The Relationship Between Perceived Teacher and

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The Relationship Between Perceived Teacher and Parental Acceptance, School Conduct, and the Psychological Adjustment of Bangladeshi Adolescents

Cross-Cultural Research XX(X) 1–14 © 2010 SAGE Publications Reprints and permission: http://www. sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/1069397110366900 http://ccr.sagepub.com

Ronald P. Rohner1, Abdul Khaleque1, M. Shamsuddin Elias2, and Sabina Sultana2

Abstract This study explored the relationship between students’ perceptions of their teachers’ and parents’ (mothers’ and fathers’) acceptance, and teachers’ reports of the students’ conduct in school as well as students’ reports of their own psychological adjustment. The study was conducted on a sample of 200 high school students in Bangladesh. Results showed that, on average, Bangladeshi students perceived their parents and teachers to be fairly loving. In addition, teachers reported students (males, but especially females) to be well behaved in school. Moreover, students reported themselves to be well adjusted, psychologically. Contrary to expectations, students’ perceptions of 1

University of Connecticut, Storrs University of Rajshahi, Bangladesh

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Corresponding Author: Ronald P. Rohner, Department of Human Development and Family Studies, Unit 2058, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269-2058 Email: [email protected]

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Cross-Cultural Research XX(X)

teacher acceptance and parental acceptance were not correlated significantly with teachers’ reports of student conduct in school. Students’ perceptions of both teacher and parental acceptance were, however, significantly correlated with students’ psychological adjustment. Results of multiple regression revealed that only perceived teachers’ acceptance (but not parental acceptance) made a significant and independent contribution to variations in the adolescents’ (both males’ and females’) psychological adjustment. Keywords teacher acceptance, parental acceptance, school conduct, psychological adjustment A burgeoning literature shows that children’s relationships with their teachers have significant developmental consequences. In her review of the literature on student–teacher relationships, for example, Davis (2003) found that teachers’ positive (i.e., nurturing, supportive, and nonconflicted) relationships with students tended to be associated with a variety of desired student outcomes such as fewer behavior problems, classroom achievement, concept development, competence with peers, frustration tolerance, and academic and social skills. Poor student– teacher relationships, however, were reported to be associated with child behavior problems as well as with learning and retention problems. Shin and Kim (2008), too, found that the level of teachers’ reports of their closeness to and conflict with students was associated with children’s behavior in school, most notably with the level of children’s aggression or withdrawal. Beyond that, Harrison, Clarke, and Ungerer (2007) reported that children’s perceptions of teachers’ acceptance were strongly correlated with children liking school and negatively correlated with the tendency for children to want to avoid school. In addition, Wentzel (2002) found that young adolescents’ perception of their teachers’ nurturance was significantly associated with the youths’ prosocial behavior as judged by peers as well as responsible behavior (school conduct) and academic grades as reported by teachers. Finally, Reddy, Rhodes, and Mulhall (2003), among others (e.g., Cattley, 2004), found that the psychological adjustment of young adolescents was associated with the students’ perceptions of teachers’ social and emotional support. More specifically, Reddy et al.’s longitudinal study showed that changes in perceived teacher support reliably predicted future changes in the level of youths’ depression and self-esteem. Parents too have been shown to be implicated strongly in children’s school conduct, academic achievement, and psychological adjustment. Boon (2007),

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for example, found that adolescents’ self-reports of high parental warmth and involvement (i.e., acceptance), along with firm behavioral control, was associated with positive academic achievement, as measured by grades in English and mathematics. However, adolescents’ reports of low parental warmth and involvement, and little behavioral control or supervision (i.e., neglectful rejection) was associated with the lowest level of academic achievement in her sample. Pallock and Lamborn (2006), however, failed to confirm a significant relationship between perceived parental acceptance and adolescents’ academic achievement. The adolescents’ perception of parental acceptance was, though, associated with their positive attitudes toward school and with their belief in the importance of school for future success—as well as with the extent to which the adolescents took pride in the successful completion of school-related tasks. Moreover, the authors found that the adolescents’ perception of parental acceptance was also linked to the extent to which they felt a sense of closeness to and support from their teachers. Recent research has begun to suggest that some of the apparent influence of perceived parental acceptance on youths’ school performance may be mediated through youths’ perceptions of teacher acceptance. Woolley, Kol, and Bowen (2009), for example, found that perceived parental support (acceptance) was linked to adolescents’ conduct in school, to their reports about school satisfaction, to time spent on homework, and to grades. However, most of the apparent influence of parental acceptance proved to be mediated through the adolescents’ perceptions of teacher support, which itself tended to be correlated with perceived parental support. Gender differences also sometimes emerge in the outcome of relationships between students and their teachers. Goodenow (1993), for example, found that girls’ perception of teachers’ support was associated with more positive outcomes than for boys. Moreover, Blankemeyer, Flannery, and Vazsonyi (2002) found that poor school adjustment was more strongly associated with boys’ perceptions than with girls’ perceptions of a negative relationship with teachers. It is sometimes speculated that gender differences such as these could be a function of the fact that girls often form closer and less conflictual relationships with their teachers than do boys (Pianta, Hamre, & Stuhlman, 2003).

Teacher and Parental Acceptance, and Adolescent Outcomes in Bangladesh The majority of studies done on the consequences of perceived teacher and parental acceptance for youths’ psychological adjustment and school-related behavior have been completed in the United States and other predominantly

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English-speaking countries. Relatively little is known about the extent to which conclusions reached in these studies generalize to youths in school systems outside these countries. In recognition of this fact, this study explored in Bangladesh the relationship between adolescents’ perceptions of teachers’ and parents’ (mothers’ and fathers’) acceptance and teachers’ reports of the adolescents’ conduct in school as well as the students’ reports of their own psychological adjustment. Because—as already noted—prior research has shown that gender differences sometimes emerge in the outcome of relationships between teachers and students, we also tested for possible gender differences in this study. In addition, as recent research shows that the relationship between perceived parental acceptance and students’ school conduct and psychological adjustment is sometimes mediated to a large extent by students’ perceptions of teacher acceptance, we also tested for this effect in the Bangladeshi sample. Norms and values of Bangladeshi schools and families are based on a mixture of Islamic and indigenous cultural traditions. Traditionally, school teachers— like fathers in patriarchal Bangladeshi families—tended to command respect and obedience from students. Historically, schools were teacher centered, with strict classroom discipline and control of students’ behavior. Similarly, the traditional pattern of family life was patriarchal, with father dominance. Fathers usually commanded respect and loyalty from all family members, and they assumed full responsibility for the social and economic well-being of the family. Mothers, on the other hand, were typically responsible for domestic work, nurturance, and social-emotional support of family members. Traditionally, their primary role was to serve their husbands and to rear their children. This traditional school and family pattern is gradually changing, however, with changes in social and economic conditions—especially in urban areas—where increasing numbers of women are attaining higher education and employment outside the home (Khaleque, Rohner, & Nahar, 2008).

Method Sample Data were collected from 200 adolescents (89 males and 111 females) in a high school in Rajshahi city, Bangladesh. The school was selected on the basis of convenience, but the sample was selected randomly from among eighth-grade students. Respondents ranged in age from 12 through 15 years (M = 13; SD = 0.68 years). The sample included adolescents from middle-class and working-class families, but the majority were from middleclass families.

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Measures The following Bengali-language measures were used in this study: (a) child version of the Parental Acceptance–Rejection/Control Questionnaire for Mothers (Child PARQ/Control: Mother; Rohner, 2005), (b) child version of the Parental Acceptance–Rejection/Control Questionnaire for Fathers (Child PARQ/Control: Father; Rohner, 2005), (c) child version of the Personality Assessment Questionnaire (Child PAQ; Rohner & Khaleque, 2005), (d) child version of the Teacher’s Acceptance–Rejection/Control Questionnaire (Child TARQ/Control [short form]; Rohner, 2005), and (e) Teacher’s Evaluation of Student’s Conduct (TESC; Rohner, 2005). Bengali language versions of all these questionnaires were used in this study. Each of the questionnaires is described more fully below. First, though, we need to note that none of the behavioral control subscales in these measures was used in this research because of their questionable reliability in the Bangladeshi context. Accordingly, they are not discussed further. Child PARQ/Control: Mother and Father. The mother and father versions of the Child PARQ/Control are self-report measures consisting of 73 items designed to assess children’s perceptions of maternal and paternal acceptance and behavioral control, respectively. The two versions are virtually identical except for reference to “mother’s” behavior versus “father’s” behavior. Both ask respondents to reflect on their mothers’ or fathers’ (or other significant caregivers’, if any) behavior toward them. In addition, both versions consist of five scales. The first four scales (60 items) measure children’s perceptions of maternal or paternal warmth/affection, hostility/aggression, indifference/ neglect, and undifferentiated rejection. Undifferentiated rejection refers to children’s belief that their parents do not really love, want, appreciate, or care about them, without necessarily experiencing any clear behavioral indicators that their parents are truly neglecting, unaffectionate, or aggressive toward them. The fifth scale (13 items) measures perceived maternal or paternal behavioral control. Sample items on the acceptance–rejection portion of the mother version of the Child PARQ/Control include the following: “My mother makes me feel wanted and needed” (perceived warmth/affection), “My mother goes out of her way to hurt my feelings” (perceived hostility/aggression), “My mother ignores me as long as I do nothing to bother her” (perceived indifference/ neglect), and “My mother does not really love me” (perceived undifferentiated rejection). Children respond to all items on a 4-point Likert-type scale ranging from 4 (almost always true) to 1 (almost never true). Scores on the four acceptance–rejection scales are summed (after reverse scoring the warmth/ affection scale to create a measure of perceived coldness and lack of affection),

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producing an overall measure of perceived acceptance–rejection that ranges from a low of 60 (maximum perceived acceptance) to a high of 240 (maximum perceived rejection). Both versions are designed conceptually in such a way that scores at or above 150 reveal the experience of significantly more caregiver rejection than acceptance. Analyses of reliability and validity of the acceptance–rejection (PARQ) portion of the PARQ/Control show the instrument to be robust in cross-cultural research. For example, a meta-analysis based on 7,152 respondents crossculturally revealed the mean weighted effect size of coefficient alpha— aggregated across all versions of the PARQ—to be .89 (Khaleque & Rohner, 2002b). Alpha coefficients of the acceptance–rejection portion of the Bengali version of the Child PARQ/Control: Father and Mother versions used in this study were .78 and .76, respectively. Child PAQ. The Child PAQ contains 42 items that assess the seven personality dispositions most central to parental acceptance–rejection theory’s (PARTheory) personality subtheory (Rohner, 1986, 2004). These dispositions include hostility/ aggression, emotional responsiveness, dependence or defensive independence, self-esteem, self-adequacy, emotional stability, and worldview. Sample items on the Child PAQ include the following: “I think about fighting or being mean” (hostility/aggression), “I like my parents to make a fuss over me when I am hurt or sick” (dependence), “I like myself” (positive self-esteem), “I can compete successfully for things I want” (positive self-adequacy), “It is easy for me to show my friends that I really like them” (emotional responsiveness), “I am cheerful and happy one minute and gloomy or unhappy the next” (emotional instability), and “I think the world is a good, happy place” (positive worldview). Children respond to PAQ items on a 4-point Likert-type scale ranging from 4 (almost always true of me) to 1 (almost never true of me). A profile of children’s overall self-reported psychological adjustment is achieved by summing the seven scale scores after reverse scoring appropriate items. Scores on the Child PAQ can range from a low of 42, indicating healthy psychological adjustment, to a possible high of 168, indicating serious psychological maladjustment. The mean weighted alpha coefficient of the PAQ in nine studies internationally was .83 (Khaleque & Rohner, 2002b). Alpha coefficient of the Bengali version of the Child PAQ used in this study was .85. Additional evidence about the reliability and validity of the PAQ can be found in Rohner and Khaleque (2005). Child TARQ/Control. The Child TARQ/Control (short form) is a 29-item adaptation of the standard Child PARQ/Control (short form). This questionnaire was developed for children to reflect on the level of the acceptance– rejection and behavioral control they experience at the hands of their primary classroom teacher. The TARQ/Control contains five subscales, four

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of which assess students’ perceptions of their teachers’ warmth/affection, hostility/aggression, indifference/neglect, and undifferentiated rejection— and overall acceptance–rejection. The fifth subscale—not used in this research for reasons noted earlier—assesses the extent to which students perceive their teacher to be behaviorally controlling. The acceptance–rejection portion of the TARQ/Control is scored in the same way as the PARQ/ Control described earlier. Scores on the four acceptance–rejection subscales range from a low of 24 (maximum perceived acceptance) to a high of 96 (maximum perceived rejection). The acceptance–rejection portion of the TARQ/Control is designed conceptually in such a way that scores at or above 60 indicate the experience of significantly more teacher rejection than acceptance. Detailed information about the reliability and validity of the newly created Child TARQ/Control will soon become available from a large-scale multinational study now underway. Alpha coefficient of the acceptance–rejection portion of the Bengali version of the Child TARQ/ Control used in this study, however, was .85. TESC. The TESC is an 18-item measure of students’ school conduct problems as judged by teachers. Items regarding disruptive behaviors such as defying teachers’ authority, cheating, lying, stealing, and disobedience are included in the measure. Each item is scored on a 5-point Likert-type scale, ranging from 5 (very often) to 1 (almost never). Total scores range from a low of 18 (minimal or no conduct problems) to a high of 90 (maximum/serious conduct problems). Scores at or above the TESC midpoint of 54 indicate teachers’ report of a significant conduct problem. Scores between 18 and 32 indicate that the student is rarely (or never) seen to be a behavior problem in school, scores between 33 and 47 indicate that the student is occasionally but not often seen to be a behavior problem, scores between 48 and 61 indicate that the student is sometimes seen to be a behavior problem, scores between 62 and 76 indicate that the student is often seen to be a behavior problem, and scores between 77 and 90 indicate that the student is seen as a serious behavior problem. The TESC has been shown to be a reliable measure for use in multiethnic (e.g., Rohner, 1995; coefficient a = .98) and in international (e.g., Rohner, 1995; coefficient a = .95) research. Coefficient alpha for the Bengali version of the measure used in this study was .93. Significant evidence about the factorial validity of the TESC has also been provided by Melton (2000) and Rohner (1987).

Procedures Bengali versions of all of the above questionnaires were administered in class during school hours. The parents of students gave oral consent allowing their children to participate in the research.

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Results Results showed that both male (M = 45.60, SD = 10.07) and female students (M = 42.01, SD = 8.49) tended to perceive their teachers to be warm and overall accepting. The students also tended to perceive their mothers (males: M = 131.71, SD = 16.49; females: M = 127.95, SD = 17.92) to be fairly loving; this was also true of the adolescents’ perceptions of their fathers’ behavior (males: M = 130.39, SD = 17.40; females: M = 125.96, SD = 16.61). These facts notwithstanding, both males and females tended to perceive their teachers to be more accepting than either their mothers or fathers. This point is highlighted by the fact that 13% of the males perceived both of their parents to be qualitatively more rejecting than accepting, whereas only 9% of the males saw their teachers to be more rejecting than accepting. Females’ perceptions of rejection are somewhat less pronounced. That is, 13% of them also saw their mothers to be qualitatively more rejecting than accepting, but only 6% saw their father to be rejecting, and 4% saw their teachers to be rejecting. The fact that teachers were perceived by students on the average to be warm and accepting may help account for the fact that teachers generally perceived both males (M = 27.80, SD = 8.83) and females (M = 19.93, SD = 3.32) to be well behaved in school. In fact, only 1% of the males and none of the females were reported by teachers to be significant behavior problems in school. The fact that a significant percentage of males perceived both of their parents but not their teachers to be rejecting may also help explain why males tended to self-report slight problems with psychological maladjustment (M = 94.45, SD = 16.19). Indeed, 24% of the males reported themselves to be significantly more psychologically maladjusted than adjusted. The picture is similar though less severe for females, who tended to self-report fair psychological adjustment (M = 92.36, SD = 14.30). Seventeen percent of them, however, reported themselves to be more psychologically maladjusted than adjusted. As shown in Table 1, the level of students’ (both males and females) psychological adjustment correlated significantly with the level of perceived teacher acceptance as well as with the level of perceived parental (both maternal and paternal) acceptance. But because there was so little variation in teachers’ reports of student conduct, none of the correlations between teacher or parental acceptance and student conduct achieved significance. Similarly, there was no significant correlation for either males or females between student conduct and psychological adjustment. In an effort to discover whether teacher acceptance as well as parental (maternal and paternal) acceptance made significant and unique or independent contributions to students’ psychological adjustment, we computed simple multiple regression analyses, with perceived teacher, maternal, and paternal

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Table 1. Correlations Between Perceived Acceptance by Teachers and Parents, and Students’ School Conduct and Psychological Adjustment

1

2

3

4

Acceptance Mother — .64*** .51*** -.19 Father .65*** — .43*** -.19 Teacher .45*** .29** — -.07 Conduct -.04 .08 -.06 — Adjustment .37** .31** .49*** -.10

5 .46*** .46*** .64**** -.02 —

Note: Correlations above the diagonal are for males (n = 89); correlations below the diagonal are for females (n = 111). **p < .05. ***p < .01. ****p < .001.

acceptance as predictor variables and with psychological adjustment as the outcome variable for both males and females. Results of these analyses are provided in Figure 1. Results showed that only teachers’ acceptance (b = .52, t = 5.47, p < .001) made an independent and significant contribution to males’ psychological adjustment, though paternal (but not maternal) acceptance trended nonsignificantly ( p < .10) in that direction. The linear combination of the three predictor variables was significantly related to males’ psychological adjustment, F(3, 85) = 23.12, p < .001. The sample multiple correlation coefficient was R = .67, indicating that approximately 45% of the variance in males’ psychological adjustment could be explained by the combination of teacher, maternal, and paternal acceptance. The linear combination of the three predictor variables was also significantly related to females’ psychological adjustment, F(3, 107) = 13.75, p < .001. The sample multiple correlation was R = .53, indicating that approximately 28% of the variance in females’ psychological adjustment could be explained by a combination of teacher, maternal, and paternal acceptance. However, as was true for males, only teachers’ acceptance (b = .41, t = 4.48, p < .001) made an independent and significant contribution to females’ psychological adjustment. Neither maternal nor paternal acceptance did.

Discussion Results of this research reveal that both perceived teachers’ acceptance and parental (both maternal and paternal) acceptance are significantly correlated with the self-reported psychological adjustment of adolescent males and females in Bangladesh. This conclusion is consistent with most prior research on the topic (e.g., Davis, 2003). Results of this research are also consistent with the conclusion drawn by some authors (e.g., Woolley et al., 2009) that youths’

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MALES (n = 88) Paternal Acceptance

.19 * 43**** .52**** Teachers’ Acceptance

.51****

Psychological Adjustment

.07

Maternal Acceptance Multiple R = .67

FEMALES (n = 110) Paternal Acceptance .29**

.13 .41***** Teachers’ Acceptance

Maternal Acceptance

Psychological Adjustment

.45**** .09

Multiple R = .53

Figure 1. Perceived teachers’ acceptance mediates the effects of perceived parental (maternal and paternal) acceptance on the psychological adjustment of male and female adolescents Note: Path coefficients are standardized regression coefficients (bs). *p < .10. **p < .05. ****p < .001.

perceptions of teachers’ acceptance sometimes mediates the apparent influence of perceived parental acceptance on students’ behavior. In this case, perceived teachers’ acceptance appears to almost entirely mediate the contribution that perceived parental (maternal and paternal) acceptance makes to the psychological adjustment of Bangladeshi adolescents, though perceived paternal acceptance tends to weakly affect the adjustment of adolescent males (but not females). It is not clear at this time why neither maternal nor paternal acceptance continue to make unique and significant contributions to the psychological adjustment of Bangladeshi adolescents after controlling for the influence

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of perceived teacher acceptance. Clearly, further research on this topic is needed to learn more about the influence of perceived teacher acceptance versus parental acceptance on adolescents’ adjustment in that country. This research has at least one limitation that could affect the generalizability of its results within Bangladesh. That is, all measures that were statistically related to each other were self-reported by students. Prior evidence reported in Rohner and Khaleque (2005), however, suggested that this fact may not be a cause for great concern because youths’ perceptions of parental acceptance are also significantly correlated with independent reports of the youths’ psychological adjustment. We were, however, unable to find comparable evidence for the relation between perceived teacher acceptance and independent reports of adolescents’ psychological adjustment. Finally, we need to point out that the direction of causation cannot be determined in this cross-sectional research. Differences in perceived teacher acceptance, for example, might plausibly contribute to variations in adolescents’ psychological adjustment. It is also possible, however, that better-adjusted students may be inclined to view their teachers more positively than do more poorly adjusted students. We should point out, though, that the longitudinal research of Reddy et al. (2003) suggested that the causal path goes from teacher acceptance and support to student adjustment, and not the reverse. It remains for future longitudinal research to determine whether this conclusion is also true in Bangladesh. Declaration of Conflicting Interests The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the authorship and/or publication of this article.[AQ: 1]

Funding The author(s) received no financial support for the research and/or authorship of this article.[AQ: 2]

References Blankemeyer, M., Flannery, D. J., & Vazsonyi, A. T. (2002). The role of aggression and social competence in children’s perceptions of the child–teacher relationship. Psychology in the Schools, 39, 293-304. Boon, H. J. (2007). Low- and high-achieving Australian secondary school students: Their parenting, motivations and academic achievement. Australian Psychologist, 42, 212-225. Cattley, G. (2004). The impact of teacher-parent-peer support on students’ well-being and adjustment to the middle years of schooling. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 11, 269-282.

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Davis, H. A. (2003). Conceptualizing the role and influence of student-teacher relationships on children’s social and cognitive development. Educational Psychologist, 38, 207-234. Goodenow, C. (1993). Classroom belonging among early adolescent students: Relationships to motivation and achievement. Journal of Early Adolescence, 13, 21-43. Harrison, L. J., Clarke, L., & Ungerer, J. A. (2007). Children’s drawings provide a new perspective on teacher–child relationship quality and school adjustment. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 22, 55-71. Khaleque, A., & Rohner, R. P. (2002a). Perceived parental acceptance–rejection and psychological adjustment: A meta-analysis of cross cultural and intracultural studies. Journal of Marriage and Family, 64, 54-64.[AQ:3] Khaleque, A., & Rohner, R. P. (2002b). Reliability of measures assessing the relation between perceived parental acceptance–rejection and psychological adjustment: A meta-analysis of cross-cultural and intracultural studies. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 33, 86-98. Khaleque, A., Rohner, R. P., & Nahar, Z. (2008). Agreement between children’s and mothers’ perceptions of maternal acceptance–rejection: A comparative study of mothers and children in Bangladesh and Bangladeshi immigrant families in the United States. In F. Erkman (Ed.), Acceptance: The essence of peace (pp. 175-185). Istanbul: Turkish Psychology Association. Melton, S. (2000). Relationship between sixth graders’ perceptions of parental acceptance–rejection and their performance in school. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Tennessee, Knoxville. Pallock, L. L., & Lamborn, S. D. (2006). Beyond parenting practices: Extended kinship support and the academic adjustment of African American and European American teens. Journal of Adolescence, 29, 813-828. Pianta, R. C., Hamre, B., & Stuhlman, M. (2003). Relationships between teachers and children. In W. Reynolds & G. Miller (Eds.), Handbook of psychology, Volume 7: Educational psychology (pp. 309-330). New York: Wiley. Reddy, R., Rhodes, J., & Mulhall, P. (2003).The influence of teacher support on student adjustment in the middle school years: A latent growth curve study. Development and Psychopathology, 15, 119-138. Rohner, R. P. (1986). The warmth dimension: Foundations of parental acceptance– rejection theory. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Rohner, R. P. (1987). [St. Kitts, West Indies project]. Unpublished raw data. Rohner, R. P. (1995). [McIntosh County parents and children project]. Unpublished raw data. Rohner, R. P. (2004). The parental “acceptance–rejection syndrome”: Universal correlates of perceived rejection. American Psychologist, 59, 827-840. Rohner, R. P. (2005). Parental acceptance–rejection/control questionnaire (PARQ/ Control): Test manual. In R. P. Rohner & A. Khaleque (Eds.), Handbook for the

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study of parental acceptance and rejection (4th ed., pp. 137-186). Storrs, CT: Rohner Research Publications. Rohner, R. P., & Khaleque, A. (2003). Reliability and validity of the Parental Control Scale: A meta-analysis of cross-cultural and intracultural studies. Journal of CrossCultural Psychology, 34, 643-649.[AQ:4] Rohner, R. P., & Khaleque, A. (2005). Personality assessment questionnaire (PAQ): Test manual. In R. P. Rohner & A. Khaleque (Eds.), Handbook for the study of parental acceptance and rejection (4th ed., pp. 187-225). Storrs, CT: Rohner Research Publications. Shin, Y., & Kim, H. Y. (2008). Peer victimization in Korean preschool children: The effect of child characteristics, parenting behaviours and teacher–child relationships. School Psychology International, 29, 590-605. Wentzel, K. R. (2002). Are effective teachers like good parents? Teaching styles and student adjustment in early adolescence. Child Development, 73, 287-301. Woolley, M. E., Kol, K. L., & Bowen, G. L. (2009). The social context of school success for Latino middle school students: Direct and indirect influences of teachers, family and friends. Journal of Early Adolescence, 29, 43-70.

Bios Ronald P. Rohner is director of the Ronald and Nancy Rohner Center for the Study of Interpersonal Acceptance and Rejection in the Department of Human Development and Family Studies at the University of Connecticut, Storrs. There he is also the professor emeritus of human development and family studies and of anthropology. In addition, he is the executive director of the International Society for Interpersonal Acceptance and Rejection. His research interests focus on interpersonal acceptance and rejection and on major styles of parenting—especially the warmth dimension of parenting—and their worldwide consequences for children and adults. Abdul Khaleque, PhD, is currently a senior scientist in the Ronald and Nancy Rohner Center for the Study of Interpersonal Acceptance and Rejection in the Department of Human Development and Family Studies, University of Connecticut. He is also a professor in residence in the Department of Human Development and Family Studies at the University of Connecticut. Formerly he was a professor of psychology at the University of Dhaka in Bangladesh. His current research interests include interpersonal acceptance and rejection and life-span human development, specifically parental acceptance–rejection, intimate partner acceptance–rejection, and teachers’ acceptance– rejection. He has published nearly 100 research articles, approximately 25 book chapters, and 12 books in psychology and related areas. M. Shamsuddin Elias, PhD, is an associate professor in the Department of Psychology at the University of Rajshahi, Bangladesh. He has also served as an associate professor

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of psychology at the National University, Bangladesh, and as an assistant professor of psychology at the Bangladesh Open University. He is a popular undergraduate- and graduate-level instructor as well as an organizer of students’ cocurricular activities. He has published several journal articles and book chapters. His current research interests include leadership in education, gender roles in education, parental acceptance– rejection, teachers’ acceptance–rejection, parent–child interaction, and students’ attitude toward sociopolitical issues. Sabina Sultana, PhD, is an assistant professor of psychology at the University of Rajshahi, Bangladesh. She completed her PhD degree in the field of mental retardation. Her current research interests include interpersonal acceptance and rejection, especially parental and teachers’ acceptance–rejection and human disabilities. She has published five research articles. She has also supervised nearly 30 research projects at undergraduate and graduate levels. Finally, she is an effective organizer of students’ extracurricular activities.