This is authors pre-print version of the article. For the final version of record, please refer Therisa, K. K., & Sony, M. (2016). Enhancing impact of ergonomics in educational institutions: theoretical foundations and practical viewpoints. International Journal of Process Management and Benchmarking, 6(2), 133-146.
Enhancing Impact of Ergonomics in Educational Institutions: Theoretical Foundations and Practical Viewpoints By Dr K.K. Therisa and Michael Sony
Dr. K.K. Therisa, Assistant Professor Dhempe College of Arts and Science, Miramar,Panaji, Goa India Email:
[email protected]
Michael Sony Department of Electricity Government of Goa, India Page | 1
403404 Email:
[email protected]
Biographical Notes Dr.K.K. Therisa is presently Assistant Professor in Dhempe College of Arts and Science, Goa , India. She holds a PhD in Neuropharmacology from Goa University. She is a prolific writer on Behavioral studies. Her research interest includes Neurophysiology using animal models, Ergonomics, Educational Research etc. Currently, M.Sony is a Maintenance Engineer, Electricity Department, Goa India. He is also a research scholar in department of Management studies, Goa University. He holds a master of Engineering in Industrial Engineering from Goa University in the year 2008. He passed Bachelors degree in Electrical Engineering in the year 2004. He is a chartered Engineer and Government of India certified Energy Manager and Energy Auditor from Bureau of energy Efficiency, India. His research interest includes Service Customization, Employee adaptability, Markov Model, reliability engineering, discrete system simulation
ABSTRACT There has been considerable activity worldwide on ‘Ergonomics Education’ but very little study has focused on the affect of Ergonomics for Education sector. This article applies learning theory and ergonomic principles to the design of effective learning environments for educational institutions. It discusses basic principles of ergonomics used for educational institutions, including the role of ergonomics in Educational institutions, physical environment, lighting, furniture design, sitting ergonomics etc. A conceptual model is developed to explain the impact of ergonomics in educational environment. At last managerial implication and scope for future research is discussed. Keywords: Ergonomics, Educational Institutions, Furniture designs, Sitting Ergonomics 1.0 Introduction
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Ergonomics is a multidisciplinary area that embodies the knowledge from various disciplines like anthropology, medicine, engineering and psychology. weapons industries
In the Second World War, the
benefit from the knowledge of ergonomics, which subsequently was
explored by the production management systems (Iida, 1997). The term ergonomics derived from the Greek words ergon (work) and nomos (rules), created in the mid 1940s. The International Ergonomics Association was founded in 1961 and it currently represents more than 40 member countries. There are many definitions of ergonomics. Some of the known definition is: Hollnagel (1997) “The applied science of equipment design, as for the workplace, intended to maximize productivity by reducing human fatigue and discomfort” Murrell (1965) “the scientific study of the relationship between man and his working environment. In this sense, the term environment is taken to cover not only the ambient environment in which he may work but also his tools and materials, his methods of work and the organization of the work, either as an individual or within a working group. All these are related to the nature of man himself; to his abilities, capacities and limitations.” Grandjean (1989) “is a study of man’s behavior in relation to his work. The object of this research is man at work in relation to his spatial environment. The most important principle of ergonomics: Fitting the task to the man. Ergonomics is inter disciplinarian: it bases its theories on physiology, psychology, anthropometry, and various aspects of engineering”. Meister (1989) “is the study of how humans accomplish work-related tasks in the context of human-machine system operation and how behavioral and non behavioral variables affect that accomplishment”. Sanders and McCormick (1987) “discovers and applies information about human behavior, abilities, limitations, and other characteristics to the design of tools, machines, tasks, jobs, and environments for productive, safe, comfortable, and effective human use.” Hancock (1997) “is that branch of science which seeks to turn human–machine antagonism into human–machine synergy”.
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Hollnagel (2014) argued that the nature of work in the early 2010s is so different from the nature of work when ergonomics and Human factor engineering was formulated 60–70 years ago that a critical reassessment of the basis for is needed. Heeding this call Wilson (2014) coined the term Systems ergonomics and explained that systems ergonomics examines, accounts for and enhances the design of a system, and people’s interactions with it, rather than concentrating on an individual part of it. Norros (2014) established three characteristics of high-quality HFE (Human factor Ergonomics), i.e., HFE takes a systems approach, HFE is design-driven, and HFE focuses on two closely related outcomes, performance and well-being. Ergonomic profession ensures that design or redesign of systems to consider both productivity and employee well being. Edwards and Jensen (2014) explicate that there are many approaches to achieve this principle. The four perennial issues are (1) determining the limits and scope of the system to be designed; (2) identifying stakeholders related to the system and their role in the system design; (3) handling the process' different types of knowledge; and (4) emphasizing that performance management systems, key performance indicators (KPIs), and leadership are also part of the system design and must be given attention. From the above definitions, it is transpired that the ergonomics in simple term is “the study of man’s comfort at the workplace by reducing the exertion, thus, enhancing the productivity”, so also, it is applicable in the educational institutes as knowledge imparting requires comfort for learning as well as teaching. Ergonomics is used widely not only to assist the disabled (Stanley and Hoyt, 2011), but also to facilitate learning process among the able bodied. Previous research on ergonomics in education has focused on classroom design (Sanders, 2013), furniture design (Shah et al., 2013), temperature regulation (Song et al., 2012), acoustics (Oberdoerster and Tiesler, 2011), learning environment (Smith, 2013), aesthetics (Susi, 1989) and so on. Hence this paper tries to integrate and critique the existing literatures specifically in the field of education as well as cull out some practical view points to enhance the understanding of this field. 2.0 Ergonomics in Education There has been considerable activity worldwide on ‘Ergonomics Education’ but very little study has focused on the affect of Ergonomics for Education sector. Smith et al. (2015) elucidate that with global recessionary pressures still applying pressures to reduce costs and make educational Page | 4
services more convenient. It is the tenet of this article that the emphasis on Ergonomics ‘for’ education sector and may help to play a significant and meaningful role in understanding the ergonomics/human factors within the frame work education sector at the same time keep an eye on the economics of the suggestions. The people in schools/ colleges are mostly children/youths/ students and teachers, but there are some other ‘stakeholders’ such as principals, caretakers, governing boards (or Boards of Trustees), Government Department officials (inspectors), equipment and learning resource providers and, last but not least, parents. The ‘system’ within education sector contains many different ‘elements’, ranging from micro to macro- ergonomic in nature. These can include equipments (e.g. desks, chairs, computers, laptops, books, school bags, pens, uniforms, and equipment used for sport and in the gymnasium and playground), work (e.g. learning, teaching and playing) ,spaces (e.g. desk /chair /workspace arrangements, lockers), facilities/ environments (e.g. classrooms, laboratories, libraries, corridors, playgrounds staffroom, physical factors such as heating, cooling, lighting, noise, building design and the internet) and Educational Institution Organization (e.g. subjects/topics, curricula, learning/ teaching methods and pedagogy, school-day length and timing, study durations, timetable, rest breaks, physical activities, departmental structures, governance, school rules, personal security, human rights, school and national policies, educational priorities, internationalization, globalization) and even faculty evaluation system (Collan et al., 2014). Ergonomics has a potential to impact each of the areas in some way or the other. This stresses the significant role ergonomics is expected to hinder or facilitate the role of learning or teaching in an education institution. 3.0 Learning Styles and Educational Environment In this article, it is not possible to shell out each and every aspect of designing systems for the education sector, however, the intention of the authors is initiate the reader into an ergonomic consciousness, hence it is intended to illustrate these concepts with a simple example of designing an classroom. No matter what kind of classes a teacher teaches, imparting knowledge to enable learning is the core purpose of the exercise. Essentially, learning takes place when students interact with 1) the teacher 2) each other, or 3) materials in order to gain new knowledge, complete a task, or solve a problem. In the behaviorist model of learning, the teacher shapes the learner's response by reward and reinforcement(Fosnot and Perry, 1996). In the Page | 5
cognitive and constructivist models of learning, students are active participants in the learning process(Emmons and Wilkinson, 2001). An ideal classroom is multifunctional which is, designed to serve both the teacher-centered behaviorist approach and the student-centered cognitive and constructivist approaches(Woolfolk Hoy et al., 2013). In a survey of the literature on the importance of place to adult learning, researcher (Fulton, 1991) found that there was little formal research on the topic and that much of the research that was conducted concluded that people's reactions to the learning environment were idiosyncratic. Whatever is the reason for the scarcity, it may be possible to attribute these idiosyncratic responses to the fact that different people learn in different ways. In the book Experiential Learning, Kolb (1984) illustrates a cognitive model of learning that cycle through four different learning styles. The styles are based on people's preferences along two scales, which
McCarthy (1997) termed as ``perceiving'' and ``processing''. Perception
ranges from concrete experience to abstract conceptualization and processing ranges from active experimentation to reflective observation. Kolb (1984) named the learning styles as 1) diverger, 2) assimilator 3) converger, and 4) accommodator. McCarthy applied Kolb's learning theory to create a teaching model and renamed the learning styles as: 1) imaginative learners, 2) analytic learners, 3) common sense learners, and 4) dynamic learners. The cycle is set into motion with the diverger or imaginative learner, who perceives through concrete experience and processes through reflective observation. Imaginative learners prefer to reflect on their own experiences as they learn. They search for meaning as they share personal experiences and learn from their peers in collaborative learning groups. Imaginative learners need a reason to learn. Hence, the teachers’ role is to motivate learners. Activities that involve interaction between teacher and student as well as student and peers work well for the imaginative learner. The cycle continues with the assimilator or analytic learner, who perceives through abstract conceptualization, and processes through reflective observation. Analytic learners are traditional learners. They value expert knowledge and want to know the facts. Here the teachers’ role is to inform. Lectures and presentations work well for the analytic learner. Next in the cycle is the converger or common sense learner, who perceives through abstract conceptualization and processes through active experimentation. Common sense learners learn by doing. They like to experiment. Here the teachers’ role is to coach. Hand-on practice works Page | 6
well for the common sense learner. The last part of the cycle is the accommodator or dynamic learner, who perceives through concrete experience and processes through active experimentation. Dynamic learners learn through trial and error. They want to apply and use what they learn. In order to measure the learning styles Kolb and Kolb (2013) designed the learning style inventory. Manolis et al. (2013) expounds that Kolb's Learning Style Inventory (LSI), although one of the most widely utilized instruments to measure individual learning styles, possesses serious weaknesses. Their study transforms the LSI from a type (categorical measure) to a degree (continuous measure) style of learning style measure that is not only more parsimonious but is also easier to use than the existing LSI. The role of teacher here is to evaluate and to facilitate the process of helping the student apply and generalize learning. All learners move through the entire cycle, but most often exhibit a preference for one learning style. The teacher must design instruction to move through the entire cycle and serve all four learning styles. The classroom, therefore, should be arranged to serve this purpose of interaction between the teacher and student as well as small group discussions. The classroom should also allow for lecture and demonstration and the opportunity for individual practice, with feedback from the teacher and the students. In 1985, Apple Computer, Inc. began a project called Apple Classrooms of Tomorrow (ACOT) (Dwyer et al., 1994) , investigating the relationship between education and technology. Apple placed computers in classrooms and began a series of longitudinal studies. The results of one study examined the physical organization of electronic classrooms. They found that a ``change in the physical environment fosters change in teaching and learning'. Koper (2005) concluded that collaborative learning and team teaching are critical and that a classroom needs to be arranged to support students working together. The study also found that classrooms must be designed with more room on table tops in order to serve diverse activities, that classrooms should have some flexibility built in to accommodate different learning tasks, and that any plan should include plenty of storage space for the teacher and students. The typical classroom will therefore require a teacher to have a workstation with a capability to display digital, analog, and print media, a projector with a screen, a writing surface (white boards or vinyl wallpaper are preferable to chalkboards), and laptop for students, with enough space to work with materials as well as with each other. Page | 7
While there are many ways to teach a class, instruction modeled on the Kolb and McCarthy learning cycle generally involves getting student attention, finding out what they already know, presenting information, and providing an opportunity for practice with feedback from the teacher . In order to gain the attention of students in class, the teacher must be highly visible. Students should be able to see the teacher in order to foster the interaction necessary for learning. In addition, the teachers’ workstation must provide complete control over the classroom environment so that it is simple to switch between learning activities. In addition to providing a full array of display capabilities, through the teachers workstation should be able to control the level of lighting and sound and the projector and screen. In order to find out what students already know, the teacher will most often ask questions of individuals or of small groups. Individual responses require no special room arrangements as long as there is a clear line of sight between student and teacher. Group responses require that students can easily break into collaborative learning groups to discuss the question. When it becomes time to present information, the teacher will once again need the attention of the class. Students must be able to see the teacher as well as the screen and whiteboard. If students are following along on their own laptop, it must be as simple as turning the head to switch attention from screen to monitor. If possible, no students should have their backs to the screen. When it becomes time to practice, students should work alone or in pairs. 3.1 Physical environment When designing the physical space, start with the room itself, remembering that sound ergonomic classroom design will consider the ergonomics of the room environment as a whole. Classroom size, walls, windows, doors, ceilings, floors, lighting, and climate (temperature, humidity, ventilation, and airflow) all work together in the electronic classroom. Each aspect has a potential effect on the others (Weinstein, 1979). Ramli et al. (2013) further investigate classroom users’ perception on their conventional classroom and how they perceive on the preferred classroom physical environment. Their study proves that overall students felt that conventional classroom design needs change. Previous research also proves that glare, noise, light modulation, and room temperature can positively or negatively affect learning. Good ergonomic design is seamless, while bad ergonomic design distracts from learning.
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3.2 Classroom Size What size should the classroom be? Ramli et al. (2013) stated that there are many social, educational, and cultural variables that come into the equation. Seating capacity desired will be a major determining factor for room size. There are no set rules, but a typical classroom generally requires 15-25 square feet per student. Adequate space must be allotted for the instruction area which contains the teachers’ workstation, environmental controls, projector, screen, and white board. Stockard and Mayberry (1992) have argued regarding optimal size of classroom and students achievement. This may be kept in mind while designing classroom size besides electronic voice modulation system should be designed with wireless system to enable better feasibility for the teachers.
3.3 Walls, windows and doors Peckham (2003) explicates that paint walls in a light to medium hue with a matte, non-reflective finish to reduce glare. Select pleasant, not overly bright, colors for the room to create a positive mood for learning. Sound absorbing panels on one or more walls can be used to minimize noise in the classroom and reduce unwanted noise spillage from adjoining rooms. The impact of number of windows etc on performance of students was performed by Nazari (2014) and found significant results between physical environment and academic performance. If windows are present, cover them with blinds, shades, or drapes properly designed to block light from the room and to minimize light seepage at the edges of the window. Covering windows has the added benefit of dampening noise originating outside the classroom. Select doors made of wood to further dampen noise from outside the classroom and to avoid spillage of light. If glass doors must be used, treat them as you would windows. Locate doors based on your room layout. Generally, classrooms will have two doors for fire safety and ease of access. Locate doors in the room so that no light from outside the room falls on the screen, washing out images, when latecomers or those leaving early open the door. 3.4 Ceilings and floors Page | 9
Niemeyer (2003) states that the impact of ceiling and floor is an important tool for analyzing academic activities Construct ceilings and floors of non-reflective materials to reduce glare. Design ceilings using sound-absorbing materials such as acoustic tiles to reduce ambient noise, which can lead to fatigue. Cover floor surfaces with carpeting or mats using antistatic materials to dampen noise levels significantly while further reducing glare. Antistatic carpets are a must for computer classrooms to avoid static electric build-up. Attention to acoustical treatments not only reduces noise in the classroom, it reduces the likelihood that others outside the classroom or in study areas will not be disturbed. 3.5 Lighting and discomfort in the classroom There is evidence that classroom lighting may be important for pupils’ learning. Teachers and students can have distinct preferences about classroom lighting (Schneider, 2003) . Hathaway (1982) found that teachers had preferences for daylight, whilst Lang (2002) indicated that teachers liked to have control over lighting levels. Small-scale studies have also proposed a link between lighting and attainment. For example, Hathaway (1982) found links between use of full spectrum fluorescent lamps and attainment. Using a large sample, Heschong and Knecht (2002) found significant correlations between attainment and both (1) the extent to which daylight could be controlled by the teacher, and (2) the extent to which daylight was diffuse throughout the classroom. A number of studies have also noted changes in behavior under particular lighting setting. Fenton and Penney (1985) found that among autistic children engaged in more repetitive behaviours under fluorescent light and suggested that children became more relaxed and interested in classroom activities when brightness was reduced. The manner in which the above studies were conducted is very variable, with some being based on very small sample sizes, limiting generalisation. Although recommendations for best practice do exist, classroom lighting has continued to change (including for example, developments in fluorescent lighting and introduction of data-projectors to classrooms), whilst research in the field has been neglected by comparison (Woolner et al., 2007) hence we refrain from offering specific best lighting practices rather illuminating the academic community on this important and most neglected aspect of ergonomic design in education sector. 3.6 Classroom Acoustics
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Precedent investigations demonstrate that the acoustical environment of a classroom is a critical factor in the academic, psychoeducational, and psychosocial achievement of children with normal hearing and with hearing impairment (Seep et al., 2000, Crandell and Smaldino, 2000) . There are several acoustical variables, such as noise, reverberation, and speaker-listener distance, which can deleteriously affect speech perception in classrooms. Besides other aspects like reverberation, useful and undesirable reflections, mechanical equipment noise, interior noise sources, and sound reinforcement should also be given adequate thought(Seep et al., 2000). 3.7 Furniture design Eighty percent of the population seeks medical attention for back problems at some time in their lives (Emmons and Wilkinson, 2001). A surprising number of grade school children and adolescents are reported to have regular bouts of back, neck, and headache pain thus challenging the popular misconception of back problems in the adults. Arndt (1983) has found a significant relation between working posture and musculoskeletal problems. Given these studies, the importance of prevention is evident. During the past decade, research in ergonomics has led to heightened interest in the technology of work and furniture design based on the biomechanics of the human body. The debate, building on early work in the field has been especially active concerning the recommendations of new principles for the design of chairs and desks in the workplace. However, little interest has been shown in the largest workplace of all: the schools and colleges. Previous studies cannot be generalized among the students as students are of growing age dimension changes rapidly, secondly the numbers of hours spend in a particular posture like sitting is more compared to other occupations. Thirdly, institutions want low cost solutions. Thus, the students are at an increased risk for suffering negative effects from badly designed and ill-fitting furniture owing to the prolonged periods spent seated during educational hours. In addition, it is in the educational institution where students acquire permanent habits of sitting. It is for these reasons that public health concerns over the effects of bad posture need to be focused on the design of classroom furniture. Hira (1980) explicates that comfort and functional utility of a classroom desk is a result of its design in relationship to the physical structure and biomechanics of the human body. The educational desk must allow comfortable sitting postures to assist in the learning process. For the performance of different activities such as writing, listening and standing etc., a student has to assume different body postures, which Page | 11
demand contradictory geometrical configurations of the desk. Oyewole et al. (2010) explicates some of the important aspects one can use to design furniture’s and the same is summarized in figure 1. The fixed type of desk whose geometry cannot be altered to suit an individual's anthropometric demands has been ergonomically evaluated in this study. A survey of lecture halls revealed large variations in the characteristic dimensions of the desks.
Figure 1: Important aspects to consider for design of furniture design 3.8 Ergonomics of Sitting The ergonomics of sitting can best be understood by studying the workings of both the relevant body parts and the external support system. For example, 75% of the total body weight is supported by only 26 cm2 of surface when sitting (Tichauer and Tichauer, 1978). This small area supported by pelvic ischial tuberosities, leading to a high compressive stresses, estimated at 85– 100 pounds per square inch (psi). Structurally, the tuberosities form a two-point support system which is inherently unstable, since the center of gravity of a seated person’s body above the seat Page | 12
may not be directly over the tuberosities (Parcells et al., 1999). This calls for the increased use of legs, feet, and back in contact with other surfaces, as well as muscular forces, to produce equilibrium. Typically the classroom furniture from manufacturers is not customized for the dimensions of the individual needs. The standardization helps the manufacturers to offer low cost solutions. However, some furniture’s offer an overall height adjustment and chairs of different sizes are available but it is scarce to find individual adjustments for the seat, arm and back. Another pertinent point to consider is that existing designs have basically been unchanged for years as research on anthropometric data are scare especially among the children and adolescent. Besides the variation found in the data are also a major concern. Thus, without proper design, sitting will require greater muscular force and control to maintain stability and equilibrium resulting in greater fatigue and discomfort. It is also likely to lead to poor postural habits as well as neck or back complaints. Another important factor to be pondered over in classroom is that musculoskeletal stress resulting from efforts to maintain stability and comfort of seating may make for a fidgety individual which is a condition not conducive to focused learning. Previous research has also focused attention on environmental influences that impact health. Good postures make possible lung expansion and also reduce organ crowding and strain on soft bones, tendons, and muscles. Ergonomics awareness can introduce young people to healthpromoting and health-protecting behaviors; however it is proper to reiterate here that seating should get the attention it deserves. 4.0 Conceptual Model Performance Ergonomic Educational Institutional design Comfort
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Figure 2: Conceptual Model A conceptual model shown in figure 2 is derived inductively by reviewing the previous literature. By fitting the environment to the requirements of stakeholders of educational institutions like the students and the teachers in terms of the principles highlighted in the previous section, a two related system outcomes may be achieved in terms of consequences like performance and comfort. Performance in particular in educational institution will include better grades or performance of students, efficient learning and teaching, increased market value of the Institution etc and comfort will include aspects like health and safety, satisfaction, pleasure, personal development, less fatigue and stress, motivation to learn etc. These and other outcomes are well balanced by adopting the principles of ergonomics. Another point to ponder is that ergonomic design of educational institution may also result in a circular relationship between performance and comfort
as both these constructs will interact under the influence of
ergonomics e.g. students and teachers who are comfortable will perform well and vice versa as shown in the figure. Reduced performance by students and teachers and comfort can occur when there is a lack of fit between the educational institutions environment and stakeholder’s capabilities and aspirations. For example, stakeholders in educational may perform below their capabilities and standards because other parts of the element educational system are an obstacle rather than a supporting environment 4.0 Conclusion This article is intended to convey the use of ergonomics in educational institutions as educational institutions have taught ergonomics in their curricula, however implementing the principles of ergonomics in educational sector is not so encouraging. This article discusses the theoretical foundations of ergonomics which can be effectively used for design of educational institutions. Besides a conceptual model is developed to understand and explain the impact of Ergonomics in educational institutions and its consequences are discussed. Managerial Implications
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Students are affected by physical demands. Even though they may recover more quickly and do not typically spend long hours doing one thing as an employee in a factory, they are effectively workers in training. Lueder and Rice (2010) explicates that the Strain students experience now may compound with the strain they encounter in working life. What is more important is that they learn about their bodies, about movement, and about work habits etc now will affect them throughout their lives. Some aspects of student’s life like Computer use, sitting at school/college, carrying school-bags etc pose challenges to teachers, parents, and physical therapists. With the increased use of hand held devices like tablets or other hand held devices it becomes even more important for students to maintain a proper attention to their postures to prevent injuries or diseases in latter part of their life. Of course other activities are also important like sports, playing instruments, and other hobbies and activities etc. Using the model of controls in an educational institution like engineering aspects , administrative aspects and better work/ learning practice and on the other hand like paying attention to size posture, and physical activity, the adults/ teachers responsible for students health can reduce the strains encountered in learning environments and build health habits and knowledge. Naeini and Mosaddad (2013) expounds that what was more startling is that even in engineering institutions 71% of students did not have fair information about ergonomics and its importance in their future jobs. Hence by sharing knowledge and engaging involvement, you can help students protect themselves in the future. Limitation and Scope for Future Work As this is a descriptive research an immediate requirement would be to test the conceptual model empirically. As the scale to measure the existing status of educational institution is not available in totality, hence first step would be identifying the dimensions of various aspects of ergonomics in educational institution. Existing
scales could be used for these dimensions based on the
definitions or a scale may be developed to capture the same. Besides, future work should be conducted in an experimental design setting that revolve around using anthropometric data from various age groups of students, from different parts of the world, with more gender mix. More gender mix and other individual differences such as race, age, and more data from multiple educational institutions would also improved the quality of the experiment.
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