact on the career paths of those affected by them. Huberman also considered personal factors including family and affective factors and problems encountered combining studies and teaching as well as maintaining outside interests. Fessler’s model goes further, identifying factors in the personal and organisational environment which may impact on the career phases.

The critical environmental differences in the TESOL study include in particular personal and professional factors such as • late entry to the profession often because of following a partner’s career and changing country • individual interests or needs such as travel or exiting the career temporarily for a multitude of reasons (for example, maternity, child-rearing, to undertake another career, for extended travel, because of visa problems of because of being disillusioned). • professional development opportunities • school management problems • the negative impact of adverse working conditions and a more problematic environment, particularly in Geneva • a change of school or of specialisation • industry booms or crises.

The above analysis suggests that different kinds of contextual and motivational factors may lead to quite different career path patterns.

455 Careers which are typically characterised by the following motivational and contextual factors (as in Huberman’s study of school teachers) may typically tend to be more predictable and linear, following the Huberman model (see page 403 of thesis):

• career entry by deliberate choice • entrants seeking tenure, stability and security, even in changing economic circumstances • commitment to core elements of the profession (in teaching these are love of children and desire to teach) • desire or willingness to remain in a particular location • clear, consistent employment and working conditions such as tenure, salary and professional development and promotional opportunities • conditions which apply equally to genders

On the other hand, careers which are typically characterised by some or all of the following motivational and contextual factors either separately or in conbination (as in this study of TESOLs) may typically tend to be more unpredictable, consisting of a number of mini-cycles and maxi-cycles, with more periods of doubt followed by renewal, and perhaps without the typical loss of motivation and morale towards the end of the career, as in the Waites TESOL model (see page 408 of this thesis):

• career entry later in life, as a subsequent profession, sometimes following retraining, and often because of change of circumstances (for example, without a job after following husband’s career) • entrants seeking travel, change of culture or simply a change of direction • attraction to the associated elements of the profession (for example, travel, variety, learning) • lack of employment certainty or consistency, often inadequate working conditions and professional development and promotional opportunities • heavily feminised profession

456 This tentative general proposition, suggested by this research but not proven, is set out in Figure 7.11 below. Further research on several careers displaying similar characteristics to TESOLs would be needed to confirm the relationships proposed.

Traditional career path models

“Emerging” career path models

Motiv ational

• Direct career entry

• Late career entry

and

• Tenure, stability and security

• Travel, change of direction

contextual

• Commitment to employer

• Attraction to associated elements

factors

• Desire to remain in one general

• Lack of employment certainty

location

• Heavily feminised profession

• Stable working conditions • Equal conditions for genders Career path

As per Huberman model (see page

As per Waites TESOL model (see

403)

page 408)

Figure 7.11: Traditional and “emerging” career path models

Implications for further research More studies such as the one conducted by Johnston (1997) in further TESOL settings in both Anglophone and non-Anglophone settings would further corroborate the findings in this and Johnston’s study.

Career phases It would also be of interest to undertake a longitudinal study on a cohort of TESOLs who have lost their positions in the current crisis in the industry, to examine the effects on their careers and levels of satisfaction over time. Some were in a relatively stable phase or one of reassessment at the time of the study and just before the crisis. From the TESOL “character” revealed in the present study, it may be predicted that some would take up new challenges and in some cases travel overseas, gaining renewed vigour and enthusiasm. Alternatively, some may leave the profession forever but take up new professions with positive consequences.

457 Another area for future research relates to the end part of the TESOL career. Currently those TESOLs in the study with 20-25 years of experience are nearing retirement. Some of the younger TESOLs may make it a life-long career and it may be possible in the future to study TESOLs with more than 30 years of experience. One may predict from some of the findings of this study that the latter phases encountered in Huberman’s study, particularly the disenchantment and negative focusing experienced by those with more than 30 years of career involvement, may not be encountered by many TESOLs. On the other hand, it could be predicted that too many downturns and too few booms may lead some long-serving members of the profession to become totally disenchanted. Future research could investigate these possibilities.

As indicated earlier, the findings of the present TESOL studies could be typical of other modern professions, particularly as professions generally become less stable and secure. The observations recorded from this study need to be further tested in a range of industries. They suggest that one needs a careful consideration of the nature of the profession one is dealing with before being able to use the classical phases models for research and for guiding human resource development policies and practices. Considerations to bear in mind include: • is it typically a whole life profession? • is it typically a profession requiring training? • is it typically a male or female dominated profession? • are the working conditions typically based on short term contracts, casual positions, longer term contracts or life-long tenure? • are the organisations being examined small work settings or large organisations like the army, multinationals or large government departments?

Job satisfaction Working conditions seemed to be an aspect of TESOL which impacted negatively on satisfaction levels. However, according to Herzberg’s two-factor theory, simply by improving working conditions, satisfaction levels will not

458 necessarily increase. This is a preventative method, but not necessarily a cure. There are suggestions in the outcomes of this research which support this view. For example, TESOLs (particularly in Geneva) had poor working conditions, but relatively high levels of intrinsic satisfaction. This is therefore an area which would benefit from additional research. As this was an exploratory study, the aim was not to direct teachers’ attention to any particular issue. Hence there were no specific questions asked about working conditions. It was felt that working conditions would be mentioned if teachers felt they were relevant or important to the discussion.

A study which addressed working conditions directly may provide more data to resolve the paradox of security and tenure. Would TESOLs recognise that the lack of security in their positions and in the field in general may be a factor which maintains their interest in the field as they are forced to undergo change many times in a career? It may be that some do recognise this as working conditions were not emphasised by Sydney TESOLs spontaneously as a reason for dissatisfaction with the career.

Another aspect which emerged frequently was change. It would be of interest to explore this aspect more directly to identify the possible long-term benefits or disadvantages of change. This is especially important as the speed and amount of change in society as a whole impacts on the stability of all professions.

While the indications are that the TESOL industry is in a process of professionalisation, the future is uncertain. Another area of interest for research would be to monitor the long-term effects of the downturn of enrolments on the morale of the participants of the study or another similar group.

Professional development Researchers should note the mismatch between the responses of teachers and trainers / administrators relating to professional development and the limited perspective both groups had of what constitutes professional development.

459 Research could be carried out in the area of professional development, in terms both of teachers’ perceptions and directions and of guidance for trainers / administrators.

The professional development needs of TESOLs are not easily categorised according to career phases, but are much more complex and diverse. This leads to difficulties in formulating tightly planned, sequential professional development programs. Budgetary constraints also impact on the variety of programs centres may offer to suit the varying needs. Research could be carried out into how these needs may be met within budgetary constraints and how educational administrators may best identify the specific needs of TESOLs in particular circumstances.

Gender Gender is an area for further research. TESOL is a highly feminised profession, and while gender issues were not a major consideration in the study, there is sufficient anecdotal evidence of gender issues affecting the career paths of TESOLs. For example, the male respondents in both studies were generally more career-minded and more likely to be in promotional positions or disillusioned if they were not than the female respondents. The female respondents valued the flexibility offered by TESOL for personal reasons, often including family ones, and many in Geneva worked freelance. Many of the Geneva female respondents had followed their husband’s career and were in TESOL because it was the only choice available to them. The Sydney female respondents, however, had mainly selected TESOL for reasons other than as a result of following their husband. There were also more career opportunities available in Sydney and more females in promotional positions. These areas and others connected to gender should be followed up with TESOLs or with other groups in a more direct fashion as the current study did not specifically target gender in its objectives.

460

Implications for educational administrators Career cycles In summary, whilst some degree of progression and sequencing has been observed in the career cycle of TESOLs, and the concept of phases certainly exists, there is a difficulty of fitting the TESOL career neatly into a phases model and there are so many individualised career paths it is difficult to establish firm generalised patterns from these individual diverse experiences with any confidence. The concept of phases may therefore have less relevance for TESOLs in the areas of awards, working conditions, superannuation and particularly professional development than it does for regular school teachers. Findings related to professional development are summarised later in this chapter.

Job satisfaction The major concerns arising for consideration of trainers / educational administrators from the study on teachers’ satisfaction with the career can be summarised as follows: Major areas of concern • perception of lack of a career path, especially opportunities for promotion • perceived lack of career progression in TESOL • perceived low status / poor working conditions / low salary / lack of security Positive aspects • the stimulation / interest generated by respondents in TESOL in both studies • the recent professionalisation of the industry with increased opportunities, particularly in Sydney • possibilities for travel Major areas of concern Criticisms related to few promotional opportunities in TESOL, working conditions and salary and the low status of the profession. These were all identified as hygiene factors in Herzberg’s two-factor theory. According to Herzberg (1959), removing or improving these factors does not necessarily

461 entail increased satisfaction for employees, which is supported in this research. Many of the Sydney teachers had fairly stable secure contracts, which they had had to fight for over many years, and were sympathetic to the difficulties of people entering the profession coping with insecurity and sessional contracts. In Geneva the job security ranged from nil for freelance teachers, who had to accumulate hours at the beginning of each year, through yearly renewable contracts in private schools, to permanent well paid positions for a few in the international organisation. However, the number of permanent contracts was limited, with no prospect of expansion in the future. Educational administrators will need to monitor working conditions in the future, as they may impact on job satisfaction levels.

The goal may be to provide as much certainty and security as possible, but within that more secure context, to provide more opportunities for new challenges through diversification of tasks and roles, new responsibilities and new opportunities for growth and development. Intrinsic factors connected to teaching itself are more likely to increase satisfaction than extrinsic ones, according to the literature, and supported by this study. Lack of a career path The lack of a clear career path seemed to be one of the biggest problems. The flat structure in the TESOL profession with relatively few promotional positions, particularly related to teaching, has been commented on in other studies (for example, McKnight, 1992 and Pennington, 1992). Typically in Sydney, there were teachers, teacher coordinators, head teachers and directors of studies. The university language centre in Sydney continued to have a coordination system, an expensive model which many schools had abandoned, contributing to the limited career path. The private schools in Sydney were currently similar to those in Geneva with only one or two coordinators, senior teachers or directors of studies. However, in Sydney, unlike Geneva, these were officially recognised and remunerated roles with job titles. Within the Sydney model, therefore, there was some room for career progression.

462 In Geneva, there was less differentiation in positions, with most being classified as teaching positions, with some of the roles mentioned below being added to a full time teaching load. Only one of the teachers interviewed had a position which had officially recognised additional management or training duties. Freelance teachers were often teacher trainers and teachers, while full time employees had limited room for movement. There was a reluctance on the part of educational administrators to acknowledge the different roles teachers had, giving them generic titles such as teacher, senior teacher or coordinator.

Considering the wide-ranging duties of a Sydney TESOL teacher / coordinator mentioned during the interviews (see Table 7.3) and the variety of teaching programs, it may be considered surprising that the perception that there was no room to move was so prevalent, even in Sydney. However, these duties were not usually acknowledged except in general terms, and there was a relatively flat salary structure in both Sydney and Geneva. While teachers may move up the scale, they often reached the top quickly, certainly in the university language centre. A teacher was positioned at a certain level according to his/her experience and qualifications regardless of the tasks undertaken. Therefore, a coordinator or senior teacher could be expected to undertake any of these duties with no change in salary or title. This is an aspect of TESOL that deserves further consideration by educational administrators as advancement is an intrinsic job factor, which is a motivating factor, according to Herzberg’s two-factor theory. Teachers’ perceptions need to be changed if they are to perceive there is a career path or possibilities of advancement, or there need to be actual changes to the career structure which may further increase their job satisfaction.

Low status, salary, security Contracts in TESOL are dependent on enrolment figures. TESOL is affected by external forces, which has led to a tendency for instability with teaching contracts. This was clearly observed in the present studies as a result of the unpredictable nature of enrolments which could be affected by external factors, such as a change in visa regulations in Sydney, or the 1997 currency crisis (for

463 example, Coorey, 1997). Sydney schools were therefore unable to give more than a certain number of longer term contracts or permanent contracts, and Geneva schools tended to hire mainly freelance teachers. In some schools there was a high incidence of casual employment, which left some teachers feeling insecure, particularly during long periods of unemployment, holiday periods and market fluctuations. Other benefits such as superannuation schemes were slowly being introduced, but for older teachers, who had experienced professional instability and casual employment, this was a cause for concern as they had no long-term security or superannuation.

Adult TESOLs do not enjoy the same holidays or breaks as school teachers because courses are typically conducted with no break across the year, with four weeks’ holiday allowance a year for those with a contract. In spite of this, many respondents had come from the secondary or primary school system, preferring to teach adults to children, because they felt adults were more motivated, and did not bring the discipline problems encountered in school teaching. These factors seemed to be more important to them than the security of employment offered in primary or secondary schooling.

The problems of insecurity of employment are not easily resolved but the perception that TESOL is becoming more professional combined with the recently introduced regulation of the industry in Australia should have positive repercussions in the future in Australia at least. This will have to be monitored as the present situation suggests the possibility of a further reduction of current conditions. With high unemployment levels worldwide, however, and the current trends towards casual employment (for example, Barrowclough, 1998; Cleary, 1998 and Thurow, 1996), there is unlikely to be significantly greater security in the immediate future. Positive aspects Professionalisation of the industry The need to gain higher qualifications in Sydney in order to remain competitive was seen by many as a positive factor. The TESOL industry in Sydney was

464 young with several boom periods starting in the late 1980s, followed by the collapse of many schools, followed by stabilisation of the industry and a rise in enrolments for many centres during the course of the study. However, with the current currency crisis, enrolments are likely to decline (for example, Coorey, 1997). One respondent felt that TESOL as a profession had gained a theoretical underpinning in the last few years. With many studying at masters degree level, the profession should develop more research and publications and should eventually acquire greater status and credibility. However, with university fees increasing in 1996-1997, the numbers enrolling in masters courses in Sydney are diminishing, and it is likely that fewer will take masters courses in the future.

Although opportunities for higher qualifications did not exist in Geneva, some TESOLs were taking the initiative to go to England to qualify at masters degree level. On the other hand, many teachers were not prepared to qualify further than certificate level in Geneva, often because the opportunities for promotion were too few or because they had other priorities. Most would remain at the teaching level throughout their career.

Professional development Several key issues arose from the professional development analysis. The first message is that teachers exhibited more awareness of the range of professional development they might require than administrators who were more cynical and more limited in their perception of teachers’ needs. This could be disturbing if administrators and trainers are in charge of teachers’ professional development, as through their limited perceptions they may be producing disappointed and frustrated teachers. TESOLs need to be more fully involved in decisions about their own professional growth and development.

The second key issue is that professional development in schools has often been linked closely to the concept of career phases. Huberman himself is sceptical about career-phase engineering and is more inclined towards collaborative work among teachers at different points in their career (Huberman, 1995, p. 207). As stated before, Huberman’s and the other models

465 appear to be based on the school scenario of an earlier era of more stability and conservatism. TESOL is a profession with less security of employment and differing needs, and people who need to be adaptable and prepared to start many times over.

If this is the case, then TESOLs would need more liberal professional development offerings from which to choose in order to match their changing needs. Some who enter the profession with training may need the same type of professional development as that proposed by Huberman and others, but TESOLs also enter the profession untrained or with different types of experience. Older teachers entering the profession, in particular, often have previous teaching or other experience and may require different types of professional development. The same training may be inappropriate for them. Some of the trainers / administrators were certainly sensitive to this situation. One trainer from Geneva stated:

Professional development is very often a misused term - is it just going to teachers’ meetings and is that necessarily the sort of professional development you need? Until recently teachers were usually recycled from other professions, from other walks of life, they brought in a lot which could be tapped, it was a matter of identifying what could be tapped.

It's an individual thing - at appraisal time on a personal level, I ask teachers what they think, what they think their needs are, and at an institutional level, it's tied into the institutional expectations, and again at appraisal time I'll guide teachers towards areas they need. It involves me making them aware or they might jump through the hoops and go to this or that session, and read whatever literature I suggest, but unless they perceive where it's from and are aware of the need, there'll be no growth, which is one of the keys of professional development.

Therefore, there are various ways into professional development. I haven't defined clearly what professional development is because it's individual and institutional driven, it's bound up with being able to do the

466 job better. I don't think it's definable - I see it very much as line management, people class professional development at conference time and at budget time - “I need a bit of professional development” “I think I need a conference” - people do feel they are going for professional development ... but it's much more fundamental - it's more the person defining what they need, that they can be aware of it and accept it as valid.

Taking a personalised approach to professional development is in keeping with recent developments in the field of supervision and staff development models (for example, Burke et al., 1987 and Fessler, 1995). The suggestions made by trainers included sabbatical leave, which may allow teachers to explore career opportunities or pursue solutions to personal problems. The mobility of those in the TESOL profession means that they sometimes are able to pursue such professional development perhaps more than other types of teachers. An example is the researcher of the current study who was able to take more than two years’ leave without pay to pursue research interests in Geneva. Individual TESOLs and the systems for which they work need to be constantly on the look out for such opportunities, and to be flexible enough to make the necessary arrangements for them to be utilised effectively.

In summary, educational administrators should note the signs of discontent with the working conditions, balanced against the intrinsic satisfaction TESOLs have with the profession. It would be of interest to explore ways of making the working conditions more attractive and secure without losing the stimulation afforded by present uncertainties. This is perhaps the greatest challenge as the working conditions do not show signs of further improving in the current economic climate.

CONCLUSION TESOLs in Geneva enjoyed little job security and were largely a transient casual workforce. In Sydney some aspects of job security and contracts have recently appeared. However, in Sydney this more stable situation has recently come under threat.

467 The TESOL industry is fickle as recently demonstrated (from September 1997) by the collapse of the so-called “tiger economies” in Asia on which the Australian ELICOS industry heavily depends. This was due to a combination of factors: economic (for example, Coorey, 1998 and Illing and Coorey, 1997); the negative impact of racially biased comments and the perception that Australia may not be a safe environment for Asian students. These factors, and the fact that Australia is chosen for further study (and therefore for English preparation prior to further study) as a second choice to Britain and USA, (for example, Illing and Coorey,1997, p. 38), mean that the number of Asian students coming to Australia has declined since September 1997. This has led to substantial job losses in the TESOL industry and a return to a more casual workforce. Any work available is on a short term contract or casual basis. This uncertain situation was not predicted and occurred rapidly. TESOLs have lived through similar situations in the past and even those with relatively secure jobs have moved in and out of the industry according to personal needs and changes in the environment.

The findings highlight many aspects of career phase theory urgently in need of further research. Career phases in many different industries in today’s changing employment situation require exploration in order to gain a better grasp of the current needs of employees. The TESOL studies demonstrate the tendencies of a mobile insecure profession and the possible positive outcomes of such a situation, along with its challenges and disadvantages.

The findings on job satisfaction demonstrate that it is not necessarily always linked to stability and secure working conditions. While the issues were often different for secondary school teachers and TESOLs, the findings reveal that job satisfaction for TESOLs, as for other teachers, is more linked to the intrinsic facets of the teaching profession than to the extrinsic facets.

The professional development findings reveal that both teachers and trainers / administrators have a lack of imagination and perception of the breadth of what may constitute professional development. The findings also indicate a mismatch between what many trainers / administrators believe TESOL

468 teachers need compared with the teachers’ comments. Some trainers /administrators undervalue their needs and desires for professional development. Further research is urgently needed to assist in making the professional development programs more closely match the needs of the recipients.

Finally, the research has led to some important theorising about patterns of motivational and contextual issues associated with different careers and their possible influence upon the nature of the career paths experienced by participants in the career. These remain to be tested but the verification of the tentative propositions put forward in this research could signal an important departure from traditional teacher career path research.

469

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491

APPENDIX A INTERVIEW QUESTIONS IN THE TESOL STUDIES The interview questions as asked of respondents are set out below for both Geneva and Sydney TESOL studies. Geneva TESOL study: teachers’ interview schedule

1. Survey your career from the very beginning up to the point of the interview. Reflect on your career trajectory and try to discern some key themes and leitmotives. Plot these themes sequentially, if possible, into a series of steps, stages or phases that would capture the flow of your professional experience. 2. Looking to the future. 3. Define the word “career”. 4. What is its relationship to TESOL? 5. Tell me how you came to be a TESOL teacher? Review your own studies and indicate the moment at which you decided to teach, and state your reasons and hesitations for that choice. 6. Very honestly, if you had your professional life to live over again, would you choose TESOL and why or why not? 7. Have you ever thought seriously of leaving teaching? If yes, at what time in your career did these doubts occur? What would be the reasons for leaving this career? 8. Reflect back on the initial period of your teaching career; describe the year, the setting, the circumstances, your personal situation, your difficulties and emotions. 9. Describe two situations that caused problems during the initial months of classroom work. 10.Here is a list of concerns or problems that beginner teachers in secondary schools often experience. Mention any of these concerns that you faced as a beginning TESOL teacher. List of concerns faced by beginning school teachers (derived from the Huberman study)

492

Difficulties in maintaining class control Difficulty in teaching other than by standard lesson format. Discouragement Fearing what others may think Feelings of continual trial and error Feelings of never “measuring up” Feelings of “surviving” from day to day Inconsistency (sometimes rigid, sometimes laissez-faire) Intimidated by the students Physical exhaustion Preoccupation with oneself rather than with the task at hand 11.What sort of professional development is useful for you now?

Geneva TESOL study: trainers / administrators’ interview schedule

12.What sort of professional development do teachers need, and do they need different sorts at different times of their career? 13.What professional development programs have you been involved in, and how successful were they? 14.What do teachers want as professional development? 15.What would you do ideally for teacher development, taking away constraints, like money? Sydney TESOL study: teachers’ interview schedule

1. Summarise briefly your working life pre-TESOL from graduation to taking up TESOL. What was your personal situation during that time? 2. Survey your TESOL career from the very beginning up to the point of the interview. Mention your personal situation where relevant. Reflect on your career trajectory and try to discern some key themes and leitmotives. Plot these themes sequentially, if possible, into a series of steps, stages or phases that would capture the flow of your professional experience. 3. Looking to the future?

493

4. Tell me how you came to be a TESOL teacher? Review your own studies or life and indicate the moment at which you decided to become a TESOL. What were the reasons and hesitations for your choice? 5. Here is a list of motivations for becoming a TESOL teacher mentioned by TESOLs overseas. Are there one or two you would add from this list to the ones you have already mentioned? List of motivations of TESOL teachers (derived from Geneva TESOL study) Unhappy with other career/ lifestyle - wanting a change / actively seeking something to do Access to a higher status I sank / drifted / fell into it I needed a job / money To enable me to travel / it’s portable I couldn’t think of anything else External request, suggestion / someone approached her because she speaks English/ met someone who gave her/him the idea To enable me to get my work permit / stay in the country Feminine profession: the possibility of a family life in parallel I substituted for someone Job freedom; flexibility in one’s work Preferred TESOL to teaching children/in schools Because I majored in English Because I already trained as a teacher before Because at some stage in my past I had done TESOL before or something related Modelling; influence of former teacher or parents who were teachers Compensate for a perceived educational deficit; desire to “do better than one's own teachers” Meeting people I enjoyed it Helping people Because I love language/ English

494

6. Reflect back on the initial period of your TESOL career: describe the year, the setting, the circumstances, your personal situation, your difficulties and emotions. 7. Describe two situations in TESOL that caused problems during the initial months of classroom work. 8. Here is a list of concerns or problems that beginner teachers in secondary schools often experience. Mention any of these concerns that you faced as a beginning TESOL teacher. List of concerns faced by beginning school teachers (derived from the Huberman study) Difficulties in maintaining class control Difficulty in teaching other than by standard lesson format. Discouragement Fearing what others may think Feelings of continual trial and error Feelings of never “measuring up” Feelings of “surviving” from day to day Inconsistency (sometimes rigid, sometimes laissez-faire) Intimidated by the students Physical exhaustion Preoccupation with oneself rather than with the task at hand 9. Here is a list of concerns expressed by TESOL teachers overseas at the beginning of their careers. Identify one or two you faced: TESOL teacher additional beginners’ concerns (derived from Geneva TESOL study) Pedagogical concerns Lack of confidence / experience / training Practical things connected to conducting the lesson - timing/ instructions / using equipment Learning English grammar Planning / overplanning Interpersonal relationships with students Problems with the method Lack of guidance / support

495

Lack of familiarity with materials / lack of material Stress Problems of motivation Keeping interest levels / motivation high Different learning styles of students / motivational factors / levels Positive comments Positive comment: I liked the colleagues, the atmosphere in EFL staffroom I feel much more confident It’s been enriching from the personal point of view 10.Have you ever thought seriously of leaving TESOL? If yes, at what time in your career do these doubts occur? What would be the reasons for leaving this career? 11.Here is a list of concerns expressed by TESOLs overseas in moments of doubt. Which concerns do you share? Have you resolved them? If so, how? Do you have any to add? Motive for wishing to leave TESOL (derived from Geneva TESOL study) Because of money and working conditions Yes, positive motive: for a career move; didn’t want to work; TESOL is a stepping stone, a stop gap; want to travel with husband It’s stressful, I was bored / talents underused / teaching’s a lonely job Lack of confidence in my ability Institutional reasons: method or student conditions 12.Define the word “career”. 13.What is its relationship to TESOL? 14.Very honestly, if you had your professional life to live over again, would you choose TESOL and why or why not? 15.Define the word professional development. 16.What professional development is useful for you now? 17.Here is a list of professional development activities mentioned by TESOLs overseas. Do you share these ideas? Any to add? Professional development activities mentioned by TESOL teachers in Geneva (list derived from Geneva TESOL study) Workshops / seminars Practical

496

Theoretical Reflection Self appraisal Discussion with colleagues Reading books / journals Observing others Conferences Specific course / seminar Keeping up to date Doing something different To keep evolving Nothing Wish list Courses / conferences / workshops Talk to expert / guru To have done it earlier

Sydney TESOL study: trainers’ / administrators’ interview schedule 18.What experience /qualifications did you have before taking up adult TESOL? (job titles, dates and qualification details) 19.What TESOL-related qualifications do you have; where and when did you do them? 20.How many years’ adult TESOL experience do you have, when and where? 21.What teacher training and / or administrative positions have you held, when and where? 22.How long have you been in your current position, and what is your title? (if less than three years how long were you in your previous position?) 23.Describe your current role as trainer and/or administrator 24.The following training roles were mentioned by administrators / trainers in Geneva. Are there any others you would add? List of training roles (list derived from Geneva TESOL study) Attending conferences and seminars Consultancy or one off training seminars /workshops etc Organising training programs for schools

497

Writing articles Presenting at international conferences Writing journal articles/books Formal training programs (DTEFLA, CTEFLA) Formal and informal support and guidance for teachers Providing informal guidance to teachers Observing teachers Providing formal guidance to teachers (through appraisal) Administrative roles The following administrative roles were mentioned by the trainers / administrators in Geneva. Are there any you would add? Administration of training courses Placement tests Program administration Budget management Visiting new company clients Ordering materials 25.What professional development programs have you been involved in in your current or most recent positions, and how successful were they? Why were they successful or why not? 26.The following types of professional development programs were mentioned by trainers and / or administrators in the Geneva study. Some programs were led by respondents, and in some they were participants. Are there any you would like to comment on? You may also refer to your past.

498

Types of professional development programs mentioned in chronological order by respondents (lists derived from the Geneva TESOL study) Type of program mentioned

Program description

Pre-Serv ice and Inserv ice methods 1970s-1980s Speed reading with Ferguson (1970s) “Meaningless prescriptive method” “mechanical, militaristic” SGAV (1970s)

Structural Global Audio Visual

All’s Well (1970s)

“It was the whole way of looking at teaching that involved a lot of other aspects, not just linguistics, body language, drama etc”

NLP techniques (current)

Neuro Linguistic Programming

Silent Way (Gattegno) (1980s)

Introduced in the international primary school

Communicative approach (1980s)

Getting students to learn through interaction. Focus on functional aspect

These are the types of professional development programs trainers and administrators are currently involved in conducting:

499

Types of professional development programs mentioned in chronological order by respondents Program leading to certification CTEFLA (mid 1980s on): Pre-service DTEFLA (1980 on): In-service Bridging program between CTEFLA and DTEFLA (pilot scheme): Early in-service training Workshop: Organising 2-week training prog. in Sept. Organising workshops: guest speakers, weekend workshops Series of seminars (pilot bridging professional development program for Cambridge) Leading workshops: FORUM - teachers professional association (famous names mainly) Going to conferences Consultancy elsew here Fly in fly out type Basic academic skills management Appraisal

27. What sort of professional development do teachers need, and do they need different sorts at different times of their career? What sort of professional development do they need at: 0-4 years’ experience 5-10 years’ experience 11 + years’ experience 28. These are the types of professional development mentioned by trainers and administrators in the Geneva study. Are there any you would add? (derived from the Geneva TESOL study) Beginning teachers Hands on techniques

500

Guidance and support Support with materials Looking at student needs and learning styles The ability to reflect on what went wrong with the lesson to improve Seeing a wider range of options to work from Later / generally Keeping abreast of new developments, new methods, new ideas, new materials Interacting with colleagues Wide range of teaching experience Observing other teachers, learning from classroom - self development, reflection, responding to student evaluation More indepth, personal development workshops, communication skills, management skills Teachers actively involved: Networking, going to conferences, meetings, writing things Look at the linguistic angle Theoretical basis in professional development 29. What do teachers want as professional development? 30. These are the types of professional development mentioned by trainers and administrators in the Geneva study. Are there any you would add? Type of professional development wanted (list derived from Geneva TESOL study) Practical, hands on for beginners: eg games, grammar, phonology, readers, drawing course etc Seminars on interpersonal skills, people skills Something to get excited about / new ideas / gimmicky things, something amusing Something not too time consuming Designing programs themselves / more specialised teaching Something challenging for more experienced teachers Administrative support Conferences Depends on what stage they’re at - different things

501

They are not interested as they are not paid to attend Nothing - they feel they do not need it 31. What would you do ideally for teacher development, taking away constraints, like money? 32. These are the types of professional development mentioned by trainers and administrators in the Geneva study. Are there any you would add? Wish list (derived from Geneva TESOL study) Courses and seminars Longer courses Organise sessions with famous names on topics eg personal development, communication, group dynamics, time management, team building (not pedagogical) Sponsor people to go to conferences Better researched presentations with theoretical basis Organising the seminars Having time, infrastructure and money to put on school events Paying people to attend training, and free sessions. More like the real world Market professional development courses to get homogeneous group Reflection, individualised programs Individualised programs Teaching in blocks with time built in for reflection Getting teachers together to observe each other Materials development Greater range of journals Other non-TESOL related professional development Time to relearn the language in your mother tongue country Clarify aims of administration Look at field other than teaching Look at different fields of teaching eg state education, management teaching Sabbatical year for further education

502

INTERVIEW QUESTIONS IN THE HUBERMAN STUDY The exact details of the interview schedule were not set out in Huberman’s literature, but the following provides a fairly detailed view of the interview questions selected for the TESOL studies and their wording as reported in Huberman, 1993. The findings are reported in the chapter headings below.

The Nature of our Enquiry and the Research Process Our preliminary question was the key to the entire enquiry. It was here that respondents were asked to survey their careers from the very beginning up to the point of the interview. The question was entirely open-ended, allowing respondents total latitude. They were asked simply to reflect on their career trajectory and to try to discern some key themes and leitmotives. They were asked to plot these themes sequentially, if possible, into a series of steps, stages or phases that would capture the flow of their professional experience (Huberman, 1993, p. 32).

Teachers’ Initial Motivations and Satisfactions: We asked them simply to tell us how they came to teach at the secondary level, to review their own studies, to indicate the moment at which they decided to teach, and to state their reasons and hesitations for that choice ... Following this line of questioning, we then posed the following question: “Very honestly, if you had your professional life to live over again, would you choose teaching (and why or why not)?” (Huberman, 1993, pp. 109-110).

At the Crossroads: To Continue or to Leave Teaching? “Have you ever thought seriously of leaving teaching?” (Huberman, 1993, p. 138).

We asked them to identify this moment for us more precisely (Huberman, 1993, p. 141).

503

Beginning Teaching They were asked to reflect back on the initial period of their teaching careers, to describe the year, the setting, the circumstances, their personal situation, their difficulties and emotions. We then presented them with a list of concerns or problems that beginners often encounter and asked them if they had been confronted with these problems (Huberman, 1993, p. 194).

There were also several more tightly structured questions, beginning as well with an open-ended inquiry (eg “Could you describe what your first month in front of the class was like?”). After an initial response, respondents received a flash card containing a list of items (eg “The difficulties often encountered by beginning teachers”) and designated pertinent items. Then, the responses were clarified (“Difficult in what way? Why so?”) (Huberman, 1993, p. 25).

504

APPENDIX B CODING THE INTERVIEWS All of the interviews were further coded in order to identify other themes of interest, and to corroborate questions asked in other parts of the interview. “The code” (see Table 3.23 in Chapter III) was noted in the margin alongside the interview, then the quote added to the relevant theme.

Example 1 is a sample from a Geneva respondents with more than 20 years’ experience: Another thing that changed my attitude to teaching, was when I married X and went to Brazil on holiday and realised that if I was going to communicate with my mother in law I would have to learn the language.

So, I had to learn

METH

another language from scratch. It was an eyeopener learning a language from scratch. It helped me understand the students’ difficulties.

1980 I realised how useless grammar was when I was beginning to learn a language. I was using tenses and verbs. I didn't need a code. I'd be corrected two or three times and even now I use expressions, but I can't write it. METH In 1988 they reduced the numbers of SSAs and in 1987 Maya arrived. When they reduced the number of SSAs, it was all to do with the recession and the financial difficulties of the UN. It was nice and much quieter without the SSAs. During this period it got to the point when I didn't see any possible

HIST

advancement in my career.

WC

I'v e come to the end of my steps. I can't mov e and the only w ay to hav e a more satisfying career at this point is to do w hat X and X are doing - the

CAR

only w ay of getting prestige.

WC

reduction of hours.

They aren't paid any extra - they get a

505

The hours are reduced to such an extent that with my timetable, if I did such a

WC

seminar I could give just a two week seminar mornings only once a term, and spend all the rest of the time preparing. I'm not interested. Since I'm part time I've got so many other things I'm happy doing. I'm happy to be at home 50 percent of the time and not be involved.

PS

I've toyed with the idea of opening a language school here in the Pays de Gex, but it would be a hassle and I'd never get as much money as now. Or of doing what x is doing - being sent on mission but I could never do that

FUT

because of the family. I don't know how she combines that with family life.

I'm v ery satisfied w ith teaching my eight hours, v ery happy w ith my salary. WC But I'll be retiring in 10 years and I'll be very happy - I'm prepared to bend over backwards. If they would accept to have language classes for children like they do at ILO eg for three hours on Wednesdays, I'd be delighted. The Director

FUT

doesn't want kids milling around, so they turned the idea down. Or some way of combining music with language learning. I've suggested children's classes and I've suggested intensive conversation classes like long role plays everyday for three hours for two weeks, but it was rejected. Students would have to throw themselves into the course and it would be great. I don't feel like making new suggestions, but I'll keep making them.

When I was given our contracts in 1982 I was getting pregnant. I was asked to

CAR

work part time, but I wanted to work full time. With part time work you can't

WC

expect to have a satisfying career and I’ve had to accept the fact that I can't be up there in front pioneering.

506

Example 2 is from a 53 year old Geneva respondent with less than five years’ experience: Then two years ago I came to Geneva. My husband came three years ago.

PR

He wanted to make a change and took the job in ILO. It was very difficult

CX

because I didn't want to come.

CC

I suggested staying in Paris, and I did so

happily for a year, but my husband wasn't very happy, and really it became a question of my marriage or work. In 1991 July I did the CTEFLA at International House in Paris. Most on the

CTEFA

course were quite young 22 - 26 - 27 and three older women.

L

It was

comfortable and nice, and they reminded me of my own children. The course was dynamic. The chap in charge was a strange man, but he and the others working with him, there were three trainers, were a good team. It was a very solid four weeks training. I found the observation every afternoon quite nerve racking. Maybe I'll do the Diploma in a year or so as I've only had one year's teaching since the Certificate.

My motivation for doing the CTEFLA was to have an extra skill for looking for

MOT /

work here.

CTEFL

When we were deciding if my husband should take the job, he

enquires what my possibilities were of teaching and was told there were lots of

A

teaching jobs. But it isn't true. In the International Schools where I've been working for the last 10 years I'm at a senior level and it's difficult jumping in at

PS

that level. I thought why not try TESOL? I had worked with kids after they had had time with a TEFL teacher. I had never taught in the TESOL field before the CTEFLA.

Now my husband and I are having marriage problems. I'm not happy. We

WOM

have considered separating.

CAR

I want to stay in Ferney not Geneva. I have a

nice apartment, I've spent a lot of time decorating, and I'm not moving out. My husband thinks I'm unreasonable.

He doesn't understand.

He was less

supportive than I imagined he would be. (Comment added from reading the transcript:

It’s probably fair to say that some of the problems are due to the

aging process, health

PR

507

problems of my husband due to a highly stressful workaholic life style). Although in some ways he is. He thinks everyone should get on and do things. He doesn't always put himself in other people's shoes. He says I'm a part of the decision. The question is could I have said no he couldn't go to Geneva when

PR

we were in Paris? How could I with a smaller salary tell him to stay in Paris? He doesn't recognise that aspect.

The last two years have been extremely

difficult as a result. It has irrevocably damaged our marriage, which is a pity. There were other problems moving with no children. They were always a good source of contacts. If I couldn't get a paid job I could do voluntary work and made friends through them. So for the first time I was without children and in a house all day.

WOM

I've met other women in the same situation. My husband

seems happy in his work - he has lots of power, control and responsibility. I have none. It has particularly come to me this year while I've been hanging around. Period name:

Gone back to w hen I w as v ery young and lacked

confidence. I'm 50ish and should feel confident and bien dans sa peau. It's got better but the first year I felt unconfident and at odds with where I was and what I was. It was difficult.

Example 3 is from a Sydney respondent with 11-19 years’ experience: was the first phase with the teacher training course for

TCHR

Berlitz in London, which I enjoyed immensely - I liked the direct

TRNG

1972-1973

method, and was generally strong and grammatically based and there were so many techniques. I think the direct method is pretty underrated. In Berlitz the first stage was out there and doing it - I enjoyed the contact.

METH

There was 40 hours teaching and we were grossly exploited,

teaching from the manual, there was no scope for creativity, you had to follow the book and it was oral / aural. It was basically teacher talking all the time, it was tiring and no break with them reading or anything. It

BEG

disillusioned me, it w as incredibly boring and I

TCHG

508

w anted to get out.

I enjoyed the initial contact with people and

QUIT

because the conditions put me off teaching, I didn’t consider going back and had no desire to go into the world of teaching.

The third phase was when I w as seriously considering my career options, and it was activ e re-entering EFL, compared with the passive re-entering before.

This was in 1983 when I went to see CM. I was

CAR

looking deliberately, and was tired of drifting from job to job, travelling, and coming back. I wouldn’t have used the word career in those days. It was a way of consistently earning money at something I enjoyed. I

MOT

felt it might be a backward step doing something I’d tried before, but hadn’t really liked.

The next stage was when I started part time work at school A while doing the Dip - it was a big shift for me and was the start of really my first commitment to working life - really striving to develop skills and all

DTEFL

the time I needed to develop properly - not just in the job, and the

A

whole environment, the people from the Dip were mostly working at school A and the Coop and working with x on the Certificate.

From a personal view the w hole bonding started when one year later

CAR

in 1985 I became a member of the Coop of school A. That stage would have been really hard w ork because of my lack of experience and my kind of methodicalness and I get bogged down with detail. It was

BEG

time consuming preparing lessons. When I started I only wanted to

TCHG

work part time - I have a low stress threshold and find I’m under pressure when preparing, and that leads to stress, I suppose.

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APPENDIX C ENTERING TESOL: BACKGROUND OF RESPONDENTS There have been many empirical studies into the initial reasons for entering the teaching profession which have revealed a wide variety of motives ranging from material rewards to professional motives (for example, Pietrofesa and Splete, 1975). However, little is known of the motives for TESOLs entering teaching. This appendix therefore examines respondents’ motivations and training on entry to the profession to reveal the typical background of TESOLs. The data were derived from the following interview questions: Interview question 5 for Geneva TESOLs Tell me how you came to be a TESOL teacher? Review your own studies or career and indicate the moment at which you decided to become an Adult TESOL. Interview question 1 for Sydney TESOLs Summarise briefly your working life pre-TESOL from graduation to taking up TESOL. What was your personal situation during that time?

Experience and training prior to career entry Huberman allotted the paths taken by teachers to enter secondary teaching into three categories: • “direct train” from university studies in Geneva or Lausanne to teaching in the same subject matter or in another discipline (59% of responses) • preparation outside the country, followed by entry to secondary-level teaching in Switzerland (30% of responses) • the passage, after complementary studies, from teaching at the elementary level to teaching at the secondary level (11% of responses) TESOL studies The careers and studies of respondents before entry into TESOL were analysed first to reveal a typical background of a TESOL. For Geneva TESOLs

510

no specific interview question was asked but part of the question on career entry explored their career prior to taking up TESOL, the responses to which provided data for analysis. Respondents were asked to describe their history at the point of first graduation. Sydney TESOLs were asked a specific question.

GENEVA TESOL STUDY Work and study prior to entering TESOL Geneva TESOL respondents followed a different entry trajectory from Huberman’s secondary school teachers. No Geneva TESOLs had entered directly from university studies in the same discipline, and only 18% had entered directly or indirectly following university studies in another discipline.

Most TESOLs came to the profession from another career (32%), while 46% came to TESOL following school teaching, or school teaching and another career (Table C.1). Therefore 78% of TESOLs came to the profession having had another career. Table C.1: Trajectories of careers and studies (Geneva TESOLs n=28) Responses Traj ectories of careers and studies

n=28

%

Other career (s), passage to TESOL

9

32

School teaching, passage to TESOL

7

25

Teaching + other career + passage to TESOL

6

21

University studies in other discipline, employment

5

18

1

4

directly (or almost) in TESOL No career (motherhood) to TESOL

There were therefore major differences in the way TESOL and secondary school teachers entered the field. One can speculate why some of the Geneva TESOL respondents considered entering the field. Being abroad, they may have realised that, being Englishspeakers, they had a skill which was in demand. They may have been approached for assistance with English classes

511

or might have learned about the opportunities from others in the expatriate community. This issue will be examined in more detail later in the chapter.

Five respondents had no degree prior to TESOL, but 13 had a degree qualification (Table C.2). In addition, 10 were qualified teachers in other subjects, of which seven were qualified in languages. Table C.2: General qualifications before entry to TESOL (Geneva TESOLs n=28) Responses Training (non adult TESOL)

n=28

%

Degree

13

46

PGCE or teacher training (of which 7 in language

10

36

5

18

subjects) No degree

Thirty nine percent of Geneva TESOL respondents entered the field with the minimum qualification of CTEFLA (Table C.3). Two respondents entered with a DTEFLA, being the professional or full training level. Table C.3: Specific TESOL qualifications at entry (Geneva TESOLs) Responses Qualifications of sample at entry

n=28

%

CTEFLA qualification

11

39

None

10

36

Other TESOL qualification (unrecognised)

4

14

DTEFLA

2

7

MA Applied Linguistics (Hons)

1

4

Remarkably, 36% (10 respondents) started their TESOL career with no specific training at all. Three of these went on later to become fully qualified. Others had intermittent inservice training: “the icing without the cake” as one trainer called it. Several had partial training (failed or incomplete DTEFLA).

512

Many of the older respondents were trained in the direct method of the private school they joined, a common way of training at the time. The following comments illustrate the lack of qualifications available, and the feelings of those entering the field unqualified:

I couldn't teach French in France so I did a different training to teach EFL. I trained in the method of the time which was SGAV. That's going back 20 years ... It gave me the basics of adult teaching so that when I went into the classroom I had an idea of what I was supposed to be doing.

Then one day I saw an ad in the paper - an audiovisual language school needed teachers, they trained you to teach adults. I called and they said come in for a training course and that's how I got into teaching adults English.

Several respondents had reservations regarding teaching generally, but not TESOL. These included a dislike of the school system, hesitations about teaching generally, aspirations to other career paths (often unspecified), or a bad initial experience.

Non-teaching work and experience Table C.4 presents the non-teaching work and experience of Geneva TESOL respondents before entering TESOL. Travel and commercial activities were the largest category of experience, being nominated by 75% of respondents (Table 5.4).

513

Table C.4: Non-teaching experience prior to teaching (Geneva TESOLs n=28) Responses * Type of experience

Cases

n=56 *

%

%

21

37

75

13

23

46

Odd jobs “just to get by”

6

11

21

Voluntary activities

4

7

14

Manual or artistic profession

4

7

14

International organisation

4

7

14

Child care responsibilities (au pair)

2

4

8

Library work

2

4

8

Studies, travel, residence in a country other than Switzerland for at least one year (could be Geneva, but prior to TESOL) Business or commercial activities: secretarial, clerical, public service, accounting, hospitality, management

* Multiple responses Both Huberman’s teachers and the Geneva TESOLs had travelled extensively; 40% and 75% respectively. This is not surprising for the TESOL sample as most had travelled to Geneva. However, the reasons for travel varied considerably between the two samples. Huberman’s teachers travelled to complete their education, while the reasons for Geneva TESOL resondents to travel were divided into three main categories:

Five TESOLs travelled for educational reasons: four had spent one year abroad as part of their British degree; another had travelled to Switzerland from the USA on a grant to pursue research for his Ph.D.

Nine respondents had travelled before teaching TESOL. All had either not worked or pursued other careers before turning to TESOL. Two had travelled to Geneva as young women to pursue a diplomatic career. Four had come to Switzerland for a range of reasons; to be a tour guide; to learn French; to

514

pursue a career in interpreting and translating in the international organisations, and one to engage in sales marketing. Two were teachers who had come to Switzerland.

Seven respondents came to Geneva to accompany their spouses.

The most striking difference between the two types of teachers was that 46% of Geneva TESOL respondents had undertaken business or commercial activities compared to only 16% of Huberman’s secondary school teachers. Many of the TESOLs had held responsible positions in their previous careers. Being set in Geneva, perhaps not surprisingly, four respondents had worked in the international organisations. Five had done clerical work in a university research centre and in companies.

Two Geneva TESOL respondents insisted on classifying their initial experience with TESOL as an odd job. They did not feel they had entered the profession seriously until later when they had trained:

Something I didn't mention in my last interview was that I taught several summer courses for a school in London. I didn't mention it because it could have been a waiter, it happened to be TESOL, it was a part time job, I had no experience, I was a final year student and I did it as a summer job ... It was preferable to working in a bar because you could take the kids to London and to concerts, it was a nice way to pass the summer as a student.

Entry to TESOL One unusual factor about Geneva TESOL respondents was their reasons for being in Geneva. Most came to TESOL following their arrival in Geneva with their spouses (57%). Some were drawn to TESOL as a profession having taught in schools before, while others were drawn to it from other career paths. For most, it was the only or most obvious career path, having made the move to Geneva (Table C.5).

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Table C.5: Entry to TESOL (Geneva TESOLs) Responses How did they enter TESOL?

n=28

%

16

57

In Geneva, seeking career change

7

25

In Geneva, fell into it

3

11

Were already TESOL before going abroad to

2

7

Went abroad with their partner / to join their partner

accompany / join partner

Many commented that, had their spouses not gone to Geneva, they may not have entered the profession. However, many of these actively took up TESOL positively and had had a rewarding career because of it.

The following are some examples of responses from respondents taking up TESOL when they had arrived in Geneva, generally with a spouse:

It happened when I got married and I came to Switzerland with my husband and had no work and qualifications, and I applied to (scientific organisation) and asked if they needed teachers.

I was in a country with no work permit and no language skills other than English and the only possible thing to do was to teach.

in 1969 I thought I couldn't do anything in Switzerland for three reasons, I didn't have the papers, they didn't seem to teach religious knowledge in the schools like in England, and I didn't speak French, so had a language problem.

I came to be a TESOL because I had to transfer from one country to another and considered it easier to find work as an English language teacher than in a primary or secondary school.

516

I’d come (to Geneva) with my husband and we had separated and I had to find some sort of employment, and being a qualified teacher - not of TESOL - and I was fortunate to meet someone who was working in the area, and she told me about a language school and I started working a couple of hours a week.

Only two respondents therefore had actively chosen TESOL for reasons other than convenience or lack of choice.

Section summary Profile of Geneva TESOL respondents at entry to TESOL • The TESOL sample was 83% female and 17% male. • It contained 46% who were previously teachers (not all with qualifications). • Forty-six percent had pursued a career in the business or commercial sector. • Sixty-nine percent had lived abroad for at least one year. • Sixty-seven percent of respondents with less than five years’ experience were women over 40 years old and had accompanied their husbands to Geneva. • Eighty-nine percent of recent recruits had had a career in an area other than teaching, and 33% of these had also been a teacher. • Thirty-six percent entered the profession with no TESOL training at all.

This is quite a different profile from that of Huberman’s secondary teachers, only 36% of whom had had salaried positions before entering teaching.

SYDNEY TESOL STUDY Work and study prior to entering TESOL As Table C.6 indicates, 31% of Sydney TESOL respondents came from another career, although three of them had done only occasional work which they did not seriously consider to be a career. Six respondents (19%) had come from school teaching and 25% from school teaching and another career. Twenty-five percent had a direct or semi-direct entry after university. Several of

517

these had some travel experience and some casual employment before deciding on TESOL. Table C.6: Career, studies and teaching experience prior to TESOL (Sydney TESOLs) Responses Traj ectories of studies and careers prior to TESOL

n=32

%

Other career (s), passage to TESOL

10

31

“Direct train” type 2: university studies in other discipline,

8

25

Teaching + other career + passage to TESOL

8

25

School teaching, passage to TESOL

6

19

employment directly (or semi-directly) in TESOL

In summary, only 25% of Sydney TESOLs and 18% of Geneva TESOLs entered the profession directly, although 44% of Sydney TESOLs and 46% of Geneva TESOLs had experienced previous teaching.

The respondents with less than five years’ experience in Sydney were younger than those in Geneva. This may be indicative of the greater “professionalisation” of TESOL in Sydney than in Geneva. However, some of the younger teachers in Sydney were travelling and intended to change professions at a later date.

Fifty percent of the Sydney TESOLs had had no previous teaching experience before entering TESOL, the other 50%, having mainly taught in the school system. Sixteen respondents had taught languages, of which 12 taught English or EFL.

Three respondents had not taken an undergraduate degree prior to TESOL. One of those did so several years after entering TESOL, and the other two

518

managed to enter a postgraduate program without an undergraduate degree later in their careers in order to be employable in Australia (Table C.7). Table C.7: Q ualifications before entry to TESOL (Sydney TESOLs n=32) Responses Training (non adult TESOL) Language degree including language component

n=32

%

16

50

13

40

3

10

(English, ESL, Afrikaans, French, Russian, Italian, German, Chinese, Indonesian) Dip Ed or teacher training in language subjects (English, Modern Languages, TESOL, German, French, Italian) (of which 6 mention TESOL) No degree

Sixteen respondents took a degree with language subjects, none in TESOL. Thirteen obtained a qualification to teach languages, with six respondents specifically qualifying to teach TESOL in schools.

Fifty percent of Sydney TESOL respondents entered the field with the minimum qualification of CTEFLA, as Table C.8 indicates. Many Sydney respondents entered the field abroad or before the legal minimum qualification came into being, and for this reason, 44% were unqualified on entry. The CTEFLA was the current established and popular way of entering the field. Two respondents entered with a DTEFLA in Geneva, and one in Sydney. This qualification is normally taken only after two years’ experience and is regarded as the full training level.

519

Table C.8: Q ualifications at entry of Sydney TESOL respondents Responses* Qualifications at entry

Cases

n=52*

%

%

19

36

59

CTEFLA qualification

16

31

50

None

14

27

44

Other TESOL qualification

2

4

6

DTEFLA (or equivalent)

1

2

3

Non-adult TESOL qualifications: Dip Ed, PGCE or other school teaching qualification in any subject


Non-teaching work and experience Twenty-two Sydney respondents (69%) had travelled and lived abroad for at least one year prior to taking up TESOL (Table C.9). This was similar to the experience of the Geneva TESOLs. Twenty-one (66%) had carried out business or commercial activities and half the respondents had previously taken occasional work. Table C.9: Non-teaching experience prior to teaching (Sydney TESOLs) Responses* Type of experience

Cases

n=75*

%

%

22

29

69

21

28

66

16

21

50

Government

5

7

16

Social, medical or religious activities

4

5

13

Manual or artistic profession

2

3

6

Studies, travel, residence in another country for at least one year prior to teaching / TESOL Business or commercial activities: secretarial, clerical, public service, accounting, hospitality, management Odd jobs “just to get by”

520

Table C.9 (cont) Child care responsibilities (au pair)

2

3

6

Library work

1

1

3

Industrial or laboratory work

1

1

3

Voluntary activities

1

1

3

* Multiple responses Six respondents had had experience abroad with TESOL, or a related experience which they were reluctant to classify as TESOL. One reason given was they were unqualified and that teaching TESOL was merely to earn money temporarily. Another was that experience was not recognised when they took up TESOL as a profession in Australia. Profile of Sydney TESOL respondents • The TESOL sample was 67% female and 33% male. • It contained 40% who were previously qualified teachers of languages and 50% who had a degree including a language component. • Sixty-six percent had pursued a career in the business or commercial sector. • Sixty-nine percent had lived abroad for at least one year. • Recent recruits entering the profession for the first time were aged between 20-40. • Fifty-six percent had had a career in an area other than teaching, and 25% had also been a teacher.

The profession is often represented as being one with unqualified people using it as a vehicle for travel. However, a surprising number of Sydney respondents (40%), did not classify some of their experience with TESOL as relevant because, being unqualified at the time they did not see it as part of their later profession. This indicates a changing attitude towards TESOL, which is becoming more professional, an evolution which is referred to in other parts of the study.

521

APPENDIX D HESITATIONS IN CHOOSING TESOL AS A CAREER Interview question 1 for Geneva TESOLs and 5 for Sydney TESOLs State the reasons and hesitations for that choice. The main interview question also sought to discover whether there were any hesitations in the initial phases of teaching and whether these constituted an obstacle to smooth beginnings or to stabilisation.

Huberman’s teachers demonstrated from the types of responses that theirs was a considered choice, from a range of other options available. In Huberman’s study, 57% said they had no hesitations in taking up the career, while 43% said they had hesitations.

GENEVA TESOL STUDY Ninety-three percent of Geneva TESOLs had no serious reservations when they entered TESOL, but without considering it a long-term career. It may be that they had no real choice because they were overseas in a non-English speaking environment. Nevertheless, many were pleased to take up TESOL which in the end did become a career for them in time.

The hesitations of some Geneva TESOL respondents related to the realisation that the working conditions were inadequate, but this happened only after teaching for a year or so. Table D.1: Any hesitations in choosing TESOL? Geneva TESOLs Respondents Any hesitations? None at first Yes

n=28

%

26

93

2

7

522

However, thirteen respondents did mention hesitations totalling 16 responses, which normally emerged later on once they were more committed to the career. Table D.2 shows the reasons for such hesitations. Table D.2: Reasons given for hesitating by Geneva TESOLs Responses Reasons giv en

n=16

%

Working conditions or salary

4

25

Lack of confidence in ability to teach English

3

19

Family responsibilities

3

19

Doubt in ability to cope with CTEFLA

3

19

Reluctant to work

1

6

Aversion to the method

1

6

Aversion to the preparation

1

6

The most frequently mentioned doubt or hesitation arose from the working conditions (four respondents):

I didn’t like it. It was too precarious.

Three untrained respondents mentioned lacking confidence in their ability to teach: When I first taught EFL, I remember sweating - I hated it - I was too nervous in front of people - I had stage fright - why? - I had no methodology, no preparation, I was hoping through good will it would be OK.

Three others were hesitant because of family responsibilities. However, these were only temporary doubts and most were able to accommodate satisfactorily between family and TESOL:

523

None except the difficulties with the children at school and it took a lot of time away from them, but they were purely practical reasons.

I was a bit apprehensive about how the family would take it after having me at home.

Reasons for not having hesitations Most of the respondents said they did not hesitate, and 18 respondents gave 23 reasons for not hesitating (Table D.3). Table D.3: Reasons for not having hesitations (Geneva TESOLs) Responses Reasons for not hesitating

n=23

%

Being abroad and therefore the obvious thing to do

6

26

Opportunity for a change of career

5

22

Opportunity to earn money

5

22

Having a degree in English

2

9

Always wanted to be a teacher

2

9

Conditions were better than in schools

1

4

To contribute to society

1

4

Unable to think of anything else

1

4

Six respondents were abroad with limited choices and TESOL seemed the obvious thing to do:

I couldn’t teach French as I was in France, so teaching English to adults in Paris just seemed the obvious thing to do.

I had no choice, I needed the money ... I looked for something that was marketable anywhere in the world, and it was too late to start medical studies.

524

Five respondents had no hesitation because they deliberately chose TESOL in order to change career:

And I wasn't sure I could do it, was capable of doing it. But then I had saved up. I had kept the money to one side so that if I ever wanted to I could leave my job, it made me feel good.

I had no hesitations because I had a degree in English and why should I be a menial clerk, I could earn more money and make use of my degree.

Five respondents did it because they needed the money, therefore they had no hesitations: I needed money to pay back a 5,000 pound tax bill. I was going to buy a house and needed regular income to pay the mortgage.

In summary, fewer Geneva TESOL respondents (7%) reported hesitations on entering the profession than Huberman’s respondents (38%). However, 13 respondents mentioned some aspects of doubt which emerged later in their initial teaching period.

Some Geneva TESOLs did not consider they had entered a career / profession until several years later because they felt they were only “filling in” or using it as a way of earning money abroad. When they appreciated the reality, some had hesitations, but most by then had realised it was difficult to change when abroad. The overall mood, however, was positive in spite of the lack of choice. Those who were in the profession seemed to enjoy TESOL, and this was strongly reinforced in other parts of the study.

SYDNEY TESOL STUDY As Table D.4 below demonstrates, 63% of Sydney TESOLs mentioned having no hesitations, while only 37% said they had some.

525

Table D.4: Any hesitations in choosing TESOL? Sydney TESOLs Responses Any hesitations?

n=32

%

20

63

12

37

None at first (either explicitly stated, or understood as actively chose to): Yes

Twelve Sydney TESOLs gave reasons for hesitating (see Table D.5): Table D.5: Reasons given for hesitating by Sydney TESOLs Responses Reasons giv en for hesitating or doubts

n=23

%

Lack of confidence in ability to teach English

5

22

Other career / dreamt of other career

5

22

Sceptical that the short course could prepare me/ unsure of

2

9

Because of working conditions or salary

2

9

Hadn’t wanted to be a teacher in the past

2

9

Should have done it earlier

2

9

Afraid would be too dictatorial because of school teaching

1

4

Because of a bad experience teaching in schools

1

4

Did not know it was a recognised career or subject

1

4

Low status profession

1

4

Monotony

1

4

suitability of training course

Six respondents were concerned about working conditions and salary in the profession. One was concerned about it being a low status profession.

The reservations were to do with money and I think it is, and has been for a very long time, a low status profession ... Everyone outside knows what a doctor is, and how hard they work, and what they have to study,

526

but no one knows what my job is, they think it’s like teaching children with pictures of large bunches of grapes.

Some respondents mentioned lacking confidence in their ability to teach (22%). None of these had received initial training.

My hesitations were of a practical nature and whether I’ve got what it takes to be a good teacher.

TESOLs were less likely to hesitate than school teachers as it was a considered choice of profession, often taken up later in life.

527

APPENDIX E SYDNEY TESOLS’ RESPONSES TO THE GENEVA TESOL LIST OF MOTIVATIONS FOR ENTERING TESOL In many of the interviews with Sydney TESOLs, a list of responses given by Geneva TESOLs was shown to them after the question was asked for spontaneous responses. The aim was to discover if they would vary their responses at all if given a list as a stimulus. Interview question number 5 for Sydney TESOLs Here is a list of motivations for becoming a TESOL teacher mentioned by TESOLs overseas. Are there one or two you would add from this list to the ones you have already mentioned? List of motivations of TESOL teachers (derived from Geneva TESOL study) Unhappy with other career/ lifestyle - wanting a change / actively seeking something to do Access to a higher status I sank / drifted / fell into it I needed a job / money To enable me to travel / it’s portable I couldn’t think of anything else External request, suggestion / someone approached her because she speaks English/ met someone who gave her/him the idea To enable me to get my work permit / stay in the country Feminine profession: the possibility of a family life in parallel I substituted for someone Job freedom; flexibility in one’s work Preferred TESOL to teaching children/in schools Because I majored in English Because I already trained as a teacher before Because at some stage in my past I had done TESOL before or something related

528

Modelling; influence of former teacher or parents who were teachers Compensate for a perceived educational deficit; desire to “do better than one's own teachers” Meeting people I enjoyed it Helping people Because I love language/ English

After respondents were shown the Geneva list TESOL, many added motivations which may not have been the initial ones, but which coincided with their feelings. In this way, some of the motivations scored more highly than in the previous section where they had responded spontaneously (Table E.1). Table E.1: List of motivations for entering TESOL (spontaneous responses of Sydney TESOLs and responses to Geneva TESOL list combined) Responses* Motiv ation A=Activ e motiv ation; M=Material

Spontaneous* n=32

motiv ation and P=Passiv e motiv ation

%

Combined* n=32

% cases

cases

Ability to travel / it’s portable (M)

18

56

29

91

Love of languages / English (A)

9

28

27

84

Wanting a change / seeking something

22

68

26

81

Enjoyment (A)

15

47

25

78

Preferred TESOL to teaching children/in

15

47

21

66

13

41

21

66

5

16

18

56

to do (A)

schools /to work with adults (A) Had been a TESOL before or something related / majored in English / already trained as a teacher before (A) Helping people (A)

529

Table E.1 (cont.) External request, suggestion / (A & P)

15

47

18

56

Meeting people (A)

4

12

16

50

Job freedom; flexibility in one’s work / I

2

6

14

44

6

19

13

41

I needed a job / money (M)

7

22

10

31

Looking for vocational career /

9

28

9

28

-

-

6

19

6

19

6

19

Access to a higher status (M)

-

-

5

16

Born teacher / had always wanted to be

4

12

4

12

-

-

4

12

2

6

4

12

I couldn’t think of anything else (P)

-

-

4

12

Feminine profession: the possibility of a

1

3

4

12

could combine it with other career (M) I sank / drifted / fell into it / it just happened was thrown; blundered; floated up, rose; plunged; wandered in(P)

professional path (A) (without huge retraining) Love multicultural aspect / finding out about other cultures while travelling (A) English is an international language / expanding industry(A & M)

a teacher (A) Modelling; influence of former teacher or parents who were teachers (A) Limelight / begin in control / influencing others / stage(A)

family life in parallel (M)

530

Table E.1 (cont.) Interested in people from NESB (A)

4

12

4

12

To work / stay in the country (A)

3

9

4

12

Conditions were better than in schools

-

-

-

-

I didn’t have any long term goals (A)

3

9

3

9

I wanted security (M)

3

9

3

9

Could live / work in the country without

3

9

3

9

2

6

2

6

2

6

2

6

I substituted for someone (A)

2

6

2

6

I was good at it (A)

2

6

2

6

I love teaching (A)

1

3

1

3

To further myself / keep my options open

1

3

1

3

1

3

1

3

(M)

speaking the language (A) It could lead to other related careers (A & M) Desire to 'do better than one's own teachers'.(A)

/feather in cap (M) I like casualness and relaxed nature of EFL classroom (A) *Multiple responses To enable me to travel scored the highest with 91% agreeing. In the spontaneous list, 56% mentioned this as a motive. In the combined table, the next highly scoring motivation was I love languages / English with 84%. However, this motive scored only 28% in the spontaneous list. This is probably because it was not a strong initial motivation but was part of the choice. It was tied up with travel, as some travelled in order to improve their languages, and TESOL was the vehicle.

In the combined table, the next motivation was unhappy with other lifestyle / career / wanting a change / actively seeking something to do with 81% of respondents nominating it. This was the highest scoring motive in the spontaneous responses, with 66%.

531

I enjoyed it, scored highly in both the spontaneous (47%) and combined (78%) responses. Respondents indicated positive feelings towards the profession, and a great love of being with people generally and with people of other cultures. Meeting people of other cultures or likeminded TESOLs, was mentioned by 50% of respondents in the combined table, but by only 12% in the spontaneous responses.

Finding out about other cultures while travelling, and the multicultural aspects were mentioned by 19% of respondents. This is peculiar to TESOL, as in Australia the classes tend to have mixed nationalities. Many respondents saw the learning process as a two-way one.

TESOL is a really interesting job in terms of meeting people from all over the world, and brings different cultures and opinions together and I get as much from them as they do from me.

Working and living in a country you get to know how people and society operate you get to know the language and how it fits in globally in today’s world.

Because I’d already studied other languages, it is interesting to meet people from those cultures and although I’m teaching them English, I can learn a bit more also about them and their culture - so it’s the reverse too.

Helping people was mentioned by 56% of Sydney TESOL respondents. Only 16% had mentioned it spontaneously. Many of the respondents had worked with migrant students, while others saw teaching language generally as being useful:

The reasons were because altruistically I thought it would be useful to help people learn.

532

TESOL is incredibly giving - you can’t be selfish in the TESOL classroom.

In the combined table, 66% preferred TESOL to teaching children in schools. Twelve (out of 21 respondents) had taught in schools previously, and the change was linked to wanting to get out of that type of teaching. Forty-seven percent mentioned this spontaneously as a motive for choosing TESOL.

Sixty-six percent of Sydney respondents said they were attracted to it because at some stage in my past I had done TESOL before or something related, or they had majored in English or had already trained before as a teacher. Forty-one percent mentioned this motivation spontaneously.

Interestingly, only two respondents mentioned job flexibility as a factor in the spontaneous responses, while 44% agreed with it when they saw the list. Some admitted they didn’t realise how flexible it was until they got into it, while others actively chose it knowing its flexibility and that it could enable them to pursue other interests concurrently. Some felt there was flexibility with working hours abroad, but not in Australia, which tends to follow a 9-5 day rather than evening work.

Job freedom would be a motivation but I have found that TEFL gives you flexibility abroad. Not so much here.

Similarly, only 19% of respondents mentioned I sank / drifted / fell / wandered into it in the spontaneous responses, while 41% nominated it when they were shown the list, many rephrasing it to read I was thrown / blundered / floated up / rose or plunged into it. This could be mainly attributed again to the well-kept secret of the profession from graduates.

I plunged into it hoping it would work out.

I sank, drifted into it. In the early stages I blundered into it but later it was a conscious decision.

533

I sort of fell into it because someone approached me but I had a major in English and something TESOL related and thought it would be a good idea.

I needed a job / money was a frequent motivation, with 31% mentioning it in the combined list, and 22% spontaneously. Of those, only one respondent was starting out on his first job, three others having just moved to another country and looking for work, three others seeking a career change and in a moment of financial need, and one other already in a career, but wanting to make a change linked to financial improvement.

Twenty-eight percent of respondents were looking for a vocational career path, some without a huge retraining.

Others were not considering it as a long term goal (9%). I had no hesitations because it was not a career or lifetime thing, it was just a means to an end of working. It seemed interesting work overseas, and English was obviously in demand.

I’d had an interest in going overseas and it all seemed to fit, I thought I’d see how it goes without any long term goals in that direction.

Sixteen percent mentioned access to a higher status after seeing the list, but none had nominated this in the spontaneous mentions.

Access to a higher status. I hadn’t thought of it that way but for some reason I was never proud to say I was a teacher at high school. But I was as an adult TESOL. With adults it was different.

Access to a higher status - both the above would apply because it refers to the difference between being unemployed and being employed.

534

In summary, the highest factors in both the spontaneous list and the combined list were quite similar for Sydney TESOLs. The most significant differences between spontaneous mentions and post-list mentions were: • Job flexibility, where 2% mentioned it spontaneously, but 12% added it to the list • Meeting people: 12% mentioned it spontaneously, and 38% added it to the list • I love language: 28% mentioned it spontaneously, and 52% added it to the list • Helping people: 16% mentioned it spontaneously, and 40% added it to the list • I fell into it: 19% mentioned it spontaneously, and 22% added it to the list

535

APPENDIX F DEFINITION OF THE TERM “CAREER” AND ATTITUDES TOWARDS TESOL AS A CAREER In the question about reasons for TESOL being considered a career, the term ‘career’ was defined by TESOL respondents. The definition of “career” from the Australian Concise Oxford Dictionary, Oxford University Press, Melbourne (1987) is ‘Course or progress through life or history; way of making a livelihood and advancing oneself.’

Geneva TESOL study Twenty-two Geneva TESOLs provided responses to this question. Table F.1 indicates that the majority of the responses centred around the concepts of professional rewards including development / expansion and advancement / progression; commitment and material rewards.

536 Table F.1: Definition of ‘career’: Geneva TESOL respondents (n=22) Responses* Definition

n=93*

%

Intrinsic rewards

54

58

Professional rew ards: dev elopment / expansion

27

29

Growth and development

8

Evolution, new challenges and responsibilities

5

professional challenge

5

A firm structure with professional qualifications

4

Preparedness to continue investing in their own development

2

Getting experience in different fields, being prepared to

2

change and develop outwards Research and development

1

Professional rew ards: adv ancement / progression

20

Advancement, a sense of progression whether up or sideways.

20

22

Ladder going up Personal rew ards

7

Personal satisfaction / enjoyment / enthusiasm

4

Something you’ve chosen to do and enjoy; concept of job

2

7

satisfaction Something you do well

1

Extrinsic rewards

39

42

Commitment

21

23

Something you give your priority to

7

Full-time job

6

Commitment / devotion (not just a job)

5

Something you do everyday / all your life

3

Material rew ards

16

Working conditions are satisfactory / having a contract

8

Being paid properly

8

17

537 Table F.1 (continued) Other

2

‘Career’ is on two levels; top level management stuff and

1

2

teaching Connected to business, not teaching

1

* Multiple responses Intrinsic rewards (58% responses) The largest category were intrinsic rewards in the general definition of career. Development / expansion represented 29% of responses and advancement / progression 22%:

A career means growth and development, evolution and new challenges, improving, something you can expand and develop professionally.

Another respondent felt it should be the possibility of growing. She felt the growth possibilities should be on an intellectual, human and other levels:

it’s the idea of a career path - something that’s worth sticking to, where there’s development, where you can grow, where people are doing research in it, and where people are interested in looking at what works.

The single most mentioned facet was professional rewards: advancement, a sense of progression, whether upwards or sideways:

Yes, I agree, there's a distinction between a job and a career ... X saw a job expanding sideways - different levels, different needs, but in business a career talks about advancement. It’s always moving forward.

Many saw a career as a ladder with an improved financial situation along with increasing responsibilities and with the possibility of advancing in the area, which they perceived to be related more to the business field than teaching.

538 Personal rewards with aspects such as personal satisfaction only received 7% of responses. However, personal rewards could result from many of the facets of the other categories, particularly professional rewards. Extrinsic rewards (42% responses) Extrinsic rewards represented 42% of the responses. Commitment drew 23% of the responses, many respondents feeling a ‘career’ involved commitment and devotion and that it was a two-way process; ‘commitment in the career and it’s predictable things will come with a career.’ The respondents were divided over whether commitment involved full-time involvement or not:

My concept of a career is something you do and commit yourself to, and enjoy it, whether it’s one and a half hours or fifty hours a week.

Material rewards represented 17% of responses and involved having a contract and satisfactory working conditions.

In summary, the categories detailing professional rewards were the most frequently mentioned in defining the term ‘career’. These included both the concepts of advancement and progression as well as development and expansion. Commitment was also seen as important. Material rewards including satisfactory working conditions rated only 17% of responses. Could it be that TESOLs are more interested in the intrinsic values of a career or that they are unwilling to mention material aspects in the interview?

Sydney TESOL study As can be seen in Table F.2, 22% of responses defined it as ‘advancement or progression’, and 17% as ‘development or improvement’. Also important was commitment to the career, being full time, doing it long-term and taking it seriously, totalling 21% of responses.

539 Table F.2: Definition of ‘career’: Sydney TESOLs Responses* Definition of “career”

n=58*

%

Intrinsic rewards

34

58

Professional rew ards: adv ancement / progression

13

22

Movement upwards / Progression

13

Personal rew ards

11

Fulfillment / Satisfaction

10

Enjoyment

1

Professional rew ards: dev elopment / expansion

10

Development / improvement

10

Extrinsic rewards

24

42

Commitment

12

21

A career is a full time commitment / you take it seriously

7

You do it long term

4

Responsibility

1

Material rew ards

9

More money and status

7

A way of earning money

1

Security and permanency

1

Other

3

You can have several careers in one lifetime nowadays

3

19

17

16

5

* Multiple responses Intrinsic rewards (58% of responses) Intrinsic rewards represented 58% of responses for Sydney TESOLs. For some, the idea of advancement / progression was negative and for some positive. One respondent said:

540 the majority of people follow some path in which they go constantly up a ladder at intervals, but it often means doing work you don’t enjoy, and the thought of spending five days a week doing work I hate doesn’t appeal.

For others, it was more positive:

you would move upwards in terms of level of responsibility, size of salary, and improvements in conditions. It’s more of a challenge or a different challenge the higher you go. I see a career as a series of steps.

For some, the concept of development and improvement meant being challenged in new areas:

career has a logical path of improvement and self-betterment

while for others it meant doing further qualifications and training in different areas, or developing new skills.

Personal rewards with facets of intrinsic satisfaction with the career represented 19% of all responses. Extrinsic rewards (42% of responses) Extrinsic rewards represented 42% of responses, including commitment and material rewards. Commitment represented 21% of responses. Many compared the word ‘career’ with ‘job’, seeing the former as more serious than the latter:

it’s a job you stay at, a school you stay at.

a job is something you do then go home.

Linked to that idea, four respondents said ‘I see ‘career’ as something long term with a definite structure.’

541 Material rewards represented 16% of responses overall, with respondents feeling that ‘career’ implied:

the more materialistic things like money and being recognised.

Another said:

at one time I thought ‘career’ meant higher status and more money but I don’t know if that’s true.

Another said that with more experience:

the more value you are, and subsequently your remuneration is shown through that value.

542

APPENDIX G BEGINNING TEACHING: BACKGROUND INFORMATION This appendix provides background information, which was from the following interview questions:

Interview question 8 for Geneva TESOLs; 6 for Sydney TESOLs Reflect back on the initial period of your teaching career; describe the year, the setting, the circumstances, your personal situation, your difficulties and emotions.

Geneva TESOL study Eighteen out of 23 respondents began their TESOL career in Switzerland; two in the United Kingdom, one in Greece, one in Paris and one in Germany. Therefore, only two respondents began their TESOL career in an English-speaking country. Only one respondent started TESOL at the very beginning of her working life.

Sydney TESOL study Initial training Nineteen of the 32 TESOLs interviewed in Sydney had pre-service training, 12 entered the career with no training, and one entered while training. The pre-service training was a Certificate in TESOL except for one who undertook a Graduate Diploma in Language Studies and RSA Diploma in Further Adult Community Education concurrently. Fifteen of the respondents did their initial training in Australia, three in London and one in Ireland.

Setting of first year of teaching Teachers commenced their careers in a wide range of countries, (Table G.1). Some respondents changed jobs several times in their first year. Twenty-two respondents started their career in Australasia; seven in the United Kingdom, and 14 in non-English speaking countries.

543 Table G.1: Geographical location of first year teaching (Sydney TESOLs) Responses* Country

n=43*

%

Australasia

22

51

Non-English speaking countries

14

32

Europe

12

28

Egypt

1

2

Mexico

1

2

United Kingdom

7

16

* Multiple responses Those starting out in summer schools in the United Kingdom (5 respondents) taught while studying to earn extra money in the summer holidays. Many deliberately went overseas to teach TESOL with pre-service training. The majority of those starting their career in Australia did so in private language colleges (9), or university language centres (6).

Year started TESOL The TESOL industry became significant in Australia in the 1980s and 1990s, with most respondents starting in those years. In the United Kingdom respondents commenced in the 1970s-1990s. In non-English speaking countries, respondents mainly started in the 1970s and 1980s. As Table G.2 indicates, Australia was later introducing TESOL than some overseas countries.

544 Table: G.2: Year started TESOL Continent / country

No

Year started *

respondents* 1960s

1970s

1980s

1990s

Australasia

22

-

2

10

10

Europe

12

1

4

5

2

United Kingdom

7

-

3

2

2

Egypt

1

-

1

-

-

Mexico

1

-

1

-

-

Total

43

1

11

17

14

* Total exceeds 32 because many spent their initial year in more than one location.

545

APPENDIX H RESPONSES TO SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS’ LIST OF CONCERNS Geneva and Sydney TESOL respondents were shown a list of concerns faced by secondary school teachers. This list, which was also shown to Huberman’s respondents, combined data from numerous studies on typical concerns facing beginning secondary school teachers (Bush, 1980; Fuller and Brown, 1975; MacDonald and Elias, 1983 and Veenman, 1984). Interview question 10 for Geneva study; 8 for Sydney study Here is a list of concerns or problems that beginner teachers in secondary schools often experience. Mention any of these concerns that you faced as a beginning TESOL teacher. List of concerns faced by beginning school teachers (derived from the Huberman study) Difficulties in maintaining class control Difficulty in teaching other than by standard lesson format. Discouragement Fearing what others may think Feelings of continual trial and error Feelings of never “measuring up” Feelings of “surviving” from day to day Inconsistency (sometimes rigid, sometimes laissez-faire) Intimidated by the students Physical exhaustion Preoccupation with oneself rather than with the task at hand

Huberman’s study of secondary school teachers Twelve percent of respondents claimed that “it (beginning teaching) came off with no problems.” The major concerns mentioned by Huberman’s respondents are set out in Table H.1 below.

546 Table H.1: Were you (are you) confronted with these problems? Huberman’s respondents (n=158) ‘Yes’ responses Statement

n=610*

%

Fearing what others may think

74

12

Feelings of continual trial and error

72

12

Feelings of never “measuring up”

62

10

Inconsistency (sometimes rigid, sometimes laissez-faire)

60

10

Feelings of “surviving” from day to day

60

10

Intimidated by the students

58

10

Physical exhaustion

56

9

Difficulties in maintaining class control

55

9

Discouragement

46

8

Difficulty in teaching other than by standard lesson format

36

6

31

5

(lecture). Preoccupation with oneself rather than with the task at hand. * Multiple responses Respondents were most concerned about feelings pertaining to lack of experience and lack of confidence as well as disciplinary aspects.

Geneva TESOL study Geneva TESOL respondents indicated that many of the items on the list were not experienced in the adult teaching situation, and many were seen to be positive, not negative.

547 Table H.2: Were you (are you) confronted with these problems? (List derived from Huberman): Geneva TESOLs (n=23) * Responses Concerns raised by secondary school teachers

n = 126*

%


15

12


14

11


14

11

Physical exhaustion

14

11

Preoccupation with oneself rather than with the task at hand.

12

10

Discouragement

12

10


11

9


8

6

Inconsistency

6

5

Difficulty in teaching other than by standard lesson format.

6

5


5

4

Class control (unsolicited reference to school teaching)

9

7

* Multiple responses Feelings of continual trial and error Many respondents felt this was an important factor no matter how experienced the teacher was. However, many Geneva TESOL respondents viewed this as a positive rather than negative factor. The overriding feeling here was that experimenting was a very positive thing, rather than a problem (six out of 15 respondents). “Long may it continue... development’s all about that” was the comment of one respondent. Another said:

I did try out things all the time - I was extremely creative. I would try out anything; I’d think this is a good idea, I’ll do this.

548 Fearing what others may think Many feared what other teachers might think, or they feared the students if the class was advanced or knowledgeable of grammar. Intimidated by the students Nine respondents said they were not intimidated, four said they were, and 10 said sometimes or mentioned one incident. Most seemed to find the wording somewhat strong.

I felt intimidated by secondary school students, but I can cope with adults.

Intimidated - if the adult speaker clearly shows superior knowledge it makes me uncertain, it makes me stop. Physical exhaustion Physical exhaustion was high for Geneva TESOLs, depending on the number of hours taught. As there was a high percentage of casual teachers, many could limit their teaching to a comfortable level.

Thirteen of the 14 respondents positively agreed with Huberman’s wording, but one said:

I’m sure everyone feels tired. More than that, not really, and if I feel tired, I feel I’ve done a good job.

Some respondents referred to it more as mental than physical exhaustion:

When I was doing 7 hours at the beginning, it was more mental strain, not physical, and I was reading so many books and every book had a different explanation and I’d wonder which was right.

549 Difficulty in teaching other than by standard lesson format Unlike the school system, there was usually no set curriculum in TESOL. Teachers were given control over the content of their courses, and textbooks were seen as resources to dip into. The CTEFLA training course teaches independence in lesson planning from the outset, and some CTEFLA graduates made reference to having problems diverging from their own lesson plans, but not “standard” ones found in books. Consequently, 17 out of 23 respondents did not find this a problem. Difficulties in maintaining class control In summary, 18 of the 23 respondents said that either they had no discipline problems, or that they occurred only occasionally, or cited difficulties with one problem student. This contrasts sharply with Huberman, where 35% of the responses stated that they had discipline problems.

Nine of the respondents referred unsolicited to having had discipline problems with school children or adolescents, but contrasted school teaching with the ease of teaching adults.

Methodological concerns Huberman’s teachers averaged only 3.6 methodological concerns (Huberman, 1993, p. 205), while Geneva TESOLs averaged 10.3 concerns. This could be due to heightened awareness of the qualities of a good teacher from the CTEFLA course, or because, according to one respondent: “Ignorance is bliss”. The respondent indicating the highest number of concerns was in a period of reassessment, about to commence a higher level training course, and therefore was extremely critically aware.

Twelve respondents had previous teaching experience. Nine were trained school or college teachers prior to TESOL while three were untrained. As one respondent said :

I can see these are relevant to beginning teachers, but I wasn’t a beginner, I slipped into it very easily.

550 Responding to the question of maintaining class control, another respondent said: “No. In my first year way back, but not now. You quickly develop techniques in the first year.” She had completed an initial CTEFLA training certificate; however, she still nominated nine concerns, and another who entered TESOL with no training nominated eleven.

Sydney TESOL study Sydney TESOLs were also shown the list of concerns compiled from responses by Geneva secondary school teachers. Table H.3 shows that the uppermost concern respondents related to from this list was feelings of continual trial and error (16% of responses), which would include several of the most frequently mentioned concerns of the TESOLs’ responses in the previous question, such as concerns with grammar and practical things.

551 Table H.3: Were you (are you) confronted with these problems? (List derived from Huberman): Sydney TESOLs (n=32) * Responses Concerns raised by secondary school teachers

n=122*

%


20

16

Physical exhaustion

17

14


16

13


14

11

Preoccupation with oneself rather than with the task at hand.

12

10


8

7

Inconsistency

7

6


7

6

Difficulty in teaching other than by standard lesson format.

6

5


6

5

Discouragement

5

4

None of these problems

4

3

* Multiple responses, such that total may exceed 100%

Feelings of trial and error may also encompass problems with the method, and cultural differences, as one respondent said:

especially when you’re making efforts to embrace the new methodologies and to stimulate the students, and it didn’t always work and the students expected rote learning and you’re trying to get away from it and some students would not really see what you were doing.

The next most common concern of beginner teachers was that of physical exhaustion. Some respondents added mental exhaustion too, or exhaustion of

552 the voice. Sixteen respondents feared what others may think, in some cases because of observations, in others fearing what the students or other teachers might think.

Feelings of “surviving” from day to day were mentioned by 14 respondents, many wondering how they would get through the day, and others feeling overwhelmed by all the preparation:

I spent all day Saturday and Sunday writing lessons, just to keep my head above water.

Twelve respondents mentioned being preoccupied with oneself rather than with the task at hand. One respondent said: “you wonder how you’re coming across”, while another respondent said:

the feeling that you’re the imparter of knowledge rather than focusing on the students.

Seven respondents said they had felt inconsistent in their teaching approach (sometimes rigid, sometimes laissez-faire). One teacher felt:

every class had to be a winner and I had to try to make every class fast and smooth and sometimes students and you are not up to that.

Six respondents had difficulty in teaching other than by standard lesson format, because they felt they had to stick rigidly to their lesson plans and felt unable to:

adapt to the circumstances as you go, how and when you change what you planned to do, how to adapt without giving up your main aims.

553 Twelve respondents stated they did not have difficulties maintaining class control, particularly when compared with school teaching:

classroom control was a dream after my experience in high school; that’s what I love about teaching adults, there’s no difficulties with control.

Sydney TESOLs showed mobility in that many began their career overseas. There were slightly more negative than positive memories of starting teaching, with affective or emotional themes receiving most responses for both positive and negative memories. When asked to nominate two situations causing concerns, pedagogical concerns were most frequently mentioned, followed by positive comments, highlighting the enjoyable aspects and which represented one third of responses unsolicited. Sydney TESOLs experienced similar difficulties to Huberman’s school teachers, except for discipline problems.

Overall, the responses indicate a fairly positive beginning to the profession in Sydney.

554

APPENDIX I SYDNEY TESOLS’ RESPONSES TO THE GENEVA LIST OF BEGINNING TEACHER CONCERNS Respondents were shown and asked to comment on the applicability of a list of beginner teacher concerns Geneva TESOLs had raised. This was in answer to the following question:

Interview question 9 for Sydney study Here is a list of concerns expressed by TESOL teachers overseas at the beginning of their careers. Identify one or two you faced: TESOL teacher additional beginners’ concerns (derived from Geneva TESOL study) Pedagogical concerns Lack of confidence / experience / training Practical things connected to conducting the lesson - timing/ instructions / using equipment Learning English grammar Planning / overplanning Interpersonal relationships with students Problems with the method Lack of guidance / support Lack of familiarity with materials / lack of material Stress Problems of motivation Keeping interest levels / motivation high Different learning styles of students / motivational factors / levels Positive comments Positive comment: I liked the colleagues, the atmosphere in EFL staffroom I feel much more confident It’s been enriching from the personal point of view

555 From Table I.1 it was clear from the endorsement Sydney TESOLs gave to the positive comments made by Geneva TESOLs that respondents would have been keen to identify positive aspects, had they been asked to. Table I.1: Geneva TESOL additional beginners’ concerns / positive comments: Sydney TESOL respondents (n=32) * Responses Concerns raised by Genev a TESOLs

n=190*

%


114

60


17

Practical things connected to conducting the lesson -

16

timing/ instructions / using equipment Learning English grammar

16

Keeping interest levels / motivation high

15

Planning / overplanning

15

Lack of familiarity with materials / lack of materials

13


10

Different learning styles of students / motivational factors /

7

levels Interpersonal relationships with students

5

Positive comments: affective factors

42

I liked the colleagues, the atmosphere in EFL staffroom

28

I feel much more confident

8

Enriching

6

Affective factors

34

Lack of confidence / experience / training

23

Stress

11

22

18


Pedagogical concerns Pedagogical concerns were the most frequently mentioned aspect with 60% of responses. Learning English grammar and practical things connected to

556 conducting the lesson were mentioned by 16 respondents each. These were also frequently mentioned on the first occasion. Planning / overplanning was mentioned by 15 respondents.

Grammar was an area which caused concern and which was mentioned by many respondents: ‘especially if a grammar point came up or something needed to be explained grammatically.’

Lack of guidance / support was mentioned by 17 respondents. Even in schools with an official support system such as coordinator, some respondents felt there could never be enough support:

I get all the support I can under the circumstances. As a new teacher you can never get enough, and I’m careful not to ask too much.

Another who came from school teaching felt:

people assume you have more experience than you do and I felt I would be imposing on the coordinator to go through the lessons and I didn’t ask for as much support as I needed.

Another said that although there was a coordinator system:

everyone was too busy and I was responsible for my own teaching and we had to write down what we’d done at the end of each week so there’d be no clash of materials.

Keeping interest levels / motivation high was mentioned by 15 respondents.

Keeping interest levels and motivations high was a concern because it led me to get out and find other experienced teachers and get ideas on what I could do, and I started using

557 communicative games. It must have been a concern for me to look for help.

Syllabus problems caused problems maintaining the interest levels of students:

Keeping the interest levels of students especially with five hours a day, and no syllabus and for the two hours in the afternoon we were always scratching around for something because the rationale of the school was to keep the students interested and entertained.

Lack of familiarity with materials / lack of materials was mentioned as a concern by 13 respondents. This was identified as a syllabus problem in the first question and also rated highly.

Problems with the method was mentioned by 10 respondents. In some cases, this related to inexperience:

Methodology and I remember looking at notes from the lectures to see if there were any hints.

Another respondent found the method of the day tedious:

I had problems with the method, listening and repeating and substitution drills.

Another found the method used in one of the chain schools limiting, but had had other training: “I felt its limitations - that’s why I didn’t get involved”.

Positive comments: affective factors (22% of responses) Positive comments received an enthusiastic endorsement by Sydney TESOLs: for example, “I like the colleagues, the atmosphere in the EFL staffroom”, which 28 respondents agreed with. Some found it a welcome change after school teaching:

558 In primary school I rarely met anyone who would be a friend - I have a lot more in common with my colleagues in EFL than in primary - they are more open minded, and have travelled and are more like myself.

and another said it was

a more relaxed atmosphere in the EFL classroom to the one I’d left in the high school, which was one of siege.

Another found the colleagues:

very positive and supportive ... who go out of their way to say complimentary and good things and it’s amazing how well it works and adds to the ease of doing work compared with high school teaching where there’s the idea of grinding your confidence down and here they seem to be good and helpful and build up your confidence.

Others felt a companionship with other colleagues who were from a similar background:

they had all been travelling, they were verbally witty, with a similar lifestyle spectrum.

The other positive comments also rated fairly highly: “I feel much more confident” with eight respondents, and ‘it’s been enriching from the personal point of view’ by six respondents. These both relate to the gradual feeling of gaining confidence and longer term feelings, but were on the list as they were mentioned by Geneva respondents. Sydney respondents similarly related to them, in some cases teachers who were still in the initial phases: “I feel much more confident” after only five weeks of continuous teaching.

559

Affective factors (18% of responses) Twenty-three respondents felt they had a “lack of confidence / experience / training”. Some felt the four week Certificate course was insufficient, leading to a feeling of lack of confidence: “it was a drop in the ocean really”. One felt confident in the classroom, having had previous teaching experience, but felt less confident outside the classroom:

the only thing I felt mainly inadequate about was this whole huge area of language teaching and theory ... it seemed a vast area of knowledge.

Stress was mentioned as a concern by 11 respondents. This was attributed to various concerns, such as lack of guidance:

Stress for reasons I mentioned before; poor working conditions, not knowing what I’m supposed to be doing, unfamiliarity with materials. The awful feeling you get when you’re an inexperienced teacher like a pizza waiter, when all you can do is run from one end of the room to the other and keep things ticking over.

Another found stress related to “the pressure of a full timetable”.

560

APPENDIX J SYDNEY TESOLS’ RESPONSES TO THE GENEVA TESOL LIST OF DOUBTS The 32 Sydney respondents were asked to consider and to respond to a list of motives for leaving compiled from the Geneva TESOL interviews. These responses were combined with those from the first part of the question and respondents were asked to add any they had not already mentioned. Interview question 11 for Sydney study Here is a list of concerns expressed by TESOLs overseas in moments of doubt. Which concerns do you share? Have you resolved them? If so, how? Do you have any to add? Motive for wishing to leave TESOL (derived from Geneva TESOL study) Because of money and working conditions Yes, positive motive: for a career move; didn’t want to work; TESOL is a stepping stone, a stop gap; want to travel with husband It’s stressful, I was bored / talents underused / teaching’s a lonely job Lack of confidence in my ability Institutional reasons: method or student conditions

Table J.1 shows the number of respondents adding this motive to their list, the number who mentioned it spontaneously for comparative purposes and those specifically stating that it was not a concern. The spontaneous responses are those mentioned before respondents were shown the list.

561 Table J.1: Motives for leaving : (Geneva TESOL list): Sydney TESOL comments (n=32) Responses* Motiv e

Spontaneous

Combined

Not a

n=22

n=64

concern n=29

Extrinsic rewards

22

35

18

Because of money

2

14

6

Because of working conditions

6

9

8

Institutional reasons: method or

-

6

-

-

5

4

-

1

-

14

-

-

Intrinsic rewards

-

29

11

It is stressful

-

9

5

Talents underused

-

5

-

Lack of confidence in my ability

-

5

-

Boredom (bad class, bad day)

-

5

-

Yes, lack of promotion /

-

3

-

-

2

6

student conditions Yes, positive motive: TESOL is a stepping stone, a stop gap Security Yes, positive motive: for a career move

opportunities within TESOL Loneliness of the job * Multiple responses

Extrinsic motives The motives for leaving were more extrinsic than intrinsic. Money was the major extrinsic motive for leaving with 14 responses, while only two

562 respondents in the spontaneous list mentioned money as a reason for doubting. Nine respondents added because of working conditions. Some of those mentioned moments of doubt experienced overseas, not in Australia, but fourteen of the 16 mentioning money referred to Australia. Several of the respondents compared their salary with that of other professions:

when I compare what I earn with what my daughter earns I ask questions. She’s a lawyer..

It could be that respondents were reluctant to mention material concerns when initially questioned. However, six respondents said they thought that money was not a concern:

By and large in Australia I’m happy with the money and working conditions so it wouldn’t be a reason to leave.

One respondent was concerned that she wouldn’t get a pension, but felt she might move to the public sector rather than the private one, where security was better. Six respondents agreed they had considered leaving for institutional reasons, many interpreting this as meaning working conditions, or lack of career opportunities.

Five respondents also mentioned TESOL being a stepping stone, or stop gap as a reason for leaving, although none of them was certain this was true:

I might see TESOL as a stepping stone. I would like to stay in it. Last year I was teaching industrial relations at TAFE. Teaching’s what I like - it doesn’t have to be TESOL. It might be a stepping stone or it might not.

Four respondents said it was not a stepping stone:

563 But I didn’t see TESOL as a stepping stone. It was my career for that time.

And one specifically mentioned job security as a concern in moments of doubt.

Intrinsic motives Intrinsic motives for leaving mentioned were not thought of spontaneously, and addressed aspects of boredom and stress. Nine respondents agreed that it’s stressful, while five said it was not. Of those saying it was stressful, some modified their answer to indicate only mildly stressful. Some attributed the stress to factors other than the job itself, and another felt that although teaching was stressful, it was not necessarily a reason to leave. In the final analysis only three answered definitely that it was stressful. And five said their talents were underused.

I was bored was also mentioned by five respondents. Of these, several said that they might leave if they got bored in the future but were unsure what other options there were.

Lack of confidence in my ability was mentioned by five respondents. Some of these were long-standing professionals:

Somehow I think after 25 years in TESOL I should be the perfect teacher and shouldn’t have a lack of confidence.

Three respondents said that lack of promotional opportunities within TESOL could make them want to leave. One respondent said:

(More) use TESOL as a part time filler and think of changing and certainly in the private sector people are career oriented, and are teaching out of choice, but it’s not only a glass ceiling, it’s linoleum.

Finally, two respondents said teaching’s a lonely job, while six disagreed.

564 Overall, therefore, except for three items, all the motives for leaving were distinct for Sydney TESOLs in the spontaneous list. Many of the motives of the Geneva TESOLs were subsequently added to the list, although some disagreed. Money and working conditions were the major concerns for Sydney respondents in their moments of doubt. Respondents also considered a career move in moments of doubt, but many were uncertain what they would move into.

565

APPENDIX K DEFINITION OF THE TERM “PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT” BY SYDNEY TESOLS Interview question number 15 for Sydney TESOLs: Define the word “professional development”. The findings are reported in Table K.1

Table K.1: Definition of the term: “professional development” by Sydney TESOLs Responses Professional dev elopment is .....

n=96*

%

Other duties / div ersification

19

20

Promotion or diversifying / teaching and other

10

Learning about areas you don’t know about

7


1

Developing course materials

1

Gaining more experience

14

Broadening one’s knowledge and experience / developing new

11

15

skills / learning Developing practical classroom skills / getting practical

3

experience Inserv ice training

13

Inservice training, workshops

10

14

Courses on specific topics

3

Improv ement / progression / adv ancement

12

13

Interaction w ith colleagues / support

10

10

Talking to colleagues / sharing ideas

7

College liaison

2

Support systems

1

566

Table K.1 (continued) Reflection

10

10

Observations

5

Reading

3

Encouraging reflection / self appraisal

2

Further studies

8

8

Keeping up to date

6

6

Other

3

3

Professional development should be ongoing

1

Seeing where the field fits in the political spectrum

1

Talking about new resource books

1

Conferences

1

1

* Multiple responses Diversification in teaching and other duties rated highest with 20% of responses. The second highest rating related to gaining more experience: 11 respondents felt professional development meant to broaden your knowledge and experience / develop new skills / learning. Respondents mentioned broader aspects of professional development, such as:

for me it’s becoming better and a more experienced teacher generally and in more areas, not just in General English.

it’s something that gives me practical skills to move beyond where I am at the moment.

Inservice training represented 14% of responses, and improvement or advancement represented 13% of responses. Ten percent of responses related to talking to colleagues, which was one of the most frequently mentioned types of professional development in the next section. Other aspects of interaction with colleagues included a system of support in an institution and liaison with other colleges.

567

And six respondents felt it meant keeping abreast, up to date:

I’m always interested in new methods and I love to see new techniques used.

Reflection attracted 10% of responses and included observations, self appraisal and reading books and journals. One teacher commented on observations that:

there’s nothing wrong with quality control and I don’t know why teachers get upset. They’ve been trying to introduce it at School X, but it falls between the holes in the wall, there’s never any time so only the new teachers get observed.

Being observed was frequently mentioned by respondents in the question on what was useful for them now; however, it was seen more as a development tool than as quality control.

These responses were generally in keeping with the responses given to how professional development relates to TESOL as described in the next section. They were also in keeping with the professional development in the analysis of interviews, except for responses of inservice training. Defining professional development first appears to have broadened their conceptualisation of professional development in responses to later questions.

568

APPENDIX L SYDNEY TESOLS’ RESPONSES TO THE GENEVA TESOL LIST OF PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT RATED AS USEFUL Interview question 17 for Sydney TESOLs: Here is a list of professional development activities mentioned by TESOLs overseas. Do you share these ideas? Any to add? Professional development activities mentioned by TESOL teachers in Geneva (list derived from Geneva TESOL study) Workshops / seminars Practical Theoretical Reflection Self appraisal Discussion with colleagues Reading books / journals Observing others Conferences Specific course / seminar Keeping up to date Doing something different To keep evolving Nothing Wish list Courses / conferences / workshops Talk to expert / guru To have done it earlier

When teachers were shown the list of professional development preferred by Geneva TESOLs, and this was then combined with those previously mentioned

569

by Sydney respondents, the types of professional development were similar, but the frequency of mention varied. Table L.1 records the findings of this part of the interview.

Reflective types of professional development increased substantially, attracting 35% of responses, but only 15% of responses initially, while inservice training attracted 20% of responses, but 28% initially. Diversification and discussion with colleagues rated 11% and 12% of responses respectively, while diversification rated 19% of responses spontaneously. As was suspected, therefore, reflection was not necessarily perceived to be professional development by many until they identified it on the list.

570

Table L.1: Sydney TESOLs’ responses to the Geneva TESOL list of professional development rated as useful Responses Spontaneous Type of professional dev elopment

Combined

n=75

%

n=223

%

Reflection

11

15

77

35

Observing others

5

21

Reading books / journals

5

17

Self appraisal

-

15

Reflection

1

14

Being observed

-

10

Inserv ice training

21

28

44

Specific course / seminar

7

15

Theoretical workshops

-

15

Practical workshops

-

10

Workshops

11

Learning about computers

3

Discussion w ith colleagues

9


6

23

Liaison with teachers from other colleges

3

4

Div ersification

14

Doing something different

20

4 12

19

27

24

12

11

-

10

Diversify / try new areas / experience

11

8

Doing duties in addition to teaching

2

5

Writing books / courses

1

1

Keeping up to date

8

11

19

9

Conferences

5

7

16

7

571

Table L (continued) Doing further studies

7

9

7

3


4

5

4

2

Other

3

4

3

1


1

1

Travelling

1

1

Goal setting

1

1

Understanding and motiv ating the

2

3

2

1

students Understanding the customers better

1

1

Keeping interest and motivation high

1

1

Reflection This category attracted 35% of responses. Observing others was a popular response and six respondents said it would be good if they had the opportunity, but ‘it’s impossible unless the DOS teaches my class.’ Many respondents felt that being observed by trainees was useful as it could lead to self-appraisal:

Being observed was useful for my teaching and even now I’m thinking about what the person said. I realise my shortcomings.

Two respondents mentioned the difficulty of being observed by their peers. It’s too hypothetical because we don’t interact and are not observing each other but if there were more practical workshops you could get better appraisal by your peers.

Reflection itself as a single item was mentioned by 14 respondents in the combined list, whereas only one respondent mentioned it spontaneously.

Reading books / journals was next, mentioned by 17 respondents. Three respondents said reading if I had time:

572

I would dearly like time at the end of my working hours to do that, but given the current corporate culture, it’s extremely unlikely.

And a further three respondents said they did not read journals or books: I don’t do that - I don’t know if it’s useful - it doesn’t appeal.

Self appraisal was mentioned by 15 respondents, and was not mentioned at all in the spontaneous list. Several commented that they had omitted it when asked the question previously: ‘ but it happens naturally anyway’; ‘although one does that informally.’

These last two points demonstrate that respondents perceived professional development as concrete activities, such as workshop and seminars, rather than the more reflective ones. Following this observation, a separate analysis was performed using evidence from interview one to track the more unconscious forms of professional development, which were not mentioned by respondents in this section, but which they identified in the narrative of their careers. This is reported in Chapter VI.

Inservice training Workshops / seminars continued to be rated highly. This item was divided into theoretical and practical, with 15 respondents preferring theoretical workshops, and 10 respondents preferring practical workshops. And 15 said they would like to do a specific course or seminar. Not many were specific concerning which topics they would like for courses or workshops. One respondent mentioned computers or vocabulary, and another a reevaluation of EFL methodology.

Discussion with colleagues was mentioned by 27 respondents (12% of responses), while diversification was mentioned by 24 respondents (11% of responses), including diversification in teaching, having other duties and writing materials. Keeping up to date represented 9% of responses overall.

573

Going to conferences was mentioned by 16 respondents, which was a significant increase, as only five respondents mentioned it initially. However, it only represented 7% of total responses. This is possibly because they had not thought initially of including professional development, which was difficult to do as funding was needed. Some preferred the contact with other members of the profession, rather than the content of the conference itself:

I’ve attended quite a few conferences but I don’t know if they were useful, but the contacts and discussion with colleagues were useful rather than the actual conference itself.

Three respondents with less than five years’ experience didn’t know if they were useful as they hadn’t been to any yet, while some respondents also said that conference-going was unevenly distributed with the same staff members being able to go.

Section summary The main differences were the number of respondents adding reflection and self appraisal to their original list, and numbers of respondents increased substantially for each item. When prompted, respondents were keen to list many additional items of professional development.

574

APPENDIX M BACKGROUND PROFILE OF TRAINERS / ADMINISTRATORS This appendix gives a summary of the background of the trainer and / or administrator respondents from both TESOL studies, as well as an analysis of their roles and the institutions in which they worked. Sydney TESOL respondents were asked direct interview questions about their background profile, while Geneva TESOL respondents gave the data in the course of the interview without specific questions.

Interview questions for Sydney TESOL study: 18 What experience /qualifications did you have before taking up adult TESOL? (job titles, dates and qualification details) 19 What TESOL-related qualifications do you have; where and when did you do them? 20 How many years’ adult TESOL experience do you have, when and where? 21 What teacher training and / or administrative positions have you held, when and where? 22 How long have you been in your current position, and what is your title? (if less than three years how long were you in your previous position?) 23 Describe your current role as trainer and/or administrator 24 The following training roles were mentioned by administrators / trainers in Geneva. Are there any others you would add? List of training roles (list derived from Geneva TESOL study) Attending conferences and seminars Consultancy or one off training seminars /workshops etc Organising training programs for schools Writing articles Presenting at international conferences Writing journal articles/books Formal training programs (DTEFLA, CTEFLA)

575

Formal and informal support and guidance for teachers Providing informal guidance to teachers Observing teachers Providing formal guidance to teachers (through appraisal) Administrative roles The following administrative roles were mentioned by the trainers / administrators in Geneva. Are there any you would add? Administration of training courses Placement tests Program administration Budget management Visiting new company clients Ordering materials

GENEVA TESOL STUDY Background profile of respondents There were 10 respondents in the Geneva study, of whom only two were full-time administrators and not interviewed as teachers. Nine of the respondents were female and one was male. Eight of the respondents were over 40, while two were in their early 30s. The youngest was male and in one of the most senior positions in Geneva in TESOL.

As the Table M.1 indicates, of the 10 respondents, six had stable full-time contracts; two worked within the international organisation system; two at School A and two at School B. The other four were freelance teacher trainers.

576

Table M.1: Summary of distribution of roles and worksites of Geneva trainers / administrators (n=10) Respondents Main function of respondent

Schools (n=8)

International Organisation (n=2)

Freelance trainers (n=4)

4

-

Full-time teachers (n=3)

2

1

Full-time administrators (n=2)

1

1

Full-time trainer (n=1)

1

-

Table M.2 gives a detailed summary of the background profile of trainers / administrators.

577

Table M.2: Geneva TESOL trainers / administrators: background and roles Title

Countries

Age/

taught

gender

Worksite

Qualifications

Roles

Current teaching/training breakdow n

TESOL in* Freelance trainers Trainer

GB

Female School A;

Title:

CH

40s

DTEFLA

CTEFLA administration,

Writes journal articles, presents at

School B;

external assessment, tutor;

conferences

sometimes

external

DTEFLA tutor; professional

Course Director

consultancies

development workshops;

of CTEFLA

70% teaching; 30% training

trainer and teacher in many (sometimes 100% training) sites

Trainer: No title

CH

Female School B 40s

Failed DTEFLA

CTEFLA trainer; professional development workshops and teacher


578

Table M.2 (continued) Trainer:

CH

No title

Female School B;

DTEFLA and

DTEFLA trainer and


50s

international

studying MEd in

assessor; helping establish

(often more involved in training)

organisation;

TESOL Distance

new bridging professional

School outside

course in England

development course;

Geneva; other

professional development seminars at international organisation; teacher

Trainer:

Germ

Female School outside

No title

CH

30s

Geneva

DTEFLA.


Had co-authored successful TESOL

seminars and teaching

series / currently on maternity break

95% teaching; 5% training (only beginning to train)

579

Table M.2 (continued) Full time trainer Trainer:

GB

Male

Director of

CH

early 30s

School B

DTEFLA

Training

Oversees and participates in Presentations at conferences, and teaching and training

journal article writing.

programs; CTEFLA trainer

100% training

Admin: testing, placing

Teaching about 20 hours

Full time teacher w ith other duties Teacher with

FR

Female School A

other duties:

CH

40s

No qualifications

students; company

No title,

coordination; assisting

unofficially

company coordinators

overseeing

Training: observing

company

teachers, ‘off the cuff’

coordination

assistance

No title or ‘coordinator’

CH

Female School A

School teacher;

50s

DTEFLA

as above


Teaching about 20 hours 80% teaching; 20% training

580

Table M.2 (continued) No title

CH

Female International 50s

School teacher

organisation

No teacher training, ‘purely

(Teaching 12 hours)

administrative role’, ordering 75% teaching; 25% resource resources, exam admin etc

management, assisting new teachers

100% administration

Full time administrators Administrator:

CH

Officer-in-

Female International

MA in Applied

To facilitate training, to

50s

Linguistics

identify needs and provide

organisation

charge

training. Purely administrative eg budget management

Administrator:

GB

Female School B

Director

CH

50s

DTEFLA, MA ELT

Training, consultant, budget Administration and guest lectures / management.

consultancy in training / writing articles 95% administration; 5% consultancy

* GB = Great Britain; CH = Switzerland; Germ = Germany; Fr = France

581

Freelance trainers All the freelance trainers had a DTEFLA, except one who had failed her DTEFLA and was not a graduate (see Table M.2), while the others were graduates, and one was studying a MEd. Two were trained school teachers of other subjects.

The main role of freelance trainers was teaching. There was insufficient training to enable them to earn a living as the training role ranged between 5-30%, with 70-95% teaching.

The freelance teacher trainers and professional workshop leaders were mainly involved with a range of training, both for pre-service (CTEFLA) and in-service (DTEFLA), and professional development workshops. They worked at different sites including schools both in and out of Geneva, as well as the international organisation. Other activities they were engaged in included writing journals, books, and giving presentations at conferences. As can be seen from the breakdown proportions of teaching and training, there were periods where they may be involved in conducting a course and may combine teaching with training, while at other times they may be mainly teaching with some consultancy training.

Full-time trainer The full-time trainer was a trained school teacher and had a DTEFLA. His role was one of supervising and assisting the teachers, performance appraisal of teachers and trainers and a CTEFLA trainer (Table M.2).

Full-time teachers with some training / administrative duties Three full-time teachers with training / administrative duties were also interviewed (see Table M.2). They taught for 75-80% of the time, performing only 20-25% of their role as trainers or administrators. Two were trained school teachers of other subjects, one had a DTEFLA and the other two had no officially recognised international TESOL qualification.

None had an official title recognising their additional duties, and two taught what would be considered a full-time teaching load (20 hours a week) in Australia as well as assuming additional duties.

582

Both were unclear of what their exact role was as one respondent indicated:

I’m the English department coordinator, or head of the English department, I think the Director says I’m a coordinator and X is a coordinator, and we have different responsibilities and it’s for us to work things out, and to keep things clear between us.

The other respondent described how she had gradually assumed more responsibilities, including helping teachers responsible for company classes:

From the last year I'm supposed to help any company coordinator who didn't know what they were supposed to be doing ... And I was spasmodically involved in teacher training - but I didn't have the role of teacher training, it was an off-the-cuff thing.

As was evident, there was a reluctance to allocate titles in the profession, because recognition of roles implied higher salaries and different duties.

the biggest contradiction is that x wants us to have a certain number of hours teaching, about 20 (laughs), which is rather high and is being reduced by a few hours a week in order to do other things. The theory is that I have private students who often cancel out, which will make me freer, so now we have to see the practice - we have till the end of term to see how things go.

Full-time administrators Both full-time administrators had masters qualifications (Table M.2). One was a trained TESOL teacher and the other was an administrator, but not trained as a teacher. The Director discussed her role as administrator, affirming that it was becoming more budgetmanaging than academic management.

583

As soon as I was an administrator I saw it more broadly - a teacher’s career path leading to pure academic administration has long gone, most now manage a budget.

In summary, only three respondents had recognised titles and roles. The three full time teachers had no official recognition of their other duties. Only two of the respondents had purely administrative roles. Therefore, people holding senior positions continued, in the main part, to have a substantial teaching load.

Profile of roles: Geneva respondents The types of roles Geneva TESOL respondents described ranged from organising and / or delivering programs of seminars and workshops; formal training programs; observing teachers in their classrooms, off-the-cuff advising of teachers and structured appraisal programs.

Training roles Nine out of the 10 respondents interviewed for this chapter had training roles and seven of the respondents had administrative roles. Training roles were far more frequent than administrative ones. The most frequently mentioned activity was attending conferences and seminars (seven respondents), while only three presented at international conferences. Consultancy or giving one-off training was the next most frequently mentioned activity by six respondents. Five respondents were involved in internal activities such as observing teachers, providing informal guidance to teachers or organising training programs for schools (Table M.3).

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Table M.3: Pedagogical and training roles: Geneva respondents Responses n=57* Training roles

42

Attending conferences and seminars

7

Consultancy or one off training seminars /workshops etc

6

Organising training programs for schools

5

Providing informal guidance to teachers

5

Formal training programs (DTEFLA, CTEFLA)

5

Observing teachers

5

Writing journal articles/books

4

Presenting at international conferences

3

Providing formal guidance to teachers (through appraisal)

2

Administrative roles

15

Administration of training courses

3

Placement tests

3

Program administration

3

Budget management

2

Visiting new company clients

2

Ordering materials

2

* Multiple responses Four respondents wrote journal articles or text books. Two were involved in formal appraisal schemes. Altogether, trainers were active professionals, covering a large range of inservice training, both formal and informal, as well as making public appearances or publishing outside the confines of Geneva.

Administrative roles The administrative roles included activities within the institution for teachers such as organising the training, placing students, program administration, ordering materials, and external activities such as visiting company clients. Budget management was undertaken by the two more senior administrators.

585

SYDNEY TESOL STUDY Background profile of respondents Interview questions A completely different group of Sydney TESOL respondents was interviewed for this part of the study. This section reports the findings from interview questions 18-22.

Table M.4 shows the experience, qualifications, overseas experience and roles undertaken by the 11 respondents.

586

Table M.4: Sydney TESOL trainers & administrators: background and roles Title / Respondent

Worksite / ag Years of experience

Pre-TESOL experience

Qualifications

/ gender

Countries taught TESOL in

Trainers Director of Teacher School A

14: TESOL:

• Teacher training

• South America

Training.

Female

8: teaching

• Certificate TESOL

(Peru, Bolivia,

Late 30s

9: training

• Dip TEFLA

Brazil)

• MA ELT

• England

• 2 week management course

• Portugal • Turkey • Australia

Assistant Director

School A

13.5: TESOL

Teacher Training

Male

6-7: training

Late 30s

3 years public service

• CTEFLA

• Indonesia

• DTEFLA

• Japan

• MA Applied Linguistics

• Australia

587

Table M.4 (continued) University

12: TESOL

6 years public service in

• Grad Dip TESOL

• Australia

Language Teacher Language

5: teaching

Australia and overseas


• China

Education

7: training

Coordinator,

Centre

• PhD Applied Linguistics (in progress)

Male Late 40s Administrators Educational

University

9: TESOL

16 years teaching in schools, • Dip Ed

administrator

Language

2: administration

and teacher training

• M. Ed.

(currently seconded Centre

• Cert TESOL

to university support Female

• Grad Dip TESOL • Doctor of Education (in progress)

40s Head of

University

Department, Migran Language Education

Centre Male Late 30s

• Australia

13: TESOL

2 years teaching in schools

• Dip Ed

• Italy

5: administration

and odd jobs

• DTEFLA

• Australia

• MEd

588

Table M.4 (continued) Head of

University

19: TESOL

• MA Sociology

• Belgium

Department,

Language

15: administration

• CTEFLA

• Italy

ELICOS / Offshore

Centre

12: training

• DTEFLA

• UK

projects

Female


• Australia • China

Mid 40s

• Indonesia • Thailand Head Teacher

School B

13.5: TESOL

about 9 years odd jobs;

• CTEFLA

• Malaysia

Male

4: administrator

musician, sales etc

• DTEFLA

• Algeria • England

40s

• Australia Director of Studies

School A

10: TESOL

2 years teaching English in

• CTEFLA

• Japan

Female

8: administration

schools in Sudan

• DTEFLA

• Australia

30s

• MA Applied Linguistics • MBA (in progress)

589

Table M.4 (continued) Head of Departmen University Language

21: TESOL

6 years teaching schools; staf • Dip Teaching (Primary)

1: administrator

development in TAFE

• Australia

• Grad Dip TESOL • MA Applied Linguistics (in progress)

Centre Female 50s Director of Overseas School B

11: teaching, training

Projects

and administration

Male

Journalist and writer

30s

• Diploma in Suggestopaedia

• Japan

• CTEFLA

• Australia

• DTEFLA

• Travel and TESOL

• Diploma in Marketing Principal

School C

18: TESOL

Female

6: administration

40s

Odd jobs

consultancy in Asia

• CTEFLA

• France

• DTEFLA

• Egypt

• MEdAdmin

• China • Australia

590

Trainers The two trainers had 12-14 years’ experience in total each, including 6-9 years’ training experience.

Administrators The eight administrators ranged from 9-21 years’ total experience in TESOL, including 1-15 years of administration experience with a mean of 5.5 years’ experience. All respondents had full-time positions. Four of the respondents’ titles were Head of Department, while other titles included a Director of Studies, a Principal, a Head Teacher and a Director of Overseas Projects.

Pre-TESOL experience Two respondents had no experience other than TESOL, while eight had, including teaching English in schools (4), odd jobs (3) and a career in the public service (2), and writer/journalist (1).

Qualifications All respondents were qualified with a first degree. Four respondents had teacher training qualifications for school teaching. All respondents were therefore minimally qualified at diploma level. In addition to this, nine respondents had a masters level qualification, and three were undergoing further postgraduate study at the time of the interview (two doctorates, and one MBA). One had a diploma in marketing.

The three trainers were qualified in applied linguistics or TESOL, and the administrators had a range of qualifications, including six with masters level qualification in applied linguistics, education, educational administration, business administration (in progress), and one with a diploma in marketing. The other two were fully qualified in TESOL.

Experience overseas The respondents had wide-ranging experience in TESOL overseas, mainly as teachers. The opportunities for travel were revealed in the wide range of countries respondents had taught in including: • Europe: UK, Italy, Belgium, France, Portugal

591

• Asia: Japan, Indonesia, Malaysia • Africa: Algeria, Egypt • South America: Peru, Bolivia, Brazil • Australia

The countries respondents had TESOL training / administrative experience overseas in were: • China, UK, Belgium, Thailand, Indonesia (one respondent) • Portugal and Turkey (one respondent) • Japan and contracts in other parts of Asia (one respondent) • Australia (11 respondents)

As can be seen from the information above, most had acquired their training / administrative experience in Australia.

Gender The gender balance among senior staff members was more evenly balanced than in the teaching part of the study. Five males and six females were interviewed.

Profile of roles: Sydney respondents This section reports the findings from interview questions 23 and 24. Table M.5 lists the roles undertaken both as trainers and administrators. As can be seen, there was a crossover of roles, with trainers also responsible for managing their programs and administrators responsible for providing professional development for staff. Administrative roles were more frequently mentioned than trainer roles.

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Table M.5: Training and administrative roles: Sydney respondents Responses n=113* Administrative roles

74

Pedagogical management roles

31

Program administration

8

Ordering materials

5

Curriculum development

5

Organising placement tests

4

Administration of training courses

3

Writing journal articles / books

3

Academic management

2

Assessment of other courses

1

General management

20

General management in schools

3

Quality control

3

Full responsibility academically and administratively

2

School policy

2

Building management

1

Budget management

9

External liaison role

12

Attending and presenting at conferences and seminars

9

Visiting clients

3

Managing staff and students

6

Counselling trainees

3

People management (staff and students)

2

Supervision of homestay and counselling students

1

Marketing

5

593

Table M.5 (continued) Training roles

39

Organising training programs for schools

9

Providing informal guidance to teachers

7

Observing teachers

7

Providing formal guidance to teachers

6

Consultancy or one-off training programs

5

Conducting formal training programs

5


Administrative roles Pedagogical management roles were the most frequently mentioned, representing 31 responses. Program administration was mentioned by eight respondents, including roles such as:

the day to day nuts and bolts, the resourcing and staffing, management of the program budget, recruiting and inducting new staff - so the smooth running. Making sure teachers are where they should be and classes are what they should be, and all within the budget.

Another mentioned:

planning and analysis of enrolments, staffing needs, premises needs, … and the bigger picture organising staff, students, managing job descriptions of other staff.

Other roles mentioned included ordering materials by five respondents, although often this was delegated, organising placement tests when students arrived, mentioned by four respondents, and curriculum development, mentioned by five respondents. Examples of program management included:

making sure the students are in the right courses and have learning pathways, to other schools, or other campuses, make sure their learning needs are met in an efficient way and providing counselling services and

594

all the extra services, and working in conjunction with the admin staff. Keeping abreast with ELICOS admin developments, and changes of forms, and working with overseas agents.

Another respondent mentioned:

ensuring the academic integrity of the program - things like evaluation, program evaluation, monitoring quality. Curriculum development - ensuring we are meeting the requirements of funding bodies and students.

Other roles of program administration included: writing journal articles / books mentioned by three respondents. General management was the next most frequently mentioned category of administrative duties, including quality control and budget management, which was the most mentioned administrative role. Nine respondents were responsible for their section, and one for the overall management of the school:

The Director sits down with her calculator, but I have considerable responsibility resourcing and developing new programs and developing new costings, monitoring, not just counting costs, but I know the level of funding we have and remain within it and counting numbers is the Director’s domain.

Building management was mentioned by one respondent as being an unusual role: all the building projects fall on my plate and it’s unusual for other Head Teachers.

External liaison role included attending and presenting at conferences and seminars mentioned by nine respondents.

Marketing the program was mentioned by five respondents, which in some cases included marketing the program locally, but which usually referred to marketing overseas.

595

Training roles The main training role undertaken by respondents was organising training programs for schools, mentioned by nine out of eleven respondents. These ranged from the administrative side: organising workshops and making people aware of professional development opportunities to the training side: organising formal training programs and being involved in conducting them.

Another role mentioned by seven respondents was that of providing informal guidance to teachers. Informal guidance ranged from observing teachers, and generally supporting them:

I provide informal guidance all the time and I’m observing teachers all the time, so I do formal support too. I’m a very pivotal person and everything comes to me. Sometimes I answer three questions on the way to the toilet. And there are the tricky ones of teachers that are not coming up to scratch and how to deal with those.

Observing teachers was carried out in all the centres involved in the study, mainly as a tool for determining the suitability for continued employment. Observations involved giving feedback, and were therefore also seen as a professional development tool.

Formal guidance (through appraisal) was mentioned by six respondents. Some understood this as being observing teachers for suitability, while others read it as making staff aware of formal study programs. Formal guidance was also interpreted as being the coordinatorship system providing guidance to teachers.

Consultancy or one-off training programs and conducting formal training programs were mentioned by five respondents each.

Other roles mentioned by fewer respondents, but which many undertook and which could also fall under other categories already mentioned included managing staff and students.

596

Section summary All Sydney TESOL respondents were employed full-time with official titles recognising their training / administrative roles, while only six of the Geneva TESOL respondents were fulltime and only three with officially recognised titles. Sydney TESOLs had travelled far more extensively teaching TESOL than Geneva TESOLs. Sydney TESOLs mentioned a greater range of training and administrative roles than Geneva TESOLs, which is to be expected as Sydney TESOLs had better working conditions with time officially allocated for training and administrative duties.

597

APPENDIX N PROFILE OF INSTITUTIONS AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS Respondents from both TESOL studies were interviewed about the professional development programs they had been involved in. Sydney respondents were also shown the Geneva TESOL list of professional development for comment.

Interview question 13 for Geneva TESOL study What professional development programs have you been involved in, and how successful were they?

Interview questions 25 and 26 for Sydney TESOL study 25 What professional development programs have you been involved in in your current or most recent positions, and how successful were they? Why were they successful or why not? 26 The following types of professional development programs were mentioned by trainers and / or administrators in the Geneva study. Some programs were led by respondents, and in some they were participants. Are there any you would like to comment on? You may also refer to your past.

598

Types of professional development programs mentioned in chronological order by respondents (lists derived from the Geneva TESOL study) Type of program mentioned

Program description

Pre-Service and Inservice methods 1970s-1980s Speed reading with Ferguson (1970s) “Meaningless prescriptive method” “mechanical, militaristic” SGAV (1970s)



“It was the whole way of looking at teaching that involved a lot of other aspects, not just linguistics, body language, drama etc”

NLP techniques (current)

Neuro Linguistic Programming

Silent Way (Gattegno) (1980s)

Introduced in the international primary school

Communicative approach (1980s)

Getting students to learn through interaction. Focus on functional aspect

These are the types of professional development programs trainers and administrators are currently involved in conducting:

599

Types of professional development programs mentioned in chronological order by respondents Program leading to certification CTEFLA (mid 1980s on): Pre-service DTEFLA (1980 on): In-service Bridging program between CTEFLA and DTEFLA (pilot scheme): Early in-service training Workshop: Organising 2-week training prog. in Sept. Organising workshops: guest speakers, weekend workshops Series of seminars (pilot bridging professional development program for Cambridge) Leading workshops: FORUM - teachers professional association (famous names mainly) Going to conferences Consultancy elsewhere Fly in fly out type Basic academic skills management Appraisal

GENEVA TESOL STUDY Profile of institutions Respondents were drawn from three main institutions in Geneva; two private language schools and the international organisation’s language training unit.

School A School A had several training systems routinely available: Friday afternoons were set aside for training during the teaching session and a two-week session in September before the start of the new teaching year, particularly for new teachers. In addition to this, there was off-thecuff support and guidance available. Attendance at training sessions was free for teachers, but teachers were not paid

600

for the time they spent attending. Currently there were two teachers who had been given training duties in addition to teaching full-time.

School B School B was a training centre and conducted CTEFLA courses. It also frequently had workshops on specific topic areas, charging outsiders to attend. There was also a formal appraisal system in force in the school with the intention of facilitating professional development. The Director of Training affirmed the usefulness of this, but casually employed teachers and trainers participated in their own time unpaid.

School B was a part of one of the biggest chains of British-based teaching and training institutions:

An interesting development is that a tighter eye is kept on institutions by UCLES (University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate) because it’s a big provider and there’s a move towards almost policing centres - they’ve got the joint chief assessors’ system right now, and they get reports sent with strong and weak points of centres, and the centre gets warned if they have weak points more than once.

Trainers were also monitored to check they develop:

They are a way of watching the professional development of certain tutors in those centres too, whether it’s taking place or not. There’s been a lot of cleaning up going on of trainers and trainees, forcing trainees to develop, I’ve seen a lot of very static ones and new ones not trained properly.

This only applied to School B as they were part of an English chain of schools, while others were outside this system.

International organisation One respondent was in a purely administrative role and organised the training, while the other respondent was a teacher with a small administrative role.

601

Professional development was virtually non-existent in the international organisation for 10 years, but recently the administrator had revived professional development, mainly in the form of guest lectures and workshops.

In the past there was a rotating Head Teacher position, which has now been abandoned. The teaching load was reduced when additional administrative duties were assigned. And some teachers had been reassigned management, computer or other specialist training roles.

Profile of professional development programs: Geneva respondents Respondents were asked the following question in an attempt to identify their perceived satisfaction with the professional development programs on offer:

In this section the findings from interview question 13 are reported, and some of the respondents reflected, drawing on their past experience. Some respondents answered in the capacity of trainer and teacher, and thereby provided a profile of training from the 1960s on (see Table N.1). Until the mid-1980s there was no internationally-recognised teacher training qualification available, and most teachers started with no training or with the inhouse method of the school.

602

Table N.1: Types of professional development programs mentioned in chronological order by trainers / administrators: Geneva TESOL study Type of program

Program description

mentioned

Respondents (n-10)

Pre-Serv ice and Inserv ice methods 1970s-1980s Speed reading with

‘Meaningless prescriptive method’

2

Ferguson (1970s)

‘mechanical, militaristic’

SGAV (1970s)


1


‘It was the whole way of looking at teaching

4

that involved a lot of other aspects, not just linguistics, body language, drama etc’ NLP techniques (current Neuro Linguistic Programming using

3

techniques in language teaching Silent Way (Gattegno)

Introduced in the international primary

(1980s)

school

Communicative

Getting students to learn through

approach (1980s)

interaction. Focus on functional aspect

1

1

Program leading to certification: CTEFLA (mid 1980s on) Pre-service

4

DTEFLA (1980 on)

In-service

3

Bridging program

Early in-service training

2

between CTEFLA and DTEFLA (pilot scheme)

The recognised minimum qualifications today are those accepted by the British and Australian TESOL accreditation schemes at the Certificate and Diploma level.

603

Before 1980, there was a series of audio-visual and other methodologies, and some still have an avid following. This training was now often referred to as ‘fringe methodology’, and in some cases pervaded other aspects of life, not just language teaching as it embraced a particular philosophy. These included the following: All’s Well (1970s) (also known in Australia), which was particularly popular in Geneva and was developed in Paris; Silent Way (developed by Gattegno); Speed Reading introduced by Ferguson in Geneva, NLP (Neuro Linguistic Programming) referred to throughout the study by several respondents who still actively pursue this. Richards and Rodgers (1986) give an historical perspective on different approaches and methods in TESOL.

In the following section, a more detailed description of the types of TESOL training is provided, drawn from the responses given:

Training in the 1970s No training - ad hoc training from the school / school method In the early 1970s there was very little training available, and most schools trained people in their method, or teachers were left to their own devices:

When I first taught EFL, I remember sweating - I hated it - I was too nervous in front of people - I had stage fright - why? I had no methodology, no preparation, I was hoping through good will it would be OK.

Sometimes people were thrown in at the deep end, like this respondent:

Now, in ... 1972 ... there was an ad for the Coop who were looking for English teachers, and I thought why not? I can teach English. I started teaching British English ...I would call this period ‘groping in the dark’, except I have never doubted my knowledge of English.

Another respondent trained in the method of the school:

604

Then one day I saw an ad in the paper - an audiovisual language school needed teachers, they trained you to teach adults. ... There was no writing, they'd do the language lab every day ... It was a mechanical military method and didn't suit my personality. Speed reading Several respondents mentioned having had a negative reaction to speed reading. Methods at this time were prescriptive:

I hated every minute of it because I was under pressure, it had to be done this way, these were the rules, and it has to be exactly like this. SGAV (Structural Global Audio Visual) A very popular method in France in the 1970s was SGAV. Many of the current leaders in the TESOL field were in Paris at the time:

I trained in the method of the time which was SGAV. That's going back 20 years ... It gave me the basics of adult teaching so that when I went into the classroom I had an idea of what I was supposed to be doing. All’s Well This was an audio-visual course based on using film strips. School A provided training in this method during the period 1974 to 1976. One respondent remembered the positive aspects of All’s Well:

I was totally convinced and 100 % into it ... it was the whole method / way of looking at teaching that involved a whole lot of other aspects, not just linguistics, body language, drama etc, and to have it connected to language teaching was so exciting.

Another respondent only remembered the negative aspects of methods of the time:

I had no training and was given the method All's Well and had to use it, ... but the problem was, TESOL was in the cushion throwing era, pretend you're a cabbage, tell your partner you love them, all this touchy feely stuff. I

605

swallowed the whole thing hook, line and sinker and had engineers lying on the floor, pretending they were cactuses.

The following comment demonstrates the lack of guidance in this era and the changing nature of EFL in the 1980s:

(School A) made more of an attempt to give guidance than anywhere else. The vogue was changing and EFL was saturated with materials, the materials were confused as it was changing from audiovisual and I had nothing to underpin it and couldn't find my feet. It was all so confusing. Training other than CTEFLA and DTEFLA in the 1980s Training in the 1980s consisted of ‘fringe methodology’ using a humanistic approach and combining beliefs from disciplines such as psychology applied to language teaching. “Fringe methodology” continues to be popular among certain sectors of language teachers. Silent Way Several respondents were enthused by the various fringe methods. One was introduced to Silent Way through the International School where her child was studying (1982-1984):

Gattegno (Silent Way) ... worked with maths and language seminars ..... Gattegno was more interested in action in the classroom and the reactions of students and believed in it 100 %. I did not adopt it 100 % for myself, but I believed in it, it was coherent and there was contact with the person who developed it, which was magical too. Neuro Linguistic Programming (NLP) NLP was another fringe method which is still popular among some teachers:

NLP started in 1988 or so - again I think the reason it worked for me, I started out thinking it was for teaching but it was a whole attitude to being, like All's Well.

606

Communicative approach The communicative approach was still very popular in many institutions, and current methodology was still based largely on these principles:

I felt very motivated and it got me interested in the humanistic side of things.

Whilst ‘fringe methodology’ was popular with some, the two respondents from the training institution, School B both expressed reservations. The main reason given was the perceived inflexibility:

I’m wary of the fringe methodology, where you have to be a believer and then it works. And you can’t criticise it or challenge them because then it won’t work for you. I’m worried about what it’s based on and how it allows for different learning styles.

Training in the mid 1980s - 1990s There are currently training courses available which are recognised worldwide as being of value to the field. The leaders are the CTEFLA and DTEFLA (now called the CELTA and DELTA), which only became available in Geneva since the mid-1980s. They were also British-based and so not necessarily popular with the American teachers, who preferred to do a masters. All the newer recruits in the study had entered with a CTEFLA.

Two respondents commented on the status of TESOL in Geneva. One felt that it was improving due to people being increasingly qualified:

Well, certainly teachers in general have a respected profession. EFL teachers are often not seen as part of the teaching profession in that many EFL teachers in the past have not been qualified. This is changing now.

Another respondent felt that TESOL was striving to be a profession now that CTEFLA was a requirement:

607

when I started TEFL, it was only just becoming a profession, I think, there was always something shoddy about EFL because people could get away without qualifications. Now I'm part of the movement making sure that's happening, that CTEFLA is really an entry into a profession - we're striving to be a profession. Accredited pre-service training and in-service training courses CTEFLA - pre-service qualification In Geneva, according to one trainer, a ‘CTEFLAish thing’ dated from 1985. The CTEFLA was a one month full-time course or five month part-time course. One respondent felt that CTEFLA was sufficient as initial training, so long as there was a support structure after the course:

It’s sufficient as an initial training course as long as the teacher when they start work has support from another teacher, has somebody who is there to help advise.

Another problem raised was the lack of reflection time built into the short courses:

The courses are going towards excessive input, but can’t cram in the necessary time for reflection.

Eleven of the respondents had taken the CTEFLA. Many people in Geneva only did a CTEFLA, and had no further formal training. DTEFLA A total of 12 teachers had taken the DTEFLA: one with less than five years’ experience, and 11 with more than five years’ experience. The DTEFLA was a two-month intensive or nine month part-time course suitable for teachers with two years’ experience post-certificate level who were interested in further professional development or in furthering their career.

608

Need for a mid-way qualification between CTEFLA and DTEFLA At a school just outside Geneva, several trainers had come together to provide what was perceived to be needed. One trainer had approached Cambridge and was attempting to establish a course mid-way to build a bridge between CTEFLA and DTEFLA. This would consist of participants attending a series of workshops / seminars leading to certification.

Section summary In summary, TESOL training has become more homogeneous in the 1990s. Prior to the CTEFLA and DTEFLA being the accepted standard, teachers received ad hoc training along the way or got training in a particular method of a school.

While some teachers were hired with little or no training, this was becoming more of a rarity. Most were currently entering the field with a CTEFLA, and the major preoccupation of many trainers was how to help with professional development post-CTEFLA with limited financial budgets set aside for professional development and the mixed backgrounds and experience levels of teachers.

Types of professional development programs currently available in Geneva Table N.2 summarises the types of professional development programs currently available in Geneva.

609

Table N.2: Types of professional development programs trainers and administrators were currently involved in conducting: Responses CURRENT

Location / type

Workshop:

n=16 10

Two-week training program held annually

Prog. aimed at new teachers

4

Workshops:

School A; international

2

guest speakers, weekend workshops

organisation

Series of seminars (pilot bridging

Based on sound principles or

professional development program for

theories to develop teachers

Cambridge)

in the classroom; Schools

2

outside Geneva. Leading workshops

Eg: Teacher training for

1

teaching Cambridge exams better FORUM - teachers professional association

Geneva, workshop

1

Going to conferences

3

Consultancy elsew here

2

Appraisal

Formalised; School B

1

Workshops and seminars Participants named a range of professional development programs they organised, led or participated in. Workshops and seminars were perhaps the most common form of formalised professional development schools engaged in, and represented 62% of responses. In the following section, a profile of professional development programs is described and the perceived relative success of each. Workshops in School A Before the beginning of each new teaching year, School A held a two-week training session for new (and old) teachers.

610

I think our September training program generates enthusiasm and there are new people and they can meet other teachers and they have a chance to discuss and exchange ideas.

This feeling was echoed by some of the teachers in their responses to the question on professional development. However, others felt it was too group-oriented, and did not allow for individualised professional development:

The training and development is not always personalised, it tends to be group, culture or school-oriented. Workshops at International organisation The administrator responsible for organising the training commented that partaking in a workshop didn’t necessarily mean that the participants were absorbing much:

It's too early to tell how successful they were - there were positive comments, but how it will translate into the classroom and what effect it will have is difficult to tell. The positive thing is that it opened their minds, but it didn't reach everybody, some sit and don't absorb very much, so we need to keep working on it.

The other teacher respondent echoed this feeling:

How successful - enjoyable, but whether revolutionise? They serve to bring the group together a bit, I still feel in the group there's a sort of passiveness, in the way certain people are sitting and they are sort of sitting heavily on their chairs..

It is important to recall that the international organisation had had virtually no training for over ten years. The international organisation conducted seminars.

611

Private bridging program There was a move by some Schools outside Geneva to try to develop professional development courses for teachers, which highlighted a perceived need or interest in this area. Another freelance trainer participating in the external program commented as follows:

The idea behind the program originally ... was ... we wanted a series of seminars based on sound principles or theories to get teachers to develop in the classroom - it was more teacher development than training seminars.

Several respondents found there was a problem with mixed abilities in these training sessions due to the previously mentioned differences in training and development:

we were faced with a medley, a whole rag bag of people, some had a lot of experience and were not ready for the Diploma and may never be.

Another respondent believed that in the one session, each individual would develop at his / her own pace, and that it didn’t need to be a homogeneous group for people to benefit from it:

I don’t think you can take the whole range of teachers with their different backgrounds and qualifications and professional interests and assume the same type of development equally for all. Professional Association of Language Teachers in Geneva. (FORUM ) This is an independent association. TESOLs from different walks of life came together to exchange ideas and to see one-off workshops six times a year on a Saturday. It was the only opportunity many teachers had to meet other teachers.

One of the international organisation respondents went to FORUM when no training was available at her worksite. Her comments show the value of FORUM for isolated TESOLs:

612

I had a period when I went to the weekend FORUMs, and saw lots of good people, and met a lot of people, and saw people whose books we were using, which gives you another dimension to the book ... There were a lot of FORUM meetings during these dark ages past. Conferences Conferences represented 19% of responses. Some trainers felt that while going to conferences was often inspiring, sponsoring teachers to go was expensive and which could not really be justified by the institution.

(Conferences are) the teachers’ equivalent of fly in fly out thing. They get a big boost going to them, exchanging ideas, what they make out of them depends very much on the individual. It’s more a global thing - adding to the background in which they operate. I used to give them a high priority, but the cost is quite daunting and if the school is sponsoring you have to be very sure you’re going to get a lot back. Consultancy elsewhere This represented 12% of responses. One respondent had visited other countries to give oneoff workshops. Her assessment of its relative success was that ‘it’s very interesting but ... I question the value of fly-in fly-out stuff.’ She was also sponsored to give teachers in Poland going into academic management a basic skills management course.

It was very successful and interesting to see people waking up to issues new in their country and there’s a big lesson there for trainers. Appraisal Appraisal was central to the philosophy of School B and was mentioned by only one respondent. It was a formal procedure undertaken by all staff members, including freelance ones, and they discussed areas of concern and for development and developed strategies for accomplishing these objectives. Some may wonder about the appropriateness of freelance staff members

613

discussing their future plans when the work at that institution was only part-time or a few hours a week.

Section summary In summary, TESOL trainers were involved in training programs in the schools themselves, in independent venues and outside Geneva in Europe. In School A, professional development mainly took the form of workshops, while in School B it was more individual through appraisal. The most frequently mentioned professional development type was the workshop or seminar. Some trainers also maintained a high international profile, giving conference papers.

The biggest impediment to consistent professional development schemes could be the high casualisation in the field. However, in spite of this, professional development seemed to be a high priority for many. Professional development was fairly successful according to most respondents, although some were concerned about just how much change and development would ensue, or about mixed abilities or the long-term benefits.

SYDNEY TESOL STUDY Profile of institutions The trainers and administrators were from the four institutions involved in the study.

School A There were two trainers and one administrator from School A. This was the centre with the most formalised professional development with regular inhouse workshops for their own staff as well as workshops for teachers from other centres. Teachers were also given a professional development interview. New teachers were regularly observed with feedback, support and guidance, and more experienced teachers had trainees observing their classes. As there was a teacher training program, some teachers had the opportunity to participate.

Other professional development included sponsoring people to attend conferences, and subsidising people to take the Diploma level qualification.

614

University language centre There was one trainer and four administrators from this institution. More respondents were interviewed from this institution to balance the greater number of teacher respondents.

This centre conducted teacher training courses too, which allowed teachers the opportunity to participate as ‘cooperating teachers’; involving them in taking a trainee under their wing for the practical part of the course. Teachers could also contribute to other aspects of the teacher training program.

Staff at this centre had a week’s holiday followed by a week off teaching to prepare for each new term. However, one respondent felt teachers did not take advantage of the opportunity to undertake professional development:

They want it delivered on a plate. They want their preparation weeks with not too much so they have time to tidy the paper clips in their drawer, and one or two days out of five is enough because they want to have lunch with their colleagues they haven’t seen for a while.

Workshops were not conducted regularly, except for the occasional session during the preparation week, and formalised professional development was more sporadic. This institution also had study leave provisions for further study, and people were sponsored to attend conferences. There was also a system of coordinators, who acted as mentors and provided support and guidance, particularly to inexperienced staff.

School B There were two respondents from School B, which had conducted regular workshops in the past, and those had ceased but were expected to increase:

We put something on every week or two weeks, and a full 2-3 hour inservice every month. We call them the Wams and Thams - Wednesday and Thursday afternoon meetings where everyone brings in a lesson that worked and it’s a half hour and everyone participates.

615

The success rates of these workshops was perceived to vary depending on the relevance for those attending. One respondent felt professional development was underfunded at this institution.

I map out the observation program for new teachers - the employment demonstration lesson and they have two post-employment demo lessons. ... I think professional development is probably underfunded in this institution - it could be given more time, not necessarily buying talent to come in, but buying time for teachers.

Teachers were sponsored to upgrade their qualifications to Diploma level. ‘They are paid for half of it and can have one day a week Leave Without Pay.’

School C One administrator was interviewed from School C. This institution had mainly minimally qualified teachers, often travellers on short stay visas. Teachers from School C were encouraged to attend workshops and inservice training at School A, but many reported them unsuitable to their needs. Many teachers found the specialised teaching program offered at the school an opportunity to use other skills they may have, such as music, history of art etc, and this was considered valuable development. The Director and Head Teacher offered support and guidance and teachers were occasionally observed with feedback. Teachers at this school appreciated the relaxed style, with few professional development requirements.

Profile of professional development programs: Sydney respondents Table N.3 summarises the professional development programs respondents were involved in in response to interview questions 25 and 26:

616

Table N.3: Professional development programs respondents were involved in: Sydney TESOL study Responses Type of professional dev elopment program

n

%

Workshops

19

41

Organising workshops for teachers

8

Fringe methodology programs

6

Training / workshops for experienced teachers

5

Formal training

8

Involvement in formal training

5

Undertaking postgraduate studies

3

Conferences

8

Going to conferences

7

Organising a conference

1

Appraisal / observ ation

6

Observations

4

Appraisal

2

Consultancy

4

Consultancy elsewhere

4

Writing materials

1

Developing distance package modules

1

Total number of responses

46

17

17

13

9

2

100

Workshops As can be seen in Table N.3, 41% of responses related to workshops, which is consistent with the responses in other parts of the study, where workshops were mentioned as the most common professional development. Organising workshops for teachers was the most frequently mentioned professional development by eight respondents. This was sometimes judged as successful and sometimes not because of the varying stages of development teachers may be at:

617

I gave the first workshop, and the feedback was quite positive but it’s difficult to judge the level because I had no idea which level to pitch it at - there were some with little experience, some with a broad range of experience, some with Diplomas, some with MAs, some came interested in academic issues, others simply looking for classroom tricks, so I don’t know how successful I was in meeting those diverse needs.

Some were critical of the idea of compulsory professional development, while another said that if it wasn’t compulsory, many teachers wouldn’t attend. Several respondents felt that some teachers had other priorities after teaching and were not interested.

a certain number feel they’re in this job because it suits their lifestyle, and they’re very dedicated and very professional until 3pm when classes finish, and they have other priorities - like going off to acting or picking up their children.

One respondent was confident as to the success of workshops:

Sometimes some are resistant to professional development and say they’re tired after teaching and prep but certainly they are grateful and when they leave they say how grateful they were for the staff development and support they had. And if they go elsewhere they comment again and again how good the environment was with growth taking place.

Fringe methodology programs were shown on the Geneva list to respondents for comment. Six respondents had experienced them in the past or felt they were valuable to give a different perspective:

it’s very valid to look at different approaches which can be incorporated - some are a bit loopy but why not? It’s good to expose people to different things, to challenge people.

618

One respondent predicted that audio visual methods would make a comeback in the future:

My prediction is that audio visual will make a big comeback because it will be linked into the interactive techniques and the old filmstrips with bubbles ... it’s going to be a huge explosion.

One respondent felt that

you could incorporate bits of it, but it’s dangerous too because some people take it on wholesale.

One respondent had used many on the list and indicated continued enthusiasm for aspects of them.

I was really into Suggestopaedia and wore orange clothes and joined an Ashram and thought it was fabulous at the time. And I taught using the Suggestopaedia method and it worked well. There were 12 in the class and there were one or two it didn’t work for - but they’re the casualties of war you always have. It would work better with a woman teaching it than a man, but I used to have my orange suitcase with puppets etc.

Five respondents were involved in formal training programs. These included the CTEFLA, DTEFLA and a bridging program conducted at another centre and training for overseas teachers. And five were involved in training / workshops for experienced teachers. The types of skills mentioned by respondents for more experienced teachers included management and academic skills, using computers and word processors, and action research.

Undertaking postgraduate studies was mentioned by three respondents as being a form of professional development which was increasingly popular. One described it as ‘inhouse culture’ and said:

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it’s a thing that didn’t exist ten years ago, and seems to be specific to here. Ten years ago if you said you were doing an MA, other teachers would have said: “why? Are you thinking of becoming an academic?”

Another respondent felt

we should encourage it, it’s great and obviously you need to get a good grounding first, the nuts and bolts of teaching, get the practical aspects first and then you can do a MA in Applied Linguistics.

Going to conferences was mentioned by seven respondents. Most institutions had some budgetary allowance to sponsor people to attend conferences, but in some cases there was a lack of interest:

I’m surprised we never ever spend our budget because lots of people are doing external studies and having babies and with all the changes, everyone’s tied up with what they’re doing.

Observations were another form of professional development mentioned by four respondents. One respondent also mentioned peer observation but admitted it was a difficult area ‘because the cost is not to be underestimated.’ She felt

most people would say they learn from observation, and appreciate feedback. ... It’s a lonely thing teaching in there with a class and no feedback unless you actively seek it.

There appeared to be little formal appraisal in the schools involved in the study. Appraisal was mentioned by two respondents as a form of professional development. One institution held professional development interviews with staff:

They have a fairly set format, with a questionnaire to fill in before the interview ... they’re teaching-related, what courses they’re teaching on, their strengths and weaknesses, and we set goals for the next six months

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to one year, and other areas of teaching or non-teaching interests they may have within the company.

Four respondents had been involved in consultancy elsewhere; one conducting annual workshops for teaching staff on giving conference papers and seminar presentations, and another on examination preparation. Another was involved in consultancy with joint venture partners. Finally, one respondent mentioned developing distance package modules with professional development content on approaching grammar. He was currently in the process of looking at how to make this useful.

Several respondents said that they felt rather concerned at the ad hoc nature of professional development in their institution, and one was actively trying to resolve this problem:

Professional development is one of the areas I’m not so happy with because I’ve been flat out the last couple of years, and I think it’s a very important aspect and don’t think we have been approaching it as well as we should and it’s not bad but I’m aspiring to and would like an excellent program. So I cringe a bit and it’s a question of priorities.

The same respondent went on to enumerate the types of professional development available in the institution and to evaluate its success:

I did a survey last year to find out the skills people wanted and how they learned them and the majority get them through doing the job or talking to colleagues. The most valuable time is when they sit down and discuss techniques with colleagues so prep week is valuable because they have free time to discuss and reflect.

Another respondent felt that ‘they all say they want professional development but then only a few turn up.’ She felt professional development came secondary to timetables and getting students in classes.

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Section summary Levels of success seemed to be gauged on the numbers attending and ad hoc feedback rather than on any formal evaluation of its success. And several respondents felt other priorities prevented them from focusing on professional development.

Institutions had various ways of supporting professional development; by having a program of inservice training and staff obliged to attend, by allowing study leave for further study, by sponsoring staff to undertake certain types of further study, by sponsoring staff to attend workshops offsite and conferences. Staff were also observed, but peer observation, while considered very valuable, was too expensive to establish.

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APPENDIX O SYDNEY TRAINERS’ / ADMINISTRATORS’ RESPONSES TO THE GENEVA TRAINERS’ / ADMINISTRATORS/ LIST OF PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT RATED AS IMPORTANT FOR TEACHERS Professional development needed Interview question 28 for Sydney TESOL study 28. These are the types of professional development mentioned by trainers and administrators in the Geneva study. Are there any you would add? (derived from the Geneva TESOL study) Beginning teachers Hands on techniques Guidance and support Support with materials Looking at student needs and learning styles The ability to reflect on what went wrong with the lesson to improve Seeing a wider range of options to work from Later / generally Keeping abreast of new developments, new methods, new ideas, new materials Interacting with colleagues Wide range of teaching experience Observing other teachers, learning from classroom - self development, reflection, responding to student evaluation More indepth, personal development workshops, communication skills, management skills Teachers actively involved: Networking, going to conferences, meetings, writing things Look at the linguistic angle

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Theoretical basis in professional development

In this section, therefore, the spontaneous responses are combined with the responses given by trainers / administrators after being shown a list of professional development mentioned by Geneva trainers. The teachers’ responses were also combined with the spontaneous professional development mentioned and the professional development mentioned after seeing a list of professional development mentioned by Geneva teachers.

Sydney study (less than five years’ experience) Early on, many teachers seemed to have more knowledge of the field than trainers / administrators gave them credit for, and were already ready for more reflective areas of professional development. For teachers with less than five years’ experience, trainers / administrators focused very much on the hands-on forms of professional development, with inservice training, getting more experience and consolidating basic skills and training, with ample guidance and support early on. Further formal basic study was also valued by trainers / administrators in the early years, but less so by teachers.

Teachers, however, mentioned reflection as the most important form of professional development, with reading books and journals as very high on the list, observing others and self appraisal, which were not mentioned by trainers / administrators. Teachers also felt ready for conferences and specific courses by four years’ experience, which was not acknowledged by trainers / administrators.

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Table O.1 : Type of professional development needed for less than five years’ experience (Sydney trainers’ / administrators’ combined list) Type of professional dev elopment

Trnrs / admrs *

Teachers **

n

n

Inservice / training

11

16

Diversification / experience

11

7


8

Grammar / theory / basic skills / linguistics

8

Reflection

5

25


1

5

Keeping up to date with administration side

1

Everything

1

Keeping up to date

6

Keeping interest / motivation high

1

Areas of professional dev elopment mentioned by

7

teachers, not by trainers Conferences

5

Other: travel, understanding customer

2

Total responses

46

67

* Number trainers / administrators = 11; number teachers = 9 The responses of trainers / administrators in the spontaneous list and combined list did not vary substantially in the order of importance of different aspects of professional development. In both lists, inservice training and training were considered most important, followed by diversification and experience. Support and guidance was the next most important in both lists, followed by reflection. Teachers rated reflection higher than trainers / administrators. Teachers also rated observing others very highly, but this was not mentioned by trainers/ administrators. Being observed was rated more highly by teachers than by trainers/ administrators, which was perhaps surprising too. This was a form of professional development which was often not available, possibly because of the cost to the institution, but possibly also because of a belief by trainers / administrators that teachers found it threatening.

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Combined responses Sydney study (5-10 years’ experience) For teachers with 5-10 years’ experience, trainers / administrators then felt they needed to diversify more than any other area of professional development, with branching out and specialising being the most mentioned. This was then followed by inservice training / further training as the next most important, followed by a focus on linguistics and theory, then interaction with colleagues.

Again, the more reflective forms of professional development seemed to be missing for trainers / administrators, while teachers rated reflective types of professional development as by far the most important, followed by inservice training / further training, then interaction with colleagues. Diversification rated quite low, with only five mentions. Therefore, the perceptions of trainers / administrators were quite different to teachers for this category of experience. Some of the professional development mentioned by trainers / administrators, such as branching out and specialising and further qualifications, arguably lead to reading and reflection; however, reflection and reading were not specifically mentioned by trainers / administrators.

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Table O.2: Type of professional development needed for 5-10 years’ experience (Sydney trainers’ / administrators’ combined list) Type of professional dev elopment

Trnrs / admrs * Teachers** n

n

Diversification

20

6

Inservice training / further training

8

14

Theoretical side (linguistics), grammar

7


4

Career focus

3

Reflection

2

25

Conferences

2

6

Keeping up to date

1

5

11

Departmental meetings: goal setting Total responses

1 47

67

* Number trainers / administrators = 11; number teachers = 12 Again, there was no substantial difference between the order of mention of professional development by trainers, administrators from the spontaneous to combined list.

Combined list Sydney study (11+ years’ experience) For teachers with more than 11 years’ experience, 23 responses focused on diversification such as supervisory positions and specialised or new areas with further challenges. This was followed by reflection and inservice training with five mentions each. Four other responses related to respondents needing a new job or to develop a new hobby.

Teachers, however, focused their attention on reflective forms of professional development, with 27 of the mentions, followed by diversification with 21 of the responses. Diversification was next with 16 responses, followed by interaction with colleagues with eleven responses.

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Table O.3: Type of professional development needed for 11-29 years’ experience (Sydney trainers’ / administrators’ combined list) Type of professional dev elopment

Trnrs / adms*

Teachers**

n

n

23

16

Reflection

5

27


5

21

Other - personal

4

1

Exit the field

4

Various

3

Knowledge about roles of organisations

2

Keep abreast of developments

1

8


1

11

Diversification

Conferences

5


1

Total responses

48

97

* Number trainers / administrators = 11; ** number teachers = 11

Professional development wanted Interview question 30. These are the types of professional development mentioned by trainers and administrators in the Geneva study. Are there any you would add? Type of professional development wanted (list derived from Geneva TESOL study) Practical, hands on for beginners: eg games, grammar, phonology, readers, drawing course etc Seminars on interpersonal skills, people skills Something to get excited about / new ideas / gimmicky things, something amusing Something not too time consuming Designing programs themselves / more specialised teaching Something challenging for more experienced teachers Administrative support

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Conferences Depends on what stage they’re at - different things They are not interested as they are not paid to attend Nothing - they feel they do not need it

The following section reports the combined responses of the Sydney TESOLs, both spontaneous responses and those given after seeing the list of professional development mentioned by Geneva TESOLs.

The order of importance for trainers / administrators was similar to the spontaneous list. As before, the more reflective types of professional development were under-rated and the focus was more on the hands-on tangible forms of professional development, such as practical and theoretical workshops, keeping abreast of new developments, and seminars on interpersonal skills. This is in contrast with the teachers, as reflection received 77 mentions. Interaction with colleagues received 36 mentions by teachers, but only two mentions by trainers / administrators.

Thirteen trainer / administrator responses also related to teachers wanting something not too time consuming or that they were not interested as they were too busy. Teachers, however, did not mention a lack of interest in the Sydney study.

Teachers valued some of the forms of professional development mentioned by trainers / administrators, and mentioned many others, but the value given to various professional development varied considerably between the two groups, particularly in the area of reflective types of professional development, which received only two mentions from the trainers / administrators.

Interestingly, teachers mentioned discussion with colleagues as the single most valuable form of professional development, but only two trainer / administrators mentioned this, followed by observing others, mentioned by one trainer / administrator. Self appraisal and reading books and journals were mentioned by

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teachers, but not by trainers / administrators. Going to conferences was also very popular with teachers, but only mentioned by trainers / administrators. However, it should be mentioned that conferences featured on the trainers’ / administrators’ ideal list, so it could be that certain forms of professional development were not mentioned as they were not considered possible to afford.

On the list from Geneva trainers/administrators was a category of nothing - they feel they do not need it. Some trainers/administrators reacted strongly against this point: ‘anyone who says that is not being very realistic.’ Another respondent went further saying that she gave them the opportunity to talk about their career goals and interview and

I wouldn’t employ someone who gave that kind of impression at interview ... Also it’s one of the criteria we use when assessing them for permanency and in the contract it’s a written agreement they will undertake professional development and further qualifications. Everyone needs professional development.

Another said ‘those are the sort of people we don’t want to employ.’

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Table O.4: Professional development wanted as perceived by trainers/administrators (Sydney trainers’ / administrators’ combined responses) Responses Trnrs / admrs*

Teachers **

n

n


32

51

Not interested / too busy / no time

13

Depends on the stage

6

Keeping abreast of new developments

6

19

Diversification / experience

4

28

Career focus

3

1

Reflection

2

77

Administrative support

2


2

27

Conferences

2

16

We ask for ideas on this

2


1

They want an element of choice

1

Type of professional dev elopment w anted

Other - personal

2

Other: Goal setting, understanding

2

customer, keeping motivation high Total responses

76

223

* Number trainers / administrators = 11; number teachers = 32

Section summary It is surprising that diversification received so little mention in the list of perceived professional development wants for teachers, when in the previous section diversification was the uppermost type of professional development mentioned for teachers with more than five years’ experience. While inservice training / further training were found to be important for beginning teachers, the range became more varied for teachers with more experience. However, in this section, inservice training / further training were the ones mentioned above all others by

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trainers / administrators, while teachers favoured reflection above all. Only two trainers / administrators mentioned reflection. This was clearly a misperception by trainers / administrators, who seemed to feel teachers were mostly interested in workshops or input sessions, or they erroneously believed teachers were not interested at all. Teachers were, in fact, interested in inservice training / further training, but also demonstrated a keen interest in other areas.

Another area of misperception was that of discussion with colleagues, which was valued by teachers and underrated by trainers / administrators.

Ideal professional development Interview question 32. These are the types of professional development mentioned by trainers and administrators in the Geneva study. Are there any you would add? Wish list (derived from Geneva TESOL study) Courses and seminars Longer courses Organise sessions with famous names on topics eg personal development, communication, group dynamics, time management, team building (not pedagogical) Sponsor people to go to conferences Better researched presentations with theoretical basis Organising the seminars Having time, infrastructure and money to put on school events Paying people to attend training, and free sessions. More like the real world Market professional development courses to get homogeneous group Reflection, individualised programs Individualised programs Teaching in blocks with time built in for reflection Getting teachers together to observe each other Materials development

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Greater range of journals Other non-TESOL related professional development Time to relearn the language in your mother tongue country Clarify aims of administration Look at field other than teaching Look at different fields of teaching eg state education, management teaching Sabbatical year for further education

The combined responses were similar to the spontaneous ones in that inservice training / further training continued to be the most frequently mentioned form of professional development, but varied slightly from the previous one with spontaneous responses in that reflection was mentioned by far more trainers / administrators. This indicates that trainers / administrators did value reflection, but tended not to have it in the forefront of their minds as teachers did.

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Table O.5 : Sydney trainers’ / administrators’ ideal professional development for teachers (combined responses) Responses Ideal professional dev elopment items

Trnrs / admrs*

Teachers **

n

n


36

51

Reflection

19

77

School events

13

Diversification

9

28

Conferences

9

16


4

27

Theoretical side (linguistics) for more

4

experienced teachers / grammar Support and guidance

3

Consultation with teachers for professional

3

3

development preferences Different things for different stages

2

Give teacher trainers time for own professional

1

development Other: travel

1

Keeping up to date

19

Other Total responses

3 103

223

* Number trainers / administrators = 11; number teachers = 32

Combined In summary, financial concerns were not so acute as in the Geneva study for conducting professional development. Some institutions already had a fairly solid system in place, with full time teachers attending during paid working time. Study leave and leave without pay were also available in several institutions, and many were undertaking further study. Some institutions also sponsored staff to undertake Diploma level qualifications.

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One institution had preparation weeks built in for professional development, but one respondent said:

I think our teachers get enough time for reflection - but they don’t use it for reflection.

So even with time allowed, teachers did not necessarily take advantage of it for professional development.

Some respondents mentioned just having time for reading and research:

I’d like time out to keep up with reading in the field. I have no time to do it and it’s very difficult in the real world where you’ve got to keep going and not discuss the uni course and assignments. And I do like to keep up on professional journals.