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AJRSH                                   Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315       

  A Peer Reviewed International Journal of Asian Research Consortium

AJRSH: ASIAN JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN SOCIAL SCIENCE & HUMANITIES SR. NO. 1.

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PARTICULAR

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INVENTORISATION OF ELECTRONIC WASTE – WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO COIMBATORE

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S.MAHIMA, DR .B.VANITHA INTERNET USE AND A PERSPECTIVE

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SOCIAL

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MR. ANIRBAN SARMA DETERMINANTS OF TOURISM IN JAMMU AND KASHMIR – AN EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS DR. MAHESHA.M, MR. RAIS AHMAD KUCHY CLIMATE CHANGE, NATURAL DISASTERS, MITIGATION AND PREPAREDNESS IN INDIAN CONTINENT: A STUDY DR. K.RAJASEKHAR ICT ENABLED RESOURCE CENTRE FOR THE VISUALLY CHALLENGED COLLEGE / UNIVERSITY STUDENTS IN AN ERA OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION S. SATHYASEELAN, DR. INDRAJIT GOSWAMI, DR. J. AMIRTHA LENIN STRATEGIC IMPLICATIONS OF DISTANCE LEARNING SYSTEM IN INDIAN SCENARIO DR. SARITA BAHL DYNAMICS OF VARIOUS DIMENSIONS INFLUENCING SUSTAINABILITY OF GENDER BASED SELF HELP GROUPS IN SMALL SCALE DAIRYING HEMA TRIPATHI, SUBODH KUMAR ETHICAL DECISION MAKING – A UTILITARIAN APPROACH DR. SWARUP KUMAR JANA, DR. ABHASH KR. BASU

 

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AJRSH                                   Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315       

 

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RAMPRASAD AS AN INSTINCTIVE DEVOUT POET: AN INTRODUCTION TARUN KUMAR YADAV TRIBAL IDENTITY CRISIS AND POTENTIAL POLITICAL MOBILISATION: A CASE STUDY OF LEPCHA TRIBES OF DARJEELING DR. SUDIPTA SARKAR AN ANALYSIS OF BENGALI POET LETTERS: HIS PSYCHIC REVELATION

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NAZRUL’S [PDF]

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111-114 MOHAMMAD SHAHIDUL ISLAM, MOHAMMED ABDUL BAYES GREEN MARKETING IN ASSAM: A CASE STUDY OF ORGANIC TEA IN GOLAGHAT DISTRICT

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RINTI DUTTA A STUDY ON REGIONAL ECONOMIC AND EQUITY ANALYSIS WITH REFERENCE TO STATE OF ANDHRA PRADESH

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MR. PHANI KUMAR, DR. K. S. RAO CUSTOMERS’ ADOPTION AND USAGE OF GREEN BANKING PRACTICES: AN EMPIRICAL STUDY OF SBI OPERATING IN JORHAT

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GOBINDA DEKA PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS OF SMALL TEA GROWERS IN ASSAM – A CASE STUDY OF GOLAGHAT DISTRICT

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RAJESH JAISWAL PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF SCHEDULED AND NON-SCHEDULED URBAN COOPERATIVE BANKS IN INDIA

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DR. R.K. UPPAL, AMIT JUNEJA

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RESEARCHING SEXUAL EXPLOITATION IN SPORT: A FEMALE ATHLETE PERSPECTIVE MR.

 

MANTESH

BHARAMANNA

KUMBAR,

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AJRSH                                   Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315       

 

DR. GAJANANA PRABHU B, DR. SAKHPAL HOOVANNA

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A STUDY ON ATTITUDE OF TEACHERS AND STUDENTS TOWARDS THE SYSTEM OF PASS-FAIL IN SCHOOL EDUCATION PRANAB BARMAN, DR. DIBYENDU BHATTACHARYYA EXPLORING STRENGTH DISPARITIES BETWEEN PHYSICALLY ACTIVE AND SEDENTARY MEN

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DR. GAJANANA PRABHU B A COMPARATIVE STUDY ON COMMITMENT AND SATISFACTION OF MEDICAL AND NON-MEDICAL PERSONNEL OF PRIVATE HOSPITALS

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RAJKUMAR GIRIDHARI SINGH THE CULTURAL HEGEMONY OF BOLLYWOOD IN SOUTH ASIA: DE-POPULARIZING BANGLADESHI CINEMA

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MD.TOWFIQUE-E- ELAHI RECONSTRUCTING IDENTITY AND ETHNIC MOVEMENTS IN NORTH-EAST INDIA: AN ANALYSIS ON THE MISING MOVEMENT

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PANKAJ BORAH ACADEMIC USE OF E- LEARNING TECHNOLOGY: THE ROLE AND EFFECTIVENESS IN AN ACADEMIC CONTEXT DR. SHRIKRISHNA PATEL, DR. NISHA PANDEY, SANJAY SRIVASTAVA PANCHAYATI RAJ INSTITUTIONS AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN PUNJAB

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DR. M.S. GILL, RAMA CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND ANCIENT CHINA

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JUNFENG CHEN, YUAN HUANG

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AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315      A Peer Reviewed International Journal of Asian Research Consortium

AJRSH: ASIAN JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN SOCIAL SCIENCE & HUMANITIES INVENTORISATION OF ELECTRONIC WASTE – WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO COIMBATORE S.MAHIMA*; DR .B.VANITHA** *Research Scholar, Department of Economics, Avinashilingam Institute for Home Science and Higher Education for Women, Coimbatore. **Associate Professor, Department of Economics, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore.

Journal of Asian Research Consortium                  1                  http://www.aijsh.org                                                                                      

ABSTRACT The global market for electrical and electronic equipment continues to expand, while the lifespan of many products becomes shorter. consequently, the waste stream of obsolete electrical and electronic products, commonly called “ewaste”, is also vast and growing, with estimates of 20-50 million tonnes per year being generated worldwide. Many of the products contain numerous hazardous chemicals and materials, and therefore the recycling and disposal of e-waste poses a threat to the environment and to human health. The study was conducted in Coimbatore district of Tamil Nadu, 40 electronic shops were randomly selected to examine the Inventorisation of electronic waste and willingness to pay to reduce the problem of electronic waste. The study found that Recycling as the effective method to combat the problem of e-waste was suggested by the respondents. The respondents felt that recycling will reduce the harmful effect of e-waste and recycling unit will provide lot of employment opportunities and on an average the respondents were willing to pay Rs 244 per month towards the management of e-waste in their respective shops. Finally the study suggested that since there is willingness among public to pay from proper management of ewaste, Government can take efforts to initiative to generate funds from the public to handle the problem of e-waste management. _________________________________________________________________________ INTRODUCTION Electronic revolution radically changed people's lifestyle. This development has led to new problems of contamination and pollution. The technical prowess acquired during the last century

 

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

has posed a new challenge in the management of wastes. For example, Personal Computers (PCs) contain certain components, which are highly toxic, such as chlorinated and brominated substances, toxic gases, toxic metals, biologically active materials, acids, plastics and plastic additives. The hazardous content of these materials pose an environmental and health threat. (Ramachandra and Saira Varghese 2004) India is one of the fastest growing economies in the world. In the recent years the growth of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) sector is unprecedented in India. This has fuelled the consumption of Electrical and Electronic Equipment (EEE) both from the institutional users and households. With the advent of this higher rate of consumption, and the shortened product lives due to rapid advancement of technology, electronic waste (ewaste), such as discarded television, mobile phones, computer and related equipment etc., has emerged as a fastest growing waste stream. In India, e-waste quantity is expected to be more than 800,000 tonnes by 2012. ( Manda 2008)The discarded electronics which is now the fastest growing waste stream in the industrialized world. The growing quantity of E-waste from electronic industry is beginning to reach disastrous proportions. Electronic Waste is the term used to describe old, end-of-life electronic appliances such as computers, laptops, TVs, DVD players, refrigerators and freezers, mobile phones, MP3 players, etc. which have been disposed of by their original users.(Sushant et.al 2004) According to Central Pollution Control Board, New Delhi: E-waste comprises of wastes generated from used electronic devices and household appliances which are not fit for their original intended use and are destined for recovery, recycling or disposal. Such waste encompasses wide range of electrical and electronic devices such as computers, hand held cellular phones, personal stereos, including large household appliances such as refrigerators, air conditioners.

Journal of Asian Research Consortium                  2                  http://www.aijsh.org                                                                                      

COMPONENTS OF E-WASTE E-waste has been categorized into three main categories, namely Large Household Appliances, IT, Telecom and Consumer Equipment. Refrigerator and Washing Machine represent large household appliances, Personal Computer, Monitor and Laptop represent IT and Telecom, while Television represents Consumer Equipment. Each of these E-waste items has been classified with respect to twenty six common components, which could be found in them. These components form the “Building Blocks” of each item and therefore they are readily “identifiable” and “removable”. These components are metal, motor/compressor, cooling, plastic, insulation, glass, LCD, rubber, wiring/electrical, concrete, transformer, magnetron, textile, circuit board, fluorescent lamp, incandescent lamp, heating element, thermostat, BFRcontaining plastic, batteries, Chloro Fluoro Carbons (CFC), external electric cables, refractory ceramic fibers, radioactive substances and electrolyte capacitors (over L/D 25 mm). These components are found in Refrigerator, Washing Machine, Personal Computers (PCs) and TVs. According to Manufacturer’s Association for Information Technology (MAIT) report, India during 2007, there were 3, 80,000 tones of e-waste from discarded Computers, Televisions and Mobile Phones in India. This is projected to grow to more than 8, 00,000 tones by 2012 with a growth rate of 15 percent. The estimate includes 50,000 tones of such e-waste imported from developed countries as charity for reuse, which mostly end up in informal recycling yards either immediately or once the re-used product is discarded. This is a conservative and restricted estimate. Complex, ambiguous definitions of second-hand electronic equipment has made it difficult for the customs department to trace, identify and stop the illegal inflow of e-waste.

 

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

The authorized e-waste recycling facilities in India capture only three percent of total e-waste generated; the rest makes its way to informal recycling yards in major cities like Delhi, Mumbai, Hyderabad and Bangalore. This is because businesses sell their discarded equipment to informal recyclers for quick money without realizing the hazardous implications it causes to health and environment. E-waste contains over 1,000 different substances, many of which are toxic, and creates serious pollution upon disposal. Due to the extreme rates of obsolescence, ewaste produces much higher volumes of waste in comparison to other consumer goods. The increasingly rapid evolution of technology combined with rapid product obsolescence has effectively rendered everything disposable due to which e-waste is generated at alarming rates. In India, large household appliances accounted for 42 percent, of total e-waste generation and Information and communications technology equipment holds 33.9 percent and Consumer electronics, 13.7 percent. The waste thus produced goes into the hands of informal sector. Over one million poor people in India are involved in the manual recycling operations. Most of the people working in this recycling sector are the urban poor with very low literacy levels and hence very little awareness regarding the hazards of e-waste toxins. There are a sizeable number of women and children who are engaged in these activities and they are more vulnerable to the hazards of this waste.

Journal of Asian Research Consortium                  3                  http://www.aijsh.org                                                                                      

REVIEW OF LITERATURE The E-Waste inventory project in Malaysia (2008) aimed to obtain an indication of the volume of e-waste generation in Malaysia and the ways in which waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) are managed in Malaysia. The survey was focused on seven selected types of electrical and electronic equipments (EEE) namely television sets, personal computers, mobile phones, refrigerators, air conditioners, washing machines and rechargeable batteries and also intended as a basis for the relevant government agencies to formulate further solutions for the environmentally sound management of used and end-of-life EEE Malaysia developed a specific rules and regulations for the take back of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE). This survey found that, several recycling and reuse activities being conducted by some of the manufacturers but the scope of the material collection was limited and community awareness on sound management of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) was limited but increasing. Many households are not sure how to dispose of their waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) and many of them are sale to the scrap collectors who pay them for the waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE). Kevin brigden et al. (2008) analyzed Chemical contamination at e-waste recycling and disposal sites in Accra and Korforidua and Ghana. The main objective of the study was to investigate environmental contamination and health problems resulting from the crude recycling activities. The study concludes that the combination of improved regulation and greater responsibility on the part of producers not only to enable verification of e-wastes are recycled and disposed in the best achievable manner to minimize impacts on human health and the environment but also provide to producers with financial and other incentives that will encourage the design of products with greater life-spans. John Babington et.al, (2010) analyzed bridging the gaps: an e-waste management and recycling assessment on material recycling facilities in Selangor and Penang. The study focused to highlight, the e-waste recycling practice within the material recovery facilities (MRF) and future plans for e-waste management in Malaysia. The result shows that e-waste recycling in Malaysia is still at infancy as there are no sophisticated technologies to carry out complete

 

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

recycling process in a MRF, lack of specific regulation on e-waste, poor e-waste collection from households. The finding of the study helped the waste management authorities to bridging the gaps and militates against proper e-waste management in Malaysia. A study on Inventorization of e-waste in Andhra pradesh and Karnataka (2010) focused on Inventorisation of E-Waste for the three electronic sub sectors namely personal computers including peripherals, mobile phones and television. The study found that the generation of e-waste is going to increase due to high obsolescence rates, lack of policy for disposal for producers, consumers and manufacturers and also lack of awareness. Finally study recommended that manufacturers need to undertake green initiatives like Take-back and Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) for taking responsibility of environment friendly disposal of their end of life products as they form the largest contributor of e-wastes and all individuals who generates e-waste should take the responsibility for proper collection and disposal of e-waste. The government and regulatory agencies have to play a major role to by formulating guidelines, benchmarks, creation of awareness and monitoring the implementation of norms with the help of NGOs and civil society action group.

Journal of Asian Research Consortium                  4                  http://www.aijsh.org                                                                                      

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The alarming increase in e-waste generation and the consequent threat of environmental degradation arising from unauthorized recycling establishes the urgent need for an effective regulatory framework. In the absence of effective legislation or regulations to deal with this emergent situation and also to protect public interest, the Government of Tamil Nadu is now introducing a Policy on e-waste and recognizes that e-waste is a material resource and its management should encompass the short and long-term economic, environmental and social costs and benefits. Electronic waste management is an important element in public health and environmental protection. Due to increase the volume of electronic waste, the Coimbatore city not able to collect and recycle, and there is no recycling unit in the Coimbatore. The Government of Tamil Nadu aims to minimize e-waste generation and utilize the e-waste for beneficial purposes through environmentally sound recycling. Hence in the light of above it is proposed to study of electronic waste and its management in Coimbatore city. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 1. Inventorisation of E-waste for the four electronic sub sectors namely personal computers, mobile phones refrigerators and television. 2.

To estimate the willingness to pay for the treatment of electronic waste management.

METHODOLOGY Study was conducted in Coimbatore city, being the most industrially advanced city of Tamil Nadu. The purposive sampling method was adopted for the selection of major four categories of electronic waste, namely Computers, Mobile Phones, Refrigerators, and Television. Among the four categories ten shops from each category is selected purposively for data collection.

 

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

FINDINGS OF THE STUDY For the purpose of the study 40 shops were interviewed mainly mobile shops, computer shops, refrigerator shops, television shops. Ten shops from each category were selected for the study. TABLE-1 E-WASTE GENERATION IN COMPUTER SHOPS Sl.No 1

Name of the Shop Samsung Technopia

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Grace IT park 2 3

Laptop Store

4

Sony Erickson

5

P.C Home

6

S.K.C Computers

7

I.Q Tech System

8

Configure Quality System

9

Lenova Sigma Info Tech

10

Sree Systems Total

Sales Per Year (in Numbers) 219000 (75.84) 960 (.33) 11620 (4.07) 6052 (2.09) 1080 (.3) 7056 (2.4) 9840 (3.4) 14412 (4.9) 7203 (2.4) 11528 (3.99) 288751

Service Per Year (in Numbers) --997 (8.3) 728 (6.07) 1205 (10.05) 2011 (16.77) 1206 (10.06) 2415 (20.14) 1982 (16.53) 961 (8.01) 484 (4.03) 11989

E-Waste (kg) --331 (7.57) 212 (4.85) 357 (8.17) 896 (20.5) 414 (9.47) 907 (20.76) 762 (17.44) 348 (7.96) 142 (3.25) 4369

Source: Primary data

Table.1 shows the sales, service and e-waste generated in selected ten computer shops. Total of 288751 computers were sold in the year 2010-2011 in the selected 10 shops. Out of which Samsung Technopia being a whole sale merchant accounted for a major share of computer sales (75.84 percent) followed by Configure Quality System (4.9 percent) and laptop store ( 4.07 percent) respectively. The number of computers serviced by the selected stores account to 11989 PC’s. In total, 4369 kilogram of e-waste has been generated from the selected shops of Coimbatore due to repair and maintenance of computers.

 

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

TABLE -2 E-WASTE GENERATION IN MOBILE SHOPS Sl.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Sales Per Year (in Numbers ) Samsung 4868 (12.90) Nokia Center Park Gate 5227 road (13.85) Mobile Magic 4889 (12.96) Metro Mobiles 1625 (4.30) Mobile Park 4880 (12.96) Sony Erickson 5445 (14.43) Harsh 10 1213 (3.21) T-Mobile 1008 (2.67) Nokia Centre (100 feet 4234 road) (11.22) Nokia Centre cross cut road 4335 (11.49) Total 37724

Name of the shop

Service Per Year E-Waste (kg) (in Numbers) 17592 69 (13.01) (22.92) ---9632 (7.12) 1443 (1.06) 964 (.7) 12539 (9.2) 2947 (2.1) 88253 (65.3) ----

---35 (11.62) 18 (5.98) 12 (3.98) 43 (14.28) 28 (9.3) 73 (24.25) ----

1776 (1.3) 135146

23 (7.6) 301

Journal of Asian Research Consortium                  6                  http://www.aijsh.org                                                                                      

Source: Primary data

The data pertaining to the e-waste generation in selected mobile shops were presented in the Table-2. It is observed that 37724 mobiles were sold in the year 2010-2011 by the selected ten shops. At the same time 135146 mobile phones were serviced and maintained by the same shops. However Nokia Centre in 100 feet road and Nokia Centre in Park Gate road had no service facility, hence data was unattainable. The generation of e-waste due to the service and maintenance of mobile phones worked out to be 301 kilogram per year.

 

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

TABLE.3 E-WASTE GENERATION IN REFRIGERATOR SHOPS Sl.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Sales Per Year (in Numbers ) G.V. Audio vision 3369 (1.6) Jayasiri Electronics 13345 (6.4) K.S.Sheety and co 1683 (0.8) Arasan Electronics 3782 (1.8) Viveks Electronics (100 feet 2016 road) (0.9) Viveks Electronics (Cross 7443 cut road) (3.5) N. Mahalingam and 1232 Company (0.5) Panasonic 3696 (1.7) Samsung Technopia 168889 (81.06) Baby Electronics 2885 (1.3) Total 208340 Name of the shop

Service Per Year (in Numbers) ----

E-waste (kg) -----

725 (7.01) 1442 (13.95) 4225 (40.08) -----

3753 (5.07) 11835 (16.05) 32613 (44.07) -----

----

-----

1451 (14.04) -----

11859 (16.02) ----

----

----

2489 (24.09) 10332

13941 (18.83) 74001

Journal of Asian Research Consortium                  7                  http://www.aijsh.org                                                                                      

Source: Primary data

Table -3 shows the sales, service and e-waste generation of the selected ten refrigerator shops in the Coimbatore city. It was observed that 208340 refrigerators were sold in the study period out of which Samsung Technopia being a whole sale merchant accounted for the major share of refrigerator sales (81.06 percent). The number of refrigerator serviced by the selected stores account to 10332 refrigerators, the shops like GV Audio Vision, Viveks Electronics of Cross Cut Road, Vivek Electronics of 100 Feet Road, Panasonic and Samsung Technopia has no service facility, hence the data related to the service and E-waste generation is unattainable. In total 74001kg of E-waste has been generated, out of which Arasan Electronics generated 32613kg of e-waste followed by Baby Electronics (13941) and KS Sheety and Co respectively.

 

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

TABLE.4 E-WASTE GENERATION IN TELEVISION SHOPS Sl.No

Name of the Shop

1

G.V. Audio vision

2

Jayasiri Electronics

3

K.S. sheety and co

4

Sony Erickson

5

7

Viveks Electronics (Cross cut road) N.Mahalingam and Company Panasonic

8

Baby electronics

9

Viveks Electronics (100 feet road) Arasan Electronics

6

10

Total

Sales Per Year (in Numbers) 723 (4.2) 673 (3.9) 336 (1.9) 1684 (9.8) 1776 (10.34) 1524 (8.8) 1786 (10.4) 2467 (14.3) 2533 (21.35) 3667 (21.35) 17169

Service Per Year (in Numbers) ----

E-Waste (kg) ----

766 (16.81) 353 (7.7) ----

1832 (17.76) 1000 (9.6) ----

---

-----

1232 (27.04)

2740 (26.55)

723 (15.8) 627 (13.76) 854 (18.74) 4555

1490 (14.44) 1359 (13.71) 1893 (18.35) 10314

Journal of Asian Research Consortium                  8                  http://www.aijsh.org                                                                                      

Source: Primary data

The sales, service and e-waste generated in the selected ten Television shops were shown in the Table -4. It is observed that the total of 17169 Television was sold in the year 2010-2011 in the selected ten shops. Out of which 3,667 Televisions were sold by Arasan Electronics, 2,533 by Viveks Electronics (100 feet road) and 2,467 by Baby Electronics. The number of Televisions was serviced by the selected stores accounts for 4,555. In total 10,314 kg electronic waste has been generated from the selected ten stores. As there is no service facility in GV Audio vision, Sony Electronics, Viveks (Cross cut road) and Panasonic in their shops, there is no e-waste generation in these shops.

 

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

TABLE.5 E-WASTE GENERATION AMONG THE SHOPS Sl.No

Type of Shops

E-Waste (kg)

Percentage

4,369

4.9

301

0.33

1

Computer shops

2

Mobile phone shops

3

Television shops

74,001

83.16

4

Refrigerator shops

10,314

11.59

Total

88985

100

Source: Primary data

Table.5 shows the total e-waste generated among the selected electronic shops in the year 2010-2011. Total of 88985 kilogram of E-waste generated in the study period, out of which Refrigerator shops has generated 83.16 per cent of total e-waste generated followed by Television shops with 10314 kilograms (11.59 per cent) and computer shops with 4369 kilograms (4.9 per cent) respectively. The number of serviced item was less in Refrigerator shops. But the weight of each part of Refrigerator was heavy compared with other selected items, because of which e-waste generation also high in Refrigerator shops. Mobile phone being very small, (though more in number) has caused less than one per cent of e-waste (0.33 per cent). TABLE.6

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WILLINGNESS TO PAY Sl. No

Type of Shops

Willingness to Pay Yes

No

Total

1

Computer shops

6

4

10

2

Mobile phone shops

7

3

10

3

Television shops

10

0

10

4

Refrigerator shops

8

2

10

Total

31

9

40

Percentage

(77.5)

(22.5)

(100)

Source: Primary data

The willingness to pay among the selected electronic shops was presented in the Table 6. It is observed that all the respondents of Television shop keepers were willing to pay an amount to reduce the e-waste, followed by refrigerator shop keepers (80 per cent) and mobile shop keepers respectively. Out of the total respondents nearly 23 per cent of the respondents expressed that there is no need to pay any amount for e-waste management.

 

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

Recycling as the effective method to combat the problem of e-waste was suggested by the respondents. The respondents felt that recycling will reduce the harmful effect of e-waste and recycling unit will provide lot of employment opportunities TABLE.7 AMOUNT WILLINGNESS TO PAY Amount Willing to Pay in Rs./ Month

Sl. No

Type of Shops

1.

Computer shops

2.

Mobile phone shops Television shops Refrigerator shops Total

3. 4.

Percentage

Below 100

100200

200300

300400

1

2

1

1

3

2

1

0

2

3

2

1

1

2

1

1

7

9

5

3

(22.58)

(29.03) (16.12) (9.67)

400500 0 1 1 1 3

Total

Mean Values

1

6

300

0

7

1

9

2

8

4

31

500-600

293 300 350 244

(9.67) (12.90) (100)

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Source: Primary data

The respondents were asked to express as how much they are willing to pay per month for the removal and disposal of electronic waste from the shop are shown in the Table 7. On an average the respondents from refrigerator shop keepers being the producers of maximum quantity of e-waste and ready to pay maximum amount (Rs 350 per month) followed by Computer and Television shops (Rs 300 per month) and mobile shops (Rs 293 per month) respectively. Out of total respondents, on an average the respondents were willing to pay Rs 244 per month towards the management of e-waste in their respective shops. CONCLUSION The volume of the e-waste is thus increasing alarmingly in the developing countries due to their own as well as imported disposable electronics hardware products. It is therefore appropriate to devise a holistic approach to manage and recycle the e-waste in self-sustained manner to save the environment and the human health. Since there is willingness among public to pay from proper management of e-waste, Government can take efforts to initiative to generate funds from the public to handle the problem of e-waste management. Successful e-waste management models from abroad can be implemented in such a way that they are suitable to local condition. REFERENCE •

 

“The E‐Waste inventory project in Malaysia”(2008), Perunding Good Earth Sdn Bhd

                                     

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John Babington (2010) “Bridging The Gaps: An E-Waste Management And Recycling Assessment of Material Recycling Facilities in Selangor and Penang”, International Journal of Environmental Sciences, Volume: 1(3), Pp: 383-389.



Kevin Bridgen (2008) “Chemical Contamination of E-Waste Re Cycling and Disposal Sites in Accra and Korforiduo, Ghana”, Green Peace International, Pp: 1-23.



Krishna Manda.B.M, (2008) “E-Waste Management In India Stakeholders’ Perceptions And Media Attention”, Iiiee Theses



Ramachandra T. and Saira Varghese K. (2004) “Environmentally Sound Options for E-Wastes Management”, Envis Journal of Human Settlements, March



Sushant Dutt and Chakrabarti (2010) “E-Waste Scenario in India, its Management and Implications”, Environment Assess, Volume: 172 Pp: 249–262.

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AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315      A Peer Reviewed International Journal of Asian Research Consortium

AJRSH: ASIAN JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN SOCIAL SCIENCE & HUMANITIES INTERNET USE AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR A PERSPECTIVE MR. ANIRBAN SARMA* *National Programme Officer, Communication and Information, UNESCO, New Delhi.

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ABSTRACT Much of the literature on behavior patterns shaped by the Internet argues that the increasing amount of time spent online by people leads to a reduction of the time spent on other possibly more fulfilling forms of interpersonal engagement, and also to a decline in the quality or richness of those forms of engagement. This article counters the claim that Internet use makes people less sociable. It draws on contemporary research to argue that individuals’ capacity for sociability is pre-existent. The Internet simply provides new channels for interaction, with some definite implications for the resulting quality and quantum of social engagement. Section 2 states the central questions of the sociability debate, and develops the idea of “cycles of socialization”. It proceeds to discuss how online communication helps maintain strong ties, creates weak ties, and stimulates individuals’ capacity for sociability. Section 3 explores the role of online interaction in building social capital, by examining three types of social-capitalbuilding activities: creating network capital, civic engagement, and participating in virtual communities. Sections 2 and 3 demonstrate the article’s core proposition, and the article concludes by recommending further academic inquiry into the accumulation of social capital at a macro-level, not just at the level of personal and community networks. ________________________________________________________________________ 1. INTRODUCTION There is a substantial body of literature that deals with behaviour patterns shaped by Internet use. A large part of the literature takes a rather pessimistic view, arguing that increasing amounts of time spent on the Internet – much of it on activities such as emailing and social networking – actually lead to a decline in the quality or richness of interpersonal engagement, and sometimes even to a sense of personal or physical isolation. This article counters the claim that the Internet makes us less sociable. But it does not simply argue for the opposite –

 

                                     

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that the Internet somehow makes us more sociable. It asserts that individuals’ capacity for sociability is pre-existent. The Internet merely provides new channels for interaction, with some definite implications for the quality and quantum of social engagement. Section 2 begins by stating the central questions of the sociability debate. It draws attention to the need to study the interrelations between offline and online behaviour in order to understand the Internet’s role in promoting sociability, rather than positing the Internet’s “impact” on social behaviour. The section develops the idea of cycles of socialization: the Internet supports or extends users’ inherent (offline) sociability in the online environment, subsequently realizing or augmenting it offline. Section 2 then proceeds to discuss how online communication helps maintain strong ties, creates weak ties, and stimulates individuals’ capacity for sociability. Section 3 addresses the role of online interaction in building social capital. Three types of social-capital-building activities are explored: the creation of network capital; civic engagement; and participation in virtual communities. Once again, it is argued that much like the capacity for sociability, social capital must first exist offline in order to be mobilized online. Once online, sociability is augmented, and may extend to face-to-face and direct interaction that reinforce or invigorate social engagement. The Internet thus supplements social capital, rather than creating it. Section 4, the article’s concluding section, recommends further inquiry into the transition from the micro (one-to-one / group) to macro (societal) level of social capital. It is worth questioning whether weak online ties can build social capital that might act as a useful public good at the societal level. 2. THE INTERNET’S ROLE IN AUGMENTING SOCIABILITY

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Two questions lie at the heart of the sociability debate: •

Does time spent on the Internet reduce the time spent socializing in person with others?



Is (perhaps qualitatively superior) face-to-face interaction sacrificed in favour of online interaction?

These questions seem to imply that the online and offline are discrete domains, whereas in fact it is the continuity of online and offline behavior that ought to be emphasized. 2.1 BEHAVIORAL CONTINUITY BETWEEN THE ONLINE AND OFFLINE DOMAINS Social networks develop through an individual’s selective orientation towards particular interests, affinities, and values. Barry Wellman refers to this personalization or customization of online and offline social networks as “networked individualism” (Wellman, 2000). Networked individualism is principally characterized by its involvement with those networks that provide identity, sociability, support, and resources; the possibility of networking with others who are spatially dispersed; and which exist in both online and offline environments. The rapid growth of computer-mediated communication does not however imply the creation

 

                                     

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of networked individualism – rather the Internet provides an enabling infrastructure for diffusing networked individualism as the dominant form of sociability. Wellman points out that networked individualism is not an online phenomenon per se. It is essentially the principles of offline networking that apply. The Internet’s flexibility and reach simply allow the more effective concatenation of individuals (Wellman, 2001). Rather than studying the Internet’s “impact” on offline behaviour, one ought to investigate instead the norms of user behaviour that straddle the offline–online domains. Sociability is a pre-existent individual attribute or potential. It is not generated online. The Internet’s relation to sociability therefore needs to be seen as a movement of meanings between the offline and the online.

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A study in the UK of the Internet’s place in everyday life found that respondents were largely unable to identify any activities that might have been displaced by the time they spent using the Internet. Social activities remained more or less intact even among the heaviest Internet users, undermining speculation that the Internet tends to disrupt normal patterns of offline social behaviour. Offline activities were unconsciously adjusted to integrate periods of Internet use seamlessly into daily life (Anderson and Tracey, 2002). The Pew report, Tracking Online Life, decisively showed that the amount of time spent online does not affect or diminish a person’s offline social networks. On the contrary, Internet users are far more likely than non-users to have a “robust social world”, and Internet usage does not cause the least “falloff to their ties” (Rainee et al, 2000). The behavioural continuity between the offline and the online is notable. Quite evidently, the Internet, rather than making people less sociable, seems to enhance their inherent sociability, and offers new opportunities to exercise it. A major interpretative failing of the now infamous HomeNet study of 1995–6 (conducted across a sample of 93 families in Pittsburgh, USA) was its underlying premise that “real life” and “online engagement” were two separate and unrelated domains of activity (Kraut et al, 1998). Online engagement and offline interaction are “part of the same social system” – they are complementary, not interchangeable; hence the patterns of sociability characterizing them are mutually dependent. 2.2 CYCLES OF SOCIALIZATION The proposition that the Internet “makes” people behave in a certain way assumes a direct causal relationship between the Internet and sociability. It is more productive to consider the relationship between sociability and online engagement in terms of a cycle of socialization: •

The inherent sociability that people possess is carried into the online environment.



The Internet’s distributive and reticulate structure allows access to various support systems, the potential formation of new ties, and an increased awareness, which cumulatively enhance an individual’s social interaction.



Sociability is enhanced, and parallel to its online articulation, it is realized in the offline environment, leading to the continuation of the cycle.

The relation between offline and online sociability is thus one of mutual augmentation. Researchers have found that Internet use (not just email) is positively associated with social activity and the availability of offline social support systems. Most interestingly, people

 

                                     

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going online are considerably more likely to have called / met a friend / relative just to talk, the previous day (Howard et al, 2001). This essential link between prior offline sociability and online interaction indicates that the Internet promotes sociability, rather than making people intrinsically more sociable. Similarly, a US survey found that compared to non-users of the Internet, long-term Internet users were more likely to meet more friends every week, had social lives which frequently kept them away from home, and interacted with social communities that were more widely distributed in physical terms. Long-term Internet use seemed to be clearly associated with more rather than less sociability. This increased social engagement should be seen as part of the cycle of socialization that the Internet facilitates. The survey’s findings demonstrated the inextricable and cyclical relation between offline and online behavior: extroverts’ Internet usage was associated with heightened community involvement, and decreased loneliness, while the reverse was true for introverts. Also, Internet use by people with more rather than less social support led to increased communication with family members (Katz et al, 2001). The Internet provides a useful alternative when people’s potential for offline social interaction is frustrated by personal circumstances. Several writers have drawn attention to the Internet’s possible positive effects on individuals’ social lives by allowing the development of new relationships, fostering identity among socially isolated people, and encouraging the participation of marginalized community members. People tend to use the socializing opportunities embedded in the medium to overcome their own isolation. A study conducted in the UK showed for instance that a group of breast cancer patients turned to the Internet to form a personal network, largely out of the need to cope with the illness by sharing their experiences with co-sufferers (Orgad, 2007).

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2.3 INTERNET USAGE PATTERNS Most surveys of Internet usage show a similar pattern. Sending and receiving emails is ubiquitous: 85 per cent of Internet use is represented by the use email (Castells, 2001). While the volume of interpersonal online communication is vast, its quality and ability to forge meaningful relationships has been widely debated. A much cited study of computer-mediated communication between different social groups concludes that apart from rather narrow and functional communication, interacting parties “do not get much social benefit” (Cummings, 2002). Offline and telephone communications are often about matters of “affect”, verbal cues and intonation that cannot be scripted into email and other online exchanges, making it very difficult to “develop the intimacy and confidence necessary to deepen relationships”. Email or online communication is therefore much more useful for maintaining existing ties than for creating new ones. This has significant consequences for the question of sociability. Contradicting the assumption of the HomeNet study that online communication substitutes strong ties for weak ones, it appears that people use the Internet to supplement strong ties with new weak ties. Emailing is therefore a socially integrating activity whereby strong ties are preserved and useful weak ties are developed, expanding the overall social capital across the network and augmenting sociability (Quan-Haase et al, 2002).

 

                                     

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Email has been called an “isolation antidote” because it greatly increases the frequency of communication between friends and family, helps renew older ties, brings acquaintances closer to one another, and consolidates weak ties (Rainee et al, 2000). The latter are a source of information, casual exchanges, leisure, enjoyment, and community participation. In both online and offline environments, kinship remains the relatively stable core of people’s personal communities while other ties develop gradually over time. Email is the most commonly used medium for distant networked members, but interestingly, it is also widely used to contact nearby relatives, friends and associates with whom regular offline interaction is possible (Haddon, 2004). The fact that proximate friends and kin are contacted by email much more often as those further away (although they can easily be telephoned or met in person), firmly establishes the Internet as a means for stimulating individuals’ capacity for sociability. 3. BUILDING SOCIAL CAPITAL THROUGH ONLINE ENGAGEMENT

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In his classic work, Bowling Alone, Robert Putnam describes social capital as “connections among individuals – social networks and the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from them” (Putnam, 2000, p. 19). He then draws attention to the “private” and “public”, or “individual” and “collective” aspects of social capital. In the sphere of online engagement, three types of social-capital-building exercises closely reflect Putnam’s distinction between the “public” and “private”. These are: •

The creation of network capital (the social contact with friends, family and others that constitutes private sociability)



Civic engagement (public activities such as community participation)



Participation in virtual communities (online groups built around a particular cause or interest that combine the features of both public and private interaction)

This section (Section 3) will discuss the implications of Internet-induced sociability for developing these three forms of social capital. 3.1 NETWORK CAPITAL Section 2 showed that the bulk of online interaction pertains to the creation or sustenance of interpersonal networks. Although the Internet supplements offline social interaction with close friends and kin, its chief importance lies in the development of weak ties. Mark Granovetter famously argued that weak ties are indispensable for individuals to integrate themselves into new communities and expand their personal networks (Granovetter, 1973). By contrast, maintaining only strong ties would align people with small well-defined groups, creating what Putnam calls “bonding social capital”. Such narrow cohesion would greatly “inhibit the expansion of social capital”, and tend towards overall social fragmentation. The French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu directly addresses the relationship between sociability and the creation of social capital. For him, the “reproduction of social capital” demands a sustained and ongoing “effort of sociability” in which mutual recognition and acknowledgement are re/affirmed ad infinitum. Bourdieu quantifies a person’s social capital as the network of connections she can associate with, plus the individual volumes of social

 

                                     

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capital of each person in the network (Bourdieu, 1985). The aggregate social capital across an electronic network like the Internet may be called social capital. The Internet both connects individuals and increases their volumes of social capital. But much like sociability itself, social capital is a prerequisite for, rather than consequence of, effective computer-mediated communication. Just as the Internet augments offline social interaction thereby developing cycles of socialization, it supplements offline social capital by providing easy access to the dense networks needed for its further re-creation. Very importantly, network capital fosters a sense of community when elements of generalized reciprocity and trust are introduced by online social engagement (Uslaner and Dekker, 2001). It is precisely because the transient nature of Internet communication does not compel reciprocity that an atmosphere of generalized trust becomes necessary. But trust – as a constituent of social capital – is problematic. Although what Putnam calls “outward-looking bridging social capital” is better for information diffusion and for forging links with external assets, little trust can actually be placed in people who are different from ourselves. Online (weak) ties are forged with relatively like-minded people, but there is a tendency towards the exclusivity of groups associated with Putnam’s “bonding social capital”. Thus there is a shift from a generalized to a more narrow particularized trust. 3.2 CIVIC ENGAGEMENT

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Although social capital is essentially about everyday social interaction that acts as a social resource for individuals, greater civic engagement may convert it into a benefit for communities or society. As with sociability and trust, the potential for civic participation is part of an individual’s offline traits – the Internet simply provides an innovative new channel for civic engagement. Several studies have shown that Internet users are indistinguishable from non-users when it comes to civic engagement, and there is no correlation between Internet usage and civic engagement. Therefore social interaction on the Internet does not demonstrably create civic consciousness and resultant social capital, but supplements and extends the social capital that already exists. A study of the Blacksburg Electronic Village in Virginia found that the prior high level of civic participation and attachment remained largely unchanged after the Internet’s introduction. A small, close-knit university town like Blacksburg already contained a very high level of social capital, and online interaction could hardly increase civic engagement (Kavanaugh and Patterson, 2002). Similarly, the initial success of Amsterdam’s Digital City indicated that as an instrument of civic engagement, the Internet simply added to a flourishing, pre-existent “public media culture” that had already fostered a high degree of civic consciousness and engagement (van den Besselaar and Beckers, 2005). The Internet’s supplementary role in building social capital is partly due to the primary importance of faceto-face interaction for meaningful and “intense involvement”. Despite individuals’ common attachment to certain symbols and values, social capital is formed and transmitted chiefly through direct interaction. 3.3 VIRTUAL COMMUNITIES Bourdieu observes that social capital is linked to “membership in a group”: the notion of group membership is particularly relevant to virtual communities, where the “profits accruing from membership are the basis of the solidarity that makes them possible” (Bourdieu, 1985,

 

                                     

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p. 249). There may be two types of virtual communities: geographically based virtual communities and online communities of interest. Arguably, they differ with respect to the quality of social capital that they can accumulate and the levels of generalized trust that they develop. Agents carry their willingness to trust online, but Internet-based communities comprise people who already have much in common, and hardly allow any further growth of trust. Thus the growth of social capital is inhibited. By contrast, physical place-based communities might overlap with face-to-face communities, allowing both online and direct communication between people whose membership to the community may not be based on similar interests. Thus trust needs to be built, and possible offline interaction aids the formation of trust. The experiment at “Netville” – a suburban Toronto development equipped with a high-speed network as part of its design – demonstrated the social-capital-building benefits of a placebased virtual community, with wired users recognizing, visiting, and interacting with many more neighbours than their non-wired counterparts (Hampton, 2004). Putnam notes that dense social networks promote reciprocity and trust: a place-based community wherein both online and direct interaction occur, would ensure greater network density and social capital than if the community were geographically dispersed. Social capital can be meaningfully developed when face-to-face exchanges supplement online interaction. It is hardly surprising then that most relationships formed in cyberspace tend to “continue in physical space”, and meeting an online acquaintance in person is for the vast majority a “positive experience” (Katz and Rice, 2002).

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4. CONCLUSION The relationship between Internet usage and social behaviour demands not a simple study of cause and effect, but of the reflexive movement of meaning between the online and offline domains. The notion of cycles of socialization developed by this paper tries to see people’s offline–online behaviour as a continuum in order to evaluate their response to the Internet. For most, Internet usage is easily absorbed into the round of daily activities, without significantly displacing any other social activity. More often than not, online engagement is positively associated with offline sociability, and vice versa. Further research needs to address the implications of networked social interaction for the development of social capital. As a communication tool, the Internet helps to expand personal networks of strong and weak ties. But trust and reciprocity within networks of weak ties are as transient as the network itself. The key question then is whether “weak” interpersonal relationships (micro social capital) can effectively be converted into and sustained as a useful public good at the level of community or society (macro social capital). Stephen Coleman notes that (micro level) social capital must be combined with “other resources” to generate value at the macro level (Coleman, 1988). But these “other resources” are not defined. Although it is tempting to consider the Internet as such a resource, the Internet’s primary use for personal networks rather than collective action or social mobilization, and its dependence on pre-existent social capital, implies that other possible resources need to be identified. The combination of social behaviour and organization, the Internet and these resources would help to theorize and understand social capital at the macro level.

 

                                     

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REFERENCES 1. Anderson, Ben; Tracey, Karina, (2002). Digital Living: The Impact (or Otherwise) of the Internet on Everyday Life, in Barry Wellman and Caroline Haythornthwaite, eds, The Internet in Everyday Life, Blackwell, Oxford. 2. Bourdieu, Pierre, (1985). The Forms of Capital, in J Richardson, ed, Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education, Greenwood Books, New York. 3. Castells, Manuel, (2001). The Internet Galaxy: Reflections on the Internet, Business, and Society, Oxford University Press, Oxford. 4. Coleman, James, (1988). Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital, American Journal of Sociology, 94(3). 5. Cummings, J et al, (2002). The Quality of Online Social Relationships, Communications of the ACM, 45(7), 103–8. 6. Granovetter, Mark S, (1973). The Strength of Weak Ties, American Journal of Sociology, 78(6), 1360–1380. 7. Haddon, Leslie, (2004). Information and Communication Technologies in Everyday Life: A Concise Introduction and Research Guide, Berg, Oxford. 8. Hampton, Keith, (2004). Networked Sociability Online, Off-line, in Manuel Castells, ed, The Network Society: A Cross-Cultural Perspective, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham. 9. Howard, Philip E N et al, (2001). Days and Nights on the Internet: The Impact of a Diffusing Technology, American Behavioral Scientist, 45(3), 383–404.

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10. Katz, James E et al, (2001). The Internet, 1995–2000: Access, Civic Involvement, and Social Interaction, American Behavioral Scientist, 45(3), 405–419. 11. Katz, James E; Rice, Ronald E, (2002). Social Consequences of Internet Use: Access, Involvement, and Interaction, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. 12. Kavanaugh, Andrea L; Patterson, Scott J, (2002). The Impact of Computer Community Networks on Social Capital and Community Involvement in Blacksburg, in Barry Wellman and Caroline Haythornthwaite, eds, The Internet in Everyday Life, Blackwell, Oxford. 13. Kraut, Robert et al, (1998). Internet Paradox: A Social Technology that Reduces Social Involvement and Psychological Well-Being?, American Psychologist, 53(9), 1017–31. 14. Orgad, Shani, (2007). The Interrelations between Online and Offline: Questions, Issues, and Implications, in Robin Mansell et al, eds, The Oxford Handbook of Information and Communication Technologies, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

 

                                     

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15. Putnam, Robert, (2000). Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community, Simon and Schuster, New York. 16. Quan-Haase, Annabel et al, (2002). Capitalizing on the Net: Social Contact, Civic Engagement, and Sense of Community, in Barry Wellman and Caroline Haythornthwaite, eds, The Internet in Everyday Life, Blackwell, Oxford. 17. Rainie, Lee et al, (2000). Tracking Online Life, Pew Research Center, Washington DC. 18. Uslaner, Eric M; Dekker, Paul, (2001). The “Social” in Social Capital, in Paul Dekker and Eric M Uslaner, eds, Social Capital and Participation in Everyday Life, Routledge, New York. 19. van den Besselaar, Peter; Beckers, Dennis, (2005). The Life and Death of the Great Amsterdam Digital City, in Peter van den Besselaar and Satoshi Koizumi, eds, Digital Cities III: Information Technologies for Social Capital, Springer, Amsterdam. 20. Wellman, Barry, (2000). Changing Connectivity: A Future History of Y2.03K, Sociological Research Online, 4(4); Available at [http://www.socresonline.org.uk/4/4/wellman.html].

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21. Wellman, Barry, (2001). Does the Internet Increase, Decrease, or Supplement Social Capital?, American Behavioral Scientist, 45(3), 436–455.

 

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315      A Peer Reviewed International Journal of Asian Research Consortium

AJRSH: ASIAN JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN SOCIAL SCIENCE & HUMANITIES DETERMINANTS OF TOURISM IN JAMMU AND KASHMIR – AN EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS DR. MAHESHA.M*; MR. RAIS AHMAD KUCHY** *Assistant Professor, DOS in Economics, University of Mysore, Karnataka, India. **Research Scholar, DOS in Economics, University of Mysore, Karnataka ,India.

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ABSTRACT The objective of this study is to estimate the determinants of International tourist arrival to Jammu and Kashmir. The paper used the gravity model to International tourist arrival covering the period of 1998 to 2007 for ten countries VIZ. Canada, U.S.A., France, Germany, Netherland, Itlay, Malayasia, Japan, Australia and U.K. Factors influencing on tourist arrivals are classified as economic and geographic factors. GDP, exchange rate and infrastructure are the economic factors and distance is the geographic factor. The results showed that income of other countries and the income of Jammu and Kashmir are significant and had a great influence on tourist arrival to Jammu and Kashmir. Distance is associated with the decrease in tourist arrival. More the distance between Jammu and Kashmir and the other country lesser will be the arrivals to Jammu and Kashmir and vice versa. The results confirm the findings of previous studies that income, exchange rate, infrastructure and distance has vital role for the tourist arrival to Jammu and Kashmir. The results also implies that tourism demand in J&K is mainly depends on the factor of tourism generating countries. Local factors are not effective in demand generation except the infrastructure. KEYWORDS: Tourism Panel data models Fixed effects Random effects. ___________________________________________________________________________

 

                                     

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1. INTRODUCTION Tourism is the basic and the most desirable human activity describing the praise and encouragement of the all people and government. The importance and significance of tourism could be understood from the observation of UNESCO, which says, “Tourism is a traditional instrument, which enables culture to the rehabilitated and made know to the rest of the world”. It is said that Tourism industry is smokeless industry and has become second to the petroleum industry in the world trade. Tourist has as great educational significance. Contact between people of different races and nationalities widen ones outlook. Tourism, whether domestic or International has common economic significance in the sense that money earned in places visited large sums of transferred to the host economies where this money provided a source of income, a means of livelihood and amenities for the resident population. Purchasing power is generated in the receiving areas through the expenditure of visitors. Money received is spent and re-spent and this has a multiplier effect on the host country. International tourism is of great importance in International trade in the sense that it enters into the balance of payments of accounts of individual countries generating tourist traffic and export for countries receiving tourist traffic. For many countries is a major item in world trade. These countries exhibit faster growth in tourism than in trade of goods.

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The Jammu and Kashmir economy depends mostly on traditional form of occupation. Unaffected and unaltered by modern day industrial developments and changing times, the indigenous traditional occupation of farming, animal husbandry, horticulture form the backbone of the economy of the state of Jammu and Kashmir. The state affected by continued violence and insurgency, the economy of Jammu and Kashmir is an underdeveloped one. However, in the recent years, the government of Jammu and Kashmir has taken several significant steps to strengthen the financial condition of the state and improve the standard of living of the indigenous local inhabitants. The paradisiacal land of Jammu and Kashmir had faced severe crisis in the recent inflicted by constant insurgencies and terrorism threats. The youth of the state had lost confidence and did not have any thong to hold back on. At this juncture, the state government decided to promote the Jammu and Kashmir industries. This way they create job opportunities and build a positive picture of the state. They stressed more on the manufacturing industries of Jammu and Kashmir as it will help to generate revenue for the state. The revenue earning of the state of Jammu and Kashmir is largely dependent on the tourism industry. The tourism industry in Jammu and Kashmir is supposed to be one of the most flourishing industries in the state. As there are not much industrial developments in the other sectors of this place so the industry related to tourism is considered with much seriousness by the state government. Apart from agriculture economic activities of Jammu and Kashmir, the tourism is the most popular source of income. But these activities were hampered because of the massive political disturbance here. The tourist footfall in this region gradually decreased in and after the nineties. The economic structure of the state suffered a sudden downfall. There is no doubt that the state like Jammu and Kashmir had lot of potential for tourism. The slopes available at sonamarg, pahalgam and gulmarg provide scope for development of winter

 

                                     

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tourism. Bestowed with rich scenic beauty, the snow capped forests in winter draw a great chunk of tourists from all over the world to gulmarg the high altitude tourist resort in Kashmir valley. The ride of cable car corporation (Gondola) has always been a special attraction for tourists. The state government too is devoting full attention for developing sufficient infrastructure to boost the tourist trade in the state. Tourism has a multiplier effect on income, employment generation and gives tremendous fillip to the economy. From the above discussion, and observing the importance of tourism, it is clear that tourism of Jammu and Kashmir has great potential. Hence, this study makes a moderate attempt to analyze the factors determining International tourist arrivals to Jammu and Kashmir. The period of this study is from 1998 to 2007. 2. STYLISED FACTORS OF JAMMU AND KASHMIR TOURISM. Strategically located Jammu and Kashmir State constitutes the northern most extremity of India. The state comprising the three distinct climatic regions VIZ, Arctic cold desert areas of LADAKH, temperate KASHMIR VALLEY and sub-tropical region of JAMMU. CHART 1: DIVISIONS OF JAMMU AND KASHMIR

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JAMMU AND KASHMIR

JAMMU

KASHMIR

LADAKH

All these three regions of the Jammu and Kashmir have immense potential for tourism from both domestic as well as International tourism. There are numbers of locations which are untapped and can be developed as major tourist destinations having the entire natural as well as the cultural resources for attracting tourists.

 

                                     

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PICTURE. 1 (PAHALGAM)

PICTURE. 2 (SHALIMAR GARDEN)

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PICTURE.3(RAGHUNATH TEMPLE) PICTURE. 4(KASHMIRI_HUT_PRODUCTS) Some of the important natural resources are excellent climate, beautiful lakes, locations for adventure sports, wild life, trout fish, natural and manmade parks like Shalimar and Nihat of the Mughal period, flora and fauna, alpine forests, natural waterfalls and streams etc. As for the cultural resources, the state has some of the most important religious shrines of the Hindus, historical monuments, plethora of local festivals, distinct cuisine, craftsmanship skills for intricate and fine woodwork, woolens, carpet, textiles, paper Mache, inlay work etc. The state abounds in large lakes- the biggest of the fresh lakes being Wular, Dal and Manasbal lakes. The biggest brackish water lakes are Tso Moriri and Pangong Tso in Ladakh region. A large number of smaller lakes in the higher reaches of the mountain ranges provides surprises for those who can reach them trekking.

 

                                     

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PICTURE.5 (DAL LAKE)

PICTURE. 6(MONASTERY)

PICTURE. 7 (DAL LAKE) Source: www.kashmironline.net/wallpapers

In the year 1989 the total arrival of tourists in J&K was 2987964 which in 1990 were 2191486, in 1991 it was 3182251, in 1992 it was 3608269 and in 2001 it reached at 5268246. But this regular growth pattern is mostly because of the tourist coming to Vaishnodeviji. It was predicted that by the end of 2010, the tourist arrival in J&K would be around 1,10,73650, considering the fact that normalcy will occur in the next 2-3 years which will rise to 2,27,08,506 by the end of 2020.1 The trend in the development of Jammu and Kashmir is not encouraging. It has been lagging behind most of the states in regard to the growth of Net State Domestic Product (NSDP) at current prices at present. The average annual growth of NSDP at current prices                                                              1

 

J&K Tourism Department.

                                     

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during 1999-2000 was 12.45% for Jammu and Kashmir against 15.01%, 14.28%, 13.83%, and 14.3% for Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, West Bengal and Kerala respectively. The domestic tourist arrival in J&K during the year 2004 was 6881473, which increased to 7239481 in 2005, and in 2006 it showed also an increase of 7646274, but this growing trend is not satisfactory when compared to other states of India e.g. in 2004 the domestic arrival of tourists for Uttrakhand was 11720570, in 2005 it was 14215570 and in 2006 it was 16666525.2

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Tourism once a mainstay is now dead. The challenges faced by this sector are many as the continuous disturbance had led to the decline of tourism industry in the state of J&K. Therefore the economy has collapsed. The houseboat hotels for tourists on the Dal Lake are floating high on water, empty of guests. Shopkeepers, carpet-sellers, farmers, hoteliers and traders report that business is off. Though the tourism has immense backward and forward linkage in terms of both income and employment and can contribute significantly to the economy, haphazard and uncontrolled growth can destroy the very base on which tourism is built and poor planning cause considerable damage.

PICTURE. 8 (GULMARAG) The state of Jammu and Kashmir is full of natural and scenic beauty. Therefore, lot of potential for tourism there. Keeping this in view, the government of J&K has declared tourism an industry, extending a number of concessions and incentives. The emphasis has been given to revive the traditional tourist circuits including tourism marketing by involving local travel trade in direct marketing through the state tourism department. The state of Jammu and Kashmir is natural and inevitable destination for tourists. It is essential that the tourist business, which plays such an important role in the economy of J&K and benefits such a large section of the local population, be encouraged as a suitable focus for development. This is not only vital for the welfare of the region concerned, but would be of                                                              2

 

State/U.T Tourism Departments.

                                     

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material advantage to the country’s balance of payments. And indeed, the state can look forward optimistically to the growth of tourism which is one of the world’s fastest-growing industries. 3. EMPIRICAL LITERATURE AND ESTIMATION METHODOLOGY:

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In this section so far as the International tourism demand is concerned, the studies like (Marcio, et al. 2005), (Sung Yong Park & Sang Young Jei 2010), (Eilat Y. & Einav L. 2004), (Lim C. & McAleer M. 2001), (Muchapondwa E. and Pimhidzai O. 2008), (Divino J. A. and McAleer M. .J. 2008), (Chaovanapoonphol Y., et al. 2010), (Alper A., et al. 2008), (Muchapondwa E. & Pimhidzai O. 2008), (Boopen, Seetanah 2005) and (Chaiboonsri C., et al. 2008) has discussed about determinants of International tourism flow. Income has been regarded as a fundamental factor for tourism demand, some finding illustrates that the specific characteristics of a particular origin country should be taken into account to develop policies or plans for tourism industries. Among other things, that political risk is very important for tourism, and that exchange rates matter mainly for tourism to developed countries. Taste formation, transport costs, changes in global income and certain specific events have a significant impact on International tourism demand which implies that the improvement of International tourism infrastructure (in order to reduce travel costs and enhance the quality of services to tourists) so as to reinforce taste formation are important for attracting more International tourists. Also the studies suggested that if the tourist destinations are maintained with good management system, such as maintaining the amenities of the tourism products, keeping good accessibility to the tourism products, keep a good image of tourism products, keeping the right price of tourism products and keeping the competitiveness of tourism products, then not only will International tourists revisit but also the numbers of tourists travelling will increase. Apart from this tourism has a significant contribution towards peace building. In order to measure the tourism demand in Jammu and Kashmir we have used the secondary data related to the factors which are responsible to tourist arrivals. we have taken the time period from 1998 to 2007. Data on tourist arrivals are obtained from the Source: Directorate of Tourism Kashmir/Jammu. Data on GDP/NSDP, distance and infrastructure are collected form World Bank, IMF, Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) world fact book on line data base and Digest of statistics Jammu and Kashmir. The gravity model is used to investigate relationship between tourist arrival and the determinants of tourism demand. The model is augmented with a number of variables to test whether they are relevant in explaining tourist arrivals between Jammu and Kashmir with selected countries. These variables include GDP of other countries and SDP of Jammu and Kashmir, Distance, and Infrastructure Endowment Based on the literature, the gravity model used here to measure the determinant of tourist at the Jammu and Kashmir level can be specified as follows: Tij = f (Yj, ERij, TCij, INFRAij)

_________ (1)

Where Tij is the number of tourist arrival in Statei from countryj, Yj is the income of the country j, ERij is the exchange rate measured as units of countryi’s currency per unit of countryj’s currency. TCij is the transport cost between Statei and countryj, INFRAi and INFRAj are the measures of infrastructures in Statei and countryj, and Aij represents any other factor

 

                                     

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that determines the arrival of tourists to Statei from countryj. Equation 4.3 is expressed in natural log form as for estimation purposes as: LnTij = α0 + β1LnYi + β2LnYj + β3lnERij + β4lnTCij + β5lnTELij + β6lnROADij + Eij ___(2) Since our data is in panel form there are two widely used methods of estimation of panel data found in empirical studies i.e., fixed effects and random effects and among the fixed and random effect methods of panel data estimation, the fixed effect model is appropriate for our analysis which is supported by the Hausman test. Hence we have reported and discussed only the results of fixed effect model in this study. 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The results of the estimation of equation 2 are presented in the Table 1. The equation is estimated by the method of fixed effects. Based on the model in order to study the determinants of International tourism in Jammu and Kashmir we have used tourist arrivals as a dependent variable and GDP, SDP, Exchange Rate, TC, Infrastructure as independent variables. As can be seen from the table 1, The GDP of the other countries and SDP of the state has been significantly influencing on tourist arrivals to Jammu and Kashmir. Since the increase in the income of those countries tend to motivate their people to visit the places of tourism in other countries. That is why in our analysis we have an expected positive relationship between income and tourist arrival and it is statistically significant at 5% level.

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As per our priori expectation the influence of distance was negative. It has a negative coefficient and this is consistent with theory. This implies that as the distance increase travel cost also increase and it reduces numbers of tourist arrivals to Jammu and Kashmir. We expect the negative coefficient for exchange rate. Exchange rates are defined such that the larger the exchange rate value, the weaker the currency relative to the Indian rupee. This suggests that exchange rates should be inversely related to the number of arrivals because a weaker currency make visiting India more expensive. Hence the coefficient of exchange rate is negative and significant in determining the tourist arrivals to India. So far as the infrastructure is concerned, we expect a positive coefficient. In our analysis we found that the coefficient of telephone connections in Jammu and Kashmir and the other countries is positive and is significant showing that it has very much influence on tourist arrivals and the coefficient of road network for the other countries is positive and significant means that it has a great influence on tourist arrivals to Jammu and Kashmir but the coefficient of road network for the state is negative means that it has not so much influenced the tourist arrivals to Jammu and Kashmir but it is significant This study shows that both the economic variables and the geographical factors are important for increasing the number of tourist arrivals. So we can say that there is a great policy implication. This study can help the state to know how important the development of the infrastructure is for receiving the more number of arrivals. If the state increases the telecommunication network and increase the road network there is no doubt that the tourism industry will grow and ultimately the income of the state.

 

                                     

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TABLE 1: ESTIMATES OF THE GRAVITY MODEL FOR INTERNATIONAL TOURIST INFLOWS TO JAMMU AND KASHMIR Dependent variable: Tourist Arrivals Explanatory Variable

Coefficient

Std.Err.

Z

P>|z|

Ln (SDP i)

1.061176**

.492324

2.16

0.034

Ln( GDP j)

.7420524**

.3553179

2.09

0.040

Ln (distance)

-.6943**

.2058514

-3.37

0.048

LnEX. (J)

.1239855**

.049168

2.52

0.014

LnTEL.C.(I)

.1381371**

.0596006

2.32

0.023

LnTEL.C.(J)

.6334243

.5102027

1.24

0.218

LnROAD L.(I)

-.656526***

.18947

-3.46

0.002

LnROAD L.(J)

.729688**

.29541

2.47

0.038

-CONS

-2.284251

12.60651

-0.18

0.857

R-sq = 0.5278

Hausman Stat = 47.43

Prob = 0.0000

F value = 9.31

No.of Obs.=100

Note: *** indicates 1% level of significance, **indicates 5% level of significance,*indicates 10% level of significance.

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5. SUMMARY This study estimated determinants of International tourist arrival to Jammu and Kashmir. The study applies the gravity model to International tourist arrival covering the period of 1998 to 2007 for ten countries VIZ. Canada, U.S.A., France, Germany, Netherland, Itlay, Malayasia, Japan, Australia, U.K. Factors influencing on tourist arrivals are classified as economic and geographic factors. GDP, exchange rate and infrastructure are the economic factors and distance is the geographic factor. The study was carried out in order to determine whether there is really the significance of the variables selected for the determination of tourist arrivals to Jammu and Kashmir from the selected countries. The results showed that income of other countries and the income of Jammu and Kashmir are significant and had a great influence on tourist arrival to Jammu and Kashmir. Distance is associated with the decrease in tourist arrival. More the distance between Jammu and Kashmir and the other country lesser will be the arrivals to Jammu and Kashmir and vice versa. The results confirm the findings of previous studies that income, exchange rate, infrastructure and distance has vital role for the tourist arrival to Jammu and Kashmir. The results also implies that tourism demand in J&K is mainly depends on the factor of tourism generating countries. Local factors are not effective in demand generation except the infrastructure.

 

                                     

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REFERENCES 1. Arslanturk, eta al. (2011) “Time-varying linkages between tourism receipts and economic growth in a small open economy”. Journal of Economic Modeling. Issue (Month): 1-2 (January), pp. 664-671. 2. Alper A, et al. (2009) “International tourism demand for turkey: A dynamic panel data approach”. Research of Journal of International Studies. 9, pp. 65-73. 3. Bhhattacarya and Kaushik (2011) “Role of Rules of Thumb in Forecasting Foreign Tourist Arrival: A Case Study of India”. Paper provided by University Library of Munich, Germany in its series MPRA Paper with number 28515. 4. Boopen and Seetanah (2005) “Transport Capital as a Determinant of Tourism Development: A Time Series Approach”. Paper provided by University Library of Munich, Germany in its series MPRA Paper with number 25402. http://mpra.ub.unimuenchen.de 5. Dhariwal R. (2005) “Tourist arrivals in India: how important are domestic disorders?” Journal of tourism economics. Vol.11, No.2, pp. 185-205. 6. Durbarry R. (2004) “Tourism and economic growth: the case of Mauritius”. Journal of tourism economics. Vol.10, No.4, pp. 389-401. 7. Eilat Y., et al. (2004) “Determinants of International tourism: a three-dimensional panel data analysis”, Journal of Applied Economics. Volume 36, Issue 12 (July), pp. 1315-1327.

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8. Joseph K.V. (2008) “Can tourism foster the development of Indian economy?” The IUP journal of Governance and public policy. Vol. 3. Issue 4, pp. 65-74. 9. Jayasheela, et al. (2006) “Tourism Development in India – Challenges In the New”. Journal of Global Economy. Vol. 2, Issue 1, pp. 55-71. 10. Lee and Ging C. (2008) “Tourism and Economic Growth: The Case of Singapore”. Journal of Regional and Sectoral Economic Studies. Issue 1, pp. 89-98. 11. Nuno, et al. (2010) “Does trade help to explain tourist demand?” The case of Portugal”. Theoretical and Applied Economics. 17(3), pp. 63-74. 12. Park S. Y., et al. (2010) “Determinants of volatility on International tourism demand for South Korea: an empirical note”. Journal of Applied Economic Letters. Volume 17, Issue 3, pp. 217-223. 13. Richa D. (2005) “Tourist arrivals in India: how important are domestic disorders?” Journal of Tourism Economics, 11(2), pp. 185-205. 14. Selvanathan S., et al. (2009) “Modelling the domestic and foreign tourist arrivals to Tamil Nadu (India)”. Journal Applied Economics. Volume (Year): 41 Issue (Month): 24, pp. 3131-3142.

 

                                     

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15. Sarma, M. T. R. (1977) “Impact of tourism on the economy of Jammu and Kashmir”. Journal of Research in Tourism. Vol. 1. No. 3. pp. 39-63. 16. Timo Tohmo (2005) “Economic impacts of cultural events on local economies: an input-output analysis of the Kaustinen Folk Music Festival”. Journal of Tourism Economics. Vol.11, No.3, pp. 431-451.. 17. Wagner J. (1997) “Estimating the Economic Impacts of Tourism”. Annals of Tourism research. Vol. 24, No. 3, pp. 592-608. 18. Willem Naude A. and Saayman A. (2005) “Determinants of tourist arrivals in Africa: a panel data regression analysis”. Journal of tourism economics. Vol.11, No.3, pp. 365-391.

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19. Yair E., Liran E. (2004) “The determinants of International tourism: A threedimensional panel data analysis”. Journal of Applied Economics. 36(12), pp. 13151327.

 

                                     

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AJRSH: ASIAN JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN SOCIAL SCIENCE & HUMANITIES CLIMATE CHANGE, NATURAL DISASTERS, MITIGATION AND PREPAREDNESS IN INDIAN CONTINENT: A STUDY DR. K.RAJASEKHAR* *Associate professor, Department of Population Studies, S.V.University, Tirupati, A.P.

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ABSTRACT Climate change and natural disaster risk are closely linked and climate change threatens to heighten these impacts in many areas, both by changing the frequency and/or intensity of extreme events and by bringing changes in mean conditions that may alter the underlying vulnerability of populations to hazards. Thus, a holistic management of disaster risk requires mitigation and preparedness action to reduce impacts of extreme events before, during and after they occur, hence, a key challenge and opportunity therefore lies in building a bridge between current disaster risk management efforts of mitigation and preparedness aimed at reducing vulnerabilities to extreme events and efforts to promote climate change adaptation. The paper examines the climate change, disaster mitigation and preparedness nexus in context of India. KEYWORDS: Climate change, Disaster, Risk management, Mitigation, Preparedness, Indian continent. ______________________________________________________________________ INTRODUCTION Climate change and natural disaster risk are closely linked. Climate change and disasters are fast emerging as the most defining challenges of the 21st century as global risks with impacts far beyond just the environment and implications on national security and development. Recent projections and analytical studies indicate that the increasing global temperatures, arctic and glacial melt down, sea level rise and other climate change induced environmental degradation will give rise to extreme weather events and overstretch many societies’ adaptive capacities within the coming decades thus increasing societal vulnerabilities. Concomitantly a global review of the statistics of disasters by the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Diseases (CRED) indicates that natural disasters are increasing in terms of frequency,

 

                                     

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complexity, scope and destructive capacity. Hitherto, disasters were linked to climate change through short term natural variability manifesting in extreme weather events such as cyclones, storms, floods, droughts, heat waves, windstorms and other natural hazards with potential for catastrophic loss of human lives, damages to infrastructure and environment. So, more extreme weather events in future are likely to increase the number and scale of disasters, while at the same time, the existing mitigation methods and preparedness tools of disaster risk reduction provide powerful capacities for adaptation to climate change. Climate change threatens to heighten these impacts in many areas, both by changing the frequency and/or intensity of extreme events and by bringing changes in mean conditions that may alter the underlying vulnerability of populations to hazards. Thus, climate change is one of the most important global environmental challenges faced by humanity. This unprecedented increase is expected to have severe impact on the global hydrological system (receding glaciers, erratic monsoon), ecosystems, sea level, crop production and related processes. The impact would be particularly severe in tropical areas mainly consisting of developing countries, including India.

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Nearly 700 million rural people in India directly depend on climate-sensitive sectors (agriculture, forests and fisheries) and natural resources (water, biodiversity, mangroves, coastal zones and grasslands) for their subsistence and livelihood. It is estimated that approximately 142 million people may inhabit coastal India in 2050 and India’s total number of flood zone refugee alone could be anywhere between 20 and 60 million. Under changing climate, food security of the country might come under threat. In addition, the adaptive capacity of dry-land farmers, forest and coastal immunities is low. Climate change is likely to impact all the natural ecosystems as well as health (e.g. malaria) and socio-economic systems. To manage these climate change-induced disasters, the country needs to have improved scientific understanding, capacity building, networking and broad consultation processes across every section of the society. Further, human activities that contribute to deforestation, land degradation and climate change not only result in huge losses to the environment, but also increase the vulnerability of the environment to disasters and alter the resilience of the natural environment by reducing its ability to recover effectively from damage. Hence, climate change and natural disasters should be dealt with mutually and not in isolation. Disaster mitigation and preparedness are necessary for a sustainable growth of any society. It has also been observed that the numbers of people killed due to disaster are more in the places where human development is low. With rapid development of coastal areas, industrialization and urbanization, more populations are becoming vulnerable to climate-associated calamities and many have no choice but to move to safer places. For India, tackling the challenge of climate change and increasing in disaster risks posits particular significance, Valuable time and resources would be consumed in handling the increasing risks, which would impinge on its development, unless appropriate mitigation measures and mechanisms are not put in place now, and policies redefined to address the challenge. WHAT IS CLIMATE CHANGE? Climate change means the alteration of the world’s climate that we humans are causing, through fossil fuel burning, clearing forests and other practices that increase the concentration of Greenhouse gases (GHG) in the atmosphere. Generally, scientists often use the term for any change in the climate, whether arising naturally or from human causes.

 

                                     

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United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) defines that climate change is the change that can be attributed “directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods”. According to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) climate change as “a change in the state of the climate that can be identified ... by changes in the mean and / or the variability of its properties, and that persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer”. CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE Increases in average global air/surface warming air temperature (1.1 - 6.4 °C), the oceans became more acidic, heat waves and precipitation events increases (hot extremes), the tropical cyclones (typhoons and hurricanes) will became more intense, ongoing increases of tropical sea surface temperature, widespread melting of snow and ice, and rising average global sea levels (global average sea level rose at an average rate of 1.8 mm/yr). The current concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is now the highest it has been for the past 500,000 years, having grown by 70percent between 1970 and 2004 alone, and having reached this level exceptionally quickly. Present human activities also, in particular fossil fuel use and changing land-uses, are the dominant factor in this growth and are responsible for most of the warming observed over the past 50 years.

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WHAT IS DISASTER? The United Nations (1992) defines disaster as “a serious disruption of the functioning of the community or society, causing widespread human, material, or environmental losses which exceed the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its own resources”. A disaster is a function of the risk process. It results from the combination of hazards, conditions of vulnerability and insufficient capacity or measures to reduce the potential negative consequences of risk. CLIMATE CHANGE AND NATURAL DISASTERS Generally, natural hazards by themselves do not cause disasters – it is the combination of an exposed, vulnerable and ill prepared population or community with a hazard event that results in a disaster. Climate change will therefore affect disaster risks in two ways, firstly through the likely increase in weather and climate hazards, and secondly through increases in the vulnerability of communities to natural hazards, particularly through ecosystem degradation, reductions in water and food availability, and changes to livelihoods. Climate change will add yet another stress to those of environmental degradation and rapid unplanned urban growth, further reducing communities’ abilities to cope with even the existing levels of weather hazards. Climate change is likely to change the nature of many types of hazards, not only hydro meteorological events such as floods, windstorms, and droughts, but also events such as landslides, heat waves and disease outbreaks, influencing not only the intensity, but also the duration and magnitude of these events. Further, climate fluctuations and extreme weather events have been the most frequently occurring hazards and in combination with social  

                                     

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vulnerability have been responsible for the vast majority of disaster losses worldwide. The frequency of heavy precipitation events has increased over most land areas, which is consistent with global warming and the observed increases of atmospheric water vapor. More intense and longer droughts have been observed over wider areas since the 1970s, particularly in the tropics and subtropics. Higher temperatures and decreased precipitation have increased the prevalence of drier conditions as well as contributing to changes in the distribution of droughts. Changes in sea surface temperatures, wind patterns, and decreased snow pack and snow cover also have been linked to changing drought occurrence. Widespread changes in extreme temperatures have been observed in many regions of the world over the last 50 years; most notably the higher frequency of high temperature days and nights and heat. Disaster risk and climate change are two threats to human well-being that adversely reinforce each other. Disaster risk is an intrinsic characteristic of human society, arising from the combination of natural and human factors and subject to exacerbation or reduction by human agency. While the adverse impacts of climate change on society may increase disaster risk, disasters themselves erode environmental and social resilience, and thus increase vulnerability to climate change. Although the relationship between climate change and extreme events remains uncertain, it is difficult to distinguish variability and changes in climate-related hazards from the impacts of long-term climate change. Improved knowledge on the linkages between extreme weather events and climate change is needed and can facilitate strategies to reduce vulnerability. Yet it is increasingly acknowledged that both preparatory actions and responses to climate variability and long-term climate change may often be similar. Consequently, there are growing calls for a common framework for approaching the reduction of vulnerability to disasters, climate variability and long-term climate change. Disasters have an enormous impact on human development. Globally, events such as earthquakes, floods, and droughts contribute to tens of thousands of deaths, hundreds of thousands of injuries, and billions of dollars in economic losses each year. In developing countries, disasters represent a major source of risk for the poor and can potentially destroy development gains and accumulated wealth. This has been recognized by the UN Member States in the Millennium Declaration, which sees the mounting losses caused by disasters as a major threat towards meeting the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). But, at present, “Climate change will make it impossible for the world to achieve the Millennium Development Goals, because, Poverty is bound to increase and Food security is bound to get worse.” In Indian sub-continent is one of the most disaster prone areas of the world. In India, every year 60 percent of land mass prone to earthquakes and 40 million hectares (8%) of landmass prone to floods, 8000 Km long coastline with two cyclone seasons, 68 percent of the total area vulnerable to drought, 2.3 million houses damaged, 8041 k.m coast line exposed to tropical cyclones, 1 million houses damaged annually, US$ 15059 Million public infrastructure exposed to natural hazards risk. The geo-climatic conditions coupled with a rapidly growing Population and rising urbanization scenario have manifested in increasing impact and devastation from disasters. India is among the world’s most disaster prone areas. India support 1/6th of the world’s population on just 2 per cent of it landmass. Nearly 59 per cent of India’s land area is prone to earthquakes of moderate to very high intensity, over 40 million hectares (12 % of land), is prone to floods, close to 5700 kms of its 7516 km coast line (about 8%), is cyclone prone and exposed to tsunamis and storm surges, 2 per cent of land is landslide prone, and 68 per cent

 

                                     

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of India’s arable land is affected by droughts. In India, (among 28 States and 7 Union Territories) around 27 are disaster prone areas (GoI, 2004a). Most disasters in India are water related. The global disaster trends are alarming, singularly so in India. At aggregate country level, India ranks third with 21 significant disasters recorded (China recorded 38, followed by US which recorded 31.A scrutiny of the past records of 100 years too indicates that India figures in the first 10 in the world in terms of fatalities and economic losses in a variety of disasters. These trends are likely to exacerbate in future with climate change. The projected increase in precipitation and rainfall, the glacial meltdown and rising sea levels will affect India particularly severely, creating conditions for more hazardous events and will lead to increase in incidence of floods, cyclones, and storm surges. Though it is not possible to predict the future frequency or timings of extreme events but there is evidence that the risk of drought, flooding, and cyclone damage is increasing and will continue to do so. Climate change is also likely to threaten India’s food security, increase water stress, and increase occurrences of diseases especially malaria. Lack of availability and access to technological and financial resources coupled with a high dependence on climate sensitive sectorsagriculture, fisheries, forestry-have made India highly vulnerable to climate change. A large and growing population densely populated and a low-lying coastline, and an economy closely tied to its natural resource base, further intensifies this vulnerability.

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NEED OF MITIGATION AND PREPAREDNESS IN DISASTER RISK:In serious disaster situations, the major challenge for authorities is the protection of life (human and animal), property, and the vital life-supporting infrastructure necessary for disaster mitigation. Any delay or laxity in disaster relief could escalate the magnitude of distress for the victims. Disaster loss is on the rise with grave consequences for the survival, dignity and livelihood of individuals, particularly the poor and hard-won development gains. Disaster risk is increasingly of global concern and its impact and actions in one region can have an impact on risks in another, and vice versa. This, compounded by increasing vulnerabilities related to changing demographics, technological and socio-economic conditions, unplanned urbanization, development within high-risk zones, under-development, environmental degradation, climate variability, climate change, geological hazards, competition for scarce resources, and the impact of epidemics such as HIV/AIDS, points to a future where disasters could increasingly threaten the world’s economy, and its population and the sustainable development of developing countries. In the past two decades, on average, more than 200 million people have been affected every year, by disasters. Disaster risk arises when hazards interact with physical, social, economic and environmental vulnerabilities. Events of hydro-meteorological origin constitute the large majority of disasters. Despite the growing understanding and acceptance of the importance of disaster risk reduction and increased disaster response capacities, disasters and in particular the management and reduction of risk continue to pose a global challenge. In holistic management of disaster risk, it requires mitigation and preparedness action to reduce impacts of extreme events before, during and after they occur, including technical preventive measures and aspects of socio-economic development designed to reduce human vulnerability to hazards. Both mitigation and preparedness have been key levers in disaster risk reduction and climate change strategies. An integrated risk management framework needs to build on these two vial strategies. However, preparedness in comparison to mitigation has been the neglected stepchild in both disaster risk reduction and global negotiations and debates over climate change, mainly due to the complexity of separating  

                                     

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preparedness from other socio economic, environment and development issues. But preparedness is largely spoken about only in discussions. But, a key challenge and opportunity therefore lies in building a bridge between current disaster risk management efforts of mitigation and preparedness aimed at reducing vulnerabilities to extreme events and efforts to promote climate change adaptation. DISASTER MITIGATION

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Mitigation is means “an anthropogenic intervention to reduce the anthropogenic forcing of the climate system; it includes strategies to reduce greenhouse gas sources and emissions and enhancing greenhouse gas sinks”. Mitigation (structural, reduction of green house gases etc) with clear visible manifestation of actions has been the easier chosen option. India has many mitigation projects for disasters, viz, earthquake, flood, drought mitigation, etc. Disaster mitigation focuses on the hazard that causes the disaster and tries to eliminate or drastically reduce its direct effects. The best example of mitigation is the construction of dams or levies to prevent floods or coordination of release of water from various irrigation dams to avoid flooding in the downstream areas. Other examples include strengthening buildings to make them earthquake resistant, planting of crops that are less affected by disasters, controlling land-use patterns to restrict development in high-risk areas and diversification of economic activities to act as insurance to offset losses in different sectors. A mitigation strategy however, cannot be successful unless it has the backing and support of all concerned – the administrative machinery, the research institutions, the non-officials and the community. So, it also becomes imperative to have built-in institutional arrangements and/or legislative backing to oversee the mitigation strategy over a period of time. Mitigation actions include more efficient furnace systems, developing new low-energy technologies for industry and transport, reducing consumption of energy-intensive products, and switching to renewable forms of energy, such as solar and wind power. Natural carbon sinks, such as forests, vegetation and soils, can be managed to absorb carbon dioxide, and technologies are being developed to capture carbon dioxide at industrial sources and to inject it into permanent storage deep underground. The main elements of mitigation strategy which can further broadly divided into structural and non- structural mitigation. Mitigation measures need to be considered in land use and site planning activities. Necessary mitigation measures need to be built into the design and costing of development projects. Structural mitigation: - It is typically much more complex than non-structural mitigation, and usually has a higher associated cost. NON- STRUCTURAL MITIGATION Many of the non-structural mitigation measures are being carried out by the Government of India, under the Disaster Risk Management Programme. The Ninth Five-year Plan (19972001) of India saw the beginning of a gradual shift away from purely structural measures toward other forms of non-structural mitigation. In the Ninth Plan it was observed that in addition to the progress made in implementing structural flood protection measures, flood forecasting and warning systems had played a great role in mitigating the loss of life and enabling the protection of movable property. However, notwithstanding the growing understanding, the response of governments to floods and droughts (as evidenced from the flood and drought response synthesis reports) reveal that investment strategies focus on

 

                                     

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structures and other physical interventions designed to increase control over water availability and flow. These investments are intended primarily to increase the physical availability of water during dry periods. In the case of floods, most investments are directed toward the construction and maintenance of embankments and other flood control structures. Both floods and droughts, in the practical sense of investment, are seen as external events that can be controlled through the construction of physical structures. Concepts of flood and drought proofing exist and do include the recognition of wide measures related to the vulnerability of livelihoods. Translating such concepts into governmental programs that actually direct significant investment into something other than the construction of water control structures has not, however, occurred on a widespread basis. Lessons from past efforts toward flood control indicate that structural actions often increase long-term vulnerability. There has been a gradual shift from purely structural measures to nonstructural measures for flood mitigation. This is reflected in the Tenth Five-year Plan of the Government of India, although much of the shift still remains on paper. PREPAREDNESS

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Preparedness means, the capacities and knowledge developed by governments, professional response organizations, communities and individuals to anticipate and respond effectively to the impact of likely, imminent or current hazard events or conditions. In other words, Preparedness means development, rehabilitation, and restoration on one side and mitigation, rescue, relief on the other side. Preparedness is a state of being ready to react promptly and effectively in the event of an emergency. Preparedness measures to be undertaken depends upon the analysis of hazard severity and vulnerability, which is also the basis for deciding mitigation strategy. Preparedness for any emergency, especially those, which strike without notice, requires a plan. It is essential to identify the resources available, and ways to utilize them. It must also be reasonably certain that the plan will work in an emergency situation. Disaster preparedness is just one element of a holistic approach to the reduction of risk associated with natural hazards. However, an adequate level of preparedness can be particularly essential to saving lives and livelihoods in the face of a natural hazard event. Preparedness is a continuous cycle of planning, managing, organizing, training, equipping, exercising, creating, monitoring, evaluating and improving activities to ensure effective coordination and the enhancement of capabilities of concerned organizations to prevent, protect against, respond to, recover from, create resources and mitigate the effects of natural disasters, acts of terrorism, and other man-made disasters. In the preparedness phase, emergency managers develop plans of action carefully to manage and counter their risks and take action to build the necessary capabilities needed to implement such plans. Preparedness action is carried out within the context of disaster risk management and should be based on a sound analysis of disaster risks and be well linked to early warning systems. It includes contingency planning, stockpiling of equipment and supplies, emergency services and stand-by arrangements, communications, information management and coordination arrangements, personnel training, community drills and exercises, and public education. It must be supported by formal institutional, legal and budgetary capacities.

 

                                     

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Preparedness planning aims to establish a standing capacity to respond to a range of different situations that may affect a country or region by putting in place a broad set of preparedness measures. This includes for example early warning systems, ongoing risk and vulnerability assessment, capacity building, the creation and maintenance of stand-by capacities and the stockpiling of humanitarian supplies. Sound preparedness planning should lead to an improved state of readiness that ultimately leads to safeguarding lives and livelihoods. The process of developing a national preparedness capability should bring together each of the elements described in this document reflecting legislative and institutional arrangements, Co-ordination structures, contingency and response plans as well as information and communication systems. While the process may require significant time and resources, it is essential that all partners have a genuine sense of ownership, as this is a requirement for sustainability. PREPAREDNESS PLAN The purpose of a plan is to provide a systematic way of responding to an emergency situation. The following aspects should be taken into consideration in the development of Emergency Preparedness Plan. The disaster preparedness plan includes the following activities: 1. Measures related to national policy and planning for making institutional arrangement, providing legal framework, adopting national policy and plan on disaster management. 2. Measures related to geological, hydrological and meteorological hazard assessment and environmental engineering studies. 3. Infrastructure specific and hazard specific preparedness measures.

Journal of Asian Research Consortium                  39                  http://www.aijsh.org                                                                                      

4. Measures related to strengthening fire fighting capabilities in fire prone areas. 5. Measures related to awareness raising, training, rehearsal, simulation activities. 6. Measures related to establishment of disaster management information system and stock piling of emergency supply materials. 7. Risk assessment for development planning. 8. Policies on the role of NGOs, local community, private sector and also people's participation especially women and socially disadvantaged groups. 9. Incorporation of environment impact assessment for disaster reduction development planning. 10. Promotion of regional and sub-regional cooperation between countries expecting same types of hazards. 11. Establishment of documentation centre on disaster activities.

 

                                     

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REPAREDNESS and MITIGATION MEASURES (AT NORMAL TIME) 1. To provide awareness generation, education, training, formation of village level Task Force. 2. To establish Disaster Management Committees and Teams, development of Disaster Management Plans, conduct of mock drills, vulnerability assessment and coordination with Government and non government agencies. 3. Do required activities at grass root level at each district or sub-district level. 4. They can provide technical and material support to community since they are already working closely with the community and have better appreciation of their vulnerabilities, needs and the capacity for revival so as to bring them back to the pre-disaster stage at the earliest. 5. A well-coordinated approach giving a lead role to local civil societies with necessary linkages with larger NGOs and District Administration will go a long way in institutionalizing the role of Civil Societies in disaster risk reduction. 6. Meeting of transporters is held every quarter and database of transport requirement and the minimum vehicles to be provided by each transporter is up dated. 7.Media Management and awareness Campaign Strategy meeting to be reviewed every six months for co-ordination and implemented before every disaster season and actual disaster periods.

Journal of Asian Research Consortium                  40                  http://www.aijsh.org                                                                                      

8. Once in a quarter, check that the database for DM plan is updated. 9. Training of officials who will man the DMIC in the 24-hour cycle for the entire disaster season to be completed in time. 10. Coordination meeting of stockiest is held every quarter and emergency level of stocks to be maintained by each stockiest for food stuff, mineral water, medicines, blood, kerosene, diesel, patrol, daily use house hold goods like candles, match boxes etc are updated in the data base.A PREPAREDNESS PROCESS PRIOR TO DISASTER (12 HOURS BEFORE) 1. All vulnerable personnel are asked to shift to safe shelter. 2. All the task forces are put into operation. 3. All the volunteers are put into operation as per their area of responsibility and their activities monitored through the concerned Government officials. 4. The stockiest warned to keep their stocks ready to move at short notice. 5. Media/public briefing systems activated.

 

                                     

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6. The transports as per the plan are hired as per requirement. 7. The progress is constantly monitored. 8. Temporary shelters, kitchens, water points are organized and operationalise. 9. Sanitary checks and disease surveillance are put into operation. 10. Arrangements for animal camp and fodder organized. PREPAREDNESS STEPS/ACTIONS AT DISASTER TIME 1 .To rescue and evacuate trapped people 2· To provide first aid to the injured 3· To take care of children, women and disabled people 4· To transfer the seriously injured and people needing urgent medical attention to hospitals 5· To restore communication network and essential services. 6.To clear debris blocking roads and communication networks 7· To provide shelter and relief to homeless people 8· To arrange for food and drinking water to the affected people

Journal of Asian Research Consortium                  41                  http://www.aijsh.org                                                                                      

9· To take immediate measure for disposal of dead bodies and animal carcass to prevent the outbreak of epidemics 10· To take urgent measures for maintaining law and order 11· To take people to safer places in case of change of course of river due to floods. D. PREPAREDNESS PROCESS OF POST DISASTER During the post disaster phase, can take a lead by providing technical and material support for safe construction, revival of educational institutions and restoration of means of livelihood and assist the government in monitoring the pace of implementation for various reconstruction and recovery programmes. 1. A detailed assessment is carried out for damage, casualties, resource shortfall by deploying additional officers with support from the other NGOs/Volunteers, PRI and community after reconnoiter and survey. 2. Assistance in terms of food material, medicines, and clothing, cooking utensils provided to the affected population controlled through DMIC and incident commander/OIC of the disaster site.

 

                                     

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3. Assistance in distribution under the supervision of Government officers, volunteers and responsible representatives from the community. 4. Assistance in ensure of all drinking water sources are disinfected and activated by concerned departments. 5. Disease surveillance to check occurrence of epidemic if any and preventive measures. 6. Trauma counseling if required is carried out for affected population. SUMMARY Disaster and climate change are increasingly being considered as a development constraint; hence, mainstreaming them into the development policy is all the more pertinent in the current context. Researchers and policy makers across the world understood the importance of this. Since disasters are a human phenomenon, we can change our ways to reduce our risks. Shifting of focus from hazards to risk management could make our life safer. There is a need to have a paradigm shift in disaster management especially under changing climate. Initiatives such as adaptation to changes, disaster auditing, cross-sectoral risk analysis, regulatory authority (legal framework), knowledge management (community awareness), training and capacity building, training of media personnel, coastal zone management, private–public partnership (PPP), research and development, and last but not the least, establishing rewards or incentives for good management could be undertaken. REFERENCE 1. Anand Patwardhan, et al., 2003. ‘Impacts of Climate Change on Coastal Zones’, in the book Climate Change and India; Vulnerability Assessment and Adaptation. Universities Press(India),. Journal of Asian Research Consortium                  42                  http://www.aijsh.org                                                                                      

2. Bhavnani Rakhi, 2006. Natural Disaster Conflicts. 3. Blaikie, Piers et al., 1994. At Risk: Natural Hazards, People's Vulnerability and Disasters, New York. 4. DCDC (The Development, Concepts and Doctrine Centre), 2007. The DCDC Global Strategic Trends Programme 2007-2036. Third Edition. 5. DEFRA/GoI, 2005a. ‘Indian Climate Change Scenarios for Impacts Assessments, IITM, Pune, India. 6. DEFRA/GoI, 2005b. ‘Climate Change Impacts on Sea Level in India. National Institute of Oceanography, Goa, India

 

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315      A Peer Reviewed International Journal of Asian Research Consortium

AJRSH: ASIAN JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN SOCIAL SCIENCE & HUMANITIES ICT ENABLED RESOURCE CENTRE FOR THE VISUALLY CHALLENGED COLLEGE / UNIVERSITY STUDENTS IN AN ERA OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION S. SATHYASEELAN*; DR. INDRAJIT GOSWAMI**; DR. J. AMIRTHA LENIN***

Journal of Asian Research Consortium                  43                  http://www.aijsh.org                                                                                      

*Ph.D Scholar, Social Work (HRM), Research and Development Centre, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, TN , India. **Director, Department of Management Studies, Info Institute of Engineering, Kovilpalayam, Coimbatore, TN , India. ***Director, Model Resource Centre of Disability Services for the Differently Abled (RCDA/MRCDS). Assistant Professor, Department of Tamil, Loyola College, Chennai, TN, India. ABSTRACT We are living in an Era of Inclusion. It’s the onus of Indian colleges / universities to be committed to ensure inclusive environment, which would foster inclusive education through creating full access to education, range of services and facilities to the visually challenged students, who enter the college/university with their aspirations in life. An attempt has been made through this paper to project the views and concerns about achieving the goals of ‘Inclusive Education' in the college/university system through an “ICT Enabled Resource Centre for the Visually Challenged Students. This paper emphasizes a successful case of Loyola College Model Resource Centre (LCMRC) of disability services for visually challenged students, which was established at Loyola College in the year 2009 with the grant-in-aid of Rs. 39,32,500/- received from National Institute for the Visually Handicapped, Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment, Govt. of India to demonstrate how best the college / university facilities, resources and services made accessible to its visually challenged students to fulfil their educational aspirations and march successfully on par with the able-bodied by carefully enumerating the salient features, special services, special resources, and

 

                                     

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assistive technologies available at the state-of-the-art ' LCMRC of Disability Services for the Visually Challenged’. KEYWORDS: Information and Communication Technology (ICT), Assistive Technology (AT), Inclusive Education and Inclusive Society. _______________________________________________________________________ INTRODUCTION The history of Visual Impairment is ‘one of exclusion, discrimination and stigmatization.’ Often segregated from society, persons with visual impairment – and in particular, visually challenged children – have been regarded as ‘objects of charity and passive recipients of welfare.’ But today due to advancement in technology and propagation of the media, visually challenged have started surfacing out amidst barriers. GLOBAL AND IMPAIRMENT

INDIAN

STATISTICS

ON

BLINDNESS

AND

VISUAL

According to the World Health Organisation, 39.8 million people are blind worldwide. This represents a decrease of 5.2 million from 45 million in 2004 to just less than 40 million in 2010, a decline of 13% in the last six years. According to the Census of India 2001, it’s evident that 21.9 million are disabled people in the country, which constitutes about 2.13 per cent of the total population and among them 1.03 per cent are visually impaired.

Journal of Asian Research Consortium                  44                  http://www.aijsh.org                                                                                      

ERA OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION We can claim this era to be a era of inclusive education as we can witness the effective functioning of the International Policies and Legislations for the empowerment and education of children with disabilities (viz: United Nations Convention on the Rights of a Child 1989, World Declaration on EFA 1990, UN Standard Rules Equalization of Opportunities for PWDs (Rule 6) 1993, Salamanca Statement & Framework For Action (UNESCO, 1994), UN Convention on Rights of PWDs, 2006, and the National Legal & Policy Framework comprising of the 93rd Constitutional Amendment - Article 21, National Policy on Education 1986, Programme of Action 1992, PWDs Act, 1995, The Right of children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009) which strive hard in mainstreaming the differently abled with the general stream, providing an inclusive society, where no one is denied access to rights and resources based on disability. Government of India has made sustained efforts to bridge the gap between the able bodied and the differently abled by framing and adhering to policies, which are disable friendly and conscious. Even though government has done remarkable progress in the arena of inclusive education this doesn’t fulfill the needs of the end user to a large extent and experience for most visually challenged students has been one marked by multiple challenges and deprivation, rather than a process of enrichment (NCIDEEE, 2009).

 

                                     

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The higher education field can serve as an important gateway to effective employment opportunities, provided the students graduate out with the right attitude and skills, the able bodied don’t face much challenges in this regard but the blind/ or a person with low vision faces challenges and barriers in the higher education process. They may be helped out by colleges /universities by providing ICT Enabled Resource centre at the campus, which will facilitate the holistic growth of the blind/ students with low vision capacity. Role of the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment and the National Institute for the Visually Handicapped (NIVH) in the establishment of Model Resource Centre at Loyola College. Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment sanctioned the grant-in-aid for establishing the LCMRC of disability services for visually challenged students and the NIVH was the grant disbursing authority as per the MOU signed between the college and NIVH. NIVH sanctioned rupees 39, 32,500 to purchase ICT hardware and software relevant to the differently abled and to appoint 3 supporting staffs a Coordinator cum Social Worker, Computer Instructor cum IT Manager and an office assistant for effective functioning of the resource centre. As per the MOU, Loyola College provided space and other required infrastructure for MRCDS. LCM RC OF STUDENTS

DISABILITY

SERVICES

FOR

VISUALLY

CHALLENGED

Journal of Asian Research Consortium                  45                  http://www.aijsh.org                                                                                      

Thus LCMRC of Disability Services came into existence through an MOU with the NIVH, Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, Government of India signed on 12th June 2009. This state of art resource centre was first of its kind in the nation designed carefully by industry professionals to cater effectively to the needs of the differently abled and to empower them through ICTs. A brief description of the ICT software and hardware which make differences in the life of visually challenged students at Loyola College are furnished below for the benefit of colleges and universities to procure the same and establish an ICT enabled Resource Centre in their campus. Assistive Technology Hardware and Software available at LCMRCDS can be classified as follows: ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY HARDWARE 1. Text Reading Machine 2. PC Supported Instant Magnifier / Reader 3. Portable CCTV Video Magnifier 4. Refreshable Braille Display 5. Tactile Graphic-Audio System

 

                                     

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6. Daisy Book Readers 7. E-Book Readers Cum Recorder 8. Talking Dictionary 9. Talking Calculator 10. Braille Embosser (Printer) 11. Tactile Graphics Embosser ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY SOFTWARE 1. Screen Reader 2. Screen Magnifier 3. Voice Recognition Software 4. Daisy Book Creation Software 5. Diction Development Software 6. Typing Skill Enhancement Software 7. Optical Character Recognition Scanning and Reading Software 8. Braille Transcription / translation Software 9. Optical Braille Character Recognition Software.

Journal of Asian Research Consortium                  46                  http://www.aijsh.org                                                                                      

ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY HARDWARE 1.

TEXT READING MACHINE

SARA – SCANNING AND READING APPLIANCE Freedom Scientific's SARA is simple to use reading appliance. Just place a printed page under the camera, and the SARA instantly starts reading with human-sounding speech.

FIGURE 1: SARA- SCANNING AND READING APPLIANCE  

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

2.

PC SUPPORTED INSTANT MAGNIFIER/ READER ZOOMEX INSTANT READER

ABiSee, Inc.’s Zoom-Ex is the seamless integration of an instant digital scanner and a lightning fast OCR (Optical Character Recognition). It allows you to convert any printed text into multiple accessible formats such as speech, large print, sound or text files, within seconds.

FIGURE 2. ZOOMEX INSTANT READER 3. PORTABLE CCTV VIDEO MAGNIFIER BONITA ELECTRONIC READING AID WITH PC CONNECTIVITY

Journal of Asian Research Consortium                  47                  http://www.aijsh.org                                                                                      

Bonita Electronic Reading Aid with Pc Connectivity is Mouse type magnifier , a powerful, portable, hand-held digital reading aid device designed for people with low vision.

FIGURE 3. BONITA ELECTRONIC READING AID WITH PC CONNECTIVITY 4. REFRESHABLE BRAILLE DISPLAY FOCUS 40 BRAILLE DISPLAYS - PORTABLE AND AFFORDABLE PC MONITOR FOR THE BLIND Freedom Scientific's Focus 40-cell and 80-cell Braille displays combine the features rated most desired by Braille display users. Visually challenged can Enjoy the tactile advantages of smooth Braille cells with no seams - the Braille feels like paper.

 

                                     

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FIGURE 4. FOCUS 40 BRAILLE DISPLAYS 5. TACTILE GRAPHIC-AUDIO SYSTEM IVEO TACTILE GRAPHIC-AUDIO SYSTEM IVEO is a self-voicing tactile-audio system. Visually Challenged can use IVEO like a drawing program to make tactile-audio diagrams. Or convert existing files like maps and graphs to make them speak when touched on the IVEO Touchpad.

FIGURE 5. IVEO TACTILE GRAPHIC-AUDIO SYSTEM

Journal of Asian Research Consortium                  48                  http://www.aijsh.org                                                                                      

6. DAISY BOOK READER VICTOR CLASSIC DAISY BOOK READER CNIB’s Victor Reader Classic uses simple features that make it easy for clients to navigate through a book or magazine. The Victor Reader Classic Plus has extra navigational features that help clients find their way through educational books or other books with complex structures.

FIGURE 6. VICTOR CLASSIC DAISY BOOK READER

 

                                    

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7.

E E-BOOK RE EADERS CU UM RECOR RDER

TALKIN NG DIGITA AL POCKE ET DAISY P PLAYER, E-BOOK E R READER,MP P3 PLAYER RADIO CUM VOIC CE RECOR RDER w pockket size Daisy y Player, Diigital Talking g E-book Reeader, MP3 Player, Radiio a Light weight, and Voicce Recorder that t can fit innto any pursse or pocket..

FIGURE 7. TALKING F G DIGITAL POCKET DAISY D PLA AYER, E-BO OOK LAYER RA ADIO CUM VOICE RE ECORDER READER,MP3 PL 8.

T TALKING DICTIONA D ARY

FRANK KLIN TALK KING DICTIONARY

Journal of Asian Research Consortium                  49                  http://www.aijsh.org                                                                                      

Franklin Talking Dictionary D - The Languuage Masterr is a comppact and coomprehensivve c Itt combines a referencee source wiith a sophissticated elecctronic text-to-speech capability. dictionarry, thesauruss, spelling corrector, c graammar guid de and ten eeducational games g in onne easy-to-u use portable unit that can n slip into a back b pack.

F N TALKING G DICTION NARY FIGURE 8. FRANKLIN 9.

T TALKING CALCULAT C TOR

Talking Calculators, C as the namee suggests, a talking calcculator's maain feature iss the ability to t talk. Thee idea behinnd it is to make m simplle calculatin ng tasks muuch more co onvenient annd efficient to someone who cannot easily read a standard display. d

FIGUR RE 9. TALK KING CALC CULATOR R

                                     

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10.

BRAILLE EMBOSSER (PRINTER)

A.

INDEX BRAILLE – BASIC-D BRAILLE EMBOSSER

This best-selling braille embosser in the world is easy-to-use and easy-to-like, using fanfolded paper to produce double-sided braille. Features Include: 100 characters/second fastest embosser in its price range, High-quality interpoint Braille, Braille labeled and speech guided, multilingual user interface.

FIGURE 12. INDEX – BASIC-D BRAILLE EMBOSSER B.

VIEW PLUS - SPOT DOT EMPRINT - TIGER EMBOSSER

Journal of Asian Research Consortium                  50                  http://www.aijsh.org                                                                                      

Emprint SpotDot- the world’s first Braille and color ink embosser is twice as fast as the first Emprint model, new easy-to-use operator panel with tactile buttons. This uses the same paper and ink cartridges as an HP Inkjet printer the unique selling proposition of this printer is that it Prints braille and ink on the same page.

FIGURE 13. VIEW PLUS - SPOT DOT EMPRINT - TIGER EMBOSSER 11.

TACTILE GRAPHICS EMBOSSER

PIAF SWELL PAPER GRAPHIC EMBOSSING MACHINE P.I.A.F. ("Pictures in a Flash") is a tactile graphics embosser designed for use by individuals who are blind or have low vision. P.I.A.F. is a controlled heat source for the automatic development of heat sensitive tactile graphics paper, known as capsule paper. It enables high quality tactile graphics to be made quickly and easily for use at in education, orientation and mobility training, at work, and at home.

 

                                     

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FIGURE 14. PIAF SWELL PAPER GRAPHIC EMBOSSING MACHINE ICT SOFTWARES 1.

SCREEN READER

A.

JAWS( JOB ACCESS WITH SPEECH)

JAWS is a screen reader program created by Freedom Scientific, which allows visually impaired or blind people gain access to information on their computers. It stands for “Job Access with Speech.” JAWS works very well with standard Windows applications such as Word, Excel, Internet Explorer, Outlook Express etc. B.

NON VISION DESK TOP ACCESS (NVDA)

NonVisual Desktop Access (NVDA) is a free and open source screen reader for the Microsoft Windows operating system. Providing feedback via synthetic speech and Braille, it enables blind or vision impaired people to access computers running Windows for no more cost than a sighted person.

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2.)

SCREEN MAGNIFIER

MAGIC SCREEN MAGNIFIER Magic screen magnification software helps people with low vision view text and images on a computer screen in large size, while hearing the content spoken through a speech synthesizer. 3.)

VOICE RECOGNITION SOFTWARE

A.

J-SAY VOICE RECOGNITION

Visually Challenged who wish to use voice recognition software to communicate with their computers can use J-Say which combines the Freedom Scientifics’ JAWS for Windows with Dragon Naturally Speaking.Users of this innovative technology can talk to their computer using a natural voice and obtain verbal feedback. B.

DRAGON PRO DICTATING SOFTWARE

Dragon NaturallySpeaking is amazing voice recognition software that lets you control the computer with your voice.

 

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

4.)

DAISY BOOK CREATION SOFTWARE

ECLIPSE WRITER PRO SOFTWARE PROFESSIONAL EDITION FOR DAISY AND TALKING BOOKS Eclipse Writer is for People who produce or use alternative text to read books, magazines and instructional materials. Carried into the workplace, these tools become life-tools for dealing with the flood of documents presented to every individual. 5.)

TYPING SKILL ENHANCEMENT SOFTWARE

TALKING TYPING TUTOR Talking Typing Teacher is a revolutionary new typing program specially designed for the blind and visually impaired that's ideal for home or classroom use that helps to train the visually challenged to master the computer keyboard like a touch typist using all ten fingers. 6.) OPTICAL CHARACTER RECOGNITION SCANNING AND READING SOFTWARE A.

KURZWEIL K 1000 OCR

Kurzweil 1000 OCR Application combines, communication and productivity tools to ease and enhance the reading, writing and learning experience. The software speaks text aloud in a variety of natural-sounding voices that can be modified to suit individual preferences.

Journal of Asian Research Consortium                  52                  http://www.aijsh.org                                                                                      

B.

ABBYFINE READER OCR APPLICATION

ABBYY Fine Reader OCR Application creates editable, searchable files and e-books from scans, PDFs and digital photographs. New levels of speed and accuracy deliver unmatched recognition and conversion, virtually eliminating retyping or reformatting. Further enhancing productivity, it combines one-click Tasks, enabling you to do more with fewer steps. 7.)

BRAILLE TRANSCRIPTION / TRANSLATION SOFTWARE

A.

WINBRAILLE BRAILLE TRANSLATION SOFTWARE

WinBraille is a Braille editor that makes embossing from Windows as easy as printing to a normal laser printer. Each Index embosser includes a free copy of the WinBraille Braille editor. It works with all models of Index embossers and all Windows platforms, with Braille in literary or contracted format. B.

DUXBURY BRAILLE TRANSCRIPTION

Duxbury Systems leads the world in software for braille. The Duxbury Braille Translator (DBT) and MegaDots, are used by virtually all of the world's leading braille publishers. No software supports more languages than Duxbury -DBT supports grade 1 and grade 2 translations in English, Tamil, Spanish, French, German, Portuguese, Arabic, Malaysian, Swedish, and other languages.

 

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

8.) OPTICAL BRAILLE CHARACTER RECOGNITION FOR INDEX BASIC-D BRAILLE EMBOSSER OBR - Optical Braille Recognition - is a Windows software that allows you to "read" single and double sided Braille documents with a standard scanner. OTHER ICT HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE FOR VISUALLY CHALLENGED AT LCMRCDS INCLUDE HAL, Super Nova, Zoom Text, Hands Free Speech Recognition Software, Shree Lipi Brailee Transcription, NHM Converter, Lame/Audacity, Wynn, Pen Friend Excel Word Prediction Software, Intelli Tool Keyboard, Bat One Handed Keyboard, Low Vision Kit Screener etc. Services provided to the Blind / students with Low Vision with the assistance of ICT enabled Resource Centre of Loyola College. ƒ ICT – Hard ware / Software Training to handle the computer independently and also the Continuous Assessment Examination via computers through the assistance of JAWS and MAGIC software application. Students are continuously trained after the college hours for duration of 2, 4 or 6 month as per the student’s ability and requirement. ƒ Volunteer service for range of activities such as creating accessible study materials by typing and E-Text generation through the help of OCR Technology. ƒ Provision of curriculum / books / E-Text in accessible formats on demand which include Braille, audio and Large Prints.

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ƒ Special Training Programmes on the state-of-the-art access technology available at the resource centre for the blind and low vision students. ƒ Provision of ANGEL Readers, Daisy Book Readers, Braille Displays, Braille Books and other necessary hardware’s for the students on a renewal basis like library method. ƒ Periodic Work Shops, Seminars, Conferences and capacity building programmes for the blind and low vision student. PROSPECTIVE MODEL - INCLUSIVE EDUCATION THROUGH ICTS IN COLLEGES &UNIVERSITIES IN TAMIL NADU, 2012 An attempt has been made through a model to depict the major challenges visually challenged face in a college /university setup and the solution assistive technology can provide for the problems. The below depicted model insists the establishment of ICT enabled Resource Centres at college /university level in order to facilitate inclusive education and to oblige enabling supportive environment for the visually challenged whereby they can march along with the able bodied. It’s the onus of the college / university to modify the existing educational environments to inclusive/enabling ones.

 

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

BARRIERS FACED AND THE EFFECTIVE INTERVENTION STRATEGIES ARE AS FOLLOWS BARRIER Inability to access Printed Text, Internet / Read and write independently like the able bodied students INTERVENTION Training on Screen Readers, Magnifiers, OCR’s & Class Room Lecture Recording, Note Taking devices (AT):Ex:.JAWS, NVDA, Magic, Kurzweil, Angel E-Book Reader’s .etc BARRIER Unavailability of Curriculum/Books in alternate format like Braille, Large Print or Audio etc. INTERVENTION Provision of Curriculum / Books in Braille, Large Prints, Audio by E-Text Book & E-Audio Book generation process via OCR’s and Braille Embossing (Printing) Machine. (AT): Ex. Kurzweil, Abbyfine Reader, Zoom Ex, SARA, Basic D- Braille Embosser. BARRIER Inability to implement effective examination and assessment system. INTERVENTION

Journal of Asian Research Consortium                  54                  http://www.aijsh.org                                                                                      

Training students for computer based examination and evaluation system through the aid of (AT) which will reduce the burden / stress of students and teachers.

 

AJRSH H 

                                                                        Volume 2, Issue 11 (No ovember, 201 12)      ISSN 2249‐7315   

 

COL LLEGE / U UNIVERSITY

Tamill Nadu

V Visually Challeenged Student / Research Scholars

Journal of Asian Research Consortium                  55                  http://www.aijsh.org                                                                                      

Key Challlenges / Barrriers

INCLUSIIVE EDUCATIION

  Inab bility to access Prin nted Textt Internet / Read and a write independently likee the ab ble bodied studentss

Training on n Screen Readers, Magnifierss, OCR’s & Class Room Lecturre Recording, Notee Taking devicees (AT):Ex:.JAWS S, NVDA, Magiic, Kurzweil, Angell E-Book Reader’s .etc

Model 1. Prospectiv M ve M Model - Inclusive Ed ducation through IC CT’s in Colleges   & &Universities in Taamil Nadu, 2012.

Unavaillability of Curriculum/Books in alternate fformat like Braille, Large Print or Audiio etc.

Intervvention through IC CT Enabled Resource cum Tra aining & Developm ment Centre in Coollege / Uniiversity

Provision off Curriculum / Books in Braillle, Large Prints, Audio by E-Text E Book & E-Audio Boook generation process via OC CR’s and Braille Embossing (Prrinting) Machine.

Inability to implem ment Effective Examinatiion and Assessment Systeem.

Training Stu udents for Computer Baseed Exam and Evaluation Sysstem through the aid of (AT T) which will reduce the burd den / Stress of Students & teachers.

                                     

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CONCLUSION Establishment of ICT enabled resource centres and provision of training on ICTs as portrayed in the above model will improve the standard of education which will ultimately improve the standard of living, rate of literacy and employability rate among the visually challenged community making them active contributors for the nations development.

Journal of Asian Research Consortium                  56                  http://www.aijsh.org                                                                                      

REFERENCES 1.

R.K. Arora and Maj. General A.Balasubrahmanian: Report of Conference on Information Technology Enablers for persons with Disabilities, 2001.

2.

Rev.Dr.A Albert Muthumalai, Ed., “Proceedings and Report of National Conference on ICT’S For the Differently Abled, underprivileged communities in education, employment and entrepreneurship 2009 (NCIDEEE)” Loyola college publication division, 2010. (Ed-Editor)

3.

Imrie, R. and P. Hall, Inclusive design: designing and developing accessible environments. 2001: Taylor & Francis.

4.

Kanter, A., Promise and Challenge of the United Nations Convention on the rights of Persons with Disabilities, Syracuse J. Int'l L. & Com., 2006. 34: p. 287-310.

5.

Rosing, I., Stigma or sacredness. Notes on dealing with disability in an Andean culture. Disability in different cultures: Reflections on local concepts, 1999: p. 20–50.

6.

http://www.loyolacollege.edu/rcda.html Accessed 1 July.2012.

7.

http://www.loyolacollege.edu/AnnualReport2010/RCDA.pdf Accessed 1 July.2012.

8.

http://www.loyolacollege.edu/AnnualReport2011/RCDA.pdf Accessed 1 July.2012.

9.

http://www.socialjustice.nic.in/ Accessed 1 July.2012.

10.

http://www.nivh.org.in/ Accessed 1 July.2012.

11.

http://adaptivetech.tcnj.edu/resheet/blind.htm Accessed 1 July.2012.

12.

http://www.socialjustice.nic.in/pdf/report-pwd.pdf Accessed 1 July.2012.

13.

http://www.xaviers.edu.in Accessed 1 July.2012.

14.

http://library.tiss.edu/mktmlc.html Accessed 1 July.2012.

15.

http://www.karishmaenterprises.com Accessed 1 July.2012.

16.

www.sparshproducts.com Accessed 1 July.2012.

17.

http://barrierbreak.com/ Accessed 1 July.2012.

 

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315      A Peer Reviewed International Journal of Asian Research Consortium

AJRSH: ASIAN JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN SOCIAL SCIENCE & HUMANITIES STRATEGIC IMPLICATIONS OF DISTANCE LEARNING SYSTEM IN INDIAN SCENARIO DR. SARITA BAHL* *Associate Professor, Arya College, Ludhiana.

Journal of Asian Research Consortium                  57                  http://www.aijsh.org                                                                                      

ABSTRACT With the huge population outburst, knowledge explosion and cry for quality the educationist make full use of technological tools to ensure the survival of our century. Distance Higher Education has carved its significance beautifully in the Indian Educational System proving to be an ideal alternative, overcoming the barriers of space and time. It has been rightly acknowledged as a policy measure by the Ministry of Human Resources development of Government of India recognizing the importance of higher education in the country. This paper aims at highlighting the rationale of distance higher education over the conventional methods that do not prove successful both in terms of time and money. Efforts have been made to enlist and rank driving forces for Indian distance education. Further, an attempt has been made to enumerate and rank significant considerations for quality assurance in Distance Higher Education. Strategic implications have been suggested to promote quality research in open and distance learning educational system. KEYWORDS: Distance Learning, Higher Education, Electronic Learning, Information and Communication Technology. _________________________________________________________________________ INTRODUCTION Distance learning Educational institutes provide a distance learners an anchor from which the widening vistas of knowledge reach out to all beyond the four walls of the university. This helps many to realize and fulfil their dreams of higher education giving them the freedom to learn while they earn and fulfil their other responsibilities and commitments. It helps each one to strive harder and reach higher. Distance learning is to provide the best learning opportunities to those who are inconvenienced by time and location to pursue higher education through the regular stream. The education is the key which allows people to move

 

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

up in the world, seek better jobs and ultimately succeed in their lives. Distance Education has the potential to accomplish this challenging task of educating millions and create and maintain the academic standards significantly vital in a competitive world of today. Distance Learning Educational System has become one of the very important tools in the educational reform structure in India. Distance Education is a field of education that focuses on the pedagogy, technology and instructional system designs that aim to deliver education to students who are not physically present in a traditional classroom. Distance Education or more commonly known as “Correspondence Education”, Private/External Appearances” and “Home Study” is undoubtedly an effective alternative to the formal education. In simple words, the Distance Education is an organized provision for learning opportunity on part time basis, outside the time table of normal system of education that focuses on imparting education to learner from a distance. It is primarily characterized by flexibility in the choice of course, relaxed entry qualifications, use of modern educational and communicational technology and learner’s convenience. ORIGIN OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

Journal of Asian Research Consortium                  58                  http://www.aijsh.org                                                                                      

The evolution of distance education dates back to the 18th century. The University of London was the first university to offer distance learning degrees. The various issues such as Universalisation of Education, equal access of educational opportunities for all, recognition of knowledge as an important resource forced the policy makers to look for an alternated method to the prevalent traditional method of disseminating education. As a result, the concept of Distance Education, more often termed as “Flexible Learning Method” evolved and was unanimously promoted by the educators all over the world. However, the Indian Education System witnessed the evolution of Distance Education in the year 1962 at the University of Delhi. The first Open University of India was established in 1982 at Hyderabad by the name Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Open University (BRAOU). Thereafter, Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) was set up in the year 1985. Since then the years down the line witnessed the emergence of several private, public, profit and non – profit institutions offering various courses through Distance Education. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 1. To highlight the rationale of distance higher education over the conventional methods 2. To enlist and rank driving forces for Indian distance education. 3. To enumerate and rank significant considerations for quality assurance in Distance Higher Education 4. To suggest Strategic implications to promote quality research in open and distance learning educational system. DISTANCE EDUCATION COUNCIL (DEC) These open Universities and Distance Education Institutes that focus on providing access to education through distance learning method are regulated by the Distance Education Council (DEC). DEC is an organization that has been established as a statutory authority under the IGNOU Act. The DEC is responsible for promotion, co-ordination and maintenance of standards of Open and Distance Education System in the country. The DEC encourages the  

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

State Government’s and Conventional Universities to set up Open Universities and Distance Education Centres in India. It even arranges the funds provided by the Central Govt. to run these Open Universities and Distance Education Institutions. Another prime job of DEC is assessment and accreditation of Open Universities and DEI’s (Distance Education Institutes) to ensure dissemination of quality education. DISTANCE EDUCATION ABROAD: The International Distance Education System or more often called is “Virtual Universities” is a method of providing formal education to those who intend to pursue education from a foreign university, without being physically present there. This ensures the availability of a cost effective method with quality education. Many countries such as UK, USA, Australia, New Zealand, Canada and many more provide access to quality education through various on line distance learning courses. RATIONALE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION ¾ To reach the un-reached and to serve the un-served. ¾ To provide continuous education beyond the school/university education. ¾ To improve the standard of living or the living conditions. ¾ To help the school drop-outs in retaining their literacy skills. ¾ To provide education to the learner without creating higher financial burden. ¾ To promote research through distance mode. ¾ To provide an alternative to the private institutes.

Journal of Asian Research Consortium                  59                  http://www.aijsh.org                                                                                      

TYPES OF DISTANCE EDUCATION COURSES ¾ Correspondence : Through regular mail. ¾ Internet conducted: Web-based, Video Conferencing, Telephone, Audio Cassette, Email, Print material, Voice mails, DVD, Video-Cassettes etc. ¾ Tele course/Broadcast: Delivered via Radio/Television. ¾ CD-Rom: Students interacts with computer content stored. ¾ Pocket PC/Mobile Learning: Student accesses course content stored on a mobile device/through wireless server. DRIVING FORCES FOR INDIAN DISTANCE EDUCATION 1. ISSUES FOR ACCESS TO EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES: Distance Education has proved to be an efficient and ideal system of education through which we can reach the masses without being a big financial burden to the Government Treasury.

 

                                     

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2. FLEXIBLE LEARNING MODEL: Distance Education has enabled the students to do away with the conventional way of acquiring education, thereby removing geographical, social, cultural and financial hurdles. It is more a ‘learner centric’ method than a ‘teacher-centric’ method. It transcends the barrier of time and space. 3. UNIVERSALISATION OF EDUCATION: Academicians all over the world recognized the need for education for one and all. This in fact was the prime reason that UNESCO adopted a resolution in 1990 setting “Education for all” as the main objective to be pursued. ODL (Open and Distance Learning) provided a cost effective method for expanding the educational facilities. 4. VIABLE METHOD FOR THE WEAKER SECTIONS OF SOCIETY: Distance education has enabled the weaker section of society which includes economically poor people, physically handicapped people, jail inmates or even the rural women to get an equal opportunity to be part of learning process. 5. GLOBAL CLASSROOMS: The concept of distance Education has brought world into the classroom. The technology used for imparting distance education has a wide platform that reaches the learner at any distance through internet. This not only ensures one-to-one connectivity with the learners but also promotes learning while doing. 6. MEANS FOR CONTINUING AND LIFE LONG EDUCATION: Distance education is a non-formal system of education that provides a means for lifelong education for enriching the lives of the people. It provides a second chance to those who had to discontinue their education for any particular reason.

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TABLE 1 – ACADEMICIANS VIEWS REGARDING DRIVING FORCES FOR INDIAN DISTANCE EDUCATION (%AGE OF RESPONDENTS) S. Driving Forces No. 1. Flexible Learning Model 2. Universalisation of Education 3. Global Classrooms 4. Viable Method for weaker sections of society 5. Issues for access to educational opportunities 6. Means for continuing and life long education Garret Table Value

1

2

3

4

5

6

Total

19

21

17

20

13

10

100

12

28

18

10

8

24

100

9 10

15 20

22 13

19 21

15 17

20 19

100 100

24

17

8

14

25

12

100

11

10

24

18

15

22

100

63

54

46

36

23

77

(Source: Primary Data)

 

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

TABLE – 2 ACADEMICIANS’ RANKING REGARDING DRIVING FORCES FOR INDIAN DISTANCE EDUCATION S. Measures No.

1

1.

1463 1323 918

920 468

924

1764 972

693

945

770

1260 702

2. 3. 4.

5.

6.

Flexible Learning Model Universalisation of Education Global Classrooms Viable Method for weaker sections of society Issues for access to educational opportunities Issues for continuing and life long education

2

230

Total Garret Score 5322

Average Rank Garret Score 53.22 II

460 288

552

4960

49.60

III

1188 874 540

460

4700

47.00

V

966 612

437

4747

47.47

IV

1848 1071 1296 644 900

506

6265

62.65

I

847

552

4585

45.85

VI

630

3

4

5

1188 828 540

6

Journal of Asian Research Consortium                  61                  http://www.aijsh.org                                                                                      

(Source: Calculated from Henry Garret Table)

It has been depicted from Table 1 and 2, academicians consider issues for access to educational opportunities as most significant reason for distance education with 62.65 average Garret Score has proved to be an efficient and ideal system of education through which we can reach the masses without being a big financial burden to the Government Treasury. Academicians are of the opinion that distance education transcends geographical, social, cultural and financial hurdles. It is more a ‘learner centric’ method than a ‘teacher centric’ method. It removes the barrier of time and space. That is why they rate it second important driving force with 49.60 average Garret Score. Academicians recognized need for education for one and all. This infact was the prime reason that UNESCO adopted a resolution in 1990 setting “Education for all” as the main objective to be pursued, OPD (Open and Distance Learning) provided a cost effective method for expanding the educational facilities. Viable method for the weaker sections of society has been viewed as fourth prominent driving force for distance education with 47.47 average Garret score. Distance education has enabled the weaker section of society which includes economically poor people, physically handicapped people, jail inmates or even the rural women to get an equal opportunity to be part of the learning process. The concept of distance education has brought world into the classroom. The technology used for imparting distance education has a wide platform that reaches the learner at any distance through internet, which not only ensures one-to-one connectivity with the learners but also promotes learning while doing. That is why Global classrooms have been termed as fifth important driving force with 47 average Garret score. Last but not the least significant driving force with 45.85 Garret score has been considered that distance education is a mean for continuing and life long education. Distance education being a non-formal system of education that provides a means for life  

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

long education for enriching the lives of the people. It provides a second chance to those who had to discontinue their education for any particular reason. RECENT TRENDS IN DISTANCE LEARNING → VIRTUAL EDUCATION Virtual education is a method of learning where the teacher and student are separated by time or space or both. The teacher provides the course content through multimedia resources, internet, Video-Conferencing, course management applications etc. Students receive the content and communicate with the teacher via the same technologies. Electronic media like a chat room, voice mail, discussion forum or email are used for communication. → E-LEARNING Electronic learning is a type of education where medium of instruction is computer technology. Computer based learning (CBL) and computer based training (CBT) are part of e-learning. CBL is using computer as a key component of educational environment. CBT is using computers to train people so that they can use computer applications. → INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT)

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Exploiting the potential of information and communication technology is the teaching learning process is another important role of distance education. All universities and DEI’s offering Distance Education must display in public domain, the relevant information about statutory and other approvals as well as the information about programmes offered, their accreditation and students enrolled, year-wise. QUALITY ASSURANCE IN DISTANCE LEARNING The International Network for Quality Assurance Agencies in Higher Education is an organization (that includes over 65 countries), providing guidelines to maintain quality in distance education. Similarly there exist many national quality assurance bodies such as QA Agency, UK; Distance Education and Training Council, USA etc. In India NAAC (National Assessment and Accreditation Council) is the guiding authority reinforcing the importance of quality learning and teaching. However, DEC in India recently set up NACODL (National Accreditation Committee for ODL Institutions) offering distance education programmes on the similar lines of NAAC. THE IMPORTANT CONSIDERATION FOR QUALITY ASSURANCE INCLUDES

 

(i)

Relevance of progammes.

(ii)

Student support system.

(iii)

Examination and evaluation

(iv)

Administrative facilitation

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

(v)

Monitoring and feedback.

(vi)

Innovations.

Maintaining and improving quality standards in ODL ensure quality education to the increased number of learners wishing to access ODL further it equips learners to meet global needs and challenges. TABLE 3 – ACADEMICIANS VIEWS REGARDING IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS FOR QUALITY ASSURANCE IN DISTANCE LEARNING (%AGE OF RESPONDENTS) S. Parameters No. 1. Administrative Facilitation. 2. Innovations 3. Student Support System 4. Monitoring and Feedback 5. Relevance of Programmes 6. Proper Examinations and Evaluations. Garret Table Value

1

2

3

4

5

6

Total

9

20

18

31

3

19

100

15 9

11 15

8 22

14 19

20 15

32 20

100 100

13

4

24

19

25

6

100

32

6

19

24

9

10

100

25

8

34

11

2

20

100

77

63

54

46

36

23

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(Source: Primary Data)

TABLE – 4 ACADEMICIANS’ RANKING OF CONSIDERATIONS FOR QUALITY ASSURANCE BY ACADEMICIANS (%AGE OF RESPONDENTS) S. Parameters 1 2 3 4 5 6 Total Average Rank No. Garret Garret Score Score 1. Administrative 693 1260 972 1426 108 437 4896 48.96 IV Facilities. 2. Innovations 1155 693 432 644 720 736 4380 43.80 VI 2387 756 756 276 1008 207 5390 53.90 II 3. Student Support System 4. Monitoring 1001 252 1296 828 900 368 4645 46.45 V and Feedback 5. Relevance of 2464 378 1026 1104 324 230 5526 55.26 I Programmes 1925 504 1836 506 72 460 5303 53.03 III 6. Proper Examinations and Evaluations. (Source: Calculated from Henry Garret Table)  

                                     

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Table 3 and 4 depict that relevance of programmes is the most significant factor with 55.26 as average Garret score to be kept in mind for quality assurance in distance education. Second important consideration for effectiveness of distance learning has been termed as student support system with average Garret score 53.90. Use the latest as well as suitable technology to reach the learners situated at the remotest corners of nation at the shortest time in minimum cost. Proper examination and evaluation have been due weightage positioned at third rank for assuring quality in distance education with 53.03 average Garret score. Distance learning must aim at finding viable solutions to meet the need of higher education. It must focus on improving the performance of learners. Administrative facilities with average Garret score 48.96 has been viewed by academicians as fourth prominent parameter to be considered for quality assurance in distance learning. It should emphasize on development of professional and vocational courses to make maximum learners employable. Proper monitoring and feedback should be there. Suitable education policies should be framed after analyzing the difference between distance learning system and traditional system. DL system must be backed up efficiently by the inputs required in terms of research innovations, development of resource material and dedicated network for efficient delivery, quality assurance and systems up gradation.

SUGGESTIONS FOR EFFECTIVE IMPLEMENTATION OF DISTANCE LEARNING PROGRAMMES:- Distance Education is completely different from classroom teaching or the conventional system of imparting knowledge to the students. To satisfy the learner, some ‘do’s and ‘do not’s are to be followed by the service providers. Some of these areas are: 1. SUITABLE EDUCATION POLICIES should be framed after analyzing the difference between DL system and Traditional System.

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2. FOCUS ON IMPROVING THE PERFORMANCE OF LEARNERS: DL programmes must focus on improving the performance of learners. 3. SAVING IN TIME AND COST: Use the latest as well as suitable technology to reach the learners situated at the remotest corners of country at the shortest time in minimum cost. 4. UPDATED AND REQUIRED CURRICULUM: Subject and curriculum must be designed as per the requirements of the students and need of the honour. 5. PROMOTION OF REGIONAL LANGUAGES: Various subjects to be included DL must promote usage of regional languages to suit the needs of rural learners. 6. SUPPORTED BY EFFICIENT OPERATIONS: DL system must be backed up efficiently by the inputs required in terms of research innovations, development of resource material and dedicated network for efficient delivery, quality assurance and systems upgradation. 7. DEVELOPMENT OF PROFESSIONAL AND VOCATIONAL COURSES: DL Courses should lay a special emphasis on development of professional and vocational courses to make maximum learners employable.  

                                     

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8. MERIT CRITERIA FOR ADMISSION: DL should find viable solutions to meet the need of higher education and must focus on merit based admission. Merit based selection through entrance tests should be there instead of enrolment for total available seats. 9. EMPHASIS ON QUALITY: Quality control, quality upgradation and quality maintenance should be there. The material to be provided to the learner should be quality material, institutes should develop good quality instructional and case materials. Video and internet based interactive and visually rich materials need to be developed. 10. INTERACTION WITH OTHER INSTITUTES: Other institutes, regular or correspondence learning, should be frequently consulted to be updated and quality oriented. 11. REGULAR WORKSHOPS:- Workshops should be organized regularly and frequently to train the staff properly. Workshop activities must be evaluated properly. 12. ENRICHED STAFF WITH CORRECT KNOWLEDGE: A distant teacher plays a very important role in making distance education effective and successful. A distant educator should serve as a facilitator. He should be enriched in relevant current knowledge in the subject areas.

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CONCLUSION In the era of international world nowadays, the Distance Education has positively proved to be an ultimate substitute that has helped not only to conquer the barriers of space and time but has also enabled the nations to meet the challenges of the knowledge based economies. The syllabus for such a system can be made open, flexible and attractive offering a wide range of academic and professional courses. The materials in this mode of learning should be prepared in such a way that they become self-instructional and can be used without the help of teachers. Research in ODL is another prime issue that should be given more emphasis. Some of the areas for research can be basic research in e-learning are New Technologies, economies of ODL, Instructional processes etc. Among Indian Universities IGNOU has initiated Staff Training and Research Institute of Distance Education (STRIDE). Even BRAOU has established (GRADE) G. Ram Reddy Research Academy of Distance Education. DEC has also initiated steps to promote quality research in ODL. But more needs to be done for securing the future of Research Distance Education, Inculcate desirable quality, expansion of thoughts, intellectual growth, rational understandings, integration of mind, spreading wisdom and apparent perception. REFERENCES Dewan, Anjali (2008), “Globalization, Higher Education and the changing status of Indian Women – An Appraisal of the emerging issues and challenges”, Diviner. Vol.5, No.2, pp 125-132. Faganel, Armand (2010), “Quality Perception Gap Inside the Higher Education Sector: A Critical Appraisal”, University News, Vol. 48 No. 08, Feb.

 

                                     

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Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Sharma K.K. (2008), “Open and Distance Education: Emerging Trends and Possibilities”, University News, Vol. 46 No. 16, April. www.education.nic.in Lyndem B and Kumar D.U. “Education in North East India : Experience and Challenge”, 2004, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi. Kurhade M.S. (2008), “Open and Distance Learning : For a Brighter Tomorrow”, University News, Vol. 47 No. 20, May. Chatterjee S.K. (2009), “Impact of Distance Education on Higher Education” University News, Vol. 47, No. 07, Feb. Satyanarayana P. and Mantha L., “Practice of Quality Assurance System in Open Distance Education”, (2009), University News, Vol. 47, No. 48, Nov-Dec. Pawar A., (2010) “Meeting the Challenge and Enhancing Quality in Open and Distance Learning : A learning Experience of UK”, University News, Vol. 48, No. 21, pp. 24-30. Nayak A., (2006) “Education in 2020: A Realistic Vision”. Joshi U., (2006) “Management Education in India: Agenda for Reform”.

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Maull, R. Brown P.; and Cliffe, R. (2001), “Organisational Culture and Quality Improvement”, International Journal of Operations and Production Management Vol. 21 No. 3, pp 633-649. Mufeed, S.A. and; Gurkoo, F.A. (2006), “Enhancing Educational Institutions Effectiveness Through HRD Climate: An Empirical Assessment”, Management and Change. Vol. 10, No.2, pp. 28-31. Pandiyan, R. (2008), “Higher Educational Institutions”, HRD Times, Vol. 10 No.9, p.37. Pareek, Udai (2003), Training Instruments in HRD and OD, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co. Ltd., New Delhi. Parimal H. Trivedi (2010), “Indian Higher Education at Cross Roads”, University News. Vol. 48, No.6, February 2010, pp. 7-9. Reddy, G.Lokanatha (2006), “Teacher Education, in the Context of Globalization”, HRD Times. Vol. 8, No. 8, pp. 13-15. Sam (2005), “Globalisation-new challenges to education in India, World Trade Organization and Indian Economic Reforms, Serials Publications, Delhi. Shakeel, Ahmad (2010), “An Analysis of priority sector funding by UGC to universities and colleges during the 10th plan”, University News. Vol. 48, No.27, July 2010, pp1-3.

 

                                     

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Marriya, S. (2004), “Globalization of Education: The Indian Scene”, Diviner. Vol.2, pp.7-10. Vijay Jaiswal and Ajay Kumar (2010), Students Perception of Quality Higher Education: A Case Study”, University News, Vol. 48, No.30, July 2010, pp.5-12. Vyas, Richa; and Goyal, Sonal (2007), “Globalisation of Indian higher Education system”, Journal of management & Technology. Vol. 1, No.1, pp. 54-61. http://www.naacindia.org. http://socyberty.com/education/education-sector-hot-growth-area-in

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india/#ixzz1Cmqpshex.

 

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315      A Peer Reviewed International Journal of Asian Research Consortium

AJRSH: ASIAN JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN SOCIAL SCIENCE & HUMANITIES DYNAMICS OF VARIOUS DIMENSIONS INFLUENCING SUSTAINABILITY OF GENDER BASED SELF HELP GROUPS IN SMALL SCALE DAIRYING HEMA TRIPATHI*; SUBODH KUMAR** *Principal Scientist and Program Coordinator, KVK, IVRI, Izatnagr. **Assistant Professor, Veterinary Extension, NDAUT, Kumargunj Faizabad.

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ABSTRACT The present study was conducted in purposively selected two blocks, namely, Milkipur and Heringtonganj of Faizabad district in Eastern Uttar Pradesh. Data were collected from 208 members of 52 SHGs comprising 50 per cent male and 50 per cent female groups, through structured interview schedule, incorporating 20 dimensions on sustainability of self help groups and also through observations and secondary sources. The study revealed that majority of the female dominated self help groups (57.70%) were highly sustainable as compared to 30.77 per cent of male groups. The data indicated that female groups were more consistent in terms of sustainability as compared to the male SHGs. Significant differences between male and female self help groups were noticed regarding group environment, clarity and appropriacy of rules and by-laws, awareness of rules and by-laws among group members, regularity in group meetings, attendance level in group meetings, participation in decision making, awareness of rule making related to production process, discontinuance and velocity of internal lending, nature and utilization of internal loans, repayment performance of bank and group loans, maintenance of records, accountability towards economic activities and generating assets and overall sustainability of the groups. KEYWORDS: Sustainability, Self help groups, Small scale dairying and Gender. _________________________________________________________________________ INTRODUCTION The success of any developmental programme depends on its sustainability. Quite often, the antipoverty programmes have by-passed hard core poor, created new inequalities, made their

 

                                     

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conditions more worst, so implementation methodologies require some fine tunings. Taking cognizance of limitations in antipoverty programmes, Government of India has realigned its efforts by certain innovative efforts that holds out fresh hopes. One such effort is the formation of self help groups (SHGs) for enabling poor to participate in the process of development, reflected in Swarnajayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojana (SGSY), launched in 1999. SHG approach has been recognized as an institutional innovation to organize poor, promote savings, channelize credit, encourages income generating progammes and thus, empower the rural poor. It is effective management of resources for improving the standards of living of the people. Moreover, it has been realised that people should manage their own resources by means of their effective participation, so that our development programmes can be needbased, pro-people and more dynamic in nature (Panigrahi, 2004). Group formation, saving and credit provides a mechanism to promote social and economic development with income generating goals. In India, this approach has been extensively used by voluntary agencies for a long time and incorporated in the conventional development programmes only in the latter part of last decade. SHGs foster an entrepreneurial culture where each member realises the need of support of the group to achieve its objectives. The members of the group are linked by a common bond like caste, sub caste, blood, and community, place of origin or activity. These groups therefore, are also called “affinity groups”. Since these groups provide monetary as well as moral support to individual members in times of difficulties, they are also called “solidarity groups”. SHG is not a static institution; it grows on the resources and management skills of its members and their increasing confidence to get involved in issues and programmes that required their involvement in the public and private spheres. These self help groups provide a forum for collective learning which rural people find more “friendly” and are consequently more effective than individual. They promote a democratic culture and provide the members with the opportunities to imbibe norms of behaviour that based on mutual respect. However, in many instances, lack of infrastructure, training, inadequate forward and backward linkages to the livestock production process and improper integration with existing natural resources and farming systems leads to creation of in fructuous assets and unsustainability in groups. It is in this context that, the emerging needs of the dairy owners towards new innovative products of micro-finance should be dealt with serious attention so, to understand the dynamics of the factors influencing sustainability of SHGs in holistic way in smooth running of dairy as micro-enterprise separately for both males and females groups for further planning and overall development. MATERIAL AND METHODS The present study was conducted in purposively selected two blocks, namely, Heringtonganj and Milkipur, of Faizabad district in Uttar Pradesh due to existence of maximum number of SHGs of dairying at the time of investigation. Restoring proportionate sampling, about 25 per cent groups from each of the two selected blocks were selected. Thus, a total 52 SHGs (26 men + 26 women) were finally identified and any four members from each group, making a total of 208 members constituted the sample size for the study. Data were collected through personal interview schedule incorporating all relevant dimensions. Interaction dialogue, secondary sources as well as observations were the other techniques of data collection. Sustainability of the selected self help groups were studied through 20 dimensions namely, group environment, clarity and appropriacy of rules and by-laws, awareness of rules and by-laws among group members, regularity in group meetings, average attendance level in the group meetings, participation in decision making within the SHG, awareness of rule making related to production process, level of group savings,  

                                     

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discontinuance of internal lending, nature and utilization of internal loans, availability of internal loans, velocity of internal lending, repayment performance of internal loans, repayment performance of Bank loans, regularity in maintaining records, dependence of SHG on external support, training availability to SHG members, accountability towards economic activities and generating assets, age of the group, utilization of revolving fund. Sustainability of SHGs had been measured through an index developed for 1st and 2nd grading of SHGs under SGSY (GOI, 2000) after slight modifications. The sustainability score was obtained by summing up scores of all the 20 dimensions for each group and percentage was computed. The respondents were then categorized into 3 categories viz., high (>75%), medium (6075%) and low (< 60%) as per the criteria adopted by GOI for credit disbursement to the groups. The groups having less than 60 per cent score were not eligible for taking up bank loan. Group achieved 60 to 75 per cent or more score were considered sustainable and fit to take bank loan and initiating income generating activities. Average, percentage, t-test and correlation analysis were the statistical tools, used with suitable formulae for the purpose of analysis and interpretation of collected data. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION SUSTAINABILITY OF SELF HELP GROUPS

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Majority of the female dominated self help groups (57.70%) were highly sustainable as compared to only 30.77 per cent of male groups. The sustainability of about 19 per cent male and 27 per cent female SHGs were found at medium level. Less female SHGs fell at low level of sustainability than male groups (Table 1). All these groups had either medium or high level of sustainability at the time of disbursement of bank credit. The data indicated that male dominated SHGs were declining in terms of sustainability at faster rate wherein female groups were found more consistent as compared to the male SHGs. It might be because of male SHGs were more focused on economic benefits specially government subsidy rather than social and personal issues of the group members. Sustainability of self help groups was studied with the help of following 20 dimensions. I) GROUP ENVIRONMENT: It refers to the cohesiveness and socio-economic similarity among the group members. The findings of the study reveal that female groups were more cohesive in nature as compared to male SHGs. No cohesiveness and socio-economic similarity was found among its members of about 15 per cent male and only 8 per cent female SHGs. Whereas, these were found at high level among the members of 53.85 per cent male and 80.77 per cent female SHGs Pooled figures indicate that majority of the SHGs (67.31%), had high cohesiveness and socio-economic similarity followed by medium and at low level. It might be because of in female SHGs members were from close vicinity and same village while in male SHGs members even from different villages under same gram panchayat came together to form a group. Members from close vicinity were meeting together frequently and organising the monthly meetings more conveniently as compared to the members from far apart. According to Rajasekhar (1993), members of the SHGs should be homogeneous in terms of the combined criteria of caste, economic status and gender for effective formation of a SHG. Dwaraki et al. (1996) also considered homogeneity as a pragmatic precondition, which was positively related to the success of SHGs. Kumaran (1997), in a study on self help groups in Andhra Pradesh, observed that each thrift group had got certain commonality among its members either in terms of caste, occupation or economic

 

                                     

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status. Perceived socio-economic homogeneity was an important factor in the success of self help groups, as per the report published by NABARD in 1997.

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II) CLARITY AND APPROPRIACY OF RULES AND BY LAWS: Table 1 indicate that 88.46 per cent male and 96.15 per cent female SHGs felt that they were clear regarding the rules and by-laws. However, about 12 per cent male SHGs and 4 per cent female groups also revealed that they had partial clarity. In the pooled sample also 92.31 per cent groups had clear and appropriate rules and regulations. Surprisingly none of the SHGs had framed their rules and by-laws unclear and inappropriate. The reason behind it might be because of rules and by-laws were framed by group members in supervision of block officers or group facilitator. Karmakar (1997) also found out that each SHG formulated its rules and working norms with certain common features related to membership criteria, participatory management, regular saving and utilization of savings, leadership and record keeping under recommendation and supervision of the promoting agency. III) AWARENESS OF RULES AND BY-LAWS AMONG GROUP MEMBERS: Merely construction of good rules, by-laws or constitution can not evolve a group self sustainable but these established norms should be well known to all members for its meaningful execution. A critical look of the Table 1 reveals that genderwise high percentage of female SHGs (57.70%) as compared to male SHGs (34.62%) were knowing the rules and by-laws by more than 50 per cent of the group members. Pooled figures also indicate that in about 46 per cent self help groups the rules and by-laws were known to more than 50 per cent members. Surprisingly, these rules and by-laws were found to be known by group leaders only, reported by 17.31 per cent SHGs. The members of SHGs should review the rules and by laws time to time and there is a need of self evaluation to know that up to what extent they are working according to the rules and norms established by themselves. By-laws and norms may be amended as per convenience of the group members if considered impractical and difficult to use by the group members. Sabu (1998) confirmed that all groups had established acceptable standards of behaviour that were shared by all the group members. He further mentioned that agreed norms by the members of a group acted as a means of influencing their behaviour with a minimum external control. Thus norms facilitated the groups’ survival and in increasing the periodicity of group members' behaviour. IV) REGULARITY IN GROUP MEETINGS: Majority of the groups (53.85%) had conducted 51-75 per cent meetings in time schedule followed by 34.61 per cent groups had conducted 76-100 per cent meetings regularly. It might be because group members were free to change the date of group meetings in any month as per convenience of the group members. Genderwise, 23.08 per cent male against 46.15 per cent female SHGs had conducted more than 75 per cent meetings as per schedule, indicated that female groups were more sincere and regular in this respect. Dwaraki et al. (1996) also observed that women members were found to be more sincere in regularity and discipline. V) AVERAGE ATTENDANCE LEVEL IN THE GROUP MEETINGS: To make the group as a successful organisation, more participation of its members need to be ensured for which a high attendance level in the monthly meetings is required. Table 1 shows that again about 73 per cent women SHGs recorded 90-100 per cent attendance in the group meetings as compared to only 50 per cent male SHGs in this category. Irrespective of the gender, 1 indicates that about one fourth of the self help groups had attendance level of 51-90 per cent while 61.54 per cent and 13.46 per cent had recorded attendance level of 90-100 per cent and

 

                                     

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upto 50 per cent, respectively. Dwaraki et al. (1996) in a study reported that in SHGs periodic meeting attendance was by definition declared as compulsory to acquire eligibility for financial assistance attendance as a pre-requisite was fixed. Roul (1996) observed that only one SHG had 100 per cent attendance level and in others it was around 50 per cent. Whereas, 100 per cent attendance was recorded among self help groups in Andhra Pradesh reported by Rao and padmaja, (1998).

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TABLE 1: GENDERWISE DISTRIBUTION OF SELF HELP GROUPS AS PER THEIR SUSTAINABILITY AND ITS VARIOUS DIMENSIONS Male SHGs Female SHGs Total Dimensions (n = 26) (n = 26) (N=52) i) Group environment (cohesiveness and socio-economic similarity among group members) a) No cohesiveness and socioeco. similarity (0) 4 (15.38) 2 (7.69) 6 (11.54) b) Average cohesiveness and socio-eco. similarity (1-5) 8 (30.77) 3 (11.54) 11 (21.15) c) High cohesiveness & socioeco. similarity (6-10) 14 (53.85) 21 (80.77) 35 (67.31) ii) Clarity and appropriacy of rules and by-laws (score) a) Not clear & inappropriate (0) 0 (0.00) 0 (0.00) 0 (0.00) b) Partially clear & appropriate (1-5) 3 (11.54) 1 (3.85) 4 (7.69) c) Clear & appropriate (6-10) 23 (88.46) 25 (96.15) 48 (92.31) iii) Awareness of rules and by-laws among group members (score) a) Known to leaders only (1-3) 5 (19.23) 4 (15.38) 9 (17.31) b) Known upto 50% members (4-7) 12 (46.15) 7 (26.92) 19 (36.54) c) Known to > 50% members (8-10) 9 (34.62) 15 (57.70) 24 (46.15) iv) Regularity in group meetings (score) a) Upto 50% meetings as per schedule (1-3) 5 (19.23) 1 (3.85) 6 (11.54) b) 50-75% meetings as per schedule (4-7) 15 (57.69) 13 (50.00) 28 (53.85) c) 75-100% meetings as per schedule (8-10) 6 (23.08) 12 (46.15) 18 (34.61) v) Average attendance level in the group meetings (score) a) Upto 50% (1-3) 6 (23.08) 1 (3.85) 7 (13.46) b) 50-90% (4-6) 7 (26.92) 6 (23.08) 13 (25.00) c) More than 90% (7-10) 13 (50.00) 19 (73.07) 32 (61.54) vi) Participation in decision making within the SHG (score) a) By group leaders (1-3) 2 (7.69) 4 (15.38) 6 (11.54) b) By few members (4-5) 13 (50.00) 3 (11.54) 16 (30.77) c) By majority of the members (6-10) 11 (42.31) 19 (73.08) 30 (57.69) vii) Awareness of rule making related to production process (score) a) Less than 50% members (1-4) 4 (15.38) 2 (7.69) 6 (11.54) b) 50-90% members (5-9) 19 (73.08) 19 (73.08) 38 (73.08) c) Almost all members (10) 3 (11.54) 5 (19.23) 8 (15.38) viii) Level of group savings (score) a) Less than 75% (1-3) 1 (3.85) 4 (15.38) 5 (9.61) b) 75-90% (4-6) 15 (57.69) 10 (38.46) 25 (48.08) c) More than 90% (7-10) 10 (38.46) 12 (46.16) 22 (42.31)

 

                                     

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ix) Discontinuance of internal lending (score) a) Since last 1 year (1-3) 10 (38.46) 5 (19.23) 15 (28.85) b) Since last 6 months (4-6) 10 (38.46) 6 (23.08) 16 (30.77) c) Less than 6 months (7-10) 6 (23.08) 15 (57.69) 21 (40.38) x) Nature and utilization of internal loans (score) a) 100% consumption loan (1-3) 4 (15.38) 6 (23.08) 10 (19.23) b) 75% consumption + 25% 10 (38.46) 15 (57.69) 25 (48.08) production loan (4-6) c) 50% consumption + 50% 12 (46.16) 5 (19.23) 17 (32.69) production loan (7-10) xi) Availability of internal loans (score) a) Less than 25% members (1-3) 2 (7.69) 3 (11.54) 5 (9.62) b) 25-50% members (4-6) 10 (38.46) 13 (50.00) 23 (44.23) c) More than 50% members (7-10) 14 (53.85) 10 (38.46) 24 (46.15) xii) Velocity of internal lending (score) a) Less than 1 time (1-3) 4 (15.38) 4 (15.38) 8 (15.38) b) 1-1.5 times (4-6) 4 (15.38) 9 (34.62) 13 (25.00) c) More than 1.5 times (7-10) 18 (69.24) 13 (50.00) 31 (59.62) xiii) Repayment performance of internal loans (score) a) Less than 60% (3) 7 (26.92) 1 (3.85) 8 (15.38) b) 60-90% (4-6) 8 (30.77) 5 (19.23) 13 (25.00) c) More than 90% (7-10) 11 (42.31) 20 (76.92) 31 (59.62) xiv) Repayment performance of Bank loans (score) a) Less than 60% (3) 8 (30.76) 5 (19.23) 13 (25.00) b) 60-90% (4-6) 9 (34.62) 4 (15.38) 13 (25.00) c) More than 90% (7-10) 9 (34.62) 17 (65.39) 26 (50.00) xv) Regularity in maintaining records (score) a) All records maintained irregularly (0) 6 (23.08) 3 (11.54) 9 (17.31) b) Less than 50% records 8 (30.77) 5 (19.23) 13 (25.00) maintained regularly (1-5) c) More than 50% records 12 (46.15) 18 (69.23) 30 (57.69) maintained regularly (6-10) xvi) Dependence of SHG on external support (score) a) Totally dependent on external support (0) 0 (0.00) 0 (0.00) 0 (0.00) b) Partially dependent on external support (1-5) 11 (42.31) 7 (26.92) 18 (34.62) c) The group is self dependent (6-10) 15 (57.69) 19 (73.08) 34 (65.38) xvii) Training availability to SHG members (score) a) Less than 50% members (1-4) 1 (3.85) 1 (3.85) 2 (3.85) b) 50-90% members (5-9) 21 (80.77) 17 (65.38) 38 (73.08) c) almost all members (10) 4 (15.38) 8 (30.67) 12 (23.07) xviii) Accountability towards economic activities and generating assets (score) a) Less than 50% members (1-4) 7 (26.92) 3 (11.54) 10 (19.23) b) 50-90% members (5-9) 14 (53.85) 15 (57.69) 29 (55.77) c) almost all members (10) 5 (19.23) 8 (30.77) 13 (25.00) xix) Age of the group (score) a) 1-1.5 years (1-3) 1 (3.85) 1 (3.85) 2 (3.85)

 

                                     

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b) 1.5-2 years (4-6) 10 (38.46) 6 (23.07) 16 (30.77) c) More than 2 years (7-10) 15 (57.69) 19 (73.08) 34 (65.38) xx) Utilization of revolving fund (score) a) By less than 50% members (1-4) 0 (0.00) 0 (0.00) 0 (0.00) b) By 50-90% members (5-9) 10 (38.46) 15 (57.69) 25 (48.08) c) By almost all members (10) 16 (61.54) 11 (42.31) 27 (51.92) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Sustainability of SHGs (score %) Low (< 60%) 13 (50.00) 4 (15.38) 17 (32.69) Medium (60-74%) 5 (19.23) 7 (26.92) 12 (23.08) High (> 75%) 8 (30.77) 15 (57.70) 23 (44.23) –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

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Figures in parentheses indicate percentage

VI) PARTICIPATION IN DECISION MAKING WITHIN SHGS: A perusal of Table 1 further shows that decisions were taken by involving almost all members among majority of the female groups (73.08%) as compared to lower number of male groups (42.31%). Among half of the male against about 12 per cent female groups, the decisions were taken only by few members, indicated that members of male SHGs’ were lesser involved than the female SHG members. Amongst male groups most of the activities were being decided by involving 3 – 4 members only. Irrespective of the gender, in majority of the self help groups decisions were taken by all of the members followed by about 31 and 12 per cent groups wherein most of the decisions were exercised by few members and only by group leaders, respectively. Dutta and Raman (2001) also revealed, in his study on self help groups, that the decision making powers rested with the members of the group. Krishnamurthi (1996), observed that in any efforts to organize people within a co-operative frame work, it is essential to initiate the process from day one through peoples’ participation. The readiness on the part of members to comply with the decisions taken is likely to be much greater if decision making becomes an open affair. While, Roul (1996) reported that most of the decisions in a SHGs' operational matters were taken by executive members and office bearers in the absence of other members. Thus, decision making became the voice of a few dominating members rather than participatory. VII) AWARENESS OF RULE MAKING RELATED TO PRODUCTION PROCESS: A critical look on the Table indicate that in majority of groups (73.08%), irrespective of the dominance of gender, had more than 50 per cent members aware of the rules making related to production process. Genderwise, however, in more female SHGs (19.23%) as compared to male groups (11.54%), all of its members were aware with the rules making related to production process. VIII) LEVEL OF GROUP SAVINGS: A critical look on the Table 1 further reveals that 46.16 per cent female and 38.46 per cent male self help groups had collected 90-100 per cent savings in time, indicated that the level of group saving was also found to be high among female groups as compared to males. Among about 58 per cent male groups the saving were 75-90 per cent against 38 per cent female groups. Pooled figures indicate that majority of the groups (48.08%) deposited 75-90 per cent savings while about 42 per cent groups had deposited 90-100 per cent savings in time and the rest had deposited less than 50 per cent savings within time schedule. It might be because of most of the groups had fixed late

 

                                     

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payments for defaulters in deposition of group savings that forced the members to deposit it at scheduled group meeting. IX) DISCONTINUANCE OF INTERNAL LENDING: Continuous internal lending from group corpus fund is an important indicator of a functional group. Table 1 indicates that 57.69 percent women against 23.08 per cent men groups had continued internal lending whereas 38.46 per cent men and 23.08 per cent women groups had discontinued internal lending for the last six months. Irrespective of the dominance of gender, 40.38 per cent groups continued internal lending followed by 30.77 per cent and 28.85 per cent groups had stopped internal lending for last six months and one year, respectively. X) NATURE AND UTILIZATION OF INTERNAL LOANS: Table 1 shows that about 46 per cent of the male dominated groups and comparatively less number of female groups (19.23%) had utilized equal amount of internal loans for consumption and production purposes. The ratio of internal loans utilized for consumption and production purposes was 3:1. In 23.08 per cent female and 15.38 per cent male groups internal loans were utilized only for consumption purposes. Pooled figures also indicate that about 48 per cent groups, irrespective of the dominance of gender, had utilized 75 per cent internal loans for consumption and 25 per cent for production purposes followed by about 33 per cent groups which had utilized equal amount of internal loans for consumption and production purposes.

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XI) AVAILABILITY OF INTERNAL LOANS: Table 1 indicates that 50-100 per cent of about 46 per cent SHGs had availed the internal loans and 25-50 per cent members of about 44 per cent SHGs availed the facility of internal loans from their groups. Dasgupta (1999) stated that SHGs act as money lender and a development bank as it provides small production and investment credit to the poor without charging exploitative rate of interest at lesser transaction cost without going through the long procedures, documentation and security requirement etc. XII) VELOCITY OF INTERNAL LENDING: Table 1 reveals that in 69.24 per cent male and half of the female groups had more than 1.5 times velocity of the internal lending whereas the velocity of internal lending among 34.62 per cent female and 15.38 per cent male SHGs was found between 1-1.5 times. While in 15.38 per cent groups, the velocity of internal lending recorded as less than 1 times, irrespective of dominance of gender. XIII) REPAYMENT PERFORMANCE OF INTERNAL LOANS: A critical analysis of the Table 1 reveals that 90-100 per cent internal loans were repaid within time schedule by 76.92 per cent women and 42.31 per cent men SHGs. The repayment performance of internal loans was 60-90 per cent reported by 30.77 per cent male and 19.23 per cent female groups. About 27 per cent male and very few number of female SHGs (3.85%) recorded less than 60 per cent repayment of internal loans. Pooled figures indicate that majority of the self help groups (59.62%) had recorded 90-100 per cent repayment of internal loans followed by 60-90 per cent and less than 60 per cent repayment performance was noticed by 25 and 15.38 per cent self help groups, respectively. It might be because almost all groups had decided 1-2 per cent monthly interest rate on internal loans and also due to group pressure members were forced for prompt repayment of internal loans. XIV)REPAYMENT PERFORMANCE OF BANK LOANS: A critical look of the Table 1 shows that 90-100 per cent repayment of bank loans was found by majority of the female

 

                                     

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dominated self help groups (65.39%) as compared to 34.62 per cent of the male dominated groups. The repayment performance of bank loans was found in between 60-90 percent among 34.62 per cent male and 15.38 per cent female SHGs. Pooled figures further shows that in half of the total self help groups, the repayment performance of bank loans was in between 90-100 per cent. Singh (2001) in his study on self help groups in Kanpur Dehat district of Uttar Pradesh revealed that the recovery of advances ranged between 95-100 per cent and a reverse approach system was involved because of the financers' approach to the borrowers. Further, Dadhich (2001) in his study on SHGs in Dehradun district revealed that the recovery of the loans was more than 100 per cent of the demand. This was because barrowers preferred to repay in two years period against the stipulated repayment period of five years prescribed by the bank. Recovery ethic was super among the micro-credit borrowers as they felt that repayment of loan was their moral obligation.

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XV) REGULARITY IN MAINTAINING RECORDS: It is amply clear from the Table1 that 69.23 per cent female and 46.15 per cent male self help groups were maintaining 50-100 per cent of their records regularly indicated that female groups were more sincere and more regular in this aspect than male groups. About 31 per cent male groups however, were maintaining less than 50 per cent records regularly. Pooled figures indicate that majority of the groups (57.69%) were maintaining 50-100 per cent records regularly whereas one fourth of them maintained less than 50 per cent records in time. It is therefore necessary that there is a need of close watch on activities of self help groups and the members should be educated about importance of maintaining records for future planning and execution of developmental programmes. It was also noticed that maintenance of records within time schedule also helpful in smooth functioning of the groups with transparency. Madheswaran and Dharmadhikary (2001) also revealed that records of loans, savings and fines were maintained by a member of SHG or by group leader which were verified by a representative of NGO and were sometimes audited by an external agency at initial stage of group formation. XVI) DEPENDENCY OF SHG ON EXTERNAL SUPPORT: It could be seen from the Table 1 that less number of male SHGs (57.69%) as compared to female SHGs (73.08%) were self dependent in terms of convening meetings, maintaining records, banking transactions and other routine activities of the group. Partial dependency however was more among 42.31 per cent male against 26.92 per cent female groups on external support specially for maintaining records and banking transactions. Surprisingly none of the SHG irrespective of dominance of any gender was found totally dependent on external support. Pooled figures also indicate that majority of the groups (65.38%) were self dependent followed by 34.62 percent were partially dependent on external support. It might be because of leaders of majority of the groups were literate and were able to perform group activity independently. XVII)TRAINING AVAILABILITY TO SHG MEMBERS: Irrespective of dominance of gender more than 50 per cent members had received training among majority of the groups (73.08%) whereas cent per cent of the members had received training among 23.07 per cent self help groups. Genderwise data analysis indicates that all the members had attended training in 30.67 per cent female and 15.38 per cent male groups whereas, among 80.77 per cent female and 65.38 per cent male SHGs had more than 50 per cent members had received training. It was also noticed during the investigation that hardly any member of any group had provided training related to its income generating activity or dairy husbandry. Only 2-3 days training programmes were organized at block office specially to provide the first hand information regarding Swarnajayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojana, SHG concept, record keeping  

                                     

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and other routine activities of the group. Therefore, to make the income generating activities more economical and viable at the farmers’ field in the rural social system, it is necessary to organize need based skill oriented training programmes for the SHG members. XVIII) ACCOUNTABILITY TOWARDS ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES AND GENERATING ASSETS :More than 50 per cent members had developed accountability and responsibility towards economic activities and generating assets among 57.69 per cent female and 53.85 per cent male groups. Almost all members perceived themselves accountable and responsible for economic activities and assets in more female SHGs (30.77 %) than male groups (19.23%). Pooled figures indicate that one fourth of the groups had almost all members and 55.77 per cent groups had more than 50 per cent while 19.23 per cent groups had less than 50 per cent member developed feelings of accountability and responsibility towards economic activities and generating assets in the group. The findings revealed that a strong “we feeling” among the group members made them accountable and responsible towards the activities and assets of their group. Thus making the self help groups more sustainable, there is need to organize members with stronger common bonds and a definite we feeling. XIXI) AGE OF THE GROUP: It could be inferred that about 73 per cent female and 58 per cent male SHGs were about 2 years old and the rest were less than it. Irrespective of dominance of gender majority of the self help groups (65.38%) were found more then 2 years old followed by 30.77 per cent and 3.85 per cent were 1.5-2.0 and 1.0-1.5 year old, respectively. Since age of the group is directly associated with its sustainability, a functioning self help group for longer period indicates its higher level of sustainability.

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XX) UTILIZATION OF REVOLVING FUND: Revolving fund was being utilized by cent per cent of their members among 61.54 per cent men and 42.31 per cent women dominated self help groups. The revolving fund was utilized by more than 50 per cent of the members in 57.69 per cent female and 38.46 per cent male SHGs. Pooled figures indicate that about 52 per cent groups were utilizing the revolving fund by all of its members (Table 1). Significance of difference in mean values of various dimensions of sustainability between male and female self help groups A perusal of Table 2 reveals that female dominated self help groups were significantly (P < 0.01) differed with male dominated groups in terms of clarity and appropriacy of rules and by-laws, regularity in group meetings, participation in decision making and repayment performance of internal loans. The mean values of all these variables were found higher for female groups as compared to male groups. It might be because the rules and regulations of the female self help groups were formed in close supervision of SHG promoting personnels at initial stage. Whereas, in male dominated groups, members have formulated rules and bylaws themselves as per the directions of self help group promoting institutions (SHPI). In such circumstances, the rules and by-laws were found more clear and appropriate among female dominated groups. Moreover, women members were found to be more sincere and regular in conducting monthly group meetings as compared to their male counterparts. Females were having low confidence in taking decisions independently and due to fear of failure and male dominance in the family they believed in collective decision making. Similarly, women were found to be more sincere in repayment of internal loans. They tried to be free from the debt as soon as possible. Table further reveals significant differences

 

                                     

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between male and female SHGs in terms of their group environment, awareness of rules and by-laws among group members, attendance level in group meetings, awareness of rule making related to production process, discontinuance of internal lending, nature and utilization of internal loans, velocity of internal lending, repayment performance of bank loans, regularity in maintaining records, accountability towards economic activities and generating assets and overall group sustainability.

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TABLE 2: SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENCE IN THE MEAN VALUES OF VARIOUS DIMENSIONS OF SUSTAINABILITY BETWEEN MALE AND FEMALE SELF HELP GROUPS N=52 Dimensions Male SHGs Female SHGs t-value (n = 26) (n=26) Group environment 5.38±0.63 Clarity and appropriacy of rules and by-laws 7.73±0.26 Awareness of rules and by-laws among group members 5.84±0.43 Regularity in group meetings 5.65±0.42 Av. attendance level in group meetings 5.88±0.43 Participation in decision making in the SHG 5.61±0.35 Awareness of rule making related 6.61±0.42 to production process Level of group savings 6.07±0.39 Discontinuance of internal lending 5.19±0.42 Nature and utilization of internal loans 6.80±0.49 Availability of internal loans 6.73±0.43 Velocity of internal lending 7.30±0.44 Repayment performance of internal loans 5.69±0.46 Repayment performance of bank loans 5.61±0.48 Regularity in maintaining records 4.65±0.69 Dependence of SHG on external support 6.26±0.42 Training availability to SHG members 8.15±0.28 Accountability towards economic activities and generating assets 6.42±0.48 Age of the group 7.00±0.38 Utilization of revolving fund 9.30±0.18 Sustainability of SHG 127.96±6.78

7.46±0.53 8.84±0.25

2.51* 2.98**

7.38±0.49 7.30±0.32 7.19±0.31 8.00±0.56 7.84±0.38

2.33* 3.09** 2.42* 3.55** 2.13*

7.03±0.55 6.84±0.45 5.15±0.34 6.61±0.42 5.84±0.39 7.84±0.36 7.19±0.50 7.23±0.68 7.23±0.51 8.84±0.24

1.42NS 2.64* 2.73* 0.19NS 2.43* 3.66** 2.24* 2.65* 1.45NS 1.85NS

7.88±0.40 7.61±0.36 9.03±0.18 148.42±5.65

2.29* 1.15NS 1.02NS 2.31*

*Significant at 5 % and ** Significant at 1 % level of significance NS Non significant

The mean values of all these dimensions were again significantly higher among female SHGs except the two, namely, nature and utilization of internal loans and velocity of internal lending, where mean scores of male SHGs were found more as compared to the female groups. It might be because in women dominated groups had more homogeneity in terms of socio-economic status of members, resulted more cohesiveness and congenial group environment. Due to more regularity and high attendance in the group meetings, the members of female groups reviewed their rules and by-laws time to time and developed better understanding regarding established norms and better skill to formulate new rules and

 

                                     

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regulations related to production process according to the available resources in the local areas. Also, female members were found to be more sincere in maintaining records related to attendance and proceedings of group meetings, financial discussions, membership-wise savings, loan disbursements and repayment performance of bank and internal loans. High mean score value of velocity of internal lending for the male SHGs indicated that male members were more interested in taking loans from the group. Male members utilized more internal loans for production purpose like crop irrigation, purchasing of seeds and fertilizers etc. Whereas, female members utilized more internal loans for consumption purpose to fulfill the daily needs of the family that may be the reason for having lower mean score values for nature and utilization of internal loans among females as compared to males. Table further indicated that more female members were found accountable and responsible towards economic activities and generating assets in the group. Thus female SHGs were comparatively found more sustainable with respect to its various dimensions/ indicators. Panda and Mishra (1996) also reported that homogeneity in terms of socio-economic status among SHG members contributed in strengthening the common cause and the criterion of group unity. Perceived socio-economic homogeneity is an important factor in the success of SHG formation (Anonymous, 1997). According to Roul (1996), women's self help groups functioned very well thus gender based distinctions help in promotion of female self help groups. NGOs also expressed a greater degree of satisfaction in working with women's groups rather than men's groups. Dwaraki et al. (1996) also reported that women members of self help groups were found to be more sincere in regularity and discipline.

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SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The study concludes that half of the male SHGs fell under low category of sustainability as compared to female SHGs, who in majority (57.70%) belonged to high category of groups’ sustainability. Female groups were found to be more cohesive and homogeneous as compared to male SHGs. Rules and by-laws were found clear and appropriate among about 92 per cent self help groups, irrespective of sex. Seventy five to hundred per cent meetings were conducted as per schedule only in 23 per cent male dominated groups as compared to more number of female groups (46.15%). Also about three fourth of the women SHGs recorded more than 90 per cent attendance in group meetings as compared to only half of the men SHGs. Decision were taken by almost all the members jointly in majority of the female SHGs (73.08%) as compared to majority of the male groups (50%). Majority of the women SHGs (46.16%) could able to mobilize more than 90 per cent savings in time as compared to male groups. Seventy five per cent internal loan was utilized for consumption purpose and 25 per cent for production purpose. Internal loans were availed only by 25-50 per cent female group members. Sixty five per cent women SHGs repayed more than 90 per cent bank loan as compared to about 35 per cent male SHGs as per schedule. Female SHGs were better in maintaining records than male SHGs. Majority of the self help groups (65.38%) were self dependent for conducting group meetings, maintaining records and banking transactions etc. In majority of the SHGs (73.08%), almost all of its members had availed training on formation and functioning of self help groups provided by block officers but no member had availed any special training related to its income generating activity. Utilization of revolving fund among male groups was better as compared to female SHGs. Majority of the groups (65.38%) were more than 2 years old more than half of the members among 56 per cent SHGs had developed accountability towards economic activities and generated assets in the groups. Thus educating SHG members rules, by-laws, group norms, banking procedures and regular monitoring and supervision by block officers as well as timely credit disbursement  

                                     

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will be the motivating factors for smooth functioning of self help groups, irrespective of the gender. Female SHGs were more sustainable as compared to male groups due to highly cohesive in nature, more regular in conducting meetings and maintaining records, promptness in depositing monthly saving and repayment of loans as well as accountability / responsibility of members towards group activities thus generated more assets and made the groups more sustainable. It is, therefore, necessary that comprehensive and integrated rural development programmes revolving around the exploitable potentials of rural dairy farming enterprise should be developed, giving due consideration to the timely credit availability, both internal and external, to the SHG members, input supply system, marketing facilities and outlet for the products. The members of self help groups still need to be educated with the philosophy and concept of self help through mutual help. The self help groups promoting institutes should be in regular contact with these members even after loan disbursement and annual evaluation of each group should be performed to understand their problems and constraints to make the SHGs viable and sustainable institutions among Indian rural communities. REFERENCES Dadhich, C. L. (2001). Microfinance - A panacea for poverty alleviation : A case study of oriental grameen project in India. Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, 56(3) : 419-426. Dasgupta, R. (1999). Self groups: Role of central banking authority. Banking finance, 12(7) : 8-10.

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Datta, S. K. and Raman, M. (2001). Can heterogeneity and social cohesion coexist in self help groups? An evidence from group lending in Andhra Pradesh in India. Paper presented in sixty-first annual conference of the Indian society of Agricultural Economics on working and impact of rural self help groups and other forms of microfinancing, University of Gulbarga, Karnataka, Dec. 27-29. Dwaraki, B.R., Narayanswamy, N. and Ramesh, W. (1996). Towards creating a participatory self help credit co-operative. In Rediscovering co-operation (Ed. Rajgopalan, R.). Indian Institute of Rural Management, Anand, Gujarat, pp. 216-235. GOI (2000). Format for grading of self help groups under SGSY. SGSY Paripatra No.52. Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India. Kumaran, K. P. (1997). Self help groups : An alternative to institutional credit to the poor. A case study in Andhra Pradesh. Journal of Rural Development, 16 (3) : 515-530. Krishnamurthi, G. (1996). Self help organizations: A case study of thrift and credit cooperatives of Alilabad district, Andhra Pradesh. In Rediscovering co-operation (Ed. Rajgopalan, R.). Indian Institute of Rural Management, Anand, Gujarat, pp. 263. Madheswaran, S. and Dharmadhikary, A. (2001). Empowering rural women through self help groups : lessons from Maharashtra rural credit project. Paper presented in sixty first annual conference of the Indian society of Agricultural Economics on working and impact of rural self help groups and other forms of micro-financing, Univeristy of Gulbarga, Karnataka, Dec. 27-29.

 

                                     

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Rajasekhar, D. (1993). Saving and credit system of the poor as a strategy of economic development : Some NGDO experiences. Paper presented at the mid term review meeting of partner NGDOs of NOVIB Bagalore, Nov. 30- Dec 04 Rao, S. R. and Padmaja, G. (1998). Self help groups in Tirupati. Social Welfare, 45(1) : 27. Roul, S. (1996). Co-operative in emerging contest. In : Rediscovering Co-operation (Ed. Rajgopalan, R.). Indian Institute of Rural Mangement, Anand, Gujarat, pp. 249-261. Sabu, P. (1998). General awareness and sensitization for SC/ST fisherman. Indo-German Reservoir Fisherman Project, Malampuzha, Palakkad. College of co-operation, Banking and Management, Kerala Agriculture University, Thrissur, pp. 1-25.

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Singh, D. K. (2001). Impact of self help groups on the economy of marginalized farmers of Kanpur Dehat district of Uttar Pradesh: A case study. Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, 56(3) : 463-464.

 

                                     

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AJRSH: ASIAN JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN SOCIAL SCIENCE & HUMANITIES ETHICAL DECISION MAKING – A UTILITARIAN APPROACH DR. SWARUP KUMAR JANA*; DR. ABHASH KR. BASU** *Assistant Professor in Commerce, Ramananda College, Bishnupur, Bankura. West Bengal, India. **Assistant Professor in Commerce, Raghunathpur College, Raghunathpur, Purulia, West Bengal, India.

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ABSTRACT Business managers face different ethical dilemmas. Cutting across on quality to reduce costs, to lay off workers to enhance profit, to outsource jobs to avail economy in cheaper labour abroad are some of such example of dilemmas. Constant changes in business environment and pressure to cope up with such changes do not allow the luxury of enough time for reflection and adjustment. This pressure may be political, professional or social. The question is how to respond to these pressures. The response should be such one that will encompass all approaches of decision making so that right course of action is taken in the needful. One decision may not suit everyone particularly when people have different stakes, very often conflicting in nature. So the main burden on the business managers is to take decisions that are not only right but also ethical and equally likely in the sense that to a sizable extent it would offer good to a mass. This study endeavors to assess the viability of consequentiality approach that a business manager can use in decision making. KEYWORDS: Ethical Egoism, Psychological Egoism, Consequential/Teleological Philosophy, Non-consequential/Deontological Philosophy, Utilitarianism, Absolutism, Preference or Desire Satisfaction, Altruism, Greatest Happiness Principle (GHP). ___________________________________________________________________________

 

                                     

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INTRODUCTION In the present complex global business climate, ethical decision making is not an easy proposition. Business owners and managers come across several ethical dilemmas which require a conscious appraisal. An apt evaluative framework is necessary for sound decision making. Normative philosophy has provided two basic alternative paradigmsConsequential/Teleological and Non-consequential/Deontological theories that can be applied to decision making process. There are two Consequential theories-Ethical Egoism and Utilitarianism. These two theories approach the Consequential/ Teleological moral judgment in two distinct ways. These two approaches of moral judgment emphasis on consequences that matter and all that matter. The fundamental claim of ethical egoism is that all moral decisions should be made on the basis of a consideration of what serves the interest of moral agent himself/herself, taking such decision. The proper basis of moral judgment under ethical egoism can better be expressed through normative principles1. One ought to do whatever is in one’s own Best interest; 2. One should not always do whatever he/she wants to do.

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The first principle refutes any misconception that moral agents should act selfishly and should not promote the interest of others. The second one implies that our desire may sometimes is inconsistent with our best interest. A smoker wants to smoke even though he is conscious about that smoking cause’s cancer. The argument in support of ethical egoism is based on the concept of human motivationpsychological egoism, whereby all human actions are motivated by fundamental aim of achieving good for oneself. An act of altruism is also motivated by self interest. Parents’ sacrifice of enjoyment and pleasure and self imposition of tribulations may apparently look like self-sacrifice but the root behind such action is to take the pride in children’s achievements. This conflicts between ‘wants’ and ‘interest’ give rise to confusion within psychological egoism. Sometimes people have to do what he doesn’t want to. It produces an unpleasant situation if such course of action ends with a desired result. One may have some teeth problems but does want to go to dentist out of fear for pain. But when treated the teeth will become healthy. Thus the psychological egoism, due to confusion between ‘wants’ and ‘interest’, is based on faulty logic to the implausible explanation of self-interest. This leads to the emergence of normative theory of Utilitarianism (the search for better understanding of the motives in terms of self-interest). Unlike ethical egoism, the utilitarian theory of moral rights insists on that the principle of equality should be applied. It implies that the interests of all objects of moral concern should be treated with equal weight. One’s own interest or the interest of people of a particular group or community should not be given a favored status over the interest of others.

 

                                     

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Present study is an attempt towards an in-depth understanding of the applicability of utilitarian approach in managerial decision making. The entire study is divided in chaptersChapter-I Literature Review, Chapter-II- Conceptual Framework, Chapter-III- Objections to Utilitarianism, Chapter-IV- Objectives of the Study. Chapter-V- Relationship of Utilitarian Approach with Stakeholders’ Theory, Chapter-VI- Development of Models for Ethical Decision making, Chapter-VII- Measurement of Costs and Benefits & Chapter-VIIIConclusion. LITERATURE REVIEW The basic assumption behind application of utilitarian perspective in the analysis of ethical problem is that it is popular among the managers. Under utilitarian moral judgment the behavior will always try to generate maximum benefit to the maximum number. As such, behavior is guided by evaluation of end results achieved through concerted effort. It is something like the role of economists involved in managerial decision making. So very clearly utilitarian method of problem solving has an economic appeal and that is the main reason behind its wide popularity. But McDonald and Pak (1996) have doubted about the motivating / influencing ability on the behavior of the managers. However, they have expressed doubt that even if utilitarian framework is used to guide or explain the ethical decision process, the phrase, ”good ethics is good for business” may remain as sound bite without containing enough motivational influence as is presumed always.

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In search of factors responsible for encouraging ethical decision making, Bowen (2004) has identified organizational culture, communication in issue management and public relations, management theory and moral philosophy are the factors which might encourage ethical analysis of organizational dilemmas. So far as moral philosophies to which ethical behavior subscribes are concerned-Consequentialism (Teleological) and Non-consequentialism (Deontological), the two main branches of moral philosophy which have deterministic influence on the selection of ethical course of action. According to Bowen, under utilitarianism, the rule of majority may not always prevail so far as ethical judgment is concerned. Recapitulating the view of De George (1999), Bowen observes a mare theory cannot ensure justice. So he questions about the applicability of consequentialism as it involves prediction about potential consequence. Assessment of past events, as is the foundation of rule utilitarianism, may not lead to acceptable estimation of future outcomes. Another important question is how happiness, pleasure, knowledge can be considered as the measure of morality, these are rather satisfaction or something else. Utilitarianism is again subdivided into Act Utilitarianism and Rule Utlitarianism. Act utilitarianism is a case specific and considers the likely consequences of potential actions from which it chooses to accept what is believed to generate maximum pleasure. Rule utilitarianism, on the other hand, looks for potential rules of action. To testify the acceptability of a rule, it is to observe whether adherence to such rule produces more happiness. Sometimes rule utilitarianism fails to increase the happiness. Never to kill a neighbour is a good rule, but when such neighbour is identified to be a rapist and for the sake of preservation of chastity of wife, killing of such person seems to be justified. Rule utilitarianism pledges that self-defense is legally justified but murder is not.

 

                                     

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This gives to a distinction between strictness and absolutism of rule utilitarianism. Strong utilitarianism is an absolutist framework providing strict rules applicable to any place, any time and to any person and are not subject to amendment. As a counter to it John Stuart Mill has proposed weak rule utilitarianism which posits that under specific circumstances the rule can be broken if and only if it produces greater happiness. Rule utilitarianism should not be confused with heuristics (rules of thumb), if the consequences can be calculated relatively clearly and without much doubt. Harris C (2002) has defined utility as ‘preference or desire satisfaction’. He has prescribed a hierarchical arrangement of preferences as-1) the happiness of others as well as of self; 2)the happiness of self that has no impact on the happiness of others ; and 3) the happiness of the self that decreases the satisfaction of others. Harris also endeavored an approach towards quantifying the utility of an act. He has assigned values to –i) the number of persons affected; and ii) the units of utility per person. The approach of Harris is a step forward towards a consequentiality approach to quantify the outcome of a moral decision but the way values are assigned to units of utility per person seems to be ambiguous. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK Utilitarianism as a Western Theory has been conceived in the late 1700s. It is one of the most influential factors behind ethical decision making in every sphere of human life including state, federal and even professional codes of ethics (Harris). The most primitive proposition of utilitarianism has been given by David Hume (1711-1776). Hume has introduced several basic concepts about utilitarian theory. The foundation of Hume’s utilitarian theory stands on two fundamental beliefs-i) that human beings are normally kind; and ii) that humans sympathize with others and seek common ground (Quinton, 1973).

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Pursuing the views of Hume, Jermy Bentham (1748-1832) has come out with the formal theory of Utilitarianism. As an economist, he has laid the foundation of his views on some assumptionsi)

What is good or bad is justified by whether it is pleasurable or painful, which is a hedonist approach.

ii) Good or pleasure as the outcome for all concerned can be quantified. He has proposed to attach values to specific amount of pleasure of an individual for an action and then to sum up the values so attached to all individuals affected by such action. John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) has extended the view of Bentham in his approach towards government, economics and ethics. Mill has not confined to the concept of pleasure versus pain to consider certain pleasure is preferable to others. Here, intention is not the prime object so far as ethical decision making in utilitarian framework is concerned. Both Bentham and Mill have proposed that – i)

Actions are to be judged right or wrong only by virtue of consequence and nothing else; and

ii)

In assessing consequences, happiness or unhappiness is that matters all and other things, if any, are not relevant.

 

                                     

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Ethical Egoism is the consequential theory preceding to utilitarian approach of ethical decision making. The fundamental normative claim of ethical egoists is that all moral decisions should be made on the basis of consideration of what serves the best interest of the moral agent making such decision. The basic argument in favor of promoting ethical egoism is the factual theory of human motivation, called psychological egoism which guides all human actions to achieve good for oneself. Thus the ethical egoists’ fallacious normative claims support descriptive claims. Actually, the best option that remains in the hands of moral agents is to seek the fulfillment of their own interest in the most reasonable and circumspect manner possible. Apart from this, ethical egoism generates confusion between ‘wants’ and ‘interests’ and as such is led by a faulty logic to the implausible explanation of self-satisfaction. Even the collective ethical egoism is not acceptable when ethical egoism itself is not a viable proposition. Under this situation people can act for the interest of people outside the respective social group. This has led to the introduction of the normative theory of utilitarianism. Utilitarianism (a consequentialist approach), a moral theory developed by Jermy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, basically implies that no moral rule is intrinsically right or wrong. The rightness or otherwise of an act or rule is a matter of the overall non-moral good (pleasure, happiness, health, knowledge or satisfaction of individual desire) produced in the consequence of doing that act or following that rule. Utilitarianism is a theory which holds that the proper course is what maximizes the pleasure / happiness.

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Unlike ethical egoism, the utilitarianism insists that equality of interest should be preserved. It means interest of all objects of moral concern must be considered on an equal basis. Neither the interest of an individual nor the interest of a particular group should be given a preferential status to the interest of others. Then the obvious question is which sorts of non-moral values define the interest as objects of moral concern. How we could decide the amount of good or evil, which is produced by actions. Classical utilitarian theory as given by Bentham and Mill pledges that proper moral criterion is happiness and happiness will be considered as a measure of pleasure and pain. This view is considered as hedonic utilitarianism (Greek word ‘Hedone’ =Pleasure). An experience that we call ‘pleasant’ is to be considered pleasurable. Similarly, ‘pain’ is used to describe as disagreeable experience involving physical or psychological pain. Utilitarian theorists have made a clear demarcation between act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism. Act utilitarianism is based on assessment of specific situation following greatest happiness principle (GHP). It focuses on individual action and such action is considered independently of any rules prevailing there. On the other hand, rule utilitarianism is founded on the consideration of general rules governing ethical behavior. A rule should be followed if and only if such rules, when adhered to, produce more happiness than otherwise. A rule is judged by the eventuality it produces after being followed. The difference between act and rule utilitarianism is based on the difference about the proper object of consequential calculation- case specific or generalized to rule.

 

                                     

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Sometimes there may be collapse of rule utilitarianism into act utilitarianism when breaking of rules produces more utility and such rule gets sophisticated through insertion of sub-rule(s) to handle exceptional circumstances. Utilitarian framework of decision making gently views that actions and policies should be evaluated on the basis of the benefits and costs they will impose on society. Many business analysts hold that the best way to judge the ethical propriety of any business decision is by relying on utilitarian cost-benefit analysis. Bentham holds that, ‘An action is right from an ethical point of view if and only if the sum total of utility produced by that act is greater than the sum total of utility produced by any other act the agent could have performed otherwise’. Another important assumption of utilitarian principle is that it is somehow possible to measure and add the quantities of benefits produced by an action and subtract from that the measured quantities of harm/pain the action will cause. Both the immediate and future costs that each action will involve in foreseeable future and benefits that each alternative action will yield towards each individual or the group as well must be taken into consideration. OBJECTIONS TO UTILITARIANISM There are some objections cited by different academicians, researchers and management experts. These objections are very important to understand the strength of the footing of utilitarianism. Some objections are related with human nature and some are concerned with its applicability. There are some objections dealing with moral issues. Mill has countered all these objections with his own psychological interpretation.

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OBJECTION-I : The first objection to utilitarianism (actually against Bentham) is that it is a simple hedonism and utilitarian’s are simply pleasure seekers. Mill replies that utilitarianism is a rigorous and demanding morality. He pledges that an act is right in accordance with the degree to which it produces pleasure. A person acquainted with both kinds of pleasure- pleasure to animal and pleasure to human will surely choose the higher quality, the human pleasure. OBJECTION-II : The second objection is that people hold the interests of the group higher to that of an individual. As between his/her happiness and that of others, utilitarianism requires the agent to be as impartial as a disinterested and benevolent spectator. Mill replies that most people do not look out for the interest of a large group. They are not interested in public utility, but in private utility-the interest of a few people important to them. People do have a strong sentiment of fellow feelings and sympathy. OBJECTION-III: Utilitarian allows that the right act for a person might be one that also benefits the agent. The right act is one that accomplishes the self-interest and can well be performed for motives of self-interest only. Mill has distinguished moral worth of an act from moral worth of the agent. He says, “The motive has nothing to do with the morality of the action, though much with the worth of the agent”. So there is nothing wrong with self-interest as a motive if it guides the right act.

 

                                     

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OBJECTION-IV: Utilitarianism takes too much time to figure the utility. In case of emergency when decision is to be made at split-second, computation of utility values becomes almost impossible. Mill replies that out of collective and learned experience, people can decide about what yields the most utility. Some cases are typically tragic but are rare to be generalized. OBJECTION-V: The most important objection to utilitarianism has been raised by John Rawls. Rawls has raised the issues of rights, justice, fairness and desert. He holds that nobody can be utilitarian and maintain a notion of alienable rights as the central goal of utilitarian society is the happiness of the greatest number. Mill says that a society is the model of a bigger person, who can control, deny and delay the gratification of certain parts for the sake of satisfaction of the whole. An individual has his/her rights only so far as it does not adversely impact on the happiness of the greater number. OBJECTION-VI: There is a standard objection against utilitarianism for using money values to measure costs and benefits because there are some good (health, life) that cannot be priced. Utilitarian’s claim that it is simply possible to put a price on health and life as we do it every day. Other objections concerning the technical aspects of utilitarianism are:a. Difficulties involved in measurement. b. Some benefits and costs are untraceable to a particular action (health, knowledge). c. Impossibility in predicting probable costs and benefits makes measurement difficult. Journal of Asian Research Consortium                  88                  http://www.aijsh.org                                                                                      

d. There are confusions about what to count and what not. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY Considering all these factors in favor or against, an effort has been made to find out a method helpful for managers in taking plausible decision. A managerial decision should be such that it could be as well be applicable as is viable for appraisal. So far as appraisal is concerned, quantified data is of prime importance. Even for control mechanism, matching of costs with benefits and comparison of actual with the estimates are the basic steps. The present study makes an endeavor to find out a technique of making managerial decision under utilitarian approach. The objectives of the study are: a) To explore the relationship between utilitarian approach and stakeholders theory. b) To find out a practicable decision making model. c) The measure the costs and benefits in monetary term and to match them to suggest a decision criterion.

 

                                     

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STAKEHOLDERS THEORY & UTILITARIAN FRAMEWORK The Classical Model of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and Moral Minimum, the modified version of Classical Model, give stockholders a privileged status among the beneficiaries of business decisions. The Stakeholders Theory rejects it. Stockholders do have an ethical claim upon managerial decisions but such ethical claims should ensure a balance between the comparable ethical claims of others who do also have stake in the decision of the managers. Stakeholders Theory accepts the logic of previous theories that managerial decisions should be constrained by ethically logical claims of others, but does not admit that only the stockholders have such ethically logical claims. So, managers should have a duty towards these parties apart from the stockholders.

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William Evan an R. Edward Freeman in their essay “A Stakeholder Theory of Modern Corporate: Kantian Capitalism” have defined that stakeholders could be “any group or individual who can affect or be affected by the corporation”. It might have been an accepted proposition that over a century age the management had an overriding obligation to stockholders, but the law now acknowledge a wide range of managerial obligations towards stakeholders like consumers, employees, customers, competitors, environment and the disabled (Des Jardins). The strongest point in favor of stakeholder theory rests in ethical consideration. The classical model upholds two basic ethical norms-utilitarian considerations of social well being and individual rights. The prerequisite of utilitarian framework is to balance the interest of all concerned and to give each equal importance. Stakeholders’ theory also supports it strongly. The Kantian formulation of ethical theory requires that the overriding moral imperative is to treat all people as ends, not as means only. Corporate managers when fail to give due importance to the rights of employees, customers, creditors etc in the pursuit of profit, treat these groups as means of benefitting the stockholders. According to Evan and Freeman, stakeholder theory does not give any priority to one stakeholder group over another, although some group may enjoy some right at the cost of others. Similarly, utilitarianism requires the management to consider the consequences of its decisions for the well-being of all concerned groups. Here the stakeholder theory coincides with utilitarianism. PRACTICABLE ETHICAL DECISION MAKING MODELS Decision making is one of the most important and crucial task for the management. Rather, it should be considered as the primitive function. Once a decision is arrived at it needs to be followed scrupulously. If there is a mistake or delay in taking the right decision, the organization may have to face untoward consequences. Fairness in decision making may also help to build up a good corporate image. Another important aspect of decisions is the human element in it which demands for considerate attitude. For decision making, following steps are considered prudent• DEFINITION OF THE PROBLEM- This is the primitive step which sets the objective and relevance of the decision.

 

                                     

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• IDENTIFICATION OF ALTERNATIVE COURSES-There should not be any point to be rigid about a solitary course to solve a problem. Rather, a number of alternative courses may crop up through careful analysis of the situation. • SELECTION OF THE BEST ALTERNATIVE- This is the feasibility and acceptability aspect of the best course of action. • ETHICAL SCREEN TEST- Here ethical principles play the crucial role. The course of action selected should ensure the goodness, rightness and fairness of the alternative finally selected. • IMPLEMENTATION- After ultimate choice of alternative, the next step is to implement it. • EVALUATION- Analyzing the result, the management is to check whether the desired result is obtained. • REMEDIAL ACTION- If the desired result in maintaining ethical principles is not obtained; necessary corrective actions should be initiated. Utilitarianism allows moral rules to undergo changes from age to age, situation to situation. Such flexibility in utilitarianism is plausible when rule utilitarianism collapses with act utilitarianism to welcome greater utility to greater number. So far as the ethical decision making is concerned, two models have got wide appreciationi) Joseph Son Institute Model; and

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ii) ‘PLUS’ Decision making model. JOSEPH SON INSTITUTE MODEL- This model suggests that all the decisions taken up or to be taken up must fulfill 3 basic conditions; which are: ¾ Decisions must consider and reflect the interest and wellbeing of all stakeholders. ¾ Ethical values and principles must be given maximum weight. ¾ One existing ethical principle can be allowed to compromise only if such action gives rise to another ethical principle which is greater one and would bring about better relationship in the long-run. PLUS DECISION MAKING MODEL-There should be an ethical screening for every decision to be adopted. A decision is said to satisfy the ethical test if it fulfills four (4) conditions as proposed in PLUS decision making model. The four conditions are:P-Policies (it is in conformity with the organizational policies, procedures and Principles). L-Legal (it is acceptable under existing laws and regulations). U-Universal (it is applicable universally in the organization).

 

                                     

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S-Self (it satisfies own judgment about good, right and fair). Both of the two models have their own specific features. The first one emphasizes on protection of interests of stakeholders. PLUS model puts weight on basic factors like organizational principles, ethical value concepts, legal acceptance and universality in applicability and enforcement. The first one seems to be more dynamic as it leaves scope for up-gradation of ethical principle. The PLUS model is based on subjective judgment about goodness and fairness according to the nature of the organization. MEASUREMENT OF COSTS AND BENEFITS IN MONETARY TERM AND MATCHING OF THEM To identify and measure the costs and benefits involved in any decision we should take the support of stakeholders, theory to utilitarianism. Considering the impartiality of management towards the interest of different stakeholders, we should try to measure the consequences of an act in monetary terms. But as the interest or ethical claims of different groups are of a varied nature we will try to identify them group wise. Let us explain with the help of a hypothetical expression. Any decision regarding customer care involves certain costs like distribution costs, after sales service cost, reception, demonstration costs etc. Let us consider total of such costs is Cc . Against such costs probable benefits may take the forms like increased sales, savings in advertisement costs and lesser bad debts. We assume total such benefit as Rc.

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So, net benefit from such decision of customer care is (Rc - Cc )………………….(1) Decision about employees amenities involves costs like Cost of training, cost of safety measures, canteen facilities, hospital, fringe benefits, promotion, training, efficiency based bonus etc. Let us take total of such costs is CE. As a result of such facilities the benefits that arise are low cost of production (out of increased efficiency and motivation), savings in cost of labor-turnover etc. We assume total of such benefits is RE. Net benefit from employee amenities is (RE - CE ) ………………………………(2) Costs of meeting ethical claims of stockholders include cost of enhanced return, cost of debts for increased financial requirement, opportunity cost of liquid finance etc. We consider total of such costs as CS. The resulting benefits are lesser cost of capital, savings in floating costs etc. We assume the sum of such benefits as RS. So, net benefit from meeting ethical claims of stakeholders is (RS - CS)………….. (3) Good relation with creditors ensures regular and timely supply of goods and services which is essential for smooth running of business. But such relation requires cost of prompt payment, cost of maintaining liquidity. We consider such costs as CL. This decision of prompt payment may result in benefits like discounts, savings in the cost of temporary ceasure of business operations etc. Let us assume total of such benefits as RL. Net benefit from meeting the claims of creditors is (RL - CL)……………………….(4)

 

                                     

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Government has some claims over an enterprise in the form of statutory dues payable to the government. The enterprise has nothing to do to cartel it. Cost of payment of such dues including litigation expenses, statutory audit expenses are taken as CG. As a result of such costs, benefits may be had in the form of savings in penalties and savings in cost of conviction etc which are assumed to be in total RG. Resulting net benefit will be (RG - CG )………………………………………………(5) If we consider all groups simultaneously as we have assumed in the above hypothetical model, total benefit will be π = (Rc - Cc) + (RE - CE) + (RS - CS) + (RL - CL) + (RG - CG)……………….(6) The basic aim of the managers will remain to maximize total benefit ‘π’. In the above expression the management will simultaneously assess the resulting benefits that could be available to the different stakeholder groups. Now the question is how a particular decision affects the ethical claims of all groups of stakeholders. It may so happen that one particular course of action may uphold the interest of one group but the influence on other groups may not be felt to the same extent. Balancing of interest of all groups may not ensure equalizing the benefits available to others. What is essential is that managerial decision should assess whether the approach is impartial and whether all the groups are given equal importance so far as the ethical claims of the groups are concerned.

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CONCLUSION The study has endeavored to develop a model to measure the costs and benefits that could arise out of managerial actions and to match them for quantifying the net benefits available to different stakeholder groups. The basic limitation of the study is that it does not ensure equal distribution of benefits generating from managerial actions. One or more cost or benefit components may be zero. But the ultimate goal of evaluation of the magnitude of benefits enjoyed by several groups can be possible, provided the measurement and identification of costs and benefits are done with sizable accuracy. The benefits available may be prompt or a delayed one, nonetheless, concern for ethical claim of all stakeholders should not be compromised finally. Decision traced to a particular group may generate some benefit or otherwise to the other groups also. If the total of such ancillary benefits from each decision is taken as ri (i=1,2,…..5) for different groups , the expression (6) can be rewritten as π = (Rc - Cc) + (RE - CE) + (RS - CS) + (RL - CL) + (RG - CG) + ∑ri (i=1,2,…..5) REFERENCES 1. Osmond Vitex (2011), ‘Decision Making in Business Ethics, Demand Media’; 2. Lafave Sandra, ‘Utilitarianism’, 3. DesJardins J. (2009). ‘An Introduction to Business Ethics’, TATA McGRAW-HILL EDItion.

 

                                     

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4. Valasquez M , Claire Andre, Shank Thomas, Mayer S.J. & Mayer Michael J.;-;Thinking Ethically, A Framework for Decision Making;, 5. Freeman , R.Edward, ‘The Stakeholder Approach Revisited’; 6. Jhonson R.N., ‘Primer on the Elements and Forms of Utilitarianism’; 7. Bowen Shanon A., ‘Organisational Factors Encouraging Ethical Decision Making: An Exploration into the Case of an Exempler’; 8. McDonald Gael & Pak Patrick C. (1996)’It’s All Fair in Love, War and Business: Cognitive Philosophies in Ethical Decision Making’, 9. Forster Holly, Miller & Davis Thomas, (1996)‘A Practioner’s Guide to Ethical Decision Making,’ 10. Thomas Terry, Schermerhorn John R.. & Dienhart.Jr. and John W., (2004) ‘Strategic Leadership of Ethical Behaviour in Business ’, Academy of Management Executives, Vol. 18 No.2. 11. John Hooker (April, 2003), Why Business Ethics? Carnegie Mellon University 12. Kjonstad B , Willmott H (1995), “Business Ethics: Restrictive or Empowering?” Judge Institute of Management, University of Cambridge, UK. 13. Smith Nicole (2012), “Managerial Decision Making and Right vs. Right Dilemmas: An Assessment”

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14. Pierce Gloria (1989). “Critical Thinking in Managerial Decision-Making”, Philpapers. 15. Cremer David De, Mayer David M. , and Schminke Marshall, (2010), On Understanding Ethical Behavior and Decision Making: A Behavioral Ethics Approach, Business Elthics Quarterly. 16. Singh Yog Raj, Ankur Bhatnagar (August 11-13, 2010), “Management and Business Ethics through Indian Scriptures and Traditions”, AIMS International Conference on Value-based Management.

 

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315      A Peer Reviewed International Journal of Asian Research Consortium

AJRSH: ASIAN JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN SOCIAL SCIENCE & HUMANITIES RAMPRASAD AS AN INSTINCTIVE DEVOUT POET: AN INTRODUCTION TARUN KUMAR YADAV* *Research Scholar, Department of English, Lalit Narayan Mithila University, Darbhanga. ABSTRACT Ramprasad was one of the most notable saintly poets in Indo- Anglian literature. He was born in a cultivated and enlightened family at Kumarhatta in the district of 24 Parganas, Calcutta, India. Born in a doctor family, he was an intellectual in Hindi, Sanskrit and Persian. After acquiring sound acquaintance, he was showing impassiveness from this material world. Having seen this way of mindset, his parents married him.

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He had no attractions towards his wife. He was always devoted to the Divine Mother. He was always engrossed in the prayer to the Divine Mother Kali. In her commend, he sang a lot of bhajans. He was not taking not taking any notice in domestic work. Meanwhile, his father passed away, now he had the accountability to run the family. So he searched a job of clerk, but it turns into a marvel. Ramprasad’s lyrical life has spontaneous flow. He was gifted by Maharaja Krishnachandra and his master, who had employed him. At last, he left the world of din and dross, of dust and lest to attain the other world of light and joy, of knowledge and bliss. Not extensively known outside Bengal, India, now he is ever known as a grand pious poet in the realm of Commonwealth literature. So I, however, would try to render the interior moods, the beauty and the grandeur of his soul. I would clearly explicate the Ramprasad’s life from cradle to grave and the effect of his poems on divine devotees.

 

                                     

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KEYWORDS: commonwealth, cultivated, intellectual, impassiveness, Divine Mother, material world, devout and spontaneous. _________________________________________________________________________ INTRODUCTION Sri Ramprasad (1723-18030 was born in a hereditary vaidya family at Kumarhatta village in the district of 24 Praganas on the bank of the Ganga, 34 miles north of Calcutta, West Bengal, India. The village excelled in learning and customs. It had a superb past of scholars. It was a seat of learning and the birth place of Sri Chaitanya. His father, Ramram Sen, was a prominent Ayurvedic physician and a Sanskrit scholar too. His mother’s name was Sidheswari, who was the second wife of his father. Ramprasad belonged to an astonishing galaxy of Indian mystics whose approach to the Divine found appearance and consummation in melodies which form a part of the holy heritage of India. He was a senior contemporary of the illustrious three south Indian mysticsSri Tyagaraja Shyama Sastri, Muthu Swami, Dikshitar. He was sent to the village school where he proved his mettle to be an extraordinarily commendable student, finishing the entire course in an exceptionally short time. Since his father was an Ayurvedic physician, so he wanted his son to carry on the family line of work in future.

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On the contrary, Ramprasad did not have penchant for family occupation. He wanted to study some more languages, so the sensible father advised him to learn Persian and Hindi hoping that the familiarity of these languages might provide him with a job in the state. He advised so because Bengal then was under Muslim rule. In spite of being scholars of these languages, he did not evince his yearning to take up any job. He was showing a sort of aloofness from this material world. Since he was approximately eighteen years old, it was deemed that this sort of disease could only be cured by the wonder- drug known as marriage. So when he was twenty two, he was married to Sarwani. Even after marriage, he was not responsive en route for his wife. He had ‘a greater attraction- not always definite and defined-, and agony- painful yet sweet-, for the Divine, had such a tremendous sway over his mind and aspirations that he could never discipline himself to these responsibilities which normally devolve on a householder. Rather, he devoted himself more and more to the practice of spiritual discipline. [6] Ramprasad was an incredibly pious man. So he wanted to be absorbed in contemplation and thinking of Divine Mother. Seeing his solemnity towards pious practices, his father could not prevent him from doing so. He began to remain unacquainted of all the errands of household work. But when, all of a sudden, his father Ramran Sen passed away, he was caught in the midst of darkness. It was afar his faculty to put up with the encumbrance of the family without any realistic know-how of running the family. His father had not left so much wealth that could suffice the needs of his family. He was a scholar in kavya, darshan, Persian, and Hindi, yet he

 

                                     

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was ignorant to the ways of earning his livelihood and maintaining the needs of the family. He had no hopes from any man, so he, with ardent expectation, urged to the Mother: Mother, strange is the beauty of one who becomes your devotee! He does not even get a piece of cloth to adorn his lions! His body is smeared with ash And he carries matted locks on his head. [11] Lastly, the earnest Ramprasad left for Calcutta under the compulsion circumstances in search of a job. We can ‘imagine this helpless man of God- torn between the demands of the two worlds, one exacting and the other elusive- knocking about at this door and that for a job, but all the time anxious to run away somewhere and drown himself in the depths of sadhana!’ [11] At last, he got a job of a clerk, in the house of one D. Mitra, on a salary of thirty rupees a month. He was so contented that he could not stop himself from thanking the Divine. He urged: O Mother! Give me your treasureship, I am not ungrateful, O Shankari, I cannot stand all and sundry looting the treasure of your feet. Forgetful Tirupati is your steward-

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Shiva is pleased with a trifle and is generous by nature, Yet you keep your treasure under his charge. Half the body is leased out, but what a heavy salary for Shiva. I am your servant without pay, My only right is to the dust of your feet. ....

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But if I can get at those feet of yours I can easily get over my difficulties. (2) [12] After taking up the charge of clerk, he was given an account book. Instead of writing account, he was composing songs in the name of Mother. The higher officeholder communicated it to the master. The account book was brought before him. Ramprasad was sent for the master.

 

                                     

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The disgruntled official produced the duo before the maser. The master minutely observed the account book. Tears streamed down when he came to the lines: I am your servant without pay. I have only the right to the dust of your feet... [13] The master was tremendously stunned seeing the veneration and fondness to the Divine Mother. He uttered unpredictably: Ramprasad, you have not been born in this world just to eke out a humdrum existence. You wanted the treasureship of the Mother. You will get it in the fullness of time. For the time being, return home and devote yourself to spiritual practices. Do not be sorry thinking that you have spoilt my account book. On the other hand, by the writing of your hallowed hand you have sanctified the account book, which will be kept in my family as a precious heirloom in order to give account of your devotion to the Divine Mother. Go home now. You will get an allowance of thirty rupees every month from my family. [13-15] Ramprasad was extraordinarily joyful to listen to the very dignified words of the kind master. His emotions burst out: O mind, ruinous fellow, You do not know you are no beggar, ....

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This is humble Ramprasad’s supplication For the attainment of the fearless feet. (3) [15] Contentedly, Ramprasad returned home and gave this astonishing news to his mother. His mother paid genuflection to the mother of the universe in her turn. Now he resumed his divine devotion and wrapped up in sadhana. His dedication burst out instinctively in the love of Divine Mother Kali. He went to the Ganga everyday to bathe standing in neck-deep water. One day he was chanting a song standing in neck-deep water, a lot of people gathered there to listen to his soul-stirring songs. Even the king Maharaja Krishnachandra, himself a gifted scholar, deferentially approached Ramprasad and begged to come and ornament his court. Ramprasad reverentially declined his offer and said: How could one in whose heart the Mother of the universe was enthroned thin of becoming a courtier? [18]

 

                                     

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It is also deemed that Nawab Sirajuddaullah was also attracted by his saintly fondness and faculty. He invited him to grace the palace with his sacred songs. He visited Nawab and impulsively sang: Taking the name of Kali, dive deep down, mind Into the heart’s fathomless depths, ...

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Unnumbered pearls and precious gems, Plunge in, says Ramprasad, and gather up handfuls there! (4) [21] He was always absorbed in adoration. To worship, he made a Panchmundi asana in a garden near his house. He engaged himself in severe sadhana, especially ekadasi, purnima and amavasya, not going home at all. He sang in the esteem of the Divine Mother: O Mother, shall I remain just like this..! (5) ...

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Tell me Mother, where do I stand? I have none here to call my own

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O Shankari.... (8) [23] Ordinary mortals cannot imagine the sufferings of a sadhak who has given up this world of din and dross, of dust and lust, but has not gained the other world of light and joy, of knowledge and bliss. He is at times in agony, in choking darkness. [23] Once he was in misery and he was mending his hedge himself. His daughter Jagadiswari was helping him by returning the string from other side. After sometime, she was called by someone and she went away, but somebody in the guise of Jagadiswari was helping him and the work was finished before his daughter’s return. When she came, she asked her father how you had finished the work so soon without me. He was astounded, he asked: If you had not been here, then who had been helping me? [25] He was convinced that she was the Divine Mother. In her thankfulness he sang: O mind, why do you keep away from the mother’s feet? O mind, meditate on the Mother, you will get then mukti, ...

 

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And tied the hedge with devotee ... (9) [27] Since Ramprasad a spiritualist poet was exceedingly kind. So most pious persons were associated to him. One of them was Aju Gonsai, who was a neighbour of Ramprasad. He was known to be a crack-brained colleague. Whenever Ramprasad sang, he got overjoyed, energized and flushed. One day Ramprasad commented on the consequence of karma: The oiliness of a piece of wood soaked in oil and the tendency to madness does not leave one after death. [30] Aju was also sitting there and he could not bear the observation of stupidity. Gonsai retorted: One cannot get rid of the tie of karma, the habit of study, and the intoxication of wine even with death. [31-32] These examples of Aju Gonsai’s performance with Ramprasad were found appealing. They both had amusement in an esteemed way. One of Ramprasad’s most moving songs was: Taking the name of Kali, dive deep down, O mind, Into the heart’s fathomless depths, Where many a precious gem lies hid... [32] Aju Gonsai had a rejoinder:

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Dive not, O mind, very often For your breath will get choked in no time. ...

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Just go floating and catch the boat of the feet of Shyama or Shyam. (10) [32] Again Ramprasad sang: Come; let us go for a walk, O mind, to Kali, the Wish-fulfilling Tree, And there beneath It gather the four fruits of life.... (11) [32] Aju Gonsai’s reply was: Why, O mind, should you go for a walk? Don’t you be induced by anyone to go anywhere...?

 

                                     

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May be going to the Wish-fulfilling Tree, You will pick a wrong fruit in place of the right one. (12) [33] If Ramprasad sang: This world is mere a framework of illusion. [33] Gonsai flashed: This very world is a mansion of mirth, Here I can eat, here drink and make merry. [33] So both of them behaved like clowns and had a good harmony, but unfortunately, ‘very few of his compositions are extant today.’ [33] His spiritual capacity grew more powerful bit by bit, yet he had not renounced his ‘grihastha ashrama.’ [37] He attained such a pinnacle due to her superlative wife Sarvani’s tireless and unostentatious service. Sarvani proved an archetypal instance of Hindu wifehood in serving the husband and helping him become a recluse. Now he was so much engaged in Divine Mother that he could not follow the usual schedule of the day. He would not even have food and slumber. He has reached the zenith of his devout practice, so he was continually feeling the amorphous Divine Mother within and without. He chanted: Oh, this is hundred times as true as the Vedas-

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My Mother is formless. ...

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Install it on the lotus seat of the heart. [40] He remained an icon worshipper, though he had long back transcended the necessity of ritualistic worship. At this age, he, when contradiction and contra-distinction between the personal and impersonal, the relative and the absolute are, melted away to mix in Divine Mother. He sees everywhere Brahman alone as existing. Since he was devoted to the Divine Mother Kali, so on the night of Deepawali, he used to worship the image of Kali made by his own hands. People enthusiastically waited to see his outlandish approach of worshipping the entire night long with his characteristic fervour. Ordinary devotees could not grasp all the extra-ordinary modes and nuances of this ecstatic worship. A marked difference, however, was noticed in Ramprasad on the last occasion of worship of Kali on Deepawali night. Unlike the previous years, he was not jovially greeting people who came to join the festival. He was lost in the world and completely wrapped in a Divine aloofness which could not be disturbed by the

 

                                     

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coming and going of people. He remained absorbed in the contemplation of Kalisometimes piteously supplicating, sometimes singing without end one new song after another, spontaneously. [42-43] Next day he was going to the Ganga as usual, with the jar of sanctified water on his head all the time singing songs of the Mother. On that day standing in neck-deep water, followed by devotees carrying the image of Kali to submerge, he chanted four songs. Perhaps it was perceptible to him that he would now depart from this material world. It can be proved by the first line of his poems sung: Wait a moment, O death... (16) Tell me, brother, what happens to one after death... (17) My life is spent in vain... (18) O Mother Divine, do you remember? (19) [43]

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Ramprasd was fully absorbed in Mother’s consciousness and a light suffused his entire being. In that state of supreme ecstasy, ‘the great soul left his body through the aperture in the crown of the head (Brahma-randhra)’ [45] So Ramprasad is deemed one of the best and crispest pious poets of Indo- Anglian literature. His compositions are broadly divided into two categories- firstly, the deliberate writings; secondly, the spontaneous outpourings have been rekindling the spirit of saintly readers. He was a factual devotee of Kali, the influential goddess in Hindu religion. Today Ramprasad’s bhajans, songs and kirtans are the legacy of literature world, which constitute eternal divine jewels of Bengali- speaking race. Just as Tyagaraja’s bhajans move the hearts of hundreds and thousands of devotees in the south of India, Tukaram’s in the west and Mira’s in the North of India, likewise Ramprasad’s songs enkindle the hearts of hundreds of devotees in Bengal. As long as there would be worshippers of Sri Ram, Vithoba in those parts of the world, Tyagaraja’s, Tukaram’s and Mira’s songs would be sung; as long as shakti-worship continues in Bengal, India, Ramprasad’s songs will be chanted in all over the world by his devotees. He is specially cherished for and identified with his Kali- kirtan. It is not known with any certainty how many songs were in point of fact composed by him. Currently there are on record ‘about two hundred and fifty songs’ [48] which are typically ascribed to Ramprasad. There is a matchless temperament of soul in his poems. The mesmerizing and spell-bounded songs, bhajans and kirtans noticeably show the advancement of his mystic soul. There are so many unfathomable windings, lapses, undercurrents, bright moments, and glimpses in his poems. WORKS CITED Budhananda, Swami, Ramprasad the Melodious Mystic, Ramkrishna Mission, New Delhi, 1982.Print. Bhajans: spiritual songs Kirtans: singing of spiritual song

 

                                     

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Sadhak: devotee Panchmundi Asana: in one method of spiritual discipline according to scriptures, the aspirant is required to practise meditation seated on an altar inside Which are interred five skulls, that of a frog, snake, rabbit, fox and man? This altar is called a Panch-mundi asana, seat of five skulls. Deepawali: night of light (considered happy bringer and auspicious for meditation in Hindu religion) Amavasya: complete dark night of the month (considered auspicious for worship) Purnima: complete moonlit night (considered auspicious for spiritual devotee in Hindu religion) Brahman: God Shakti: power Grihastha ashrama: the life of the householder Ekadasi: the eleventh day Sadhana: meditation Kali: the powerful Goddess in Hindu religion Kavya: poem

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Darshan: philosophy Vaidya: doctor Mukti: freedom

 

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315      A Peer Reviewed International Journal of Asian Research Consortium

AJRSH: ASIAN JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN SOCIAL SCIENCE & HUMANITIES TRIBAL IDENTITY CRISIS AND POTENTIAL POLITICAL MOBILISATION: A CASE STUDY OF LEPCHA TRIBES OF DARJEELING DR. SUDIPTA SARKAR* *Assistant Professor, Rural Development & Management, University of Kalyani, Kalyani, Nadia, WB.

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ABSTRACT Lepchas of Darjeeling district of West Bengal are presently on road under the banner of Lepcha Rights Movement to protect their ethnic tribal identity and to restore dignity. This ethnic tribal group is the only indigenous person of Darjeeling district of West Bengal and Sikkim. In West Bengal they live mostly in three hill sub-divisions viz. Kalimpong, Kurseong and Darjeeling. Despite being the oldest tribal population of this region, they are presently the most vulnerable communities in the hills by means of dwindling population, and are continuously forced from different corners to destroy their ethnic identity and culture. In many cases they are categorised by the Government as just Sikkimese. This identity crisis makes them agitated and creates a ethno-socio mobilisation among this simple tribal people to maintain their ethnic originality. The present paper deals with the crisis of tribal identity of Lepchas, and potentiality of their movement becoming ethno-political movement in the present socio-political situation of the Darjeeling hill region of West Bengal and its surrounding areas. KEYWORDS: Lepchas, Tribal, Darjeeling, Ethno-political movement. ___________________________________________________________________________ INTRODUCTION Lepchas are on the verge of existence of ethno tribal identity! The friendly, smiling, timid Lepchas of Darjeeling district of West Bengal are angry today because of their feeling about NEGLECT! They left the cool Hills of Darjeeling and are on road to protect their ethnic tribal identity and to restore dignity. From 11th August 2011 to 7th September 2011, under the

 

                                     

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banner of Lepcha Rights Movement (LRM), some 200 Lepchas clad in their traditional attire made their silent sit-in demonstration under the open sky in Raja Subodh Mullick Square in Kolkata. Their demand did not envisage any territorial jurisdiction, but a system to facilitate the development of the Lepcha community and to promote their language and culture. The demand is not to reflect any animosity or ill feeling towards any other community, but to enhance the scope for the development of the Lepcha community spread across Bengal. Their agitation mainly focused on three issues, setting up a separate Lepcha Development Council/Board, introduction of Lepcha language in schools and representation in the West Bengal Assembly and the Rajya Sabha. The present paper deals with the history of origin of Darjeeling district, background of Lepchas of Darjeeling district and crisis of their ethnic tribal identity, and potentiality of their movement becoming political motivated in the present socio-political situation of the Darjeeling hill region of West Bengal and its surrounding areas. ORIGIN OF DARJEELING AND ITS INHABITANTS

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The History of Darjeeling takes into account the history of Darjeeling town and its adjoining hill areas of Sikkim, Nepal and Bhutan. Originally the area of Darjeeling was within the territory of Kingdom of Sikkim until the year 1835 as the area of the Sikkim Kingdom was extended beyond Darjeeling up to the east side of the river Arun, now in Nepal. Darjeeling was actually an important buffer area between Nepal and Bhutan and British East India Company took vital role in establishment of the then Darjeeling. Darjeeling, as part of Sikkim Kingdom, was originally inhabited, since ancient times, by the Lepchas, Limbus and Bhutias. During the second Chogyal ruler of Sikkim, Tensung Namgyal (from 1970) Sikkim lost the area of Kalimpong to Bhutan. The Gorkha army from Nepal invaded Darjeeling in the 1780s, attacked the Sikkimese capital of Rabdentse, and annexed territories up to the Teesta river into Nepal. On 10 February 1817, the British reinstated the land area between rivers Mechi and Teesta to the Sikkimese Chogyal Raja as per the Treaty of Titalia. With the intervention of the British, the Gorkhas were prevented from turning the whole of Sikkim into a province of Nepal, but the tension regarding borders between Nepal and Sikkim remained. In 1828, a delegation of British East India Company (BEIC) officials on its way to NepalSikkim border stayed in Darjeeling and decided that the region was a suitable site for a sanatorium for British soldiers. Accordingly in 1835 the company negotiated a lease agreement with the Chogyal ruler of Sikkim for the area west of the Mahananda River. Later on in 1850 due to friction between the BEIC and the Sikkim authorities resulted in the annexation of further 640 square miles (1,700 km2) of territory. In 1864, the Bhutanese rulers and the British signed the Treaty of Sinchula that ceded the passes leading through the hills and Kalimpong to the British. The continuing discord between Sikkim and the British resulted in a war, culminating in the signing of a treaty and the annexation by the British of the area east of the Teesta River in 1865(wikimapia.org/16595881/Darjeeling). By 1866, Darjeeling district had assumed its current shape and size, covering an area of 1,234 square miles (3,200 km2).

 

                                     

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After the independence of India in 1947, Darjeeling was merged with the state of West Bengal. A separate district of Darjeeling was established consisting of the hilly towns of Darjeeling, Kurseong, Kalimpong and the Terai areas of Siliguri. Sacrosanct name Darjeeling emerged from a Buddhist monastery named “Dorje-ling” monastery in Darjeeling. According to legend this monastery was built in the year circa 1765 A.D. by a section of people of Lamaist Buddhism. In the year circa 1815 A.D. when the Darjeeling was under control of Nepal, this “Dorje-ling” monastery was destroyed by the Hindu soldiers of Nepali. Later on, as it appears from history that this “Dorje-ling” monastery was probably built by Lepchas. During that time Lepchas were the only inhabitant of Darjeeling, as the area was actually a part of Sikkim. Later on following the rapid development of Darjeeling under British patronage so many ethnic tribal peoples (basically Nepalese, Tibetans, Bhutias etc.) came to Darjeeling from the neighboring state and resided there for their livelihoods. BACKGROUND OF LEPCHAS IN DARJEELING

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The origin of the Lepcha people is obscure. Many research scholars have come up with several theories regarding their migration from various countries that include South China, Burma and even Japan. But the Lepcha people themselves firmly believe that they did not migrate to the current location (i.e Darjeeling and Sikkim) from anywhere and are indigenous to the region. Now it is accepted that the Lepchas are the aboriginals of the undivided Sikkim hills (including present day Darjeeling) and some parts of Nepal and Bhutan (G.A.Grierson 1909). Tibetan rulers of Sikkim reserved “Dzongu”, an area covering nearly 4226 square kilometers, absolutely for the Lepchas. These tribal people were actually nature worshipper (animist). During the Tibetan rule a large number of Lepchas converted to Buddhist (Lamaism) and during British rule, many of them converted to Christians (mainly in Darjeeling). On 29 January 2005, the State Cabinet of Sikkim approved the Lepcha community as Sikkim's 'Most Primitive Tribe' (MPT). In the year 1876 it was observed that Lepcha was the language for the entire Sikkim. The Tibetans, the Bhutias and others used to communicate in the Lepcha language. But later on with increase in population of migrated Tibetians, Nepalese and Bhutias, Lepcha language received a set back and started to be considered as the language of the aboriginal people who are socially and culturally backward. The Lepcha as a community came under three different alien rulers – Tibetans in Sikkim in 1642, Bhutanese in Damsang area in 1707 and the British in Darjeeling area after 1835. With the independence of India in 1947, merger of Sikkim Kingdom with the India in 1975 resulted in the geopolitical divisions that ultimately led to the fragmentation of the Lepcha tribal community into smaller divisions and were forced to loose their ethnic tribal identity. Indigenous peoples are any ethnic tribal groups who inhabit a geographical region with which they have long- term historical connections, have not moved from or migrated to any other place. Indigenous peoples are characterized by strong links to territories and surrounding natural resources; distinct social, economic and political systems; distinct language, culture and beliefs; resolve to maintain and reproduce their ancestral environments and systems as distinctive peoples and communities. Thus it is claimed that Lepcha Tribal group is the only group which is the Indigenous people (IP) of Darjeeling district of West Bengal state and Sikkim state of India. But despite being the older tribal population and Indigenous people of

 

                                     

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this region, they may be presently the most vulnerable communities in the hills by means of dwindling population, and are continuously forced from different corners to destroy their ethnic identity and culture. In many cases they are categorised by the Government as just Sikkimese. According to census of Sikkim, Lepcha population increased during the period 1891 to 2001 from 5,762 to 35,728 persons. In Darjeeling district, as per census report, Lepcha population in the year 1872 was 3,952 persons, in the year 1901 was 9,972 persons, in the year 1931 was 12,101 persons, in the year 1941 was 12,468 persons, in the year 1951 was 13,168 persons, in the year 1981 was 22,749 persons, in the year 1991 was 26,920 persons and in the year 2001 was 31,210 persons. Thus Lepcha population in Darjeeling district increased during the period 1872 to 2001 from 3,952 to 31,210 persons. In West Bengal number of Lepcha Population in 2001 is 32,377. In Darjeeling district they mostly live in three hill subdivisions of Kalimpong, Kurseong and Darjeeling, intermingled with the majority community of Nepali people. CRISIS OF IDENTITY OF LEPCHAS

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Though Lepchas are the aboriginal inhabitants of Sikkim and Darjeeling districts from long time back they are continuously under pressure to loose their originality both from the government’s end and from the local people who are actually migrant. The Nepali people of Darjeeling district, though higher in number but all of them have migrated from Nepal. But in present days the Lepchas are fast losing their cultural identity and leaning more towards Nepali social customs (Dattamajumdar Satarupa, 2008). The socio-political dominance of the Nepali language that started from the end of 18th century exerts immense pressure in spite of that the fact that Nepali is an Indo- Aryan language and that Lepcha is a Tibeto-Burman language and has a developed tradition. Though as per Lepcha tradition marriages with Nepali is not socially acceptable, but in the present days it becomes acceptable trend. This trend is the greatest threat to the Lepcha community regarding their language, tradition and customs. The next socio-political phase of Lepcha life was marked by the advent of the Bhutanese and Nepalese when they attacked the eastern and western frontiers of the Sikkim, threatening the territorial integrity of Sikkim. The years 1788-1789 marked the invasion of Sikkim by Nepal. After that large scale Nepalese migration in Sikkim by the patronage and encouragement of the British colonial ruler almost destroyed the joint control of Sikkim by Lepchas and Bhutias. Nepali immigrants broke the moral and organizational strength of Lepchas and Bhutias in Sikkim and Darjeeling district. British rule that took control of Darjeeling district in 1841 also converted a section of the Lepcha community into Christianity along with teaching English language. This Christian education also induced them to through away the age old Lepcha tradition and customs for the shake of modern life. This educated Lepchas continuously become separated from Lamaist Lepchas, adhered to their age old traditional beliefs and customs. This situation actually demolishes the strength of the Lepcha Community. In the year 1876 it was observed that Lepcha was the language for the entire Sikkim. The Tibetans, the Bhutias and others used to communicate in the Lepcha language. But from 1865

 

                                     

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the Lepcha language received a set back and started to be considered as the language of the aboriginal people who are socially and culturally backward. The Lepcha as a community came under three different alien rulers – Tibetans in Sikkim in 1642, Bhutanese in Damsang area in 1707 and the British in Darjeeling area after 1835. With the independence of India in 1947 and merger of Sikkim Kingdom with the India in 1975 resulted in the geopolitical divisions that ultimately led to the fragmentation of the Lepcha community into smaller divisions. Many languages are taught in schools of Darjeeling but Lepchas are denied of educating themselves in their mother language which has own script and literature. The greatest threat to Lepchas of Darjeeling came from the Home Department, Government of West Bengal; vide order No. 3519 (18)-P dated 12th July 2006, which was based on the Historicoanthropological studies about Lepchas which in the present geo-political setup is not applicable. In this order it was directed that “Sikikimese” certificate will be issued to Lepchas instead of “Lepcha” certificate for relaxation of height in recruitment of Army or Paramilitary etc. forces whereas Lepcha has been recognized as Schedule Tribe by the Government of West Benga.

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Besides that Lepchas are additionally threatened by the racist attitude of Gorkha National Liberation Front (GNLF) whose President is on record as describing the tribals as “uncivilized, very backward, whose men to naked and whose women go bare-breasted” and, who need to be administered centrally, compared to the civilized Nepali-speaking population,” (Gorkhaland Agitation, Facts and Issues’, 1987) “Gorkha’ actually means Gorkha soldier of Gorkha Regiment of Indian Army who is a Nepali. ‘Gurkha’ means Gurkha soldier of Gurkha Regiment of British-Indian Army who are also Nepali. Gorkha or Gurkha is not the meaning of any race, ethnic group and community. Therefore, the Lepcha Associations are opposed to the idea of Gorkhaland where they would be put under the hegemony of the chauvinist aggressive movement of GNLF. In a letter to the Chief of West Bengal Government on 10th September 1986 they have opposed the formation of Gorkhaland, reiterating that they are the original inhabitants of the Darjeeling district from the booklet/white paper ‘Gorkhaland Agitation, Facts and Issues’, 1987 published by Government of West Bengal. Recently the language consciousness matter crop up among the Lepcha community not only in Darjeeling district but also in Sikkim. They realized that Lepcha language and Lepcha culture are their distinct identity and these should be preserved with honour though they are mostly bilingual. Such self-esteem of the Lepcha community may lead to the path of revival of Lepcha language. They realized that taking the modern education system they can develop their own language, culture for their distinct identity. It has also been observed that the Lepcha speaking community does not show any sign for linguistic shrinkage, and also does not show evidence for language shift in the truest sense of the term. The Lepcha language is still not taught in formal schools in the hills, though it is a fully functional language and even has a script of its own. If the Lepcha pupils, educated in community organizations run school, want to appear in board examinations, they have to do it in Nepali, English or Bengali. Considering the situation of the Lepchas, Government of Sikkim presently declared Lepcha as one of the official languages along with Nepali, Hindi and English. Lepcha language is included in the curriculum only as a subject matter. Literary

 

                                     

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aspects like short stories, poems, articles, rapid readers are taught in Lepcha. But there is no scope for the development of other aspects. But the situation of Lepchas in Dajeeling district remains as it before. In recruitment of the Army and Paramilitary Forces of both Central and State Govt, – the introduction of producing ethnic based Community Certificate by incumbent candidate has denied the opportunity for Lepcha youths to join the Forces and serve the Nation. Not a single vacancy has been announced since the categorisation in all Armed and Paramilitary Forces for Lepcha community, instead of several rounds of announcement and induction for other category. Thus despite being historically acknowledged as the most aboriginal ethnic tribal identity of the Darjeeling Hills they may be presently the most vulnerable communities in the hills by means of dwindling population, and are continuously forced from different corners to destroy their ethnic identity and culture. The controversy whether the Lepchas are indigenous people of Sikkimn and Darjeeling or come from the east to the West cannot be satisfactorily resolved, but it is a fact that in their present homeland they have passed through many vicissitudes of fortune during the last about one and half centuries. The waves of migration from Nepal nearly swamped their religion, language, and culture by hopelessly outnumbering them in their own homeland. (Samanta Amiya K. 2000)

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MOVEMENT OF LEPCHAS First Lepcha Association was established in 1925. It had got affiliation with the Akhil Bharatiya Adivasi Vikash Parishad (ABAVP) in the year 1997. Till then they are protesting to protect their ethnic identity. This Association renamed as The Indigenous Lepcha Tribal Association in the year 2004. This Association submitted Memorandums to the Government of India and Government of West Bengal. They placed 15 demands including introduction of well-established Lepcha language in schools and colleges of Darjeeling district. This Association organized many seminars, protest rallies, demonstration in Kalimpong subdivision of Darjeeling district. Till then they are in movement to restore their dignity as ethnic tribal identity. Recently they are again on road to protect their identity and to restore dignity. From 11th August 2011 to 7th September 2011, under the banner of Lepcha Rights Movement (LRM), some 200 Lepchas clad in their traditional attire made their silent sit-in demonstration under the open sky in Raja Subodh Mullick Square in Kolkata. Their agitation mainly focused on three issues – (I) to set up a separate Lepcha Development Council/Board for protection of language, culture, tradition and economic development, (II) introduction of Lepcha language in formal education system, and (III) representation in the West Bengal assembly and the Rajya Sabha. But till today their language are not included in the official language of west Bengal.

 

                                     

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POTENTIALITY OF THE MOVEMENT BECOME POLITICISED Thus, being the Indigenous peoples of Darjeeling district their movement has strong footing. Even the Article 14(1) of United Nations Declaration reads: Indigenous peoples have the right to establish and control their educational systems and institutions providing education in their own language, in a manner appropriate to their cultural methods of teaching and learning. It is very much right that the negligence of the Government to consider representation of Lepchas of Darjeeling District, in the present socio-political status of the region, will make Lepchas more violent in near future. Though this movement has not at present directly politically oriented, but getting support from different organizations, institutions, NGOs, intellectuals and social workers respecting the movement as having genuine demand. Thus it is sure that if the movement is allowed to continue this can become a unique and small but significant ethno-socio political movement influenced by the present political situation of the hill region. In this regard it is very important to note that the Hon’ble Chief Minister, Government of West Bengal, Ms Mamata Banerjee, made a sensational announcement on 2 September 2011 in the Assembly, to the sheer delight of the original Lepchas of West Bengal regarding establishment of “Lepcha Development Council” for the betterment, advancement of the original Lepcha tribes in West Bengal. Besides that from February, 2011 Lepcha Language finally gets introduced by the School Education Department, Govt. of West Bengal in the Government Primary and Secondary schools in the Darjeeling hills for the Lepcha children as an optional subject.

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CONCLUSION Thus to conclude it can be said that Lepchas, being the original inhabitants of the Darjeeling hill regions from the very inception of Darjeeling district by the British still they are neglected in the pre and post independence era. Even today they are also forced to loose their ethnic tribal identity by the pressure of the migrated people, who are large in numbers, and also by the one side decisions of the Government. A supportive legal framework is highly necessary to enable Lepcha people to keep their own cultural lifestyle. In Sikkim, there are laws to protect the rights of the Lepcha community and help maintain the Lepcha culture. Thus it is high time that the Government of West Bengal should also consider their situation sympathetically so that another Gorkhaland movement does not croup up in the Hill region of the West Bengal. REFERENCE 1.

Awasty Indira (1978), Between Sikkim and Bhutan: the Lepchas and Bhutias of Pedong, B.R. Pub. Cor p., Delhi.

2.

Bentley Jenny, Vanishing Lepchas- Change and Cuyltural Revival in a Mountain Community of Sikkim, University of Ziirich.

3.

De Dipak, Lepchas (An Ethnic/Tribal Group), The Indigenous People of Darjeeling and Human Rights.

 

                                     

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Garierson, G.A(1909), Linguistic Survey of India, Vol III, Low Price Publication

5.

Gorkhaland Agitation, The Issues, An Information Document, Government of West Bengal, 1986.

6.

Gorkhaland Agitation: Facts and Issues: Information Document II, Director of Information, Government of West Bengal, January 1987

7.

Grierson G. A. (1976), Linguistic survey of India: a summary, Vishveshvaranand Institute, Panjab University.

8.

http://wikimapia.org/16595881/Darjeeling

9.

Pradhan Alina(March 2012), Language Movement in the Darjeeling Himalayas: Special Reference to the Lepcha Language, Language in India, Volume 12

10.

Samanta Amiya K (2000), Gorkhaland Movement: A Study in Ethnic Separatism, A.P.H Publishing Corporation, New Delhi.

11.

Satarupa Dattamajumdar (July 2008), Exploring Ethnolinguistic Vitality - A Case Study of Lepchas in Dzongu Valley, Language in India, Volume 8.

12.

Shneiderman I Sara and Turin Mark(April 2006), Ethno-politics in Darjeeling and Sikkim, Hlmal Southasla.

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4.

 

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315      A Peer Reviewed International Journal of Asian Research Consortium

AJRSH: ASIAN JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN SOCIAL SCIENCE & HUMANITIES AN ANALYSIS OF BENGALI POET NAZRUL’S LETTERS: HIS PSYCHIC REVELATION MOHAMMAD SHAHIDUL ISLAM*; MOHAMMED ABDUL BAYES** *Assistant Professor, School of Business, University of Information Technology and Sciences (UITS), Bangladesh . **Lecturer in English, Jamir Jury Degree Madrasha, Chandanaish, Chittagong.

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ABSTRACT The letters of renowned Bangla poet Kazi Nazrul Islam stands for the biography of the poet. It represents his romanticism, family life, political views, friendship and liberty of thinking. It is observed that his life passed with sorrows; romantic sorrows, financial hardship, family illness, all these part of life come out to people trough these letters. Besides these, the ideology and views about various issues reveal through these letters. So, these letters are en eye-opener of the unparallel Bengali poet’s life. Kazi Nazrul Islam (24 May 1899-29 August 1976), sobriquet Bidrohi Kobi, was a Bengali poet ,musician and revolutionary who pioneered poetic works espousing intense spiritual rebellion against fascism and oppression. His poetry and nationalist activism earned him the popular title of Bidrohi Kobi (Rebel Poet).Accomplishing a large body of acclaimed works through his life ,Nazrul is officially recognized as the national poet of Bangladesh and commemorated in India.( Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia). ___________________________________________________________________________ INTRODUCTION The letter represents not only message but also the manifold view of a heart .The letters of famous Bangali poet Nazrul Islam have revealed the autobiography of him. It represents his romanticism, family life, political views, friendship and liberty of thinking. So, the research aims to interpret the various aspect of life of Nazrul Islam. The letters are analyzed from the publication of Bangla Academy Bangladesh,named Nazrul Rochanabali(compiled of Nazrul )

 

                                     

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which included sixty three letters in the fourth volume of “Nazrul Rachanabali titled Chithi Patra(Letters) which was published in 1984. It is a valuable document of Bangla Literature. Some of these letters were published in news papers and some were personally collected. So, these letters acclaimed dominantly to be an actual part of his literature afterwards. The letters (No.31-39) written to his close friend Professor Kazi Mothahar Hossain ,Dhaka expose the romantic part of his life .He has fallen in love with an educated Muslim woman in Dhaka who was close to Professor Kazi Mothahar Hossain.With this view, he has written these letters in which his expression of heart was reflected. These letters are actually full of art and romanticism .It has honored as the culture of expression of love and mode of romantic communication in Bangla Literature. In the letter 31st (dated 24.02.1928, Vulture Steamer, Padma River) he started his writing with verse of English Poet Brown. “How sad and bad and mad it was. But then, how it was sweet!” The poet reveals the mind of a man which has no end, no way. It is quoted: “Did you enter the mind hole? It has no way, no end, and no meanings”.

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He expressed his feeling with tears and sorrow. He wrote to his friend about his love: “I believe that the person who can flood me with tears, she is not mine now, but forever she was mine.” Nazrul Islam was the poet of sadness. He loved sorrow because his whole life encircled with sorrow and sufferings. His nick name was ‘DhukuMia’(Sadness). Even the note of sadness is found in his romantic life as well. He expressed his feeling in letter 32nd, (dated 25.02.28, Krishno Nagar ,India) like “I was floating but today I drunk to the bottom.” He wrote these romantic letters to his friend Mothaher Hossain expressing his romantic feeling about a woman who is close to Mr. Hossain. Actually the poet expressed his words indirectly through Mr Hossain. He wrote the thing like this way “I kept the leaf of my life to you which is most secret and most grief” In the letter 35th (15,Zaliatola Street Calcutta, dated 10.03.28) for his indirect love, he wrote “I give the gift of flower from distance .I shall colour her with the blood of my heart from the out of sight of all.” His letters are full of sorrow which peeps through in this line: “Can your science tell that how many drops of tears need to build one drop of blood?” The poet passed his life with financial hardship. A number of letters bear the testimony of his miserable condition. In the letter 51st (Gramophone Club 106,Upper Circle Road ,dated 17.01.36) ,he wrote to Mr. Atul Chandra, a publisher for asking immediate loan of 100 taka

 

                                     

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for paying advance rent of house. He also expressed the illness of his mother in laws and sons to represent the situation .He wrote: “Now I have empty hand, if you will not pay this money, I shall fail to pay house rent.” A pang of financial pains is vivid in his letter No.27th (Krishnanagar,dated 20.04.27) which is written to Broz Bihari Barmon .In his word: “I am in serious problem.Gopal wanted to send money but did not send yet. No penny in house .Immediate after getting this letter you will send at least 20 taka. Otherwise, I shall fall in serious trouble .I took too much loan it is not possible to get more loan here. ” The letter no. 30th written to Principal Ebrahim Khan was published in Monthly Sowgath. He always stimulated the Muslim young which is reflected in this letter. He wrote: “Those who are the heart of literature of the country, the young Muslim friends congratulated me with love. I did not get the Blare from the old, but I got the love of young and the flower necklace from young Muslim. ” In his letter no 13th ( Krishnonagar,dated 11.08.26) which is written to Mrs. Begum Samsun Nahar Mahmud, a beloved fan upholds many aspect of the heart of a woman. He defines heart as the tide of an ocean. The poet is in the opinion that the human heart is larger than ocean. Ebb and flow will act upon the heart if not so; it will not be the heart of a man.

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In another place, he discloses the scenario of a woman who loves their family affairs only. He opines that woman wants to supervise as master from early age. So immediate after marriage, she becomes housewife by age 17 or 16. He was conscious about his relatives. He wrote in the letter no. 47(39, Satenath Road, Calcutta, dated 27.05.35) to his uncle who was a physician and expressed the miserable financial position .He wrote: “I could not help to my brother because I could not help me .I sacrificed my life for the country .My elder brother is suffering from fever .So you will do necessary steps for him.” Some Bangali people argue the superiority of Nazrul over Rabindranath Tagore, but Nazrul never did it .It reveals his letter No 48 (dated 28.08.1935, Calcutta) which is written to Nobel Laureate Poet Rabindranath Tagore. He wrote: ‘Many days I did not meet you but my respect always go to your feet’. Nazrul respects Rabindranath Tagore and Tagore also affectionate him. Nazrul wrote letter No. 60th (dated 21.12.1940, Calcutta) towards initiator of the Calcutta Muslim students Conference .He used Arabic words and Islamic ideology in this letter .He told: “I am only the servant of -Allah; I beg power to Him. He prayed to almighty Allah for the success of the conference.”

 

                                     

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He became seriously ill in 1942 only at the age of 44.Last two letters 62&63rd (dated 10.07.42) shows his disorder both in mentally and physically. There prevail some anomalies in these letters.

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REFERENCE 1.

Abdul Kadir (1993).Nazrul Rochonabali Acamdemy,Dhaka, vol.4.pp-365-440.

2.

Hossain,Quazi Motahar (2000). “Nazrul Islam,the singer and Writer of Songs .”In Mohammad Nurul Huda .Nazrul: An Evaluation. Dhaka: Nazrul Institute.P.55.

3

“Kazi Nazrul Islam: A Chonology of life”.Biography/Bibliography.Nazrul Institute,Ministry of Cultural Affairs, Government of Bangladesh .Archived from the original on 2008- 24.http://web.archive.org/web/20080424053441/http:/www nazrulinstitute.org.bd/bio_graphr . _e.html. Retrieved, 2012-08-28.

4.

KaziNazrulIslam”.Banglapedia.http”//bangladepedia.search. combd/HT/10109.htm. Retrieved, 20012-07-08.

5.

Islam, Rafiqul (2000). “Nazrul” In Mohammad Nurul Huda .Nazrul : An Evaluation Dhaka: Nazrul Institute.P.113.

6.

“An old letter”, Weekly Sawgath ,1929 (1335 ,7th Agrahyon)

 

 

(Compile

of

Nazrul).Bangla

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315      A Peer Reviewed International Journal of Asian Research Consortium

AJRSH: ASIAN JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN SOCIAL SCIENCE & HUMANITIES GREEN MARKETING IN ASSAM: A CASE STUDY OF ORGANIC TEA IN GOLAGHAT DISTRICT RINTI DUTTA* *Assistant Professor, Department of Management, Golaghat Commerce College, Golaghat, Assam. Research Scholar, Department of Commerce, Dibrugarh University, Assam.

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1.0 INTRODUCTION The complete surrounding, which comprises both living and non-living things, is known as environment. Environment is the mutual relationship between land, water, air, plants, animal and people. All these animals and people need to adjust with each other. One change in any component of the environment may cause discomfort and will affect the normal life. This unfavorable change is known as ‘Environmental Pollution’. Hence, ‘The Environmental Protection Act, 1986’ has been provided for the protection and improvement of environment and for other matters connected with it. For better environment, all its components have to be protected from pollution and the surrounding has to be clean. Special care has to be taken in case of land, water, resource, forests and atmosphere. It is also necessary to ensure a balance between these resources and living creatures, to meet our needs. To bring about this balance, people must take an active part and they should make themselves aware about the environment. This will need a correct study. In order to achieve the objective of bringing about a harmony among all where all the living and non-living beings exits a proper marketing strategy has to be adopted. Marketing, an activity of exchange of goods and services, makes direct link between the marketers and the consumers. The producers and marketers have to be conscious for the protection of the environment, the method of production, packaging of goods and even the method of advertising their products. They have to be conscious about the harmful effect on environment from their activities. This consciousness from all concerned i.e. producers, marketers; consumers etc gave the birth of ‘green’ concept. Green Marketing is also the result of the consciousness of the above parties for the fragile environment.

 

                                     

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The concept of Green Marketing is concerned with the protection of ecological environment. Green Marketing emphases on high protection long term welfare of consumer and society by production and use of pure, useful and high quality products without any adverse effect on the environment. Green Marketing is a process of marketing a product, which has least environmental effect. It is a process of marketing of such products, which are environmentally safe. As per the American Marketing Association (AMA), the concept of green marketing is the marketing of such products that are always presumed to be eco-friendly and as well as environment friendly which is safe to the society. It is the marketing of the products and service, which have essentially low effect on environment. Green Marketing is the study of all efforts to consume, produce, distribute, promote, package and reclaim products in a manner that is sensitive or responsive to ecological concerns (Dahlstrom, 2011). In the words of Charter and Polonskey (1999), Green Marketing practice is characterized by a genuine concern for the impact on nature of input (the raw material used in production, design feature, production process) as well as output (products, disposability, durability). All of these definitions of green marketing seek to satisfy the needs and wants of individual consumers while simultaneously seeking to improve environmental quality of life for society as a whole. The definitions speaks to the social marketing tactics and strategies to the development and promotional of social goals. Finally, green marketing must believe those marketing efforts employed to government and nongovernment concerns, which support the eco-friendly products.

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1.1 HISTORY OF GREEN MARKETING The concept of green marketing has arrived around the first Earth Day in 1970, but it did not embrace until 1980. The first sign of environmentalism started in the late 19th century and was directed by debates between naturalist John Muir (1838-1914) and Gifford Pinchot (18651946), the first chief of U.S. Forest Service. Environmentalist and researchers argued for a rapid growth in the eco-logical products which will represent healthy products. Many of early attempts were made to promote environmentalism, but little attention was paid to what was happening because of industrialization. In 1962, the writing of Rachel Carson’s on the harmful effects of the pesticides DDT, brought thinking among public and lasted until the early 1970s. In 1976, marketing scholar Karl E. Henion II, and Thomas C. Kinnear introduced the concept of ecological marketing which is concerned with all marketing activities explained the major causes of environmental problem and how to confer a remedy for those problems. However, during that period the nation was under an economic hit, too little importance was paid on environmental issues. In the late 1980s, the global warming topic took place as a burning a wave. The changing perceptions of general public in the world on the matter of ‘the loss of the earth protecting ozone layer’, ‘destruction of tropical rain forests’ raises public interest to the environment. That led to a demand for more green products and service and people also tending to pay additional costs for environmental friendly characteristics. Accordingly, manufactures responded to that public interest by labeling a number of new products ‘environmentally safety’, declaring that products were biodegradable, compostable and energy efficient. Though the green marketing strategy was on the rising trend, this growth faced serious setback in that period because many industries made false claims about their products and services. Without environmental labeling standards, consumers could not notify which products and service were truly beneficial. Consumers stopped to pay extra for misrepresented products. In 1992, the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) stepped into prevent from future

 

                                     

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deception. The FTC created guidelines for the use of environmental marketing claims such as ‘recyclable’, ‘biodegradable’ and ‘compostable’. 1.2 GLOBAL GREEN MARKETING PRACTICE Globalised market economy makes life luxury and comfortable for common people by means of using modern technology and modern marketing tactics. It resulted into rapid increase in consumption of both useful and useless products. Many of these have threatened to welfare of people and ecological balance as well. Green Marketing is an attempt to protect consumer welfare and environment through production, consumption and disposal of eco-friendly products. Several surveys have found out the increasing number of green consumers worldwide. In 2008-09, “The Greendex Survey” over 17 countries set a positive picture about green awareness. 60 percent of consumers across the 17 surveyed countries agreed that people need to consume less in order to improve the environment for future generation. The survey had the questions in the area of housing, transportation, food and good. The developing countries generally use smaller residence and consume less energy in their homes, and except using their own vehicle use public transport, cycle or most of them prefer walk. American, British, Germans and Spanish are more likely to consume locally grown organic foods. The reports shows a decrease rate in consumption of everyday household goods among the consumers of South Korea, Australia, Canada, United States and many of European countries. 1.3 GREEN MARKETING PRACTICE IN INDIA

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Marketing of green products can help the vendors to obtain more consumers unlike non-green products. Consequently, they would be able to earn more money. Just like the developed countries, efforts have been made by India to “go green”. Indian producers, marketers as well as the consumers also have become conscious about the fragile environment. As a result of this, they prefer green products to non-green products. Greendex 2009 Survey shows a poor outcome of green consumerism in India. The Indian consumers eat fewer local foods, fruits and vegetables and increase the volume of imported goods. Indian people do not like to take public transportation because it is too crowed. Another biggest environment unfriendly practice by Indian people is that they prefer to use disposable products as compared to Swedes people who use reusable household items. The 2011 Green Brand Survey shows a tremendous change in green consumer behavior in India. The survey shows that 64 percent of Indian consumers plan to spend more in green products in coming years. About 48 percent of Indians are willing to pay extra money on green products. It is come to know from the survey that 28 percent of Indian consumers are ready to purchase green automobiles. Regarding the green responsibility, the 95 percent of people in India want to support green innovation and regulation. However 33 percent of Indian consumers feel confusion about the labeling. Currently India does not have a consistent standard of packaging and labeling, which leaves consumers in the dark and unable to make right decisions.

 

                                     

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1.4 GREEN MARKETING PRACTICE IN ASSAM AND ITS POSSIBILITY

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Assam, the gateway of the North-Eastern Region of India, has got immense potentials to materialize the green concept. Assam is a richest state for the precious natural resources. However it is known that all the essential requirements like natural oil, water, fish, wood and medicine can be collected from the own land. But at this point the question arises how can we find the green prospect from these resources? Knowingly and unknowingly the people of Assam are doing a good number of green practices since long. Traditionally in various religious ceremonies, Assamese people use green products banana leaves as disposable dish, banana stems are using as disposable bowl. Even in some of the restaurants, Banana leaves are use as plates as offering different food item to the customers. It is the prime example of green practice by Assamese people for both domestic and commercial purpose. In the same way, people put the waste news paper for sale, engaging in one form of green marketing. Accordingly, many firms and households are using the solar power, the most eco-friendly power energy. Cow Dung Gas has also been used in Assam which is environment friendly. The kaccha houses (made of bamboo and straws) are more eco-friendly than other concrete apartments. While moveing into the technological part, will find that many of the government organizations, banking sector and others are applying online practices i.e. online money payment, money transfer and other related task. These are the some observable facts that are to be regarded as green practices The most significant areas of green option and its marketing in Assam are the Organic Tea. After Darjeeling Tea, the Orthodox variety of Assam tea has obtained the Geographical Indication (GI) Registration. Conventionally Assam tea is produced by using high degree of chemical. It has harmful effects for both human health and the environment. The uncontrolled use of chemical pesticides is degrading the quality of made tea. The large numbers of conventional tea gardens have been producing unhealthy tea which is harmful for the environment. Therefore the Organic Tea Gardens will be the winner in such situation. The Organic tea gardens are those gardens which use only organic compost, vermi-compost (red earthworm compost), cow dung and other locally available manure and organic pesticides. The finished products of tea from such gardens are healthy, environmentally safe and free from chemical, high nutrition value with good colour, aroma and taste. All these quality makes the marketing of organic tea profitable both in national and international market. Assam has absolute potentials to convert the conventional tea gardens to organic tea gardens. 2.0 THE OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY (1) To discuss the potentials of the green marketing in Assam with special reference to organic tea. (2) To study the organic tea sector of Golaghat District of Assam as one of the practices of Green marketing. 2.1 METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY 2.1.1 AREA OF STUDY The area of the study was confined to Golaghat district of Assam. Golaghat district is selected because organic tea cultivation is practicing in this area representing the highest number of

 

                                     

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organic gardens. Pilot Survey been done at Jamguri Organic and Biodynamic Tea Estate of Golaghat district. 2.1.2 DATA COLLECTION TOOL Based on the pilot survey an open ended structured questionnaire was developed for finding out green marketing potentiality and organic tea is a green practices. The survey was based on both primary and secondary data. Primary data was obtained from the respondents who have been visited. The secondary data have been collected from various sources like books, reviews, published report and internet. 2.1.3 SAMPLING METHOD The census technique has been followed for organic gardens and the convenient sampling technique has been followed for the conventional gardens. 2.1.4 STATISTICAL TOOL USED SPSS software package is used for data analysis, such as tabulation and creation of pictorial presentation of charts, bar diagram and pie diagram whenever found appropriate. 2.2 PROFILE OF THE STUDY AREA

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GOLAGHAT DISTRICT: ‘Gola’ which means shop and ‘Ghat’ meaning is landing point of river. The name of the district was originated by the shops established by the ‘Marwari’ businessmen during the mid part of 20th century at the bank of river Dhanshiri near present Golaghat town. ECONOMY: Economy of Golaghat District is mainly agro based. Tea, rice, sugarcane are the main agriculture crops grown in the district. Except Numaligarh Refinery, there are no other heavy industries in the district as such. Tea is the largest agro based industry of the district. There are 63 large tea gardens producing about 2000MT of tea previous years. Moreover, emergence of small tea growers in the agrarian scene has heralded a new revolution in the district. Small-scale tea cultivation has got considerable popularity here become of high profit in comparison with other high land crops. It has caught the educated employed youth to take the tea as their profession by choice rather than by circumstances. Rearing and reeling of Muga and Eri are the potential cottage industry. 3.0 REVIEW OF LITERATURE Though a good number of studies on green marketing have been made all over the world, it is still in the infant stage. So far as the green marketing and organic tea is concerned, there is dearth of literature to review. However, in the following, an attempt has been made to review some of the relevant literatures published in books, journals and different websites.

 

                                     

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The paper written by Mishra and Sharma, (2010) on ‘Green Marketing in India: Emerging opportunities and Challenges’ target the green consumer, challenges and opportunities of green marketing and the present trend of green marketing in India. Authors state that green marketing is an ecological marketing. The green marketing is inevitable because the resources are very limited. So it may lead to efficient use of resource. However, the green awareness among the people will create a step to protect the environment. The article points out some rules for green marketing that are to know the green consumer, educating consumers about green awareness and find for them the way to participate in green activity. Social responsibility, government pressure and cost factor are some reason for wide adoption of green marketing. In most cases the government forces the firms to adopt policy which protects the interest of the consumers. So in case the marketers are responsible to make the consumer understand the benefit of green products as compared to non green products.

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The authors Chaudhary, Tripathi and Monga, (2011), of ‘Green Marketing and CSR’ give the idea about green marketing as the process of selling products and service based on their environmental benefits. They use other similar terms like Environmental Marketing and Ecological Marketing. Green marketing is important because it will save money for future in long term. The main focus of this article is that it tries to make relationship between Green Marketing and Corporate Social Responsibility. The CSR environmental behavior becomes essential for companies core operations. Such operation in industrial process is to use recycled paper, creating efficiency in the utilization of energy and materials, minimizing the emission of gas and use of plastic etc. This results in environmental issues being integrated into the firm’s corporate culture. Emma, (2008) states in her article about the meaning of sustainable marketing and its importance as a whole. As we have only one planet and the earth’s resources are finite, people are using these resources much faster than they can be replaced. In a business context, sustainable development means not to measure its success on financial performance but on its environmental and social performance too. The marketers should also use the resources that generate less waste and pollution. The article shows some facts of ethical consumerism in the UK which is in increasing trend and reach 32.3 billion pound by 2006 from 9.6 billion pound in 1999. Again it can be said that UK is top ranked country having highest population that purchase sustainably. This article gives emphasis on defining the 4Ps for 3Ps as People, Planet and Profit. In concluding part the author requests to think through the potential environmental impact of promotional items. ‘Basics of Marketing Management’ of Rudani (2009) focuses some issues of green marketing. The chapter named ‘Emerging Issues in Marketing’ gives the concept of green marketing that concerned with primarily two aspects, the production and consumption of quality products and protection of ecological environment. About the importance of green marketing he says that it influences positively on health of people and ecological environment. It encourages the integrated effects for purity in production and consumption as well. People are encouraged to use pure products, organic farming and herbal product. People should reduce the use of plastic and bio-fertilizer in farming. To make effective the green marketing some of the activities are essential. The most important is to educate people about the environment and to bring the awareness among them about the benefit of green marketing. Green marketing is an attempt to protect consumer welfare and environment through production, consumption and disposal of eco-friendly products.

 

                                     

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Dr. Joshi tries to give an overview of green marketing through his writing ‘Green Marketing: An Over View’, (2011). Green marketing is a part of overall corporate strategies which are based on marketing of environmentally safe products. He states the reason for using green marketing in farms because of the pressure of competitor’s environmental activities and governmental force. So green marketing can be used by the firms as an opportunity to achieve objectives by considering the cost factor and material use and waste factor. Green marketing is an opportunity for marketing environment friendly goods over non-environmentally responsible goods. The fashion of green marketing results into achieving organizational objectives considering both environmental issues and firm’s corporate culture. The author concludes that green marketing is an approach of environmental and social dimension. Editors Saikia and Hazarika, (2008) through ‘Asamor Khudra Chah Kheti’ try to say that Assam tea has immense potentiality towards export market. The tea producers have to take care of other commercial aspects along with organic production of its marketing. America, Germany and England are using tea as medicine for curing cancer, heart disease and blood pressure. The American researchers found that organic tea are free from chemical and can be used as a medicine. There for organic tea is a export market potential product. Ananda Bormdoi tells in ‘Sangkshipta Chahkosh’ Assam producing basically Black tea and Green tea export to number of countries. India export about 60 percent of total tea production through auction centers. The author shows the report the total export was decreased from the year 2000 to 2009.

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Banerjee & Banerji, (2008) try to give details about organic farming in ‘Tea Industry A Road Map Ahead’. They said that organic foodstuff is produced with a condition of favorable biological and ecological process. The principle of organic farming coves economic and social aspects of agricultural production, local as well as global. Hence the aim of organic farming is to support and strengthen biological process without using synthetic fertilizer. Oxfan Report 2002 says tea has great impact on the environment. The inclusive use of pesticides against pest has degraded the ecological balance. It has stated more that the pollution in tea plantation is strongly due to the spraying of pesticides usually done by untrained casual workers. The report shows the viability of organic tea growing stating that organic cultivation requires high cost of certification and lower yield during the period of conversion. Also the compost manure and oilseed cake are required in tons per hectare in organic cultivation comparatively higher than non organic cultivation. Garibay and Jyoti, (2003) stated in the article of ‘Market Opportunity and Challenges for Indian Organic Market’ that the significance of organic farming can help to reduce production cost and increase yield on soils. The major product produced in India by organic farming are Tea, Coffee, Rice, Vegetables, Fruits and Species. Among these tea record highest organic production and export market. The organic tea produced in the state of Assam, West Bangle and Uttaranchal. Going through the writing of the organic tea cultivator Arijit Bhuyan, (2009) on ‘Back to Nature’s Bounty: Growing Tea Organically at Bogamati’, came to know that organic agriculture been practiced to improve the soil fertility and to give a boost to the flora and fauna. He has pointed out that it is difficult to produce tea organically. Lack of resources, training, manpower, cost of organic certification and low yield during conversion period are

 

                                    

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the probllems have too face by thee organic cuultivator. Ho owever organnic tea is viaable becausee it reduces the t input cossts and imprroves the quaality of greeen leaf and makes m it morre adoptablee in foreign market. m 4.0 WHY Y GREEN MARKETIN M NG The enviironmental degradation d w which is cauused by the increased huuman activitties is a globbal alarm forr this presentt time. Thesee environmeental issues make m peoplee to realize thhat the Earthh is sick and that someth hing needs too be done abbout it. Peop ple are gettinng much heealth conscioous and also about the im mpact of what they buy and use to thhe surroundding. The Green Marketiing concept is i simply beecause for the t next genneration. Thhat means thhe preservattion of naturral resource for future by b using them m efficientlyy. As resou urces are lim mited and hum man wants are a limitless,, it is imporrtant for thee people andd the marketters to utilizze the resouurce efficienttly without waste as well w as to acchieve the organization n’s objectivee. So greenn marketing is inevitable. nterest amon ng the consuumers, produucers and coommon peopple all over the t There is a growing in world reegarding prrotection off environmeent. Worldw wide evidennce indicatees people aare concerneed about the environmen nt and are chhanging theiir behaviour.. As a resultt of this, greeen marketin ng has emerrged which speaks forr growing market for sustainablee and socially responsibble productss and servicces. From hhome to garrden to foood, heath, clloth, tech and a transportt, there are toons of ways we can makke our lives greener. g

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Green M Marketing

Positive Effe fect on Physical Envirnment

• • • •



Posiitive Effect on M Marketing

Best use of resourrce duce Waste Red Suff fficient Consum mption Hea alth Benefit Prootection and coonservation of frragile environ nment

• • • • •

Eco-friend dly production n Eco-friend dly consumptiion Meeting th he demand off green conssumers world d wide High Proffit Green Maarketing Strategy

DIA AGRAM 1 4.1 WHY Y ORGANIIC TEA Assam iss well-know wn for tea; thhe key planttation of Asssam is the T Tea. Assam tea got the GI (Geograpphical Indication) registtration afterr the Darjeeeling tea. A Assam tea iss followed by conventioonal tea and d organic teea. Tea garddens of Asssam can be made moree sensitive and a

                                     

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responsive to ecological concerns, through the process of conversion of conventional gardens into organic gardens. The organic production of tea is an ideal example of Green Marketing. The organic tea farming produces tea without using harmful chemical and fertilizer. The output from these gardens would be the Green Products. The marketing of such products would minimize the negative effects on the physical environment and human health. These products may be able to attract the green consumers from the entire world.                        Organic Tea                         Green Product 

        Benefit  Balance  environment  Return  of soil  fertility 

        Fragile  Environment 

Low cost of  production 

Organic  Manure

Consumer  satisfaction 

Marketing  Eco‐efficient  product  

Sustainable  for other living  organism 

Potential  market  avenues 

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DIAGRAM 2 4.1.1 BENEFIT OF GREEN MARKETING THROUGH ORGANIC TEA ¾ Organically produced food reduces health risk. Organic agriculture is the way to prevent from cancer and other disease which are happening from chemical. ¾ Organic tea farming build healthy environment. It works in harmony with nature. This farming is away from using hazards chemicals. ¾ It maintains and increases the long term fertility of soil. ¾ Organic cultivation of tea is better for local wildlife. ¾ Organic farming is certainly safer for the people involved in the garden. ¾ Organic tea tastes great. It has great aroma, colour and medicinal value. ¾ The high nutrition organic tea product creates the market in national and international grade.  

                                     

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¾ Organic tea farming will lead to engage large number of workers. 4.1.2 GREEN MARKETING PROSPECT THROUGH ORGANIC TEA The Tea Board of India recorded a steady decline in tea production in recent years. The climate change has adverse impact on the rate of production of tea. Tocklai Tea Research Centre, Assam pointed out that some other factors are also responsible for such record and these are the fertilizer used and the cultivation method. TABLE NO 1: PRODUCTION OF TEA IN ASSAM PRODUCTION OF TEA IN ASSAM Financial Year Unit (Th kg) 2004-2005 443 2005-2006 655 2006-2007 531 2007-2008 2008-2009 2009-2010 2010-2011

486 484 498 (Estimated) 487 (Estimated)

Source: Economic Survey Assam 2011-12

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TABLE NO 2: DETAILS OF TEA IN INDIA Year

Production(Million Kg)

Average Price /kg(Rs.)

Export(Million Kg)

2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

986 981 979 966 988

66 67 87 106 105 104

219 179 203 198 222 193

Source: Tea Board of India

The major cause of low yield shown in the table is the decade’s minimum rainfall and temperature (Director, Tocklai Tea Research). The conventional method of cultivation using chemical fertilizer makes the garden artificial and removes the soil fertility. The export figure of Indian tea is representing such a fair view. However, the export can be maximized by taking green marketing strategy in producing organic tea. 5.0 FINDINGS OF THE STUDY

 

                                     

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5.1 GENERAL OBSERVATION OF THE ORGANIC GARDENS: The data collected from 12 respondent gardens have been analyzed to find the potentials of green marketing and the production of organic tea in Golaghat district. Among the gardens visited, five gardens are practice organic cultivation and others are involved in conventional practices. The Jamguri Tea Estate, the biggest organic tea garden in Assam, has completed phase wise conversion into organic in 2011. Hathikuli Tea Estate of the district is also another organic garden and the conversion process into organic was completed in 2008. Banaspati Tea Estate and Balijan Tea Estate have converted their convenStional gardens into organic gardens. Bogamati Tea Estate, have been set up as organic garden. TABLE NO 3: PROFILE OF ORGANIC GARDENS

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PROFILE OF ORGANIC GARDENS Sl Name of Year of Area of Why have Factory No the conversion Gardens converted gardens

International Rate of buyers made tea/ green leaf

1

Jamguri 2007-2011 570 Tea Estate (Phase wise) hectares

Poland, Rs.3000 Japan, (minimum) Germany, Switzerland,

2

Hathikuli 2006-2008 Tea Estate

500 hectares

-do-

-do-

Japan, Germany, national market

3

Banaspati Since 1995 Tea Estate

51.53 hectares

-do-

-do-

Canada, Rs.1500 Germany, (minimum) Switzerland, London

4

Bogamati 1999 Tea Estate (set up organic)

13 as hectares

-do-

Dealing with green leaf

_

Rate of green leaf fluctuate

5

Bali Jan Conversion 40 Tea Estate period hectares running (till 2012 75% completed)

-do-

-do-

_

-do-

Source: Field Study

 

For Eco- Own friendly organic cultivation factory

Rs.1000 (minimum)

                                     

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The organic tea growers of Golaghat district are very much aware of eco-friendly cultivation of tea. Setting up and converting into organic gardens they are able to get more return comprising the export market as compared to conventional tea competitor. 5.2 FINDING OF DEMAND OF ORGANIC TEA AND RATE OF ORGANIC TEA TABLE NO-4 (CROSS TABULATION) DEMAND * WHY ORGANIC TEA DEMANDED Why organic tea demanded

Organic tea

Total

Healthy product

Awareness of people

Not Applicable

10

1

0

11

0

0

1

1

10

1

1

12

Demand Conventional tea Total

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The table represents the demand for organic tea and the causes following it. 11 out of 12 respondents believe that organic tea has no harmful affect to human health, so it is demanded. Demand for organic tea like other food items has also been growing rapidly since it was introduced in the late 1980. Over the past decade organic tea consumption has grown by about 10 percent globally (http://www.chineseteastore.net). The report on The Telegraph Feb 2012, India and China are the world leaders in production and export of organic tea. In 2010, India produced 10,000 tonnes of organic black tea, while in 2009, China produced 67,500 tonnes of organic green tea and 3,000 tonnes of organic black tea to meet its domestic and export demands. The study showing the rate of organic tea is comparatively more than conventional tea and its pricing trend has a positive result. Health conscious people wish to pay additional money for such green products. It is the greatest opportunity of organic tea and its marketing. The inter relationship between the rate of organic tea and its pricing trend shown under – Numbers of organic tea products give an idea about comparative price of organic tea.

 

                                     

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TABLE NO- 5 ORGANIC TEA PRODUCT Product

Brand

Weight

Rate

Organic India Original Tulsi Tea

Organic India

100 gm

Rs.150

Organic India Tulsi Green Tea

Organic India

100 gm

Rs.180

Organic India Tulsi India Breakfast Tea

Organic India

32.4 gm

Rs.78

Organic India Tulsi Sweet Lemon Tea

Organic India

32.4 gm

Rs.104

Source: www.healthkart.com

In spite of higher price, organic tea has potential export market. Gobin Hazarika tea cultivator from Lakhimpur district of Assam prepares handmade organic tea in small scale exported receiving an order of 3000 kg of organic tea in the year 2012 alone from Canada at a rate per kg Rs. 2000. His product getting demand from 50-60 kg in 2007, rose up to 150 kg in 2011. th Hazarika export his product to Canada, Japan and Egypt. (Times of India, IANS 26 June, 2012).

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5.3 INTERNATIONAL MARKET OF ORGANIC TEA Among the respondents of the study Jamguri Tea estate, Hathikuli Tea Estate and the Banaspati Tea Estate has its own organic factory and have overseas customer from Germany, Canada, Switzerland, London, Poland and Japan. The other two organic cultivators are working with the green leaf only.

DIAGRAM-3

 

                                     

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The above diagram shows a fine picture of the ratio of having overseas buyer as against the method of cultivation. Three organic gardens have international buyers out of five organic gardens, while other two gardens are involving in green leaf production. However a poor ratio of having international buyer is 1:7 of conventional gardens. 100 percent of the respondents carry the same view that organic tea cultivation is a profitable marketing. 5.4 FINDING REGARDING MAINTENANCE OF ORGANIC GARDENS TABLE NO- 6 TYPES OF RAW MATERIALS USED IN THE ORGANIC TEA GARDENS Sl No 1

3

ORGANIC RAW MATERIAL REQUIRED (Red worm Red worm, cow dung, banana stem Tree leafs, waste vegetables, other bio degradable products C.P.P (Cow Pit Pat) Bio Dynamic Within a case of measuring (2X2X1.5) feet mixture is prepared 1. Cow dung-90 kg 2. Egg shell – 30 gm 3. Rock dust – 30 gm 4. Azolla – 30% 5. Cow horn (502)

4

Herbal pesticides

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2

NAME OF COMPONENTS Vermi-Compost compost) Compost manure

AVAILABLE SOURCES Garden Garden Garden

Mixture of Polygonum Garden (bihlongoni) + Clerodenbrum (Dhopat Tita Pat )

Source: Field Study

6.0 ANALYSIS 6.1 PRODUCTION OF ORGANIC TEA FACILITATES THE EXPANSION OF GREEN MARKETING IN ASSAM The process of cultivation and maintenance of organic tea is environment friendly. The components used in organic gardens for manure and pesticides are free from chemical. Vermicompost, compost manure, cow dung and C.P.P are the natural elements. Use of Chemical fertilizer and artificial pesticides in conventional gardens produces harmful effect to human health. While the organic manures have health benefit, it is a herbal medicine. The green marketing initiatives focused on the production and marketing strategies which reduces the dependence on chemical products. Thus, the organic tea is produced through green practice and the production process is a green activity on various bases. 1. CHEMICAL FREE FERTILIZER: The production of organic tea can be regarded as green activity cultivation because it support and strengthen the biological process without using synthetic fertilizer and pesticides. The organic

 

                                     

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gardens where the study have been done use bio products only, for manure and pesticides. 2. REINSTATE OF SOIL FERTILITY: The green production can return and improve the soil fertility if there is any loss of fertility because of conventional practices. The frequency of using manure in those organic gardens is very less; the effect organic manure may remains active for three years. 3. ECOLOGICAL BALANCE: The dependent organism, animals, birds and plants only can survive in a suitable environment. The green cultivation make possible for them to survive in the organic gardens because no chemical components presents in such gardens. Many birds, butterflies, spiders, earthworms, animals are found in those particular organic gardens and in tea leaves. 6.2 ORGANIC TEA IS A GREEN PRODUCT Organic is regarded as a green product because it is produced through very eco-friendly manner. It is a green product on various grounds. 1. BENEFIT OF PRODUCTION PROCESS: The production process benefit refers to components introduced into the production of organic tea are eco- friendly. The production process of organic tea is green practice. The organic gardens where the study has been made are using eco-friendly component of cow dung, compost manure and vermin-compost.

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2.

BENEFIT TO HUMAN HEALTH: Organic tea is produced through green process. Organic tea is as green product does not produce harmful effects to human health. Thus, organic tea is a healthy product.

3. BENEFIT TO CUSTOMERS: The LOHAS (Lifestyle of Health and Sustainability) consumers are fully satisfied through the green products. Green products must improve the environmental quality product and customers satisfaction as well. The health conscious customers wish to pay more for those green products. Many international customers purchase the organic tea from the gardens. 4. BENEFIT OF COST: Green products are produced at a lowest possible cost. The production process focus on environmental efforts to produce highest quality green products. For the maintenance of organic gardens the garden made organic compost are used at a very lowest cost. 5. BENEFIT TO ECOLOGY: While green products are produced a well eco- balance could be happened. Green products like organic tea and its cultivation process can reinstate the soil fertility. 6.3 MARKETING OF ORGANIC TEA IS A GREEN MARKETING Green products are recognized nationally or internationally through certification and ecolabeling. For example, Jamguri Organic Tea Estate is certified by I.M.O. (The Institute for Marketecology) and factory processing unit is certified by HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points). Green marketing is the marketing of products designed to minimize the

 

                                     

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negative effects on the physical environment. Organic tea is a green products and its marketing is a green marketing. Green marketing of organic tea has immense promotional factors. 1. INTERNATIONAL BUYERS: The increase awareness in society has recognizing the eco-friendly product and marketing. The eco-labeling products are demanded by the health conscious consumers. The study shows the made tea of the gardens are getting order from Japan, Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Canada and London. 2. PREMIUM PRICE: The LOHAS consumers are willing to pay additional price for such green products. It is the prime advantage of marketing green products. For example Jamguri Organic Tea able to get maximum of Rs. 30000 for one kg of organic tea. 3. COMPETITION: Green marketing may enable the marketers to differentiate their products in the market. Green marketing of organic tea is playing a challenging role for conventional tea growers. The green products have competitive advantage of entering into both national and international markets. While the conventional tea has a less opportunity for such competition.

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7.0 CONCLUDING REMARKS There is an excellent possibility in converting the conventional gardens into organic gardens. Setting up or managing an organic farm regarded as a well approach but it also carries some complexity. But without any hesitation it can be said that organic tea is healthy and its process of cultivation is environment friendly. The organic tea is established as green products because special benefit of production process, low cost of input materials, improvement of human health, customer satisfaction and the benefit of balance ecology. The marketing of such products is green marketing. It has competitive advantage of export market with premium price. The organic tea is creating a challenge for the conventional tea and the survival of conventional tea market. REFERENCES American Marketing Association Banerjee, G., & Banerji, S. (2008). Tea Industry A Road Map Ahead. Abhijeet Publications. Bormudoi, A. Sangkshipta Chahkosh. Assam Sahitya Sabha. Charter, Martin; Polonskey, Michael Jay; (1999), “Green Marketing – A Global Perspective on Greening Marketing Perspective”, Greenleaf Publication Limited. Chaudhary, B., Tripathi, S., & Monga, N. (2011). Green Marketing and CSR. International Journal of Research in Finance & Marketing . Dahlstrom, R. (2011). Green Marketing Theory, Practice, and Strategies. Cengage Learning. Garibay, v. S., & Jyoti, K. (2003). Market Opportinities and Challanges for Indian Organic products. Swiss State Secreteriat of Economic Affairs.

 

                                     

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Greendex Survey 2009 Green Brand Survey 2011 Joshi, S. (2011). Green Marketing. IJSTM . Mishra, P., & Sharma, P. (2010). Green Marketing in India Emerging Opportunities and Cgallanges. Journal of Engineering, Science and Management Education , 9-14. Oxfan. (2002). The Tea Market- A Background Study. Pathak, A. (2009). Annam Brahma: Organic Food in India. Pilgrims publications. BIBLIOGRAPHY Patil, V. G. (2012). Green Marketing: Myths & Facts. Global Research Thought . Rudani, R. (2009). Basics of Marketing Management. S Chand & Company Ltd. Saikia, B., & Hazarika, P. (2008). Asamor Khudra Chah Kheti. Undivided Lakhimpur Dist. Small Tea Growers Associations. The Financial express Williams, E. (2008). CSR Europe's Sustainable Marketing Guid 4Ps for 3Ps. CSR Europe . WEBSITES

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(1) http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2010/dec/26/climate-change-assam-tea accessed on June 21, 2012 (2) http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-06- 26/guwahati/32423865_1_organictea-tea-garden-green-tea accessed on August 5,2012 (3) http://www.financialexpress.com/news/assam-orthodox-tea-set-to-get-coveted-gistatus/361787/1) accessed on June 20, 2012 (4) www.chineseteastore.net accessed on July 1,2012 (5) http://www.referenceforbusiness.com/encyclopedia/Gov-Inc/Green-Marketing.html accessed on June 21,2012 (6) http://sdialogue.com/green-business/a-very-brief-history-of-sustainability/  

 

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315      A Peer Reviewed International Journal of Asian Research Consortium

AJRSH: ASIAN JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN SOCIAL SCIENCE & HUMANITIES A STUDY ON REGIONAL ECONOMIC AND EQUITY ANALYSIS WITH REFERENCE TO STATE OF ANDHRA PRADESH MR. PHANI KUMAR*; DR. K. S. RAO** *Assistant Professor, School of Management Studies, Vignan University, Guntur, A.P, India. **Professor, Department of Commerce & Management Studies, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam.

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ABSTRACT Economic equity is a systematic approach to determining the optimum use of scarce resources, involving comparison of two or more alternatives in achieving a specific objective under the given assumptions and constraints. Economic analysis takes into account the opportunity costs of resources employed and attempts to measure in monetary terms the private and social costs and benefits of a project to the community or economy. Regional economic and equity analysis is helpful for analyzing the real economic growth in between the various regions in the state and exhibiting the accurate results. This study is concentrates about the regional economic and equity analysis of Andhrapradesh state in between the three regions of Andhra, Rayalasema and Telangana. KEYWORDS: Economic development, capital, credit, water resources, Government expenditure. __________________________________________________________________________ INTRODUCTION Andhra Pradesh is one of the largest states of India. Spread over 275 thousand square kilometers, it hosts a population of over 90 million. AP has reported a total GDP of 326547 crores which works out to be 35600 per capita for the year 2007-08 at current prices. AP is the fourth largest state economy of India with its per capita income about the average for India but growing at a rate of over 10% since 2003-04. Yet, only 26 % of its GDP accrues from agriculture while 62% of all workers are either farmers or manual agricultural labourers.

 

                                     

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Per hectare agricultural output works out to be `25 thousand which is above the average for India. AP has a literacy of 60.5% (70.3% male and 50.4% female) and low infant and child mortality. It has 27 % of its population living in urban areas and the city of Hyderabad is the sixth largest city in India. The SCs, STs and Minorities have a share of 16.2%, 6.6% and 9% respectively; and AP has been following a large number of policies which promote inclusive development across all regions and districts. The state is divided into three prominent regions based on both historical and geo-physical factors, namely, Telangana, coastal Andhra and Rayalaseema comprising ten, nine and four districts each and hosting population shares of 40.6%, 41.6% and 17.6% respectively. Hyderabad city, which falls within the Telangana region, is a predominantly urban district which had a population of 3.8 million in 2001 and is expected to host a population of over 4.9 million or about 5.6% of state population in 2010. Hyderabad urban agglomeration, spread over the districts of Hyderabad, Rangareddy and Medak, is expected to reach a population of 7.3 million or 8.4% of state population in 20101. Telangana region has a slightly larger SC/ST population at 24.7 % compared with 22.3% in coastal Andhra and 19.5% in Rayalaseema. Telangana also has a relatively higher percentage of minorities compared with coastal Andhra. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 1) To study the periodic and region wise economic development of a state of Andhrapradesh. 2) To analyze the economic stability and economic self reliance of Andhrapradesh state.

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3) To review the economic equity analysis over the time period of Andhrapradesh. REGION WISE PER CAPITA INCOME Coastal Andhra region record a per capita income of 36496 followed by Telangana (including Hyderabad) with a per capita income of 36082 (33771 excluding Hyderabad), and 33056 in Rayalaseema at 2007-08 current prices. Rayalaseema draws its income from agriculture to the tune of 25% followed by 24% in coastal Andhra and least in Telangana at 22%. The overall work participation rate is high at 47.5% in Rayalaseema followed by 46% each in coastal Andhra and Telangana. As expected, the level of urbanization is rather low in all regions – Telangana (22%) and 25 % in coastal Andhra and 23% Rayalaseema. Therefore, Hyderabad district which is fully urbanized has grown at the cost of all the three regions and is now central to the economies of the three regions in Andhra Pradesh.

 

                                     

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PER CAPITA DDP AGGREGATED AT VARIOUS COMBINATIONS OF REGIONS IN AP

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Hyderabad being dominantly urban with a concentration of manufacturing, business and both public and private services sector activities, the per capita income has always been high, yet in 1993-94 it was coastal Andhra which had the highest per capita income of 12809 at 19992000 prices and Telangana excluding Hyderabad city had lowest per capita income at 11391. However, by the year 2007-8, Hyderabad city experienced extraordinarily high growth in per capita income and reached 39145 level; the remaining regions also experienced growth so as to reach for example, `26655 in coastal Andhra, 25237 in Telangana (excluding Hyderabad) and 23860 in Rayalaseema.

 

                                     

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A correct picture of the economic performance can be well understood by reviewing the rate of growth by region. During the period 2000-1 and 2007-8, the whole of AP experienced an average per capita income growth of 58%; during this same period Hyderabad recorded the highest growth to the tune of 77%, followed by Telangana region excluding Hyderabad at 60%, Rayalaseema at 58% and coastal Andhra at 54% which was the least. It can be clearly observed that Telangana region has experienced unprecedented growth from 1993-94 onwards, a period for which the DDP data are extracted; and also note that the absolute levels of income between regions do not differ much from a national perspective. This has happened inspite of the fact that the per capita DDP in Telangana excluding Hyderabad had lowest base levels, yet in recent years it occupies a position higher than Rayalaseema and lower than coastal Andhra. SHARE OF INCOME BY REGIONS

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Another way to compare the growth of income is to trace the changes in share of income per capita over the years. The annual growth of income often show sharp variations, therefore it is normal to review long-term data by computing 3-year moving averages which normalizes annual high or lows and therefore one gets a fair understanding of the direction and quantum of change in growth in GDDP. The aggregates at the level of regions of AP and for the district of Hyderabad are presented separately. It is instructive to note that, relatively speaking, Telangana (other than Hyderabad) and Hyderabad district have shown consistent increase in its share of GDP, for example, the share of Telangana which was only 33% during 1993-94 has increased to 35% during 2007-08. Similarly, the share has increased from 5% to 8% in case of Hyderabad. Consequently the respective share in coastal Andhra declined from 44% to 41% and from 18% to 16% in Rayalaseema region. It is important to note that the GDP growth in all regions excepting coastal Andhra has experienced accelerated growth especially since 2005 where as the growth of income in coastal Andhra has remained constant.

 

                                     

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DEVELOPMENT CREDIT (NON AGRICULTURE) One of the surest ways to assess the economic health of an area or region is to evaluate the credit utilization offered by the scheduled commercial (both public and private) banks (SCBs). The outstanding amounts with the SCBs can be considered an indicator of propelling business and income generating activities in a defined area. Note also that SCBs are the largest source of development credit both in agricultural and nonagricultural activities in India, probably next only to personal savings. Data discussed below are extracted from the data bank of the Reserve Bank of India. AP as a whole has registered an outstanding transaction of 2.29 lakh-crores through the scheduled commercial banks as on March 2009.

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As expected, Hyderabad has recorded the highest concentration of 211 bank account holders per thousand population, followed by 159 in Rayalaseema, 154 in coastal Andhra and somewhat less in Telangana (excluding Hyderabad) at 113. Accurate assessment of the size of economic activity driven by the banking sector can be undertaken by analyzing the amount outstanding per account. Although Rayalaseema has a slight edge over other regions in accounts, the outstanding amount is the least at 71 thousand followed by Telangana (excluding Hyderabad) at `94 thousand and 119 thousand in coastal Andhra. There is clear edge in access to banking and related activities in coastal Andhra region. However, if Hyderabad is included in Telangana region, there is a clear and large advantage as the amount outstanding is 334 thousand but note that the largest outstanding amount is for the city/district of Hyderabad which is over 12 lakh per account. An analysis of growth of credit amount and also credit per account of the nonagricultural credit of the SCBs suggest that a robust growth have taken place during the last about dozen years in Hyderabad. The Telangana area experienced considerable progress during the period 2001-04, but thereafter, there is decline. On the other hand the trend growth in all other regions has been considerable during 2005-07 periods. However, there is a decline in the absolute amounts in the recent years (2007-09) suggesting sluggishness in the nonagricultural banking and associated economic activity all over AP.

 

                                     

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AGRICULTURAL CREDIT: Agricultural credit is one of the prime functions of commercial banks and is classified as a priority sector lending. Rayalaseema which is a relatively dry and rain-fed agricultural area has highest concentration of accounts at 127 accounts per thousand rural population, followed by coastal Andhra at 110 and Telangana at 85. But in terms of amount outstanding, coastal Andhra has considerable advantage over both Telangana and Rayalaseema. It is important to note that the need for agricultural credit is conditional upon the size of land holding, access to irrigation and also number of crops cycles grown in a year. Given the fact that coastal Andhra is highly irrigated and most of the cultivable land is under multiple often 3 crops cycles per year, the need for credit and turnover can also be relatively higher. However, the amount outstanding in Telangana is just over `48 thousand per an agricultural account which is higher than in Rayalaseema at `43 thousand, but far lower than coastal Andhra at `59 thousand. It was possible to estimate SCB credit availability per hectare of gross cropped area (GCA). One can find a clear advantage in coastal Andhra at `32 thousand per hectare compared with `21 thousand in Rayalaseema and only `18 thousand in Telangana. There is a clear case to improve the credit availability for agricultural operations in Telangana region. Even Hyderabad has recorded agricultural credit by about `29 thousand account holders and the average outstanding is very high at `16.4 lakh per account. A trend analysis of the growth of agricultural credit (absolute amount) according to regions in AP suggests considerable growth since 1998 onward until about 2007 in all regions, especially in Telangana. During this period, there has been an expansion of the coverage of agricultural credit in the whole of AP, therefore, one finds a somewhat lower growth in amount per account.

 

                                     

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SALES TAX ACCRUALS BY REGIONS

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In the year 2008-9, a total of just over `22 thousand crores was the sales tax accrual in Andhra Pradesh. Incidentally, almost 75% of this amount was collected from Hyderabad alone. The sales tax collection is undertaken as per the sales tax division and often one division can cover more than one district. However, broadly it can be said that excluding Hyderabad city, the business activity is concentrated in coastal Andhra where just about 15 % of all sales tax collection takes place. Tax collection in Telangana is about 8% and Rayalaseema is just about 3%.

 

                                     

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FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT

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In the globalizing world access and investment of the FDI are considered excellent indicators not only of economic vibrancy, but also indicate the future direction of economic growth. Overall, the state of AP, so far, has attracted only 12,421 crores in FDI. Of which, `6490 crores of investment has taken place in Telangana (including Hyderabad), but with very high concentration in Hyderabad city/district. Given high concentration of infrastructure and other services in Hyderabad this is not surprising. Telangana region excluding Hyderabad has received only `1658 crores compared with `5499 crores investments in coastal Andhra. Rayalaseema has received just `732 cores of FDI investments so far Telangana receiving relatively lower amounts of FDI is chiefly due to the concentration of investments in Hyderabad city.

ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE In the following is an analysis of differentials in road infrastructure. There are three types of roads, namely, national highways, PWD (state) roads and panchayat (rural) roads. Each one of them is so identified mainly from the point of ownership and maintenance of these roads, but they also reflect qualitative dimensions of the accessibility of roads for business, markets and people at large. Data for Hyderabad city is not used due to extremely high concentration of roads in that area. The intensity of national highways during the recent years has been relatively high in coastal Andhra and Rayalaseema compared with Telangana. This is mainly due to the geographic advantage exploited by the Golden Quadrilateral National Highway which passes through both these regions. However, the intensity of PWD roads is relatively higher in coastal Andhra compared to both Rayalaseema and Telangana.  

                                     

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Most important for the people at large, especially those living in rural areas are the panchayat roads. The concentration and length of panchayat roads reflects the economic and social well being of the people living in rural areas. In this regard Telangana has done very well, in fact somewhat better than coastal Andhra. The road length intensity in Telangana has grown considerably during the past two decades and more. One gets a qualitative perspective if the transport intensity is measured according to type of road and type of vehicle. Telangana has recorded highest utilization of its national highways compared to other regions and it has about the same intensity of use of the PWD roads as coastal Andhra. However, the use of panchayat roads is better in coastal Andhra compared to Telangana region. Thus coastal Andhra has shown greater inclusiveness in terms of the use of physical infrastructure found in its panchayat level road networks. GROWTH IN AGRICULTURE

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Agriculture is still the primary occupation for millions of farmers and wage laborers in AP. In the following is a discussion relating to changes in gross cropped area (GCA) across regions of A.P. during the period 1956 to 2009. Broadly, it is well known that due to natural advantage of irrigation from Godavari and Krishna rivers, coastal Andhra region has a relative advantage in irrigation and agriculture. The GCA in coastal Andhra region was an average of 5.3 million hectares during 2006-9 compared with 4.2 million in 1956-60, a 20% growth during the past 5 decades. Telangana region had 4.8 million hectares of land under cultivation during 1956-60 which has increased to 5.0 million hectare or a meager 5% increase during the same period. However, the situation in Rayalaseema has been one of decline (about 6%) in the GCA with only 3 million hectares as on 2006-9. Thus, one notices stagnation in GCA expansion in Telangana, a decline in Rayalaseema but an increase in coastal Andhra region. However, a better understanding of the growth in agriculture can be derived from the pattern of growth in irrigation and land productivity taken together, as found below. GROSS CROPPED AREA ACROSS REGIONS OF A.P

ECONOMIC INEQUALITIES In this section, some qualitative evidence on income change and equity issues is discussed. As opposed to the unitary variable descriptions and analysis in the previous section, the

 

                                     

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empirical analysis below is based on bivariate and multivariate analytical techniques. In the following, empirical evidence is extracted from the NCAER’s Human Development Surveys conducted about a decade apart and inequalities are presented in per capita income and cultivable land. Inequalities in per capita consumption expenditures are estimated from the NSSO’s 64th round data for the reference year 2007-08. DYNAMICS OF REGIONAL RURAL INCOME INEQUALITIES

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The following is qualitative information regarding income change over a period of over a decade in the rural parts of AP analyzed at regional levels. The data presented below is drawn from two large sample surveys conducted by the National Council of Applied Economic Research, New Delhi, about one decade apart. The first human development survey was undertaken across rural India in 1993-94 and a follow-up survey was conducted during 20045. This data is amenable for creating state profiles of human development, poverty and income change. In the following, we compare the direct per capita income change for the three identified regions of AP. Note that data for Hyderabad city is not used in this analysis. The income data discussed below are those reported /estimated through a comprehensive household questionnaire and therefore should not be compared with the per capita income extracted from the National Accounts Statistics reviewed in earlier sections. However, one can compare broad trends emerging from these two independent sets of data so as to improve an understanding of the dynamics of income change and equity. PER CAPITA INCOME CHANGE BY ECONOMIC CLASS: the rural per capita income change between the two periods for the three regions according to income class. The rural households are sub-divided into five categories based on per capita household income, namely, ‘most deprived’, ‘deprived’, ‘lower middle’, ‘upper middle’, and ‘well off’. It is interesting to note that, relatively speaking, the rural incomes in coastal Andhra region have improved over the reference period amongst all income categories, excepting the well-off. But in case of Rayalaseema, income growth has occurred amongst the most-deprived and the deprived whereas the relatively richer have experienced a decline in relative income over the reference years. On the other hand, in case of Telangana, the relative income growth is experienced only amongst the richest; whereas the poorer and the most deprived have suffered considerably large decline in relative income over the reference period. Note that for the purpose of this discussion, important is the distribution and the direction of change in income and not the absolute size of income. It appears that, coastal Andhra is experiencing a considerable broadening of income growth where over 80% of rural households, especially those in the bottom of the income pyramid, are experiencing relatively better income growth, although as we have seen in the earlier section, overall income change is relatively slow compared to Telangana. On the other hand, the Telangana region is experiencing a considerable erosion of relative income amongst the relatively poorer sections, although the richest seem to have gained during the reference period. These contrasting dimensions of income change suggest that the relatively poorer in Telangana are vulnerable for mass mobilization so as to demand better opportunities for their economic living. Note that, concurrently, the relatively richer have a firm standing and are reaping the fruits of economic vibrancy as well as through traditionally feudal forms of ownership and also that the relatively richer are able to access the benefits from innumerable government programmes and schemes of affirmative action.

 

                                     

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INCOME INEQUALITY: Inequality measured in terms of the Gini coefficients reflects the state of cohesiveness in a particular group’s economic condition which can be compared across the social group categorization. Three broad groups created are the ‘SCs, STs & Muslims’, ‘Hindu OBCs’ and ‘High Castes & Other Minorities’. Note that the Gini coefficient has increased substantially in Telangana, followed by Rayalaseema whereas it has declined in coastal Andhra. But largest increase in Gini is found amongst the SCs, STs & Muslims in Telangana. Interestingly, the Gini has declined amongst the Hindu OBCs who are most likely to be the farming community, suggesting gains from reforms in agriculture and irrigation in Telangana. Interestingly, the income inequity amongst the high caste communities in Telangana has increased. On the other hand, in case of coastal Andhra, the inequality has increased amongst the OBCs compared to the high castes whereas the poorer groups are able to maintain the income disparity at the original level. Rayalaseema is a region where income inequality has increased amongst all communities but the deepestin the region is amongst the poorer sections.

 

                                     

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INCOME INEQUALITY (GINI COEFFICIENT) BY RURAL SOCIO-RELIGIOUS

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CATEGORY

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: DEPRIVATIONS INDEX The NCAER, a respected independent think tank and research institution, has undertaken two human development surveys about a decade apart; the first one in 1993-94 and the second in 2004-05. In the following are the results of an elaborate exercise using multiple variables to compute and compare change in human development by regions in AP. The concept of human development is expanded so as to include infrastructural variables as well, and thus, one can

 

                                     

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compare deprivation in human development across the regions in AP. There are variations between regions in such deprivations which are the components of human development Telangana has fairly high level of deprivation but it has recorded a decline in deprivation during the reference decade. Coastal Andhra has relatively low level of deprivation compared with other regions and it continues to sustain that level during the reference period. It is Rayalaseema region which has recorded an increase in deprivation from an already low level to considerably higher level during the reference period. Broadly speaking, this trend in human development deprivation corroborates a number of independent factors and parameters already discussed in this chapter. In many ways, this deprivation alone comprehends the relative development scenario of the regions in AP.

ECONOMIC REFORMS AND THE STATES: These are the days of economic reforms and globally a period when economic blocs consisting of many smaller nations are being formed in the interest of enhancing economic opportunities, markets and employment. It is normally believed that formation of smaller states additionally contribute to pre-existing barriers to the inter-state and intra-state trade and movement of goods and services. For example, a variety of local entry taxes and cess will scuttle free trade and enhance cost of business and increase prices of the goods and services. There can also be local laws restraining physical movement of goods and services between neighboring regions and between states. Such fears are very strong in Rayalaseema and they are apprehensive that Hyderabad city, as a market destination and also a source of supply, will be out of bonds after the creation of Telangana as a separate state. Coastal Andhra will also lose a major market inherent in huge population, business and market concentration of the city of Hyderabad. On this count, separation of AP can be a negative factor which inhibits economic growth of newly formed states.

 

                                     

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CONCLUSION One of the major arguments for a separate state of Telangana has been that since the formation of the state of AP, this region has been neglected and even discriminated against, resulting in economic and social hardship. Compared with coastal Andhra, it is alleged that Telangana has low per capita income, lower access to employment, lower business opportunities and low access to education and so on. It is also alleged that most of the higher level economic opportunities are appropriated by those belonging to coastal Andhra. At the outset, some or all such allegations appear true when absolute amounts, numbers and percentages are reviewed. Yet, when a study of rate of change, growth rate and shares in the state economy is evaluated, nothing unusual emerges. Telangana excluding Hyderabad, currently has a share of 36% in state population and 41% in state land mass. Any development parameter that is consistent with these shares can be considered on par or at parity with the population / share of land mass. Indeed, one finds that at a reference point in the past, such as the census 1961 or 1956 or 1974 since when factual data are available, the shares for Telangana were far too low . In recent years, however the shares of Telangana for many common development parameters are in league with the share of population / area, often being higher. There are a few crucial indicators on which Telangana is lagging behind, and they appear to have occurred due to structural causes of the economy and also due to concentration of economic activity in Hyderabad district/urban agglomeration. REFERENCES 1.Bai, J and Person, P. (1998) : “Estimating and Testing Linear Models with Multiple Structural Changes”, Econometrica, Vol.66, pp. 817-58.

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2. (2003) : “Computation and Analysis of Multiple Structural Change Models”, Journal of Applied Econometrics, Vol.18, pp.1-22. 3.Balakrishnan, P. and Parameswaran, M. (2007) : “Understanding Economic Growth in India : A Prerequisite”, Economic and Political Weekly, July 14, pp. 2915-2922. 4.(2007a) : “Understanding Economic Growth in India, Further Observations”, Economic and Political Weekly, Nov.3, pp. 117-119. 5.DeLong, J.B.(2001) : “India since Independence : An Analytical Growth Narrative”, July, http://www.j-bradford-delong.net. 6.Dholakia, Bakul H. (1974) : The Sources of Economic Growth in India, Baroda : Good Companions.(1980) : The Changing Efficiency of Public Enterprises in India, Somaiya Publications Pvt. Ltd. 7.(2001) : Sources of India’s Accelerated Growth and the Vision of Indian Economy in 2020, Presidential Address, Gujarat Economic Association, Idar, Aug. 18-19. 8.Dholakia, Ravindra H. (1994) : “Spatial Dimension of Acceleration of Economic Growth in India”, Economic and Political Weekly, August 27, pp. 2303-09

 

                                     

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9.(2007) : “Understanding Indian Economic Growth : Some Observations”, Economic and Political Weekly, August 25, pp.3509-11. 10.Ganesh, Kumar N.(1992) : “Some comments on the Debate of India’s Economic Growth in the 1980s”, Indian Economic Journal, Vol.39, No.4, pp.102-111. 11.Hatekar, N. and Dongre, A. (2005) : “Structural Breaks in India’s Growth”, Economic and Political Weekly, April 2, pp. 1432-35. 12.Hirschman, A.O. (1959) : The Strategy of Economic Development, New Haven, Yale University Press. 13.Myrdal, G. (1957) : Economic Theory and Underdeveloped Regions, London. Nayyar, D. (2006) : “Economic Growth in India : Lumbering Elephant or Running Tiger?”, Economic and Political Weekly, April 15, pp. 1451-58. 14.Panagariya, A (2004) : “Growth and Reforms during 1980s and 1990s, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.39, No.25, pp.2581 – 94, June. 15.Planning Commission (2007) : The Eleventh Five Year Plan, New Delhi : Government of India.Quandt, R.E. (1960) : “Tests of the Hypothesis that a Linear Regression Obeys Two separate Regimes”, Journal of American Statistical Association, Vol.55, pp. 324-30. 16.Sinha, A and Tejani, S. (2004) : “Trend – Break in India’s GDP Growth Rate : Some Comments”, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.39, No.52, pp.5634-39, December. Sivasubramonian, S(2004) : The Sources of Economic Growth in India, Delhi : Oxford University Press.

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17.Wallack, J (2003) : “Structural Breaks in Indian Macroeconomic Data”, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.38, No.41, pp. 4312-15, October

 

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315      A Peer Reviewed International Journal of Asian Research Consortium

AJRSH: ASIAN JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN SOCIAL SCIENCE & HUMANITIES CUSTOMERS’ ADOPTION AND USAGE OF GREEN BANKING PRACTICES: AN EMPIRICAL STUDY OF SBI OPERATING IN JORHAT GOBINDA DEKA* *Associate Professor, Department of Banking, CKB Commerce College, Jorhat, Assam, India. Research Scholar, Department of Commerce, Dibrugarh University Dibrugarh, Assam, India.

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ABSTRACT Indian Banks are now becoming more conscious on Corporate Social Responsibility and environmental issues and they are now adopting different green banking practices. This paper analyzes the adoption of green banking practices by the SBI as well as the customers of the bank in Jorhat, the cultural capital of Assam. The study is having two parts; part one studied the growth of green banking practices by the SBI and part two studied the awareness about the practices by the customers in the district. It was found that adoption of ATM is very satisfactory whereas the adoption of other green banking practices were negligible. This study recommends an increased awareness to be campaign by banks regarding benefits of green banking to encourage the customers. KEYWORDS: CDMs, GCCs, Green Banking Practices, Mobile Banking, Online Banking, Paperless Banking. ______________________________________________________________________ INTRODUCTION So far as banks and financial institutions are concerned, they are considered to be in the nonpolluting sector, and do not impact the environment much through their own internal operations. However, they are still responsible as the major contributors of finance to industries like steel, paper, cement, chemicals, fertilizers, power, textiles, etc. that are responsible for creating huge carbon emission. Therefore, keeping in mind the environmental

 

                                     

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issues the present banks in the world have developed a number of eco-friendly innovations which are popularly known as ‘green banking’. Banks are now playing a vital role towards the green growth through their green banking practices. Banks in India are also entering in this field with so many green banking projects slowly and progressively. Green banking means promoting environment-friendly practices and reducing carbon footprint from banking activities (Bahl, 2012). This initiative of green banking is mutually beneficial to the banks, industries and the economy (Harris K A and Sahitha Abdulla). But this word is new in Indian banking and it appeared in 2009 when there were concern on environment conservation and it was realized that banks can play a big role in this movement (Verma, 2012). LITERATURE REVIEW

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Green banking means combining operational improvements, technology and changing client habits in banking business. Adoption of greener banking practices will not only be useful for environment, but also benefit in greater operational efficiencies (Biswas N. 2011). Every nation has the right to develop but development process should be conducive to the sustainable growth (Narain, K. and Mridubhashini, M. 2001). Today’s business is all about being green. From Wal-Mart to Apple, everyone is talking about how green their approach, packaging, or methods are. Banking sector has its own significance and to aid the reduction of external carbon emission. As far as green banking is concerned Indian banks are far behind their counterparts from developed countries (Bahl S. 2012). Indian Banks are now becoming more conscious on CSR and one of the main CSR is green banking. However, only few of Indian banks have adopted green banking and financed some of green banking based projects. There is negligible awareness of green banking among bank staff and customer (Verma M. K. 2012). Indian banks are not taking any big initiative towards the direction of environment and they have really a big role to play (Prasad A. M. 2011). The major banks in India are increasingly providing services through electronic channels such as ATMs, internet banking, tele-banking and mobile banking. Though ATMs have been widely adopted, the level of adoption of other electronic banking means like internet banking, tele-banking and mobile banking despite their potential are yet to pick in a big way (Joshua A J & Koshy M P, 2009). Internet banking is one of the best alternative channels available to customers for quick, correct and efficient service at anytime and anywhere (Uppal R. K. 2011). There is not much awareness in Indian customers regarding use of e-banking services. There is greater incidence of e-banking usage among the middle age men (30 to 50 years of age); and women customers use such services much less frequently. Occupation-wise, the professionals, followed by business class, make more use of e-banking services (Sharma H. 2011). Among all the e-banking products, customers’ satisfaction level of ATM is highest and the number of users of ATM is also highest as compared to other services (Komal D. & Rani V. 2012). Today’s browser-based competitive finance world, banks need to flourish this client service viewpoint with web-empowered features for keeping clients and attracting prospective ones. E-banking applications became one of the main battlefields of the banking industry. Internet usage in Turkey with its young population has continued to grow dramatically in financial services (Aktan B. et al 2009). Internet banking is facing various risks issues that can affect the customer’s view of the service quality provided by the banks. There should be a multifactor authentication technique that is a digital signer device with biometric authentication (Jamwal D. and Padha D. 2009). Most customers in Pakistan prefer internet banking services over branch banking due to reliability, convenience, speed, safety and security, cost effectiveness, user-friendly, and error  

                                     

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free system. The major issues in the Internet Banking services are security, safety and the lack of trust especially on ATM machines (Omar, A. B. et al 2011). The role of banks in Indonesia in financing environmental investments greatly encourages more environmentally friendly enterprises. Solving environmental problems through investment in pollution prevention or cleaner production equipment and machinery that improve industrial efficiency is a triple win for all parties: ”win” for the enterprise, ”win” for the bank, and certainly ”win” for the environment (Dhewanthi, L. 2007). OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The following are the major objectives formulated to carry out the present study: 1. To highlight the green banking practices made by SBI in Jorhat. 2. To highlight the benefits of various green banking practices. 3. To investigate the extent of acceptability of green banking practices by the customers.

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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The study has been conducted at Jorhat, the cultural capital of Assam. The number of banks working at Jorhat is 26 with 85 numbers of branches. State Bank of India has altogether 16 branches in different places of Jorhat. The present empirical study has incorporated the collection of both primary and secondary data using convenience sampling method. All the information and opinion are collected which have a direct or indirect relevance on the topic. For collecting primary data, structured questionnaire has been used and 100 customers of State Bank of India were surveyed. The data so collected have been processed using statistical package SPSS-16 version. Secondary information have been collected from different relevant books, journals, news papers and published reports of the State Bank of India and Reserve Bank of India. Information also has been collected from different websites for the study. RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS Questionnaires were the survey instruments used in this research. The respondents responded to questions which were designed with the mixture of close-ended and open-ended questions. Some questions were also designed on five point Likert Scale pattern. The online banking users were asked about their feelings of using online banking regarding security issue and all. The customers who have not used online banking yet were asked about the reasons of not using online banking as well. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM There is general lack of adequate awareness on the man-made environmental issues and hence there is an urgent need to promote certain imperative measures for sustainable development and corporate social responsibility. Banks are financial as well as social institutions. They are directly related to the mass. Hence, they have got tremendous scope to fulfill their social responsibility through their green practices. However, most of the banks in India have taken initiatives in these global issues. In Assam also they have started green  

                                     

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practices. As the largest commercial bank SBI has played the role of a leader in this field. Though, there is ample scope to start various green projects in Assam as it has got abundant natural resources, it is seen that there has not been much initiative in this regard by the banks and other financial institutions in this state. It is the high time to study the role of bank towards green growth as millions of people are to some extent dependent upon these financial institutions. The concept of Green Banking is quite a noble idea to the state of Assam where the economy is gradually shifting from agricultural to industrial during the recent years. Growth of industries in the state means that the rate of pollution will be larger. So, the bank can contribute a lot to control pollution by taking multifarious green projects in this part of India. This particular study will facilitate the people to be acquainted with the green practices made by the banks and it will insist them to think about the adverse effect of the existing banking practices and will insist to change their banking habit to protect the environment. RESEARCH GAP The review of available literatures shows that most studies were done outside India. Very few studies have been done in India, especially in Assam. On the other hand majority of the studies were made in the fields of some selected projects only. The researcher realizes that no study has been carried out regarding other green banking practices introduced by the banks. Therefore, it is evident that there is a research gap and choosing the area of green practices of banks for doing research would surely help the banking sector, customers, policy makers and the society as a whole.

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WHAT IS GREEN BANKING PRACTICES? Green banking practices refer to the environment-friendly initiatives taken by the banks to reduce the carbon footprint from their day to day banking activities and also to minimize the external carbon emission. It aims to achieve the goal of a low-carbon economy. Green practices of banks are the efforts of the banking sector to keep the environment green and to minimize greenhouse effects through rationalizing their strategies, policy, decisions and activities pertaining to banking service, business and in-house operational activities. It strategically promotes green industry, including environmental pollution prevention projects and renewable energy development projects. Green projects which produce green products are healthier for the planet and everyone living on it. VARIOUS BANKS IN INDIA ADOPTING GREEN BANKING PRACTICES Banks in India are increasingly providing electronic banking services. Almost all the banks in India have introduced various green banking practices to reduce their internal carbon footprint as well as external carbon emission. The other banks like ICICI Bank, HDFC Bank, IDBI Bank, Axis Bank, IndusInd Bank, SIDBI, NABARD, etc. have also been providing different green projects to their customers. Particularly, IDBI Bank is providing various services in the field of Clean Development Mechanisms (CDM) to its client. ICICI Bank is encouraging its customer to use more environment friendly vehicle by offering 50% concession on processing fees for fuel efficient car models. HDFC Bank is all set to launch green banking for which it has constituted an Environment Management Committee to implement its green banking initiatives. IndusInd Bank has inaugurated Mumbai's first solarpowered ATM as part of its "Green Office Project" campaign titled "Hum aur Hariyali".

 

                                     

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GREEN BANKING PRACTICES OF SBI

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State Bank of India has become the first bank in the country to venture into generation of green power by installing windmills for captive use. As green banking initiative the bank has installed 10 windmills with an aggregate capacity of 15 MW in the states of Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra and Gujarat. The bank has introduced solar panels in the main branch at Kanpur in the State of Uttar Pradesh. The bank has launched Green Housing or Green Home project to support projects those will be environment friendly. The recent green banking initiatives also include a push for solar powered ATMs, paperless banking for customers, clean energy projects and the building of windmills in rural India. The bank has launched a number of green projects for their customers to reduce the carbon footprint from their internal banking activities. Knowingly or unknowingly the people of India are contributing to the environment by adopting these banking practices.

 



Automated Teller Machine (ATM) is the most popular green banking practice among the bank customers. As on 31st March 2011 we have one ATM among 16,243 people in India. As a leading bank, the State Bank of India is being rendering this service through 25,444 ATMs in India at average number of 3000 cards per ATM as on January 2011. As on 31st July 2012, there were 291458300 ATM-cum-Debit Cards of all banks in India of which SBI occupied largest share with 96960000 Cards.



Another paperless banking practice is Green Channel Counters (GCCs) which was launched on 1st July 2010, on the 55th Foundation Day of the SBI. Customers can deposit, withdraw and transfer of funds up to a limit of Rs. 40,000 through GCCs. GCCs are available at 5,660 branches of SBI in India as on March 2012. As on 18th August 2011, there were 254 GCCs in NER, 140 GCCs in Assam and 7 GCCs in various SBI Branches in Jorhat.



Mobile Banking is a user friendly banking system. It is convenient, secure, safety and simple. Using mobile banking we can execute banking transactions like balance enquirers, transfer the funds, payment of bills etc. at anytime and anywhere. SBI’s Mobile Banking Service, ‘State Bank Freedom’ is gaining popularity among their customers. There are more than 10 lac customers using the Service. As on January 2012, total volume of mobile banking transactions of SBI were 2363800 against all India total of 2844938. On the other hand value of mobile banking transactions of the bank was Rs. 100,05,79,000 against all India totals of Rs. 190,90,45,320 (RBI publications).



One of the most important ingredients of green banking is online banking. Slowly but steadily, the Indian customers are moving towards Internet Banking. The main reason behind it is the lack of public awareness. They are also very much concern about security and privacy of internet banking (Malhotra and Singh, 2009). As on July 2010, SBI has 110 million account holders of which 4.16 million customers are registered for online banking. Customers of SBI can access their online account through OnlineSBI anytime, anyplace at their convenience available 24X7.



The SBI is the first bank in India to offer Green Home Loan. A green home/building is a construction that uses lesser energy, water and natural resources, creates less waste and is healthier for the people living inside compared to a standard building

                                     

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(IGBC). Now any green citizen who would like to construct a new green home, and also to buy green energy products like Solar water heater, Solar home lighting system, Solar power pack, etc, he can get capital as well as interest subsidy from the same bank. According to its scheme ‘Green Homes', customers going for the green projects rated by the Indian Green Building Council (IGBC) will enjoy 5% discount on the margin money, 0.25% concession on interest rate and waiver of processing fees. •

Self Service Kiosks was introduced by State Bank of India in its branches have a screen, keypad, passbook printers etc. through which a customer of the bank can perform as much as 16 transactions namely fund transfer, passbook printing, cheque book request, balance enquiry, statement, internet banking registration, bill payment, opening of term deposit etc. This would reduce the need for staffing and also lead to saving of paper.



Cash Deposit Machine (CDM) is a self-service terminal that lets bank customers to make deposits and payment transactions by cash as and when required. CDM is a step towards environment-friendly paperless banking. The SBI has installed round-theclock CDM at its selected branches. According to Krishna M Trivedi, General Manager (Bangalore), Network II, SBI a maximum amount of Rs 49,900 per transaction with maximum number of 200 notes under the denominations of Rs 100, Rs 500 and Rs 1,000 can be deposited through CDM. During the year 2011-2012 the SBI had deployed 35 CDMs across the country. On each day, average 50 Cash Deposits are being made through each CDM (SBI Annual Report 2011-2012).



On 23rd March 2011, the State Bank of India introduced a unique customer service initiative for its 130 million customers. The scheme named ‘SMS Unhappy’ has been tested out on a pilot basis at selected centers since October 2010, and having received highly encouraging response. According to this scheme the customers having complaints will have to just send one SMS, ‘Unhappy’, to a prescribed number. Most of the complaints are closed within 48 hours.



State Bank ‘Vishwa Yatra Foreign Travel Card’ is a prepaid Foreign Currency Card that makes our foreign trip hassle-free and convenient. This card is available in six Foreign Currencies viz. US Dollars, Pound Sterling, Euro, Canadian Dollar, Australian Dollar and Japanese Yen. The Card is issued in association with VISA International available at all branches authorized to sell Foreign Currency / Travelers Cheques.

BENEFITS OF GREEN BANKING PRACTICES Green banking is a win-win situation for all participants. It is a type of banking in just one click. By adopting green banking practices, businesses will not only be helping the environment, but will also benefit from greater operational efficiencies, a lower vulnerability to manual errors and fraud, and cost reductions (Barry C and Murchie J, 2009). The overall benefits of green/ethical banking can discuss from three angles:

 

                                     

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BENEFITS OF GREEN BANKING TOWARDS THE ENVIRONMENTAL Banks can do much more to help the environment by just promoting green banking. For green banking operation customers need not go to the bank physically. This will reduce the consumption of fuel and also carbon emission. This will also result less vehicles on the road. Green banking practices are paperless banking practices. Hence, it will save paper. BENEFITS OF GREEN BANKING TOWARDS THE CUSTOMERS Green banking practices are very convenient, easy, cost effective and time savvy for the bank customers. Customers need not go to the bank for banking transaction; hence they can save time as well as money. It is a type of anytime-anywhere banking. BENEFITS OF GREEN BANKING TOWARDS THE BANKERS Green banking can reduce the need for expensive branch banks. Green banking practices are also very convenient, cost effecting and time savvy for the bank employees. From a bank’s perspective, it can reduce costs, increase the speed of service, expand the market, and improve overall customer service (Du J. 2011). A bank can lower their own costs that result from paper overload and bulk mailing fees as more customers use online banking. However, green banking has been facing some drawbacks like insufficient internet facility, bad customer services, lack of familiarity with the bank staff, technical difficulties, security risks, server down etc.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The results of the study show that only 58% of customers are aware about the green banking practices of bank. As much as 42% of customers have not even heard about green banking. Among the various green banking practices offered by State bank of India to their customers, ATM is widely adopted and 60% customer prefers ATM as best banking practice. From the Table-I it is clear that as much as 96% of customers use ATMs whereas, users of GCCs TABLE I: USERS OF VARIOUS GREEN BANKING PRACTICES Green Banking ATM Practices Users 96 Non-Users 04 Total 100 Percentage of 96% Users Sources: Primary Data

 

GCCs 29 71 100 29%

Online Tele-Banking Banking 29 03 71 97 100 100 29%

03%

Mobile Banking 24 76 100 24%

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TABLE II: GENDER WISE USERS OF VARIOUS GREEN BANKING PRACTICES Gender

Male Female Total

User of ATM

User of GCCs

User of Online User of Tele-banking User of Mobile Banking Banking User Non% of User Non% of User Non% of User Non% of User Non% of user User user User user User user User user User 72 04 95 27 49 35.5 25 51 32.8 2 74 2.6 18 58 23.7 24 0 100 02 22 08.3 04 20 16.7 1 23 4.2 06 18 25 96 04 96 29 71 29 29 71 29 3 97 03 24 76 24

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Sources: Primary Data

and online banking are 29% each. 24% respondent uses mobile banking and only 3% of them uses tele-banking. Gender wise 95% of male customers use ATM whereas 100% women use ATM. TABLE III: AGE GROUP WISE USERS OF VARIOUS GREEN BANKING PRACTICES Age Group

18-30 years 30-40 years 40-50 years 50-60 years Above 60 Yrs Total

User of ATM User Nonuser 21 1 (96) (04) 24 1 (96) (04) 31 1 (97) (03) 18 1 (95) (05) 2 0 (100) (00) 96 4 (96) (04)

Total 22 25 32 19 2 100

Sources: Primary Data, Figures within the brackets indicate percentage of users)

 

User of GCCs User Nonuser 5 17 (23) (77) 3 22 (12) (88) 12 20 (36) (64) 8 11 (42) (58) 1 1 (50) (50) 29 71 (29) (71)

Total 22 25 32 19 2 100

User of Online Banking User NonTotal user 5 17 22 (23) (77) 6 19 25 (24) (76) 11 21 32 (34) (66) 6 13 19 (32) (68) 1 1 2 (50) (50) 29 71 100 (29) (71)

User of Tele-banking User NonTotal user 0 22 22 (00) (100) 2 23 25 (08) (92) 0 32 32 (00) (100) 0 19 19 (00) (100) 1 1 2 (50) (50) 3 97 100 (03) (97)

User of Mobile Banking User NonTotal user 5 17 22 (23) (77) 6 19 25 (24) (76) 7 25 32 (22) (78) 5 14 19 (26) (74) 1 1 2 (50) (50) 24 76 100 (24) (76)

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Usage of GCCs of male and female customers as shown in Table-II is 35.5% and 8.3% respectively. It shows that adoption of GCCs is very poor in the case of women customers. Usage pattern of online banking is also high in respect of male customers against women by 32.8% against 16.7%. However in the case of adoption of tele-banking and mobile banking women are slightly ahead of male customers. TABLE IV: INCOME GROUP WISE USERS OF VARIOUS GREEN BANKING PRACTICES

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Income Group (in Rs.) Less than 15,000 15,00030,000 30,00050,000 More than 50,000 Total Sources: Primary Data

 

User of ATM user

Nonuser

22 (88)

3 (12)

18 (100) 22 (100) 34 (97) 96 (96)

0 (00) 0 (00) 1 (03) 4 (04)

User of GCCs Total

25 18 22 35 100

user

Nonuser

4 (16)

21 (84)

2 (11) 8 (36) 15 (43) 29 (29)

16 (89) 14 (64) 20 (57) 71 (71)

Total

25 18 22 35 100

(Figures within the brackets indicate percentage of users)

User of Online Banking user Non- Total user 4 (16)

21 (84)

3 (17) 8 (36) 14 (40) 29 (29)

15 (83) 14 (64) 21 (60) 71 (71)

25 18 22 35 100

User of Tele-banking user

Nonuser

2 (08)

23 (92)

0 (00) 1 (05) 0 (00) 3 (03)

18 (100) 21 (95) 35 (100) 97 (97)

Total

25 18 22 35 100

User of Mobile Banking user Non- Total user 8 (32)

17 (68)

1 (06) 7 (32) 8 (23) 24 (24)

17 (94) 15 (68) 27 (77) 76 (76)

25 18 22 35 100

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TABLE V: EMPLOYMENT STATUS WISE USERS OF VARIOUS GREEN BANKING PRACTICES Employment Status

User of ATM user

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Permanent Employed Employed part time Self employed

Un employed Retired person Total Sources: Primary Data

nonuser

75 (99) 6 (86)

1 (01) 1 (14)

10 (91)

1 (09)

2 (100) 3 (75) 96 (96)

0 (00) 1 (25) 4 (04)

User of GCCs Total 76 7 11 2 4 100

user 24 (32) 1 (14)

nonuser 52 (68) 6 (86)

2 (18)

9 (82)

0 (00) 2 (50) 29 (29)

2 (100) 2 (50) 71 (71)

User of Online User of Tele-banking User of Mobile Banking Banking Total user non- Total user nonTotal user nonTotal user user user 17 59 1 75 24 52 76 76 76 76 (22) (78) (01) (99) (32) (68) 4 3 1 6 3 4 7 7 7 7 (57) (43) (14) (86) (43) (57) 11 2 4 100

1 (09)

10 (91)

0 (00) 1 (25) 29 (29)

2 (100) 3 (75) 71 (71)

11 2 4 100

0 (00)

11 (100)

0 (00) 1 (25) 3 (03)

2 (100) 3 (75) 97 (97)

11 2 4 100

2 (18)

9 (82)

0 (00) 1 (25) 24 (24)

2 (100) 3 (75) 76 (76)

11 2 4 100

(Figures within the brackets indicate percentage of users)

Table-III indicates the green banking adoption pattern of various age groups. It clearly shows that the adoption level of green banking practices is among the age group of 40-50 Years is significantly high than other groups of People. On the other hand income group wise adoption level of green banking practices as shown in Table-IV indicates that adoption level of higher income group is higher than other groups. Table-V clearly shows the high intension of green banking adoption among the permanent employed customers. Regarding green home scheme 61% of respondent is not aware. However, from remain 39 (39%) respondent 32 respondents are willing to build green homes in future. But it is seen that no customer has come forward yet to pick up the green home loan offered by the SBI in Jorhat, even in Assam and entire North-East of India. On the other hand the customers have yet to be used Cash Deposit Machine because no CDM has been setup at Jorhat till the date by the bank.

 

                                     

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CONCLUDING REMARKS Banks are entering in the field of green banking slowly and progressively. However, the respond of the customers is still insignificant in Jorhat. There is lack of awareness of green banking among customers as well as the bank employees. Almost half of the customers of SBI have not even heard about green banking. However ATM has been widely accepted whereas adoption of tele-banking is very negligible among the people of Jorhat. Indian banks will have to literate their customers to fully aware of the environmental and social issues and to adopt effective strategies for green banking, which have already been accepted by the banks worldwide. To encourage green banking adoption, banks need to develop strategies that improve the customer’s trust and to build positive attitude, banks may need to publicize the benefits associated with the practices. However it is seen that the Indian Banks have so far not adopted green banking as a business model for sustainable banking. RECOMMENDATIONS It is recommended that there should be sufficient publications both from the bankers’ side and also from the government side to aware about the benefits of various green banking practices. People are also to educate how to make proper use of such green practices so that risk can be minimized. Seminar and workshops regarding this aspect should be organized and public meetings are to be arranged by the banks to make them familiar about the using procedure of e-banking practices. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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1. Aktan B. et al (2009), ‘Changing Face of Banks and the Evaluation of Internet Banking in Turkey’, Journal of Internet Banking and Commerce, April 2009, vol. 14, no.1 available at http://www.arraydev.com/commerce/jibc/20094/Submitted%20Manuscript %20for%20JIBC-25%20FEB%202009.pdf accessed on 22-1-12. 2. Bahl S. (2012), ‘Green Banking - The New Strategic Imperative’, published in Asian Journal of Research in Business, Economics and Management, Volume 2, Issue 2 (February, 2012), pp 176-185, available at http://www.aijsh.org/admin/ajrbem/feb/paper 110.pdf accessed on 23-2-12. 3. Barry C and Murchie J, (2009), ‘Global Cash Management: Going Green’, Green Banking White paper, August 2009, available at http://www.bottomline.com/collateral/banking/ CashManagementGoesGreen.pdf accessed on 24-6-12. 4. Biswas N (2011), ‘Sustainable Green Banking Approach: The Need of the Hour’, Business Spectrum, Volume-I, No.-1, January -- June 2011, pp 32-38, available at http://iaamidnaporebranch.in/docs/IAA%20MB%209.pdf accessed on 2-3-12. 5. Deka G. (2011), ‘Green Banking Practices: an analysis of green projects undertaken by SBI in Assam’, Research Promoter, Volume II, No. II, Winter Issue Oct. 2011March 2012.

 

                                     

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6. Deka G. (2012), ‘Online Banking – anytime, anywhere banking’, North-East Business Reporter, Vol. 2, Issue no. 11, April 2012. 7. Deka G. (2012), ‘Eco-friendly Mobile Banking’, Assam Tribune, English daily published on 5th May 2012. 8. Deka G. (2012), ‘Environmental Benefits of Online Banking’, Assam Tribune, English daily published on 2nd June 2012. 9. Deka G. (2012), ‘Green Home: a new Requirement’, Assam Tribune, English daily published on 30th June 2012. 10. Deka G. (2012), ‘CDMs: Another step towards paperless banking’, Assam Tribune, English daily published on 24th July 2012. 11. Dhewanthi, L. (2007), Assistant Deputy Minister for Incentive and Environmental Fund, The Ministry of Environment, Indonesia; Greening the Business and Making Environment a Business Opportunity, (Online) available at http://www.greengrowth. org/download/green-business-pub/Greening_of_the_Business/Governments/Laksmi_ Dhewanthi_Indonesia_ Policy_ Initiatives.pdf accessed on 10-8-11. 12. Du J. (2011), ‘An Empirical Analysis of Internet Banking Adoption in New Zealand’ Thesis, Lincoln University, available at http://researcharchive.lincoln.ac.nz/dspace/ bitstream/10182/4047/4/Du_MCM.pdf accessed on 7-7-12. 13. Harris K. A. & Abdulla S, ‘Banks Going Green’ available at http://www.mbaskool.com /business-articles/finance/899-banks-going-green.html accessed on 12-11-11.

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14. Jamwal D. and Padha D. (2009), ‘Internet Banking Systems in India: Analysis of Security Issues’, Proceedings of the 3rd National Conference; INDIACom-2009 Computing for Nation Development, February 26 – 27, 2009 available at http://www. bvicam.ac.in/news/INDIACom%202009%20Proceedings/pdfs/papers/80.pdf accessed on 9-3-12. 15. Joshua A J & Koshy M P (2009), ‘Usage Patterns of Electronic Banking Services by Urban Educated Customers: Glimpses from India’, Journal of Internet Banking and Commerce, April 2011, vol. 16, no.1 available at http://www.arraydev.com/ commerce/jibc/2011-04/JoshuaAmbat.pdf accessed on 22-1-12. 16. Komal D. & Rani V. (2012), ‘Progress Of Banking in India: Customers’ Perspectives’, Business Intelligence Journal, -January 2012, Vol.5 No.1 available at http://www. saycocorporativo.com/saycoUK/BIJ/journal/Vol5No1/Article_3.pdf accessed on 9-3-12. 17. Narain, K. and Mridubhashini, M. (2001); The Green Economics of India, in Monga, G. S. (ed) Environmental and Development, Deep & Deep Publications, pp 42-46.

 

                                     

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18. Omar, A B et al (2011), ‘Customer Perception towards Online Banking Services: Empirical Evidence from Pakistan’, Journal of Internet Banking and Commerce, August 2011, vol. 16, no.2 available at http://www.arraydev.com/commerce/jibc/2011-08/Khalid ZAMAN.pdf accessed on 22-1-12. 19. Prasad A. M. (2011), ‘Sustainability Banking in India-An Empirical study on India’s top 5 banks on CSR and NFR practices on Sustainability Development’, Conference on Inclusive & Sustainable Growth Role of Industry, Government and Society Conference Proceedings, 2011. 20. RBI Annual Reports 21. RBI Bulletins 22. Report on Trend and Progress of Banking in India, (RBI), 2010-11, 2009-2010 23. SBI Annual Report 2011-2012. 24. Sharma H. (2011), ‘Bankers’ Perspectives on E-Banking’ NJRIM Vol.1, No.1, June 2011, available at http://www.publishingindia.com/Uploads/SampleArticles/NJRIMSample-Article.pdf accessed on 6-3-12. 25. Uppal R. K. (2011), Internet banking in India: Emerging risks and new Dimensions, Prime Journal, Business Administration and Management (BAM) Vol. 1(3), pp. 7381, March 10th 2011, available at www.primejournal.org/bam. accessed on 22-1-12.

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26. Verma M. K. (2012), ‘Green Banking: a Unique Corporate Social Responsibility of Indian Banks’, International Journal Of Research In Commerce & Management, Volume No. 3 (2012), Issue No. 1, available at ijrcm.org.in/download.php?name=ijrcm-1-vol-3-issue1pdf accessed on 18-4-12.

 

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315      A Peer Reviewed International Journal of Asian Research Consortium

AJRSH: ASIAN JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN SOCIAL SCIENCE & HUMANITIES PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS OF SMALL TEA GROWERS IN ASSAM – A CASE STUDY OF GOLAGHAT DISTRICT RAJESH JAISWAL* *Associate Professor, Golaghat Commerce College, Golaghat, Assam, India. Research Scholar, Department of Commerce, Dibrugarh University, Assam.

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ABSTRACT Small tea growers of Assam, including the small tea growers of Golaghat district, are facing a large number of serious problems. Because of some legal lacunas, a large number of small tea growers of Assam, along with the tea growers of Golaghat district, are being deprived of getting benefits from different schemes of the Central Government. A large number of small tea growers of Golaghat district are not having their land holding certificates, for which they are not registered under the Tea Board. This situation prevails all over Assam. Consequently, government is not able to know the information relating to small tea sector of the State. On the other hand, due to the absence of factory of their own, the small tea growers of Golaghat district as well as the small tea growers all over Assam are being deprived of the genuine price of the green leaves produced by them. In this paper we try to study the problems that are being faced by the small tea sector- the highest generator of employment opportunities in this industrially backward state of India. KEYWORDS: Small Tea Growers, Bought leaf factories, Tea Board, Green leaf, Entrepreneurship etc. _________________________________________________________________________ INTRODUCTION Tea is among the world’s oldest and most revered beverage. It is today’s most popular beverage in the world, next to water. India is the 2nd largest producer and consumer of tea in

 

                                     

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the world. Since the mid-nineteenth century, tea has been one of the largest foreign exchange earners and a major source of state and central taxes. To begin with it is perhaps desirable to define ‘Tea’. Tea has been clearly defined in the Tea Act.1953. As per provision of Tea Act, ‘Tea’ means the plant Camellia Sinensis (L) O, Kuntze as well as all varieties of the product known commercially as tea made from the leaves of the plant Camellia Sinensis (L) O, Kuntze including green tea. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF TEA IN ASSAM It was in 1823, that the tea plant was discovered in Assam when Major Robert Bruce came to know about the existence of Tea in Assam. He saw tea like plants growing wildly in some hills near Rangpur (now Sibsagar), then the capital of Assam. Major Robert Bruce, an adventurer and trader, went to Upper Assam in search of trade as an agent of the dethroned.

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Ahom King of Assam, Purandar Singha with the permission of the East India Company. He made an agreement with a Singpho Chief, Beesa Gaum to supply him some tea plants and seed during his next visit. Assam was then under Burmese occupation and in 1824 war was broke out with them. Major Robert Bruce died in 1824 before he could collect the tea plants (Griffiths, 1967). Charles Alexander Bruce, younger brother of Robert Bruce, was a midshipman in service of East-India Company. He offered his services to David Scott against the Burmese invaders and was sent to Sadiya, Assam which was near the home of the chief with whom Robert Bruce had made the agreement. He collected the promised tea plants and seeds and handed over to Mr. Scott, who planted some of them in his own garden, sent some to the Government of India (Commissioner F. Jenkins at Gauhati) and forwarded the balance to Dr. N. Wallich, the botanist to the East India Company. Dr. Wallich identified the leaves and seeds as belonging to Camellia family but did not consider them to be of the same species as the tea plants of China (Ukers, 1935). In 1831, Lieutenant Charlton, who was serving in Assam collected some tea plants from Sadiya and sent them to the Agricultural Society, Calcutta stating , ‘The tea tree grows in the vicinity of Suddyah, the most remote of the British possessions towards the east , in Assam, and adjacent to the British territory. Some of the natives of Suddyah are in habit of drinking an infusion of the dried leaves, but they do not prepare them in any particular manner. Although the leaves are devoid of fragrance in their green state, they acquire the smell and taste of Chinese tea when dried’ but these plants unfortunately died and failed to secure official recognition as tea from experts. In 1834 the Tea Committee was formed by Lord William Bentinck, Governor General of India, to advice on possibility of commercial cultivation of tea in India. This was a momentous year in the history of tea as it gave shape for development of tea industry in Assam. The committee met for the first time on 13 February, 1834. As the plants sent earlier from Assam did not get recognition as genuine, the committee decided to introduce tea plants from China in the sub-himalayas and the Nilgiries, which they considered to be the most favorable areas (Eden T, 1958). A few months later Charlton sent some seeds and leaves of the tea tree of Assam, to Jenkins and these were sent to Dr. Wallich. However, this time Dr. Wallich and the Committee were at last convinced. The Committee informed Revenue Department of the Government that ,

 

                                     

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‘we are now enabled to state , with certainty , that not only it is genuine tea, but that no doubt can be entertained of its being the identical tea of China.’ The first tea plants grown in Assam to explore the possibility of tea plantation were of Chinese origin sent by Gordon. In 1937, a new plantation was established at Chabua successfully. The plants were of China variety being the seeds brought from China. In course of time these got naturally crossed-pollinated with indigenous Assam variety to form hybrid varieties which were collected and planted later (Baruah, 2008). REVIEW OF LITERATURE The review of existing literature reveals that till today not any comprehensive study has been made so far as the problem and prospects of Small tea growers of Assam in general and of Golaghat district in particular are concerned. So there is dearth of literature on this topic. However a number of relevant literatures on tea have been reviewed though some of these are not directly related to the small tea growers of Assam.

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Ukers(1935) stated that Civilization has produced the three important non-alcoholic beverages- the extract of the tea leaf, the extract of the coffee bean, and the extract of the cacao bean. Leaves and beans are the sources of world’s favorite temperance beverages. For a quick “explosion” men still have recourse to alcoholic drinks, pseudo stimulants, which often are narcotics and depressants. Tea, coffee, and cocoa are true stimulants to the heart, nervous system and kidneys; coffee is more stimulating to the brain, cocoa to the kidneys, while tea occupies a happy position between the two, being mildly stimulating to most of our bodily functions. He revealed of the legendary origin of tea, about 2737 B.C., and of an alleged Confucian reference in 550 B.C., but the earliest credible mention is A.D.350. Mother Nature’s original tea garden was a portion of Southeastern Asia which includes bordering provinces of Southwestern China, Northeastern India, Burma, Siam, and Indo- China. Tea cultivation and the use of the beverage spread throughout China and Japan under the patronage of Buddhist priests who sought a means of combating intemperance. Tea had its first handbook in the Ch’a Ching, written about A.D. 780. The earliest notice of tea in Japanese literature dates from A. D.593, and its cultivation, from A.D.805. Eden(1958), discussed about the development of Tea culture basically in Southeast Asia and Africa. Between 1818 and 1834 several private individual and government officials had interested themselves in the possibilities of tea cultivation in Northeast India, primarily as a source of revenue, but also because of the relations with China. Claims were made that ‘wild tea’ had been discovered in Nepal and in Manipur. Representations were made to the Governor-General which resulted in the formation of a “Committee of Tea Culture” in 1934 consisting of ‘gentlemen of high character and great intelligence” in Calcutta. After experimenting at the Calcutta Botanic Garden with a consignment of seed from China attention was turned to tea growing in a ‘wild’ state within the territory of the East India Company from Sadiya to the borders of the Chinese province of Yunnan. Griffiths(1967) describes that in 1819 David Scott, who was an agent to the GovernorGeneral in Assam, had begun to take an interest in the possibility of growing tea and wrote to Dr. N. Wallich , the botanist to East India Company, asking for Chinese tea plants and seeds from the company’s Botanical garden in Calcutta. The plants were sent, but apparently died. In Assam, from about 1823 onwards much tea has been discovered both in plains and the

 

                                     

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hills, but it was not considered that the Brahmaputra valley is also part of the home of tea. In 1835-36 twenty thousand plants from Gordon’s China seed were sent to Wallich, but over half of them died on the way. The first nursery was established in Assam towards the end of 1835. In 1841, C.A. Bruce and Lieutenant Charlton reported to the world that tea was indigenous to Assam. Baruah P (2008) did an extensive research work on Tea Industry of Assam. His work gave a good view of Tea industry of Assam since 1951 to 2002. He also discussed the various problems and prospects of the tea industry of Assam. He shows prospects for plantation, tea labours , marketing and small tea growers in Assam. Saikia (2011) stated that Government of India declared 1993 as Indian Tea Year. He described very clearly that the celebration has given opportunity to the unemployed youths to know what is tea cultivation, its profitability and tea cultivation as a career. He opines that for the growth of tea cultivation government, unemployed youth, Tea Board of India, Banks and the members of Assam Agricultural University and Tocklai Tea Research Association have to come forward and work together. The State government responsibility in this regard is more needed. If Government adopts simple regulations for the allotment of land, 80 percent problems of the Small Tea growers of Assam will be solve.

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TEA CULTIVATION IN SMALL HOLDINGS Even though the cultivation of tea in small holdings existed in some parts of the world including several states of India viz Tamilnadu, Kerala, Himachal Pradesh etc., the people of Assam were not allowed to cultivate tea in small holdings. The first effort to popularize cultivation of tea in Small scale in Assam was made in 1978 by the then Agriculture Minister of Assam, Late Soneswer Bora. During his tenure a group of enterprising cultivators from Golaghat, Jorhat, Sibsagar and Dibrugarh areas came forward to cultivate tea in small holdings and established small tea gardens. According to a comprehensive report titled “TeaThe New Emerging Sector-Small Tea Growers” published by the Govt. of Assam, the total land under tea cultivation of small growers is 117 thousand acres in the State. It was found that there is shift from paddy to tea cultivation in high lands in Upper Assam. The Small holdings are spread over 14 districts; however concentration is in the five districts of upper Assam viz. Dibrugarh, Tinsukia, Golaghat, Sibsagar and Jorhat. The profession has been now shifted from the rich to the common man, especially unemployed youths who have taken up tea cultivation as a business venture. Some even cultivate it in their backyards. With the current growth rate, 50 percent of the total tea produced in Assam is expected to come from the small tea growers by 2020. The fact that many youngsters are now taking up tea cultivation is a sign of prosperity and will surely ease the growing unemployment problem in the state (Gogoi T, TNES-STG,2011) . For last three years, production of Assam tea has once again crossed the 500-million kg mark. The State has recorded a total production of 508.74 million kg for the year 2011. The figures for last three years were: 480.28 million kg in 2010, 499.99 million kg in 2009 and 487.49 million kg in 2008. This is for the third time production of Assam tea has crossed the 500million kg mark over the past 11 years. Total tea production in the country for 2011 is 988.32 million kg, which is the highest over the past 11 years. North Eastern Tea Association (NETA) Chairman Bidyananda Barkakoty told in an interview that the credit for the increase

 

                                     

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in Assam tea production goes to small growers. Production from small growers accounted for about 30 per cent of total production in the State, he said. RECENT DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL TEA GROWERS OF ASSAM On 12th April 2012, a one day Small Tea Growers' convention-cum workshop for Small Tea Growers of Assam was organized by Tea Board of India at Tezpur University. The programme was inaugurated by Hon'ble Chief Minister of Assam, Shri Tarun Gogoi. About 1200 Small Tea Growers from different parts of Assam participated in the convention-cum workshop. Successful and progressive Self help Group members of Tea Growers were also present and shared their experiences during the programme. Addressing the function, Hon'ble Chief Minister of Assam, Shri Tarun Gogoi, laid stress on the small tea growers, maintaining quality of their produce for better remunerative price and to face stiff competition from the big tea industries. The Chief Minister also said that the Government would constitute a committee to look into the major issues concerning the small tea growers. He also assured that the Government would do everything possible for solving the problems of small tea growers and would provide them land patta, transport subsidy and other incentives, and skilled development training to increase capacity building for their overall growth and development.

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Speaking on the occasion, Hon'ble Union Minister for DoNER, Shri Paban Singh Ghatowar also exhorted the small tea growers to maintain quality of their produce to get maximum remunerative price. The Union Minister requested the State Government to regularise the land patta of the small tea growers to allay the apprehensions from their minds. The DoNER Minister, while urging the Tea Board to set up a welfare fund for the labourers working in the small tea gardens, asked the owners of the small tea gardens to ensure minimum wages to the labourers. The State tea industry is set for another revolution with the creation of a separate Small Tea Growers’ Development Directorate in the tea-growing district Dibrugarh by October this year, establishment of call centers and immediate issuance of authorisation to Self-Help Groups for setting up tea factories. Three licenses for opening of bought-leaf factories have already been received by three SHGs and construction work is expected to begin anytime this year. The three factories would be ready for production by 2013, said Prodip Saikia, Executive Member of All Assam Small Tea Growers’ Association (AASTGA). METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY In order to prepare this paper, both Primary and Secondary data have been collected. Primary data have been collected through interview schedules. An in-depth interview has also been conducted with the leaders of the All Assam Small Tea Growers Association in order to know the problems that are being faced by the small tea growers of Assam. The survey modules cover all aspects of problems of small tea growers of Golaghat district, Assam. Secondary data collected from different related books, journals and published reports of different reliable agencies/organizations such as Tea Board of India, International Tea Committee, Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), Small Tea Growers Association etc. Data are also being gathered from related websites for preparing this paper.

 

                                     

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STUDY AREA

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The district of Golaghat is located between 16° to 27° north latitude and 93° to 94 18° E longitudes. It covers an area of 3502 sq km, out of which 3470.48 sq km are rural and only 31.52 sq km urban .,with total population of 10,58,674 (Male- 5,39,949 and Female5,18,725) as per 2011 census. Among these population 9, 60,892 person (90.8%) are rural and 97782 (9.2%) are urban. The district is bounded by Kakodonga River and Jorhat district in the east, Nagoan and Karbi Anglong in the west, Nagaland in the south and mighty river Brahamputra in the north. The physiography of the district is constituted by a variety of features such as flood plain, beels and swamps, forest land, occasional highland and foothills of Karbi plateau. There are three sub divisions in the district, namely Golaghat, Bokakhat and Dhansiri. There are six revenue circles and eight development blocks in the Golaghat district.

OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY The study has been undertaken in order to fulfill the following objectives:1. To study the problems relating to small tea growers of Golaghat district of Assam. 2. To suggest solutions to the problems faced by the small tea growers in Golaghat district of Assam.

 

                                     

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SOME FACTS OF TEA CULTIVATION IN SMALL HOLDINGS IN ASSAM ¾ Total no of STGs is 68,465. Major concentration is in 5 upper Assam district (64,524), which is 94% of the total no of STG in 14 district of Brahamputra valley. ¾ Dibrugarh and Tinsukia district have the highest STG followed by Golaghat, Sibsagar and Jorhat district of Assam. ¾ 63% of tea plants are below 10 years of age and 10% of tea plants are above 15 years of age. This shows that major plantation is new. ¾ The peak growth period of STG occurred in 1995-2005. ¾ Highest productivity is found in size of holding upto 3 acres and lowest productivity is found in the size of holding over 15 acres. So as the size of the holding increases productivity decreases. ¾ Only 4966 STGs are registered with Tea Board and 3055 STGs availed incentives from Tea Board till 31st March 2012. ¾ Price sharing formula under TMCO (Tea Marketing Control Order) guideline is not implemented till date in the case of sale and purchase of green leaf. ¾ District level monitoring committee’s initiation in fixation of price of green leaf is not result oriented as it does not have legal sanction.

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¾ Only 5,920 STGs have direct linkage with the factories. Agents and other middlemen have taken a vital role in collection & sale of green leaf. ¾ Average price paid by Bought leaf factories is 14/- per kg and price received by STGs is 12/- per kg. for the year 2010 - 2011. DISTRICT WISE NO. OF SMALL TEA GROWERS OF ASSAM District Dibrugarh Tinsukia Golaghat Sibsagar Jorhat Others

No. of Growers 19160 18595 11287 9592 5890 3941

Total

68465 Source: DICC, Ghy, Assam & AAU, Jorhat

 

                                     

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LAND UNDER TEA CULTIVATION (SMALL TEA HOLDINGS DISTRICT WISE) District Tinsukia Dibrugarh Golaghat Sivsagar Jorhat Udalguri Sonitpur Others Total Area

Area in Hectors (Approx) 14000 11500 7000 6500 2500 2500 2000 4000 50000 ha

Source: DICC,Ghy, Assam & AAU, Jorhat

SMALL TEA GROWERS OF GOLAGHAT DISTRICT AT A GLANCE

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BLOCK WISE STG COUNT AND PRODUCTION OF GREEN LEAF IN GOLAGHAT DISTRICT BLOCK Golaghat Central Bokakhat Padumoni Sarupathar Kathalguri Gomariguri Kakodonga Morangi TOTAL

No. of STG 2089 1692 393 1461 637 1875 1111 2029 11287

Production in kg 7635073 5233540 659297 2996972 2702662 6827741 2185723 7736262 35977270

Source : DICC survey updated upto29/09/2010

HOLDING PATTERN OF STGS FOR GOLAGHAT DISTRICT Area in acres 0- 3 3- 5 5- 10 10-15 15 and Above Source : DICC survey updated upto29/09/2010

 

No. of STGs 10043 807 358 58 21

Percentage 88.89 7.15 3.17 .51 .19

                                    

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No. of STGss 0‐ 3 3‐ 5 5‐ 10 10‐15 15 and Abo ove

PIE CHART SH HOWING HOLDING H PATTERN N OF STGS FOR GOLA AGHAT STRICT DIS AGE PRODU UCTION OF O GREEN LEAF IN GOLAGHA G T DISTRIC CT BY STG GS AVERA Year 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Produ uction in Kgg 18636065 22332239 26198819 30488425 35977270 40437727

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Source: DICC C Ghy, and AASTGA

Production in K Kg 45000 0000 40000 0000 35000 0000 30000 0000 25000 0000 Prod duction in Kg

20000 0000 15000 0000 10000 0000 5000 0000 0 2004

Source DICC C Ghy,

2005

2006

20 007

2008

2009

                                     

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So far we have collected data from 50 small tea growers of Golaghat district and on the basis of analysis and interpretation of these data, the major problems that has been faced by the Small tea growers can be divided in five broad categories: a) Physical Problems b) Social Problems c) Biological Problem d) Legal problem e) Economic and Financial Problem.

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PHYSICAL PROBLEMS i)

Non-availability of workers in peak seasons

ii)

Distance and poor communication from field to factory

iii)

Erratic climate factors

iv)

Non-availability of skilled worker

v)

Topography of land

Non availability of workers in peak season is found to be a major physical problem. As small tea growers need extra worker during plucking time but they are not available may be due to coincides with rice transplanting or peak employment of extra labour in their residing estates. Most of the Small tea growers are not able to give the full term employment to all workers as a result they have to depend on these casual workers. Due to poor communication and distance from field to factory growers are not in a position for smooth & timely shipment of their green leaves. They have to depend on Bought leaf factory or other agents. Erratic climate condition like high or low rainfall, drought, flood etc. is also cause for low tea production. Erratic distribution of rainfall during the year is a major problem for small growers rather than the total rainfall. For survival of small growers, they have to use the modern Agriculture methods. For this skilled workers are needed, but Assam is lacking in skilled worker and unable to produce the optimum capacity. As a late comer, the small tea growers virtually found very little virgin highland. So most of the land used by the growers may be considered as ‘2nd grade land’ for growing of tea. SOCIAL PROBLEMS

 

i)

Theft of green leaf

ii)

Lack of co-operation from big tea estate or brought leaf factory

iii)

Lack of time for family and society

                                     

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Theft of green tea by anti-social element in is a prime social problem found in recent years. Till date small tea growers are not able to get any co-operation from big tea estates/company. It is obvious that big estates are not interested to help small tea growers as they feel that these growers are going to challenge their monopoly of 170 years in Assam Tea industry. Even majority of the Bought leaf factory are not interested to co-operate small grower though they are completely dependent on the green leaves produced by small growers. BLF are always trying to exploit small growers for the sake of other reason. Apart from this time, management is another challenge for the small growers. They don’t have quality time for their family as well as for society. BIOLOGICAL PROBLEM i)

Management of plant diseases/pests

ii)

Quality and suitable planting material

iii)

Threat to surrounding environment

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Unlike other perennial horticulture crops, tea needs care and supervision throughout the year. The adaptation of effective and timely plant protection measures are the major biological constraints faced by small tea growers. Tea mostly cultivated in monoculture, coupled with favorable climatic condition in Assam, is prone to incidence of various pests and diseases. Due to lack of technical knowledge on pests, diseases and agro-chemical product small tea growers can’t consistently control over plant’s diseases and pests. Procurement of quality or recommended planting material is another problem for small growers. Tea growers are still growing different crop along with tea. While studying the diversion of the land to tea, it is revealed that around 35 percent of the total holding under tea are virgin and rest were planted by uprooting village woods lots, areca nut plantation, bamboo clumps, orange orchards etc. This is a matter of great concern so far ecological balance and surrounding environment is concerned. LEGAL PROBLEMS i)

Non settlement of land document by revenue department of government

ii)

Lack of organizational set-up as proprietorship/partnership/co-operative/company

iii)

Obstacles in obtaining benefits of small holdings from Tea Board of India.

Most of the small tea growers do not have formal (legal) ownership of their land under cultivation. So they are not qualified for the registration under Tea Board and are unable to take the benefits of various schemes of the Government, Tea Board and financial institution. Of late the Tea Board is deciding to be flexible for registration of Small Tea Growers regarding their land title. The next legal problem is the lack of organizational set up of small tea growers. Primarily due to lack of educational capacity, knowledge, initiative and business background small tea growers get constraints in forming organizational set-up like partnership, co-operative or company etc. Most of the growers are in need of legal and financial counseling in keeping their accounts and submitting it to different govt. dept. As discussed, difficulty in settlement of land documents in government revenue dept is found to be major hurdle to get the benefit of Tea Board.  

                                     

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ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL PROBLEMS i)

Problem of non-payment of regular wages

ii)

Institutional Finance

iii)

Working capital arrangement

iv)

High rate of wages for workers in peak season

v)

Repayment of loan and advances

Most of the small tea growers coming for tea cultivation with single factor of production i.e. land. If some growers have any capital with them it is utilized in preparing the land for plantation. The first and major financial problem they face is the regular wages payment of workers. Very often, the growers have to waste their valuable time and energy in arranging finance from other sources like local moneylender, middlemen and advance from BFL etc. Due to other constraints already discussed, institutional finance is not in reach of real small tea growers. It is estimated that commercial banks/financial institution contributes only 4 percent of financial help to the small tea growers of Assam. The role of financial institution is not encouraging in this regard. In absence of finance, most of the growers are unable to expand their plantation in sound scientific line. As there is no fixed rate of wages for workers very often growers have to pay high rate of wages to workers in peak and festive season, which ultimately affect on their profitability. PROSPECTS OF SMALL TEA GROWERS OF ASSAM

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¾ Tea cultivation in small holdings by the people of Assam would be able to bring remarkable changes in the rural socio- economic scenario of Assam. Apart from selfemployment, the cultivation of tea has opened many business opportunities and encourages entrepreneurship culture, which provide not only the direct and indirect employment but also creates a sound base for firm income. ¾ Formation of self help group ,co-operative societies and establishing bought leaf factories with the help of Tea Board and Government will help small growers to overcome many problems relating to proper price for green leaves, quality improvement etc. Development of entrepreneurship among the small tea growers can lead to rapid economic growth of the state as well as country. ¾ There is a good potential of production of organic tea from existing small tea growers with adaptation of proper technical know how. Our educated and young cultivator should come forward in this regard and encourage to other cultivator for organic plantation which will give them more profitability and sustainability in the long run. ¾ The quality and quantity of tea of small tea growers can be improved with adoption of appropriate management and technical training. In this regard they can approach the Dept. of Tea Husbandry & Technology, Assam Agriculture University and Tea Research Association, Tocklai , Jorhat, Assam .

 

                                     

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¾ Post harvest management and market linkage of the small tea growers for both domestic and export market are yet to be explored. ¾ Small tea growers need to develop its own BRAND and LOGO to establish its own identity in domestic as well as in global market. ¾ There is a huge prospect for tea based eco-tourism, tea festival in traditional life style, international level tea fair, etc. ¾ Competitive price can be obtained by the small tea growers because of higher productivity and absence of social cost. ¾ Tea is a health drink and has got exceptional medicinal properties as anti-oxidant, anticarcinogen and can cure heart disease and colon cancer, etc. Aggressive campaigning to promote tea as a health drink will increase its demand which is good for whole tea industry and small tea growers. ¾ Prospect of setting up of made tea in small size with a very little investment which gives the opportunity to produce better quality tea in less cost. CONCLUSION

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The days of large plantations seem to be finally over. Assam now has a record number of small tea growers. The big producers are, however, not worried about the proliferation of small growers in Assam. CS Bedi, chairman of Indian Tea Association, said: "We do not see small growers as a threat. They have grown alongside with the large producers. They will stay there. They are in a more advantageous position vis-a-vis the large producers as they do not have to bear the social cost of their employees. The only concern is the quality of leaves they produce. The small growers should adopt techniques to upgrade the leaf quality.” The Government of Assam should consider granting pattas to STGs for the land they are occupying for long on lease basis for tea cultivation in non-forest land and degraded forest lands. If small tea growers are encouraged and guided properly to form more cooperatives or self help groups they can move jointly to overcome most of their problems. Entrepreneurial development and having bought leaf factories of their own on co-operative sector to avail advantages like bank finance, incentives of Tea Board and govt. etc, is the need of the hour for small tea growers. As this sector is related to indigenous people of the state, a long run comprehensive scheme should be drawn to integrate the small tea growers into system. The small tea growers should be handled with utmost care keeping in mind long term interest of the indigenous people of Assam. REFERENCES Baroowa G.P. (2009), ‘Small Tea Growers of Assam deserve a better deal from state government’ article published in The Assam Tribune, June29, 2009. Baruah P (2008), ‘The Tea Industry of Assam- Origin and Development’ EBH Publishers (India), Guwahati-781001.

 

                                     

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Chattopadhayay Shatadru(2007) Partners in Change , ‘Chai Time- Sustainable Livelihood for Small Tea Growers through CSR’, C-75,South Extention part II,New Delhi-110049, India. Directory of Small Tea Growers of Assam, Volume-2, Published byDepartment of Industries & Commerce, Government of Assam in 2011. Eden T (1958) ‘TEA’ Longman’s Green and Co. London, New York, Toronto, Chapter-I Griffiths Percival Sir (1967) “The History of the Indian Tea Industry” ,Weidenfield and Nicolson, Winsley Street, London pp. 33-55 Harler C. R. (1955) , “The Culture and Marketing of Tea” Oxford University Press London,New York, Bombay, pp 118-137 Hicks Alastair(2008), International Conference on Tea Production and Tea Products, held at Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai, Thailand, 26-28th November 2008. Karmakar K. G and Banerjee G.D (2005), The Tea Industry of India: A Survey, National Bank of Agriculture and Rural Development,Department of Economic Analysis and Research, Mumbai-400 051, India. Saikia Gangadhar(2011), Jivanar Rag Ragini, Data Prints Jorhat-1, Saikia Gautam kumar and Taparia M (2009) “Baigyanik Vittit Chahkheti”, Sri Birthika Saikia, C. D. Road, Ward no- 4, North Lakimpur, pp1-4

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Singh Bikash & Ghosal Sutanuka(2011) ‘Small Tea Growers spurt in Assam’ an article published in The Economic Times on January27, 2011. Singh Saurabh(2009), ‘Small Tea Growers of Assam & Threats as well as Opportunities Ahead’ http://ssrn.com/abstract=1528103 (Electronic Copy) Sovenior(2011), All Assam Small Tea Growers Association, 8thTriennial Convention 16th to 18th March2011, Jorhat(Assam)Taknet D.K. ( 2010 ) "The Heritage of Indian Tea" Executive (Publication) IIME , Jaipur -302004 India. Taparia M, Baruah S. & Bhuyan R.P. ‘Small Scale Tea Cultivation in Assam- Its Growth, Sustainability and Economic Viability’ seminar paper presented in, Department of Commerce, Assam University, Silchar on 6th August,2005. The Telegraph,(2011) “CM supports for Small Tea Growers” an article by correspondence publish in The Telegraph on 14th January 2011, Calcutta, India . Ukers H. William (1935) ‘All About Tea’ , The Tea and Cofee Trade Journal Company, New York, Vol-I Wikipedia(2011)availableathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_tea_in_India, visited on Aug. 23, 2011 WEBSITES

 

                                     

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http://www.teaboard.gov.in/ http://www.picindia.org/publications/ChaiTime http://www.tocklai.net/Cultivation/index.aspx http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam_tea http://assam.gov.in/business/business_entrprise.asp http://www.mygolaghat.com/index. http://issuu.com/prakruthi/docs/chai_time_sustainable_livelihood_small_tea http://db.nedfi.com/content/tea-assam http://online.assam.gov.in/web/population-census/

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www.cista-india-net.in

 

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315      A Peer Reviewed International Journal of Asian Research Consortium

AJRSH: ASIAN JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN SOCIAL SCIENCE & HUMANITIES PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF SCHEDULED AND NONSCHEDULED URBAN COOPERATIVE BANKS IN INDIA DR. R.K. UPPAL*; AMIT JUNEJA** *Principal Investigator, UGC Financed Major Research Project, D.A.V. College, Malout, Punjab. **Research Scholar, Department of Economics, Panjab University, Chandigarh.

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ABSTRACT The Urban Co-operative Banks (UCB’s) are playing an important role in meeting the requirements of small traders, weavers, agriculturists and other lower and middle income group of people. Recently, the UCB’s have been directed to concentrate their efforts towards the industrial development and other priority sectors of the economy. So, the area of operations of UCBs is becoming wider these days and they have become an important institution to study. Urban Cooperative banks are of two types namely Scheduled and Non-Scheduled. Both these type of UCBs have to work in accordance to each other, so that the objectives can be achieved in a better way. So, with this view, a correlation study is conducted between Scheduled and Non-Scheduled UCBs w.r.t. different selected parameters for the time period of 2008 to 2011. Karl Pearson’s Coefficient of Correlation is used to analyse the extent of relationship. The results of the study reveal that these two types of UCBs are very much similar in their operations and there is found a high positive correlation on most of the parameters except money at call where there is a low negative coefficient of correlation is found between them. KEYWORDS: Cooperative Banking, Non-Scheduled UCBs, Scheduled UCBs. _________________________________________________________________________

 

                                     

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I.

INTRODUCTION

The term Urban Co-operative Banks (UCBs), though not formally defined, refers to primary cooperative banks located in urban and semi-urban areas. These banks, till 1996, were allowed to lend money only for non-agricultural purposes. This distinction does not hold today. These banks were traditionally centred around communities, localities work place groups. They essentially lent to small borrowers and businesses. Today, their scope of operations has widened considerably. The origins of the urban cooperative banking movement in India can be traced to the close of nineteenth century when, inspired by the success of the experiments related to the cooperative movement in Britain and the cooperative credit movement in Germany such societies were set up in India. Cooperative societies are based on the principles of cooperation, - mutual help, democratic decision making and open membership. Cooperatives represented a new and alternative approach to organisaton as against proprietary firms, partnership firms and joint stock companies which represent the dominant form of commercial organisation. THE BEGINNINGS

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The first known mutual aid society in India was probably the ‘Anyonya Sahakari Mandali’ organised in the erstwhile princely State of Baroda in 1889 under the guidance of Vithal Laxman also known as Bhausaheb Kavthekar. Urban co-operative credit societies, in their formative phase came to be organised on a community basis to meet the consumption oriented credit needs of their members. Salary earners’ societies inculcating habits of thrift and self help played a significant role in popularising the movement, especially amongst the middle class as well as organized labour. From its origins then to today, the thrust of UCBs, historically, has been to mobilize savings from the middle and low income urban groups and purvey credit to their members - many of which belonged to weaker sections. The first study of Urban Co-operative Banks was taken up by RBI in the year 1958-59. The Report published in 1961 acknowledged the widespread and financially sound framework of urban co-operative banks; emphasized the need to establish primary urban cooperative banks in new centers and suggested that State Governments lend active support to their development. In 1963, Varde Committee recommended that such banks should be organised at all Urban Centres with a population of 1 lakh or more and not by any single community or caste. The committee introduced the concept of minimum capital requirement and the criteria of population for defining the urban centre where UCBs were incorporated. STRUCTURE OF UCBS The cooperative bank are compactly located in five states, - Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. The short term credit structure specializing in production credit is functioning with 3-tier structure – State Cooperative Banks (SCBs) at apex level, District Central Co-operative Banks (DCCBs) at district level and Primary Agricultural Credit Society at grass root level in 15 States and with 2-tier structure -without DCCBs in 12 States/Union Territories.

 

                                     

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DUALITY OF CONTROL Co operative Banks in India are registered under the Co-operative Societies Act. The cooperative bank is also regulated by the RBI. They are governed by the Banking Regulations Act 1949 and Banking Laws (Co-operative Societies) Act, 1965. ROLE When it comes to the allocation of credit, private and public sector banks generally tend to rely on hard information to make their decisions. This creates a major impediment for small borrowers. The cooperative banks help bridge this gap as they rely more on soft information and focus on relationship based lending. SCHEME OF THE PAPER The plan of research report has been framed under six sections:Section-I gives the introduction of the problem taken for study. Section -II deals with review of related literature. Section -III objectives, data base, statistical techniques and research methodology. Section -IV deals with the analysis and interpretation of data. Section-V deals with conclusions and implications of the study. Section-VI deals with future areas of research.

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II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE E. Gnanasekaran et al. (2012) in their paper examines the growth and success of the urban cooperative banks in Vellore District through statistical analysis. The overall financial performance of the UCB’s in all fronts namely, Membership, Share Capital, Deposits, Loans and Advances, Profit and Reserve Funds, Working capital, Overdues, Loans issued etc., are showing a significantly and undistrubing trend through the application of different statistical tools applied in the study. Therefore it may be undoubtfuly concluded that the UCB’s are the road of progress. This also clear that, the UCB’s is enjoying a predominant position in the banking industry occupied in eighth place in the banking institution serving in Vellore District. Sant S. & Chaudhari,P.T. (2012) in their research paper evaluates the performance of Urban Cooperative banks for the period 2004-2009. Financial ratios are employed to measure the profitability, liquidity and credit quality performance of Ten Urban Cooperative banks from Jalgaon and Greater Mumbai. The study found that overall bank performance increased considerably in the years of the analysis. A significant change in trend is noticed at the onset of the global financial crisis in 2007, reaching its peak during 2008-2009. This resulted in falling profitability, less liquidity and deteriorating credit quality in the Indian Banking sector.

 

                                     

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Shirasi, R.S. (2012) conducted a study to analyse the financial working and operational performance of UCBs in Pune district. It is observed that there is regional imbalance in the growth of UCBs in India. Five states viz. Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karanataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu account for 1661 UCBs out of 2104 in the country as at end March 2003. In 2008, out of total UCBs, 603 UCBs were registered in Maharashtra state. 26. The present study reveals that depositing of cash, collection of local cheques, treatment of bank employees are the area of customers satisfaction, while withdrawal of cash, collection of outstation cheques can be identified as the areas of customer dissatisfaction as the time taken was much more than the customer expectations. Singh and Singh (2006) studied the funds management in the District Central Co-operative Banks (DCCBs) of Punjab with specific reference to the analysis of financial margin. It noted that a higher proportion of own funds and the recovery concerns have resulted in the increased margin of the Central Co-operative Banks and thus had a larger provision for nonperforming assets. Jain (2001) has done a comparative performance analysis of District Central Co-operative Banks (DCCBs) of Western India, namely Maharashtra, Gujarat and Rajasthan and found that DCCBs of Rajasthan have performed better in profitability and liquidity as compared to Gujarat and Maharashtra. Bhaskaran and Josh (2000) in their research paper concluded that the recovery performance of co-operative credit institutions continues to be unsatisfactory which contributes to the growth of NPA even after the introduction of prudential regulations. They suggested legislative and policy prescriptions to make co-operative credit institutions more efficient, productive and profitable organization in tune with competitive commercial banking.

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Urs and Chitambaram (2000) studied performance of 14 District Central Cooperative Banks (DCCBs) in Kerala on 23 parameters and found inefficiency in their operations with lower capital and poor deployment of funds in the DCCBs. RESEARCH GAP Urban Cooperative banks in India are doing their hard to serve the basic needs of the small borrowers and businessmen and trying to fulfill the gap between savings and investments. These UCBs can be divided into two parts namely Scheduled UCBs and Non-Scheduled UCBs. Both types of UCBs are important tool for the development of the financial sector of the country. So, in order to analyse the performance of these two types of UCBs, a correlation study is conducted between different financial parameters of Scheduled and Non-Scheduled UCBs to find out their relative role in the financial sector of the country. This study is mainly conducted to reveal the fact that whether these UCBs are going in the same direction as far as their financial activities are concerned or not. III.

 

OBJECTIVES

i.

To find out relationship between different financial parameters of Scheduled and Non-Scheduled UCBs.

ii.

To find out profits and profitability of Scheduled and Non-Scheduled UCBs on the basis of their income and expenditure statements.

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

DATA BASE Secondary data had been used in the present study. i. Report on Trend and Progress of Banking in India, RBI Publications, Mumbai, 2008 to 2011. STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES For the analysis of data and to find out relationship between various financial parameters of Scheduled and Non-Scheduled UCBs, Karl Pearson’s coefficient of correlation is used. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY RESEARCH DESIGN A descriptive conclusion research design was used for the present study. A correlative study has been conducted about the performance of Scheduled and Non-Scheduled UCBs on various financial parameters during the study period to know the extent of similarity in their operations on various financial parameters. SAMPLE DESIGN

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The present study is concerned with the Urban Cooperative banks in India and it is further divided into two groups to find relationship between their performance on certain financial parameters: i.

Scheduled UCBs

ii.

Non-Scheduled UCBs

TIME PERIOD Time period for the present study will be taken from 2008 to 2011. This time period is deliberately taken because with the entry of various new kinds of financial institutions in India, the role of urban cooperative banks has changed significantly and these changes has occurred not only in scheduled UCBs, but also in Non-Scheduled UCBs. So, there is a great need that these two types of UCBs should maintain a strong relationship between their banking operations. So that a similarity can be maintained and nothing can be gone wrong for them in any way. So, with this view, this study is taken in hand for the above said time period. PARAMETERS OF THE STUDY In the present study, the analysis of the performance of various types of UCBs is done with reference to the following parameters:

 

i.

Capital of Scheduled and Non-Scheduled UCBs

ii.

Resources of Scheduled and Non-Scheduled UCBs

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

iii.

Deposits of Scheduled and Non-Scheduled UCBs

iv.

Borrowings of Scheduled and Non-Scheduled UCBs

v.

Other Liabilities of Scheduled and Non-Scheduled UCBs

vi.

Cash in Hand of Scheduled and Non-Scheduled UCBs

vii.

Balance with Banks of Scheduled and Non-Scheduled UCBs

viii.

Money at Call of Scheduled and Non-Scheduled UCBs

ix.

Investments of Scheduled and Non-Scheduled UCBs

x.

Loans and Advances of Scheduled and Non-Scheduled UCBs

xi.

Other Assets of Scheduled and Non-Scheduled UCBs

xii.

Interest Income of Scheduled and Non-Scheduled UCBs

xiii.

Non-Interest Income of Scheduled and Non-Scheduled UCBs

xiv.

Interest Expenditure of Scheduled and Non-Scheduled UCBs

xv.

Non-Interest Expenditure of Scheduled and Non-Scheduled UCBs

IV.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

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The major findings of this research and the analysis of data is shown the following tables: TABLE 1 SHOWING COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION BETWEEN CAPITAL OF SCHEDULED AND NON-SCHEDULED UCBS (AMOUNT IN CRORES) Year

Scheduled UCBs

NonScheduled UCBs

dx

dx2

dy

dy2

dxdy

r

2008 2009 2010 2011

1322 1417 1612 1871

3447 3720 3955 4395

-95 0 195 454

9025 0 38025 206116

-273 0 235 675

74529 0 55225 455625

25935 0 45825 306450

0.99

∑dx=554

∑dx2=253116

∑dy=637

∑ dy2=585379

∑dxdy=378210

Total

Source: Report on Trends and Progress of Banking in India 2008-11

Table 1 is showing coefficient of correlation between capital of Scheduled and Nonscheduled urban cooperative banks during the study period of 2008 to 2011. From the analysis of the table, it is clear that there is high positive correlation between the capital of both these type of banks i.e. 0.99. This shows that during the study period, both these type of banks are successful in increasing their capital and there is strong bonding between this increase in capital. During the study period, Scheduled UCBs are successful in increasing  

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

their capital from 1322 crore to 1871 crore and Non-Scheduled UCBs from 3447 crore to 4395 crore from the base year to the current year respectively. Increase in capital of both these type of banks signifies great role played by these banks in the development of the economy. TABLE 2 SHOWING COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION BETWEEN RESOURCES OF SCHEDULED AND NON-SCHEDULED UCBS (AMOUNT IN CRORES) Year

Scheduled UCBs

NonScheduled UCBs

dx

dx2

dy

dy2

dxdy

r

2008

6759 9826 10377 11066

8580 11076 14153 15195

-2527 0 1091 1780

6385729 0 1190281 3168400

-2496 0 3077 4119

6230016 0 9467929 16966161

6307392 0 3357007 7331820

0.97

∑dx=344

∑dx2=10744410

∑dy=4700

∑ dy2=32664106

∑dxdy=16996219

2009 2010 2011

Total

Source: Same as Table 1

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Table 2 is showing coefficient of correlation between resources of Scheduled and NonScheduled urban cooperative banks during the study period of 2008 to 2011. From the analysis of the table, it is clear that there is strong positive relationship between resources of both these type of banks. Both the banks are going in the same direction as far as their increase in resources is concerned. From the table, it is clear that while Scheduled UCBs are successful in increasing their resources from 6759 crore to 11066 crore, on the other side Non-Scheduled UCBs are successful in increasing their resources from 8580 crore to 15195 crore in the current year as compared to the base year. Increase in resources of both these type of banks shows their success in financial matters. TABLE 3 SHOWING COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION BETWEEN DEPOSITS OF SCHEDULED AND NON-SCHEDULED UCBS (AMOUNT IN CRORES) Year

Scheduled UCBs

NonScheduled UCBs

dx

dx2

dy

dy2

dxdy

r

2008 2009 2010 2011

58871 66713 80208 92428

81000 90329 102943 119602

-7842 0 13495 25715

61496964 0 182115025 661261225

-9329 0 12614 29273

87030241 0 1591112996 856908529

73158018 0 170225930 752755195

0.5 4

∑dx=31368

∑dx2=904873214

∑dy=32558

∑ dy2=2535051766

∑dxdy=996139143

Total

Source: Same as Table 1

Table 3 is showing coefficient of correlation between deposits of Scheduled and NonScheduled UCBs during the study period of 2008 to 2012. From the analysis of the table, it is clear that there is medium positive correlation between resources of these two types of banks. From the analysis of the table, it is clear that while the Scheduled UCBs are successful in increasing their deposits from 58871 crore to 92428 crore, on the other hand Non-Scheduled UCBs are successful in increasing their deposits from 81000 crore to 119602 crore in the current year as compared to the base year. The table also shows that Scheduled UCBs are more successful in increasing their deposits as compared to Non-Scheduled UCBs as their

 

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

percentage rate of growth of deposits is more than the Non-Scheduled UCBs during the study period. TABLE 4 SHOWING COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION BETWEEN BORROWINGS OF SCHEDULED AND NON-SCHEDULED UCBS (AMOUNT IN CRORES) Year

Scheduled UCBs

2008 2009 2010 2011

1476 1141 1783 2718 Total

NonScheduled UCBs

dx

dx2

dy

dy2

dxdy

r

1204 566 557 1571

-335 0 642 1577 ∑dx= 1884

112225 0 412164 2486929 ∑dx2=301131 8

-638 0 -9 1005 ∑dy=35 8

407044 0 81 1010025 ∑ dy2=141715 0

213730 0 -5778 1584885 ∑dxdy=17928 37

0.9 5

Source: Same as Table 1

Table 4 is showing coefficient of correlation between borrowings of Scheduled and NonScheduled urban cooperative banks during the study period of 2008 to 2011. From the analysis of the table, it is clear that there is high positive correlation between the borrowings of Scheduled and Non-Scheduled UCBs i.e. 0.95. The table reveals that in case of both the banks there is a fall in their borrowings in the year 2009 and then again their borrowings rise in 2010 onwards. The table also shows that Scheduled UCBs borrowings increase more than the borrowings of Non-Scheduled UCBs as their percentage rate of increase in borrowings is more than the Non-Scheduled UCBs. TABLE 5 SHOWING COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION BETWEEN OTHER LIABILITIES OF SCHEDULED AND NON-SCHEDULED UCBS Journal of Asian Research Consortium                  182                  http://www.aijsh.org                                                                                      

(AMOUNT IN CRORES) Year

Schedule d UCBs

NonSchedule d UCBs

dx

dx2

dy

dy2

dxdy

2008

6600

10152

-1605

2576025

2291

5248681

-3677055

2009

8205

7861

0

0

0

0

0

2010

9916

11766

1711

2927521

3905

15249025

6681455

2011

11483

12973

3278

10745284

5112

26132544

16757136

∑dy=113 08

∑ dy2=466302 50

∑dxdy=197615 36

Total

∑dx= 3384

2

∑dx =162488 30

r

0.7 3

Source: Same as Table 1

Table 5 is showing coefficient of correlation between other liabilities of Scheduled and NonScheduled UCBs during the study period of 2008 to 2011. From the analysis of the table, it is clear that there is a medium positive correlation between the other liabilities of both these type of banks i.e. 0.73. The table reveals that in 2009 where there is a rise in the other liabilities of Scheduled UCBs, on the other side, there is a fall in other borrowings of Non-

 

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

Scheduled UCBs. The table also reveals that in Scheduled UBs other liabilities has increased more than the other liabilities of Non-Scheduled UCBs as their percentage rate of increase is more than the Non-Scheduled UCBs during the study period.

TABLE 6 SHOWING COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION BETWEEN CASH IN HAND OF SCHEDULED AND NON-SCHEDULED UCBS (AMOUNT IN CRORES) Year

Scheduled UCBs

NonScheduled UCBs

dx

dx2

dy

dy2

dxdy

2008

546

1388

0

0

-141

19881

0

2009

543

1529

-3

9

0

0

0

2010

586

1604

40

1600

-75

5625

-3000

2011

648

1709

102

10404

180

32400

18360

∑dx=139

∑dx2=12013

∑dy=36

∑ dy2=57906

∑dxdy=15360

Total

r

0.82

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Source: Same as Table 1

Table 6 is showing coefficient of correlation between cash in hand of Scheduled and NonScheduled UCBs during the study period of 2008 to 2012. From the analysis of the table, it is clear that there is high positive correlation between cash in hand of Scheduled and NonScheduled UCBs i.e. 0.82. The table also reveals that where is a continuous rise in cash in hand of Non-Scheduled UCBs, the Scheduled UCBs shows fluctuating trends on this parameter as their cash in hand decreases in 2009 as compared to 2008 and then rises onwards during the study period. The table also shows that cash in hand of Non-Scheduled UCBs rises more than Scheduled UCBs. TABLE 7 SHOWING COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION BETWEEN BALANCE WITH BANKS OF SCHEDULED AND NON-SCHEDULED UCBS (AMOUNT IN CRORES) Year

2008 2009 2010 2011

Schedul ed UCBs 7584 5953 10290 11010 Total

NonScheduled UCBs

dx

dx2

dy

dy2

dxdy

r

9971 10267 10238 12880

0 -1631 2706 3426

0 2660161 7322436 11737476

-267 29 0 2642

71289 841 0 6980164

0 -47299 0 9051492

0.65

∑dx=4501

∑dx2=2172007 3

∑dy=2404

∑ dy2=7052294

∑dxdy=9004193

Source: Same as Table 1

Table 7 is showing coefficient of correlation between balance with banks of Scheduled and Non-Scheduled UCBs during the study period of 2008 to 2012. From the analysis of the table, it is clear that there is medium positive correlation between balance with banks of Scheduled and Non-Scheduled UCBs i.e. 0.65. The table reveals that Scheduled UCBs have  

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

increased their balance from 7584 crore in the base year to 11010 crore in the current year and Non-Scheduled UCBs from 9971 crore in the base year to 12880 crore in the current year. One thing is important to note in the table that where there is fall in balance with banks of Scheduled UCBs in 2009 and the same fall happens in case of Non-Scheduled UCBs in 2010. If we compare these two types of banks, it is found that balance with the banks increases more in case of Scheduled UCBs than Non-Scheduled UCBs as their percentage rate of increase is more than Non-Scheduled UCBs. TABLE 8 SHOWING COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION BETWEEN MONEY AT CALL OF SCHEDULED AND NON-SCHEDULED UCBS (AMOUNT IN CRORES) Year

Scheduled UCBs

NonScheduled UCBs

dx

dx2

dy

dy2

dxdy

2008

1009

885

0

0

0

0

0

2009

1203

727

-194

37636

-158

24964

30652

2010

407

1023

-602

362404

138

19044

-83076

2011

651

485

-358

128164

-400

160000

143200

Total

∑dx= -1154

2

∑dx =528204

∑dy=420

2

∑ dy =204008

r

-0.17

∑dxdy=90776

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Source: Same as Table 1

Table 8 is showing coefficient of correlation between money at call of Scheduled and NonScheduled UCBs during the study period of 2008 to 2011. From the analysis of the table, it is clear that there is low negative correlation between money at call of Scheduled and NonScheduled UCBs i.e. -0.17. The table reveals that in 2009, where there is a rise in money at call of Scheduled UCBs, there is a fall in money at call of Non-Scheduled UCBs. Again in 2010, where there is a fall in money at call of Scheduled UCBs, there is a rise in money at call of Non-Scheduled UCBs. Again when in 2011, money at call of Scheduled UCBs rises, money at call of Non-Scheduled UCBs falls. So, we can conclude that both these types of banks are going ion opposite direction as far as their money at call is concerned. This is the reason why there is a negative coefficient of correlation between these two types of banks on this parameter. TABLE 9 SHOWING COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION BETWEEN INVESTMENTS OF SCHEDULED AND NON-SCHEDULED UCBS (AMOUNT IN CRORES) Year

Schedu led UCBs

2008 2009 2010 2011

25776 26629 31107 33480

NonSchedul ed UCBs 31136 38475 48063 53595

Total Source: Same as Table 1

 

dx

dx2

dy

dy2

dxdy

r

-853 0 4478 6851

727609 0 20052484 46936201

-7339 0 9588 15120

53860921 0 91929744 228614400

6260167 0 42800724 103587120

0.98

∑dx=10476

∑dx2=67716294

∑dy=17369

∑ dy2=374405065

∑dxdy=152648011

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

Table 9 is showing coefficient of correlation between investment of Scheduled and NonScheduled UCBs during the study period of 2008 to 2011. From the analysis of the table, it is clear that there is high positive correlation between the investment trends of both these type of banks i.e. 0.98 which shows that these two types of banks goes in the same direction as far as their investments are concerned. There is a continuous rise in investment by both these type of banks which shows the role played by these banks in the development of the economy. If we compare the performance of these banks, we find that Non-Scheduled UCBs has increased their investments more than Scheduled UCBs and hence are ore successful on this parameter than Scheduled UCBs. TABLE 10 SHOWING COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION BETWEEN LOANS AND ADVANCES OF SCHEDULED AND NON-SCHEDULED UCBS (AMOUNT IN CRORES) Year

Scheduled UCBs

NonScheduled UCBs

dx

dx2

dy

dy2

dxdy

r

2008 2009 2010 2011

36147 40504 50647 61772

54297 55730 61789 74569

-4357 0 10143 21268

18983449 0 102880449 452327824

-1433 0 6059 18839

2053489 0 36711481 354907921

6243581 0 61456437 400667852

0.9 8

∑dx=27054

∑dx2=574191722

Total

∑dy=23465

∑ dy2=393672891

∑dxdy=468367870

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Source: Same as Table 1

Table 10 is showing coefficient of correlation between loans and advances of Scheduled and Non-Scheduled UCBs during the study period of 2008 to 2012. From the analysis of the table, it is clear that there is a high positive correlation exist between loans and advances of these two types of banks i.e. 0.98. This shows that both these banks are heading towards same direction as far as their loans and advances are concerned. The table also reveals that there is a continuous rise in loans and advances of both these types of banks. It means that both are contributing to the development of traders and agriculturalists and much other type of their customers by providing them proper loans and advances and thus contributing towards the development of the financial sector of the country. TABLE 11 SHOWING COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION BETWEEN OTHER ASSETS OF SCHEDULED AND NON-SCHEDULED UCBS (AMOUNT IN CRORES) Year

Scheduled UCBs

NonScheduled UCBs

dx

dx2

dy

dy2

dxdy

2008 2009 2010 2011

3966 11930 10859 12005

6705 7454 10657 10498

-6893 1341 0 1146

47513449 1798281 0 1313316

-749 0 3203 3044

561001 0 10259209 9265936

5162857 0 0 3488424

∑dx=4406

∑dx2=50625046

∑dy=5498

∑ dy2=20086146

∑dxdy=8651281

Total

r

0.61

Source: Same as Table 1 Table 11 is showing coefficient of correlation between other assets of Scheduled and NonScheduled UCBs during the study period of 2008 to 2011. From the analysis of the table, it is clear that there is a medium positive correlation between other assets of Scheduled and NonScheduled UCBs i.e. 0.61. This is because of the reason that while there is a rise in other  

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

assets of Non-Scheduled UCBs in 2010, on the other hand other assets of Scheduled UCBs fall and again when there is a rise in other assets of Scheduled UCBs in 2011, there is a fall in other assets of Non-Scheduled UCBs. Positive coefficient of correlation shows same direction of operations of these two types of banks, but medium coefficient of correlation shows that on this parameter these banks are not very closely related to each other in their operations. TABLE 12 SHOWING COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION BETWEEN INTEREST INCOME OF SCHEDULED AND NON-SCHEDULED UCBS (AMOUNT IN CRORES) Year

Scheduled UCBs

NonScheduled UCBs

dx

dx2

dy

dy2

dxdy

2008 2009 2010 2011

5605 6803 7751 8989

8228 9828 10528 11860

-1198 0 948 2186

1435204 0 898704 4778596

-1600 0 700 2032

2560000 0 490000 4129024

1916800 0 663600 4441952

∑dx=1936

∑dx2=7112504

∑dy=1132

∑ dy2=7179024

∑dxdy=7022352

Total

r

0.99

Source: Same as Table 1

Journal of Asian Research Consortium                  186                  http://www.aijsh.org                                                                                      

Table 12 is showing coefficient of correlation between interest income of Scheduled and Non-Scheduled UCBs during the time period of 2008 to 2011. From the analysis of the table, it is clear that there is high positive correlation between interest income of both these types of banks and it is almost nearer to perfect positive correlation. There is a continuous rise in the interest income of both the banks during the study period. But if we compare both these banks on this parameter, we can conclude that Scheduled UCBs interest income increases more than Non-Scheduled UCBs interest income because there percentage rate of increase is more than Non-Scheduled UCBs during the study period. TABLE 13 SHOWING COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION BETWEEN NONINTEREST INCOME OF SCHEDULED AND NON-SCHEDULED UCBS (AMOUNT IN CRORES) Year

Scheduled UCBs

2008 2009 2010 2011

815 911 810 853

NonScheduled UCBs 736 867 629 741

Total

dx

dx2

dy

dy2

dxdy

r

-38 58 -43 0

1444 3364 1849 0

0 131 -107 5

0 17161 11449 25

0 7598 4601 0

0.91

∑dx=-23

∑dx2=6657

∑dy=29

∑ dy2=28635

∑dxdy=12199

Source: Same as Table 1 Table 13 is showing coefficient of correlation between Non-Interest Income of Scheduled and Non-Scheduled UCBs during the study period of 2008 to 2011. From the analysis of the table, it is clear that there is a high positive correlation between Non-Interest Income of both these types of banks. The table reveals that there is a rise in Non-Interest Income of both the banks in 2009 as compared to 2008 and then Non-Interest Income of both the banks fall in 2010 and again rises in 2011. This shows that both the banks are following the same trends

 

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

on this parameter and hence it is obvious to have a high positive correlation between them on this parameter. TABLE 14 SHOWING COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION BETWEEN INTEREST EXPENDITURE OF SCHEDULED AND NON-SCHEDULED UCBS (AMOUNT IN CRORES) Year

Scheduled UCBs

NonSchedule d UCBs

dx

dx2

dy

dy2

dxdy

2008 2009 2010 2011

3574 4444 5334 5536

5391 6241 6670 7601

-870 0 890 1092

756900 0 792100 1192464

-850 0 429 1360

722500 0 184041 1849600

739500 0 381810 1485120

∑dx=1112

∑dx2=2741464

∑dy=939

∑ dy2=2756141

∑dxdy=2606430

Total

r

0.94

Source: Same as Table 1

Journal of Asian Research Consortium                  187                  http://www.aijsh.org                                                                                      

Table 14 is showing coefficient of correlation between Interest Expenditure of Scheduled and Non-Scheduled UCBs during the study period of 2008 to 2011. From the analysis of the table, it is clear that there is a high positive correlation between interest expenditure of Scheduled and Non-Scheduled UCBs i.e. 0.94. The table reveals that there is a continuous rise in interest expenditure of both the banks during the study period. But if we compare interest expenditure of both the banks we found that interest expenditure of Scheduled UCBs increases more than the interest expenditure of Non-Scheduled UCBs during the study period.

TABLE 15 SHOWING COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION BETWEEN NONINTEREST EXPENDITURE OF SCHEDULED AND NON-SCHEDULED UCBS (AMOUNT IN CRORES) Year

Scheduled UCBs

NonScheduled UCBs

dx

dx2

dy

dy2

dxdy

2008 2009 2010 2011

1465 1689 2013 2273

1969 1930 2830 3169

-224 0 324 584

50176 0 104976 341056

0 -39 861 1200

0 1521 741321 1440000

0 0 278964 700800

∑dx=684

∑dx2=496208

∑dy=2022

∑ dy2=2182842

∑dxdy=979764

Total

r

0.96

Source: Same as Table 1

Table 15 is showing coefficient of correlation between Non-Interest Expenditure of Scheduled and Non-Scheduled UCBs during the study period of 2008 to 2011. From the  

                                    

AJR RSH                                       Volume 2, Issue 11 (Novem mber, 2012)      ISSN 2 2249‐7315     

analysis of the table,, it is clear that t there is a high posittive correlatiion betweenn Non-Intereest N uled UCBs during the sstudy periodd i.e. 0.96. It Expenditture of Scheeduled and Non-Schedu shows thhat both thesse banks aree heading inn the same direction d as far as theirr Non-Intereest Expenditture is conccerned. Thoough Non-Innterest Exppenditure off Scheduledd UCBs risees continuouusly, yet theere is a fall in i Non-Interrest Expendiiture of Nonn-Scheduled UCBs in onne year of thhe study perriod i.e. 2009. But if wee compare th hese two bannks on this parameter, p w we found thhat Non-Inteerest Expendditure of Noon-Scheduled UCBs risses more thaan Scheduleed UCBs duuring the studdy period. V.

ONS AND IMPLICAT C CONCLUSI I TIONS OF THE T STUD DY

CONCL LUDING RE EMARKS

i.

Non_interest Expenditure

Interest Expenditure

Non_interest Income

Interest Income

Other Assets

Loans and Advances

Investments

Money at Call

Balance with Banks

Cash in Hand

Other Liabilities

Borrowings

Deposits D it

Resources

1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 ‐0.2

Capital

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The majoor conclusio ons of this research r worrk are basedd upon the given g bar diiagram of thhe coefficiennt of correllation betweeen differennt parameterrs of the tw wo types of banks undeer consideraation:-

As far as the performancee of Schedulled and Nonn-Scheduled Urban Coopperative bankks A onn different selected s paraameters is cooncerned, it can be conccluded that on o 9 out of 15 1 parameters seelected, therre is found high positivve coefficiennt of correlaation betweeen p tthere is meddium positivve thhese two typpes of banks and on 3 out of 15 parameters, cooefficient of o correlation and on 2 out of 15 parameterrs there is low positivve cooefficient off correlation and on 1 ouut of 15 param meters theree is negative coefficient of o coorrelation beetween thesee two types oof banks.

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

ii.

It can be concluded that on Capital, Resources, Borrowings, Cash in Hand, Investment, Interest Income, Non-Interest Income, Interest Expenditure and NonInterest Expenditure, there is high positive coefficient of correlation exists between these two types of banks and on other parameters thee is either medium or low positive coefficient of correlation exists except Money at call parameter because this is the only parameter on which there is negative coefficient of correlation between these two type of banks.

iii.

As far as the banking operations of these banks is concerned, it can be concluded that there is a lot of similarity between these two banks as both are earning huge interest or non-interest income and at the same time both are incurring huge interest or noninterest expenditure. On the other side investments, capital, resources and assets of both the banks increase during the study period. This shows that both the banks are contributing towards the development of the financial sector of the economy.

CONCLUSION

Journal of Asian Research Consortium                  189                  http://www.aijsh.org                                                                                      

Cooperative Banking is not a new term in India as these banks are continuously serving the financial needs of the people of the country from the past several years. These cooperative banks are of various types and Urban Cooperative Banks are the main component of the Cooperative banking system. Urban Cooperative banks are further divided it two parts namely Scheduled and Non-Scheduled Urban Cooperative banks. For the fulfillment of the requirements of the financial sector of the economy, it is essential that both these types of Urban cooperative banks should work in accordance with each other. From the above study, it can be concluded that Scheduled and Non-Scheduled UCBs are doing really good work in the financial sector of the economy during the study period and on most of the selected parameters, there is found a high positive correlation between their operations which shows that these banks are cooperating each other and shows equal trends in their operations. IMPLICATIONS The current study is mainly concerned with the analysis of Scheduled and Non-Scheduled Urban Cooperative banks during the period of 2008 to 2011 that reflects their performance on the selected 15 parameters. As the study reflects the number of parameters on which they shows high similarity or low similarity or inverse trends, so provides important analysis to judge and find out those parameters on which they differ or show low similarity, so, various policies can be framed in the near future in this regard which can improve their performance on those specific parameters, which further help to make some policy measures to improve their performance. The study will be more beneficial for the RBI, for the bankers and policy makers to make some important decisions and to make policy measures to improve their performance. The study will be helpful to the academicians and researchers for further study in this respect. VI.

 

FUTURE AREAS OF RESEARCH i.

Comparative study of these banks for all selected parameters.

ii.

Correlation study between other types of Cooperative banks.

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

iii.

Comparative study between Various types of branches of these cooperative banks i.e. rural, semi-urban, urban, metropolitan etc.

REFERENCES Bhaskaran R and Praful Josh P (2000). “Non Performing Assets (NPAs) in Co-operative Rural Financial System: A major challenge to rural development”, BIRD’s Eye View Dec. Dutta Uttam and Basak Amit (2008). “Appraisal of financial performance of urban cooperative banks- a case study”, The Management Accountant, case study, March, pp.170174. E. Gnanasekaran et al. (2012). “A study on the Urban Cooperative Banks Success and growth in Vellore District – Statistical Analysis,” International Journal of Advanced Research in Computer Science and Software Engineering, Volume 2, Issue 3, March, ISSN: 2277 128X, Available online at: www.ijarcsse.com Fulbag Singh and Balwinder Singh (2006). "Funds management in the central cooperative banks of Punjab- an analysis of financial margin", The ICFAI Journal of Management, Vol. 5, pp.74-80. Geeta Sharma and Ganesh Kawadia (2006). "Efficiency of urban co-operative banks of Maharashtra: A DEA Analysis", The ICFAI Journal of Management, Vol. 5, Issue 4.

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Jain (2001). “Comparative study of performance of District Central Co-operative Banks (DCCBs) of Western India i.e. Maharashtra, Gujarat & Rajasthan for the year 1999-2000 from the point of view of net profit/loss”, NAFSCOB Bulletin, April-June. Ramesha and Nagaraju (2007). "Prudential Standards and the performance of Urban Cooperative Banks in India: An Empirical Investigation", The ICFAI Journal of Financial Risk Management, June. Sant S. & Chaudhari,P.T. (2012). “A Study of the profitability of Urban Cooperative Banks (in Greater Mumbai and Jalgaon for 5 years),” ZENITH International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research Vol.2 Issue 5, May, ISSN 2231 5780. Shirasi, R.S. (2012). “A Study of Financial Working and Operational Performance of Urban Co-operative Banks in Pune District,” Indian Streams Research Journal Vol.1,Issue.V, June, pp.1-4, ISSN:-2230-7850. Urs Niranjan Raj B and Chitambaram K (2000). “Measuring the performance of District Cooperative Banks”, NAFSCOB Bulletin, October-December.

 

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315      A Peer Reviewed International Journal of Asian Research Consortium

AJRSH: ASIAN JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN SOCIAL SCIENCE & HUMANITIES RESEARCHING SEXUAL EXPLOITATION IN SPORT: A FEMALE ATHLETE PERSPECTIVE MR. MANTESH BHARAMANNA KUMBAR*; DR. GAJANANA PRABHU B**; DR. SAKHPAL HOOVANNA*** *Research Scholar, Singhania University, Jhunjhunu, Rajasthan. **Assistant Professor in Physical Education, Kuvempu University, Shimoga. ***Assistant Professor in Physical Education, School of Physical Education, Karnataka State Women’s University, Bijapur.

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ABSTRACT Sport has held a special place for its supposed virtues and its potential as a tool of economic and social development. The special status of sport has also protected it from critical scrutiny and meant that social inequalities and other problems, such as sexual harassment and abuse, have all-too-often been ignored or tacitly condoned. The social problem of sexual exploitation in sport has been constructed differently, at different times, by different stakeholders, with different agendas. Sexual abuse was recognized as a social problem for society some ten years before it came to the attention of researchers and administrators in sport. There is an emerging body of knowledge that now underpins both harassmentfree sport and child protection policy initiatives. Reactions to research work on sexual abuse in sport were far from welcoming. Only since the start of the moral panic over child sexual exploitation in sport, and with the help of pro-feminist accounts by men in sport, have such practices been exposed and public tolerance decreased in many of the countries. Sexual harassment in India is also regarded as a serious issue which has always been not reported due to social stigmas. Research studies quoting incidents of sexual harassment on female athletes in India are cited in the present review. Various dimensions of protecting female athletes from sexual exploitation in sport are discussed and recommendations for minimizing the risk of sexual exploitations are made. KEYWORDS: Female athlete, Sexual exploitation, harassment, abuse, sport. _________________________________________________________________________

 

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

INTRODUCTION Sport has long been adopted by politicians, educators and parents as a suitable vehicle for the development of healthy lifestyles, self-discipline, citizenship and personal morality. It has held a special place for its supposed virtues and its potential as a tool of economic and social development. The special status of sport has also protected it from critical scrutiny and meant that social inequalities and other problems, such as sexual harassment and abuse, have alltoo-often been ignored or tacitly condoned. The social problem of sexual exploitation in sport has been constructed differently, at different times, by different stakeholders, with different agendas. It was brought to prominence by media coverage of a number of high profile scandals involving Olympic and other elite level coaches. Since this exposure, there has been widespread panic amongst sport professionals in several countries, and among parents of young athletes, about the need to keep sexually exploitative coaches ‘out of sport’ (Brackenridge et al., 2000; Malkin, 1999; Malkin, Johnston and Brackenridge, 2000).

Journal of Asian Research Consortium                  192                  http://www.aijsh.org                                                                                      

One of the issues that have begun to radicalize sport is sexual exploitation, especially in its most severe manifestation - the sexual abuse of children. Given its historical development, however, and general societal blindness to sexual abuse, it is not surprising that sex offending in sport escaped the attention of academics and policy makers for so long. Sexual abuse was recognized as a social problem for society some ten years before it came to the attention of researchers and administrators in sport. The early studies of Kempe and Kempe on child battering (Kempe et al., 1962) led researchers to investigate an aspect of domestic violence that had not previously been named. Child abuse was part of the complex system of taboo subjects that feminists had begun to raise in the 1970s (Dobash and Dobash, 1979). Exploitation and abuse in sport has been recognized as an issue only within the past two decades. Awareness of both sexual harassment and sexual abuse grew as a consequence of initiatives for gender equity in sport in the 1970s and 1980s; emotional and physical abuses are under-researched but have also been highlighted in studies of the elite level of athlete performance. There is an emerging body of knowledge that now underpins both harassment-free sport and child protection policy initiatives. These initiatives should have practical benefits for all athletes. Sport frequently involves close personal relationships, both among groups of athletes and between individual athletes and their coaches or leaders. There is evidence of high levels of bullying between athletes, sometimes serious enough to cause an athlete to leave his or her sport. The trust that develops between the athlete and leader is often regarded as an essential part of training for success. Sometimes, however, more powerful individuals take advantage of those with less power, using demeaning sexually harassing behaviour - such as sexist jokes or unwanted touching – or in the most extreme cases abusing them sexually, emotionally or physically. SPORT AS A SITE OF RISK OF SEXUAL EXPLOITATION Sports which involve early peaking i.e. where elite level performance is reached in the lower teenage years, at or around puberty, are thought to present more risk of sexual exploitation to

 

                                     

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athletes than those sports with higher peaking ages, since this time coincides with the transition from child to adult during which sexual identity and maturity are achieved. Reactions to research work on sexual abuse in sport were far from welcoming. The various forms of denial expressed were not surprising since they are common defenses to any accusation of wrongdoing, especially one concerning the abuse of children. In the case of sport, denial of sexual abuse arises from a characteristic set of beliefs about sport (Brackenridge, 1994): •

sport is a morally pure category of behaviour



fair play is a concept applicable to children/players rather than coaches



sport is a site of justifiable male privilege over females



in the main, sport organisations are apolitical and should remain so



sexual matters in sport are taboo

Such beliefs have, collectively, inhibited organizational responses to the issue of sexual exploitation in sport at all levels from the International Olympic Committee down to local voluntary sports clubs.

Journal of Asian Research Consortium                  193                  http://www.aijsh.org                                                                                      

Only since the start of the moral panic over child sexual exploitation in sport, and with the help of pro-feminist accounts by men in sport, have such practices been exposed and public tolerance decreased. When the social problem of sexual exploitation in sport became associated with ‘paedophile’ abuse and child protection, government officials in the UK, Canada and Australia began to take notice. Sexual exploitation in sport is one of the most recent additions to the sport research agenda in India. Sport has frequently been used as a vehicle for both the development of moral and civic virtues, and as a means of building self-esteem. But without research data it is impossible to verify arguments about the relative immunity of sport from the problems of sexual harassment and abuse. Within the past twenty years a number of research studies have been conducted that have begun to map the extent and nature of sexual harassment and abuse in different sports and at different levels of performance (Kirby and Greaves, 1996; Brackenridge, 1997b; Cense, 1997; Volkwein et al., 1997; Toftegaard, 1998 and 2001; Fasting, Brackenridge and Sundgot Borgen, 2000). Sexual harassment in India is also regarded as a serious issue which has always been not reported due to social stigmas. A survey conducted by the Gender Study Group among students in the University of Delhi found that most women respondents felt that harassment constituted male behaviour that could be overlooked and ignored; it amounted to sexual harassment only when it crossed the threshold of their tolerance (Report on Sexual Harassment, 1996). The report of a study conducted by the gender study group of the Delhi University showed that 91.7 per cent of all the inmates of women‟s hostels and 88.2 per cent of all the women day scholars had faced sexual harassment on the roads and within the

 

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

campus (Report on Sexual Harassment, 1996). Sexual harassment of women is rampant in India and most of it is unreported. It is high time the government passes a special legislation for it and for the redressal of sexually harassed women, wrote well-known lawyer and activist Indira Jaising in a manual on laws relating to sexual harassment at the workplace (Report on Sexual Harassment, 1996) Kumbar et. al. (2012) concluded that the physical education and sport settings in India are not absolutely conducive for female athletes for enhancing and exhibiting their talent. According to the empirical investigation conducted by them 66.39% of female athletes at inter University level in Karnataka admitted of experiencing unusual and unwanted experiences from their trainers, spectators and teammates. This was followed by certain undesirable physical and psychological complaints. The International Olympic Committee issued a Consensus Statement in 2007 which reported that:

Journal of Asian Research Consortium                  194                  http://www.aijsh.org                                                                                      

Sexual harassment and abuse happen in all sports and at all levels. Prevalence appears to be higher in elite sport. Members of the athlete’s entourage who are in positions of power and authority appear to be the primary perpetrators. Peer athletes have also been identified as perpetrators. Males are more often reported as perpetrators than females. Research demonstrates that sexual harassment and abuse in sport seriously and negatively impact on athlete’s physical and psychological health. It can result in impaired performance and lead to athlete drop-out. Clinical data indicate that psychosomatic illnesses, anxiety, depression, substance abuse, self harm and suicide are some of the serious health consequences (www.endvawnow.org). Both sexual harassment and sexual abuse are expressions of the greater power of one person over another. In sport it is believed that women and girls are more frequent victims of harassment and abuse than men and boys. Many females drop out of sport rather than continue being subjected to the undermining effects of constant harassment and abuse: others endure the sexual attention of their male coaches or peers because of fear, desire for athletic reward, low self-esteem or ignorance of who to turn to for help (www.sportsbiz.htm). The UNESCO Code of Sports Ethics states that sports organizations have the responsibility: To ensure that safeguards are in place within the context of an overall framework for support and protection for children, young people and women, both to protect the above groups from sexual harassment and abuse and to prevent the exploitation of children, particularly those who demonstrate precious ability (www.endvawnow.org). PIONEER IN THE PROTECTION OF ATHLETES AGAINST EXPLOITATION The United Kingdom was the first country to establish a dedicated centre for the protection of child in sport. The Child Protection in Sport Unit (CPSU) was launched in 2001 as a jointly funded initiative of Sport England - the UK government’s sport policy arm - and the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC) – the UK’s largest children’s charity.

 

                                     

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FOUR DIMENSIONS OF PROTECTION FROM SEXUAL EXPLOITATION IN SPORT Physical Education personnel should attend to four dimensions of protection in relation to sexual, physical and emotional abuse: 1. Protecting the athlete from others: recognizing and referring to legal and/or medical authorities anyone who has been subjected to sexual misconduct or abuse by someone else, whether inside sport (by another staff member or athlete) or outside sport (by someone in the family or peer group); 2. Protecting the athlete from oneself: observing and encouraging good practice when working with athletes in order to avoid perpetrating neglect or abuse of any kind; 3. Protecting oneself from the athlete or others: taking precautions to avoid false allegations against oneself by athletes or their peers or families; 4. Protecting one’s profession: safeguarding the good name and integrity of sport, coaching and sport science. RECOMMENDATIONS EXPLOITATION

FOR

MINIMIZING

THE

RISK

OF

SEXUAL

1. Adopt harassment-free policies and procedures that are in line with international ethical and human rights statutes;

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2. Encourage open debate about sexual harassment, homophobia and exploitation of women and men in sport; 3. Embed both an equitable balance of males and females in all roles and also democratic leadership styles to mitigate against abuses of power; 4. Act as advocates of harassment-free sport through education and training programmes for every member of the sport; 5. Actively monitor the effectiveness of all anti-harassment initiatives; 6. Initiate research into men’s, women’s and children’s experiences of abuse and bullying within their sport; 7. Give active representation to athletes in decision-making at every level of the sport. CONCLUSION There is still large amount of people who are still unclear about what is sexual harassment is all about and feels that their sexual attitude is normal. This is further substantiated with the fact there is no legal intervention on this behavior and most organizations still do not take report made on sexual harassment seriously. Taking into considerations that there is a general lack of knowledge on the real definition of sexual harassment, it can be concluded that sexual harassment should not be viewed as a personal problem but a social problem. Any incident

 

                                     

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relating to exploitation of female athletes need to be dealt seriously. There is a dire necessity to put forward a scientific and systematic approach in order to study the incidents and consequences of female abuse in sporting arena. REFERENCES 1. Brackenridge, C.H. (1994) Fair play or fair game: Child sexual abuse in sport organisations. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 29, 3, 287-299 2. Brackenridge, C.H. (1997b) “He owned me basically”: Women’s experience of sexual abuse in sport. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 32, 2, 115-130. 3. Brackenridge, C.H. (2000) Exposing the ‘Olympic family’: a review of progress towards understanding risk factors for sexual victimisation in sport. Paper presented to Victimisation of Children and Youth: An International Research Conference, University of New Hampshire, USA. 4. Cense, M. (1997) Red Card or Carte Blanche. Risk factors for sexual harassment and sexual abuse in sport. Summary, conclusions and recommendations. Arnhem: Netherlands Olympic Committee*Netherlands Sports Federation/TransAct. 5. Dobash, R.E. and Dobash, R. (1979) Violence against Wives: A case against patriarchy. New York: Free Press. 6. Fasting, K., Brackenridge, C.H. and Sundgot Borgen, J. (2000) Sexual Harassment In and Outside Sport. Oslo: Norwegian Olympic Committee 7. http://www.endvawnow.org/en/articles/30-sexual-harassment-in-sport.html

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8. Kempe, C.H., Silverman, F.N., Droegmuller, W. and Silver, H. K. (1962) The battered child syndrome. Child Abuse and Neglect, 17, 1, 71-90. 9. Kirby, S. and Greaves, L. (1996) Foul play: Sexual abuse and harassment in sport’, paper presented to the Pre-Olympic Scientific Congress, Dallas, USA. 10. Kumbar, M.B., Prabhu, G., Prakash, S. M., Hoovanna, S. (2012) “An Assessment Of Female Athlete Problems At Inter-University Level Competitions”, Wellness: Journal of Health, Physical Education and Sports, Vol- 4(1), PP- 63-71. 11. Malkin, K. (1999) An audit of training needs for child protection in sport. Unpublished masters dissertation, Cheltenham and Gloucester College of Higher Education. 12. Malkin, K., Johnston, L.H. and Brackenridge, C.H. (2000) A critical evaluation of training needs for child protection in UK sport. Managing Leisure, 5, 151-160. 13. Toftegaard Nielsen, J (2001) The forbidden zone: Intimacy, sexual relations and isconduct in the relationship between coaches and athletes. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 36, 2, 165-183.

 

                                     

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14. Toftegaard, J. (1998) Den forbudte zone/The Forbidden Zone. Unpublished masters thesis, Institut for Idraet, Copenhagen, Denmark

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15. Volkwein, K., Schnell, F., Sherwood, D. and Livezey, A. (1997) Sexual harassment in sport: Perceptions and experiences of American female student-athletes. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 23, 3, 283-295.

 

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315      A Peer Reviewed International Journal of Asian Research Consortium

AJRSH: ASIAN JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN SOCIAL SCIENCE & HUMANITIES A STUDY ON ATTITUDE OF TEACHERS AND STUDENTS TOWARDS THE SYSTEM OF PASS-FAIL IN SCHOOL EDUCATION PRANAB BARMAN*; DR. DIBYENDU BHATTACHARYYA** *Research Scholar, Department of Education, University of Kalyani. **Associate Professor and HOD, Department of Education, K.U.

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ABSTRACT In the present study an attempt has been made by the investigators to study the attitude of secondary school teachers and students towards the Pass-Fail system. The investigators used Descriptive Survey method for the present study. The sample consists of 120 teachers and 200 VIIIth Grade students from Bengali Medium Secondary Schools in the district of Burdwan, West Bengal. The Purposive sampling technique has been used for the selection of sample. The investigators developed a tool themselves to measure the attitude of teachers and students towards the Pass-Fail system. For the analysis of data‘t’ test has been used in the present study. The overall results indicate that teachers have favorable attitude towards the Pass-Fail system and there is no significant difference between teachers on the basis of gender and streams. But in the other side, students have not strongly favorable and unfavorable attitude towards the Pass-Fail system. Some of them have slightly favorable attitude towards the Pass-Fail system and some of them have slightly unfavorable attitude towards the Pass-Fail system. Most of the students have moderate attitude towards the passfail system. It is also found that there is significant difference in the attitude of teachers and students towards the Pass-Fail system. Teachers have more favorable attitude towards the Pass-Fail system than the students. KEYWORDS: Attitude of Teachers and Students, Pass-Fail System. ________________________________________________________________________

 

                                     

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INTRODUCTION The term ‘Pass-Fail’ is closely related to the education system. From the beginning of our education system it has been used to evaluate the performance of students. Generally we evaluate a student’s performance on the basis of Pass-Fail in our present education system. But Pass-Fail System in education has become a debatable issue today throughout the country. Very recently in 2009, the Right to Education Act has been passed by the Parliament of India. According to this Act, every child of the age group of 6-14 has the right of Free and Compulsory elementary education and it has been included as a fundamental right in our Indian Constitution. It also recommended that there is no Pass- Fail system in education up to 14 years to ensure the free and compulsory elementary education for every child. But one question is very important in this connection that is it possible to maintain the quality of education by abolishing the pass-fail system in education? Some psychologist as well as educationist has shown their attitude in favor of Pass-Fail system in education. On the other hand some of them strongly opposed it and recommended to abolish the Pass-Fail system in education. However, undoubtedly it is true that the Pass-Fail system has some positive or negative impact on education of a student. Therefore, it is very necessary to justify the opinion or attitude of concerned stakeholders like teachers and students before abolishing the Pass-Fail system in education completely. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE A few important research studies have been conducted on the attitude towards the pass-fail system. Clifford A. Hardy (2012) studied ‘Pass-Fail as a system of Evaluation’ and reported that

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i)The students and faculty attitude towards the pass-fail system were essentially of a positive nature. ii)There is no significant difference between student and faculty attitude towards the pass-fail system of evaluation for student teaching. iii) It was also found that students tend to support a more widespread application of the passfail system of evaluation. Michalis Michaelides and Ben Kirshner (2005) in their study ‘Graduate Student Attitude towards Grading System’ found that Students reported higher orientation towards ability comparison and higher levels of effort and stress in letter-graded classes. Students in letter graded classes were more likely to be concerned about competition, their status in relation to other students, and their position in the eyes of the professor than they were in pass/fail classes. Students say they put more effort into letter-graded classes than pass/fail classes. Students did not show a significant difference in mastery goals in letter-graded vs. pass/fail classes. This was true for students overall as well as for each school separately. Apparently receiving a letter grade or a pass/fail grade does not make a significant difference for these graduate students’ desire to learn and master the material in their courses. According to Yash Pal Committee Report (1993) criticizes present mode of Examination system on the basis of pass and fail and highlighted the major defect of the examination system is on children’s ability to reproduce information to the exclusion of the ability to

 

                                     

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apply examinations in terms of memorizing informations rather than conceptual entity. Both the teacher and the parents constantly reinforce the fear of examination to the students and the need to prepare for it in the only manner that seems practical, namely, by memorizing a whole lot of information from the textbooks and guidebooks. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY The main objectives of this paper are to find out the attitude of teachers and students towards the pass-fail system in school education. Recently, the pass-fail system in school education has become a serious debatable issue throughout the country. According to the Right to Education Act (2009), there will be no pass-fail system up to class viii for ensuring the free and compulsory elementary education of every child of the age group of 6-14 years. But due to this Act, a massive debate has been started among the teachers, students, parents, and educationist as well as social reformers. One group of them has supported the pass-fail system in school education and the other group has opposed the pass-fail system in school education. Therefore, it is very essential to rethink over this matter before abolishing the pass-fail system in school education.

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Through the present study, the investigators have tried to find out the attitude of teachers and students towards the pass-fail system. Consequently it is found that teachers are agreed with the pas-fail system. They have favorable attitude towards the pass-fail system. But in the other hand, it is also found that students are not agreed with the pas-fail system as like as teachers. They are not highly agreed or disagreed with the pass-fail system in school education. Hence, it is very significant to rejustify the matter of pas-fail system in school education. The results of this paper are very significant for the policy makers, administrators, educationists and the government. As quality improvement is one of the most important dimensions of education, therefore it should not be hampered the quality of education with the name of abolishing the pass-fail system in education. In this matter, the present study is very significant in the field of elementary education. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The present study has been conducted on the basis of the following objectives: 1. To find out the attitude of teachers towards the Pass-Fail system. 2. To find out the attitude of students towards the Pass-Fail system. 3. To compare the attitude between teachers and students towards the Pass-Fail system. 4. To compare the attitude between boys and girls students towards the Pass-Fail system. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The study attempts to measure the attitude of teachers and students of secondary schools towards the Pass-Fail system and tries to find out the relationship between teachers and students’ different attitude towards the Pass-Fail system. Therefore the investigators selected their research title as “A Study on Attitude of Teachers and Students towards the System of Pass-Fail in School Education”.

 

                                     

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HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY H1. There exists favorable attitude among secondary school teachers towards the pass-fail system. H2. There exists favorable attitude among secondary school students towards the pass-fail system. Ho.3: There is no significant mean difference of attitude scores towards the pass-fail system between Arts teachers and Science teachers. Ho.4: There is no significant mean difference of attitude scores towards the pass-fail system between Male teachers and Female teachers. Ho.5: There is no significant mean difference of attitude scores towards the pass-fail system between Arts male teachers and Arts female teachers. Ho.6: There is no significant mean difference of attitude scores towards the pass-fail system between Science male teachers and Science female teachers. Ho.7: There is no significant mean difference of attitude scores towards the pass-fail system between boys and girls students. Ho.8: There is no significant mean difference of attitude scores towards the pass-fail system between Teachers and Students.

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DEFINITION OF THE TERMS ATTITUDE: The term ‘Attitude’ has been defined by various authors in various ways. Some of the definitions from different sources which illustrate the common usage of the terms are given below: “An attitude is a mental and natural state of readiness exerting directive or dynamic influence upon the individual’s response to all objects and situations with which it is related.”(Britt) “Attitude is a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor” (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993). OPERATIONAL DEFINITION Here the researcher has defined the term ‘Attitude’ in the sense of opinion of teachers and students towards the pass-fail system. METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY METHOD In the present study Descriptive Survey Method was employed to find out the attitude of secondary school teachers and students towards the Pass-Fail system by using following statistical techniques: Mean, Standard Deviation followed by t-test.

 

                                     

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SAMPLE One hundred twenty (120) teachers and two hundred (200) students from selected five secondary schools situated in the district of Burdwan, West Bengal has been considered as the sample for the present study. Purposive sampling technique is used for the selection of sample and data has been collected on the basis of gender, and subject wise attitude of teachers. TOOLS USED IN THE STUDY The following tool was used for the collection of data in the present study: ‘Pass-Fail Attitude Questionnaire’ developed by the investigators. The questionnaire consisted of 25 questions of statements on various psychological aspects. There are two options for each question expressing ‘Yes’ and ‘No’. For ‘Yes’ ‘1’ mark is given for favorable attitude towards Pass & Fail System and for answering ‘No’ the candidate is given ‘0’(zero). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION H1. There exists favorable attitude among secondary school teachers towards the pass-fail system.

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TABLE-1. SHOWN THE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION AND PERCENTAGE OF ATTITUDE SCORES OF TOTAL TEACHERS Class Interval of Attitude Scores 10-12 13-15 16-18 19-21 22-24 Total

Frequency

% of the Teachers

5 12 28 54 21 120

4.16 10 23.33 45 17.5 100%

The above table shows that 4.16 teachers responded between the score 10-12. And in the same way, 10%, 23.33%, 45% and 17.5% teachers responded between the score 13-15, 1618, 19-21 and 22-24 respectively. Therefore, it is cleared that most of the teachers have favorable attitude towards the Pass-Fail system.

 

                                    

AJR RSH                                       Volume 2, Issue 11 (Novem mber, 2012)      ISSN 2 2249‐7315     

FIG GURE-1 GRA APHICAL REPRESEN R NTATION O OF FREQU UENCY DIS STRIBUTIO ON AND PERCE ENTAGE OF O ATTITU UDE SCORE ES OF TEA ACHERS TO OWARDS THE T PASS-FAIL SYSTEM 60 50 40 Freq quency

30

% off the Teachers 20 10 0 10‐12

13‐15

16‐18

19‐21

22‐24

ATT TITUDE SCORES IN T TERMS OF CLASS IN NTERVAL

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H2. Therre exists fav vorable attituude among secondary school s studeents towardss the pass-faail system. TABLE E-2. SHOW WN THE FR REQUENCY Y DISTRIBU UTION AN ND PERCEN NTAGE OF F ATTITUD DE SCORES S OF TOTA AL STUDEN NTS % of the Students Class Interval off Attitude F Frequency S Scores 7-9 11 5.55 10-12 27 13.5 13-15 33 16.5 16-18 72 366 19-21 45 22.5 22-24 12 6 Total 200 1000% The abovve table show ws that 5.5% % students reesponded bettween the sccore 7-9. Annd in the sam me way, 13.55%, 16.5%, 36%, 22.5% % and 6% stuudents respon nded betweeen the score 10-12, 13-15, 16-18, 199-21 and 222-24 respectiively. Thereffore, it is cleared that sttudents havee not stronglly favorablee or unfavoraable attitudee towards thee Pass-Fail sy ystem.

                                    

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FIG GURE-2 GRA APHICAL REPRESEN R NTATION O OF FREQU UENCY DIS STRIBUTIO ON AND PERCE ENTAGE OF O ATTITU UDE SCORE ES OF STU UDENTS TO OWARDS THE T PASS-FAIL SYSTEM

80 70 60 50 Freq quency

40

% off the Students

30 20 10 0 7‐9

1 10‐12

13‐‐15

16‐18 8

19‐21

22‐24

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TABL LE-3. SHOW WN THE COMPARIS C SON OF AT TTITUDE S SCORES BE ETWEEN TE EACHERS AND A STUD DENTS TOW WARDS TH HE PASS-FA AIL SYSTE EM (IN PERC CENTAGE) Class Interval I of Attitude A Sco ores 7-9 10-12 13-15 16-18 19-221 22-224

% of the Teachers T 0 4.166 10 23.333 45 17.55

% of the Studentss 5.5 13.5 16.5 36 22.5 6

s 7-9, whereas w 5.5% % The abovve table shoows that no teachers reesponded beetween the score students are respondding favorably towards tthe pass andd fail system m. Similarly 4.16%, 10% %, t score 100-12, 13-15, 16-18, 19-221 23.33%, 45% and 177.5% teacheers respondeed between the 24 respectiveely in the saame way. Whereas W stud dents are 13..5%, 16.5%,, 36%, 22.5% % and 22-2 and 6% expressing e th heir positivee views towaards the systtem. Therefoore, it means that there is significannt differencee of attitudee scores betw ween the teaachers and sttudents towaards the PassFail system. And it is also cleaared that thee attitude off teachers is more favorrable than thhe students towards the Pass-Fail syystem.

                                    

AJR RSH                                       Volume 2, Issue 11 (Novem mber, 2012)      ISSN 2 2249‐7315     

FIG GURE-3 GRAPH HICAL REP PRESENTA ATION OF P PERCENTA AGE OF AT TTITUDE SCORES S O OF TEACHER T S AND STU UDENTS TO OWARDS THE T PASS--FAIL SYST TEM

45 40 35 30 25

% of the Teachers

20

% of the Students

15 10 5 0 7‐9

10‐12 1

13‐‐15

16‐18 8

19‐21

22‐24

Ho.3: Theere is no significant meaan difference of attitudee scores tow wards the passs-fail system m between Arts teacherrs and Sciencce teachers.

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TABLE E NO. - 4: SHOWN S TH HE ATTITU UDE OF AR RTS TEACH HERS AND D SCIENCE E TE EACHERS TOWARDS S THE PAS SS-FAIL SY YSTEM Group ps

N of No. Tea achers

Mean

Standard Deviattion

Arts Teacheers Sciencce Teacheers

65

18.09

2.300

55

17.88

2.677

t-vvalue

00.46

Level of Significancee S Not significannt N a 0.05 level at

From thee table -4, it is observedd that the callculated‘t’ vaalue (‘t’ = 00.46) is less than t the table value (1..98 at 0.05 level l of signnificance). S So, it is not significant and it indicates that Arrts teachers and Sciencee teachers haave similar attitude a towaards the passs-fail system m at secondarry level. Heence the null hypothesis is accepted. Ho.4: Theere is no significant meaan difference of attitudee scores tow wards the passs-fail system m between Male teacheers and Femaale teachers.

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

TABLE NO.- 5: SHOWN THE ATTITUDE OF MALE TEACHERS AND FEMALE TEACHERS TOWARDS THE PASS-FAIL SYSTEM Groups

No. of Teachers

Mean

Standard Deviation

Male Teachers Female Teachers

72

18.03

2.38

t-value

0.90 48

17.65

Level of Significance Not significant at 0.05 level

2.41

From the table -5, it is observed that the calculated‘t’ value (‘t’ = 0.90) is less than the table value (1.98 at 0.05 level of significance). So, it is not significant and it indicates that Male teachers and Female teachers have similar attitude towards the pass-fail system at secondary level. Hence the null hypothesis is accepted. Ho.5: There is no significant mean difference of attitude scores towards the pass-fail system between Arts male teachers and Arts female teachers.

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TABLE NO.-6: SHOWN THE ATTITUDE OF ARTS MALE TEACHERS AND ARTS FEMALE TEACHERS TOWARDS THE PASS-FAIL SYSTEM Groups

No. of Teachers

Mean

Standard Deviation

Arts Male Teachers Arts Female Teachers

40

18.22

2.17

25

17.56

2.35

tvalue 1.13

Level of Significance Not significant at 0.05 level

From the table -6, it is observed that the calculated‘t’ value (‘t’ = 1.13) is less than the table value (1.98 at 0.05 level of significance). So, it is not significant and it indicates that Arts male teachers and Arts female teachers have similar attitude towards the pass-fail system at secondary level. Hence the null hypothesis is accepted. Ho.6: There is no significant mean difference of attitude scores towards the pass-fail system between Science male teachers and Science female teachers. TABLE NO. -7: SHOWN THE ATTITUDE OF SCIENCE MALE TEACHERS AND SCIENCE FEMALE TEACHERS TOWARDS THE PASS-FAIL SYSTEM

 

Groups

No. of Teachers

Mean

Standard Deviation

Science Male Teachers Science Female Teachers

32

17.40

2.52

t-value

1.09 23

18.12

2.35

Level of Significance Not significant at 0.05 level

                                     

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From the table -7, it is observed that the calculated‘t’ value (‘t’ = 1.09) is less than the table value (1.98 at 0.05 level of significance). So, it is not significant and it indicates that Science male teachers and Science female teachers have similar attitude towards the pass-fail system at secondary level. Hence the null hypothesis is accepted. Ho.7: There is no significant mean difference of attitude scores towards the pass-fail system between boys and girls students. TABLE NO.-8: SHOWN THE ATTITUDE OF BOYS AND GIRLS STUDENTS TOWARDS THE PASS-FAIL SYSTEM Groups

No. of Students

Mean

Standard Deviation

Boys Students Girls Students

125

16.71

3.65

t-value

2.40 75

15.51

Level of Significance Not significant at 0.05 level

3.37

From the table -8, it is observed that the calculated ‘t’ value (‘t’ = 2.40) is more than the table value (1.98 at 0.05 level of significance). So, it is significant and it indicates that Boys and Girls students do differ in their attitude towards the pass-fail system at secondary level. Hence the null hypothesis is rejected.

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Ho.8: There is no significant mean difference of attitude scores towards the pass-fail system between Teachers and Students. TABLE NO.-9: SHOWN THE ATTITUDE OF TEACHERS AND STUDENTS TOWARDS THE PASS-FAIL SYSTEM Groups

N

Mean

Standard Deviation

Teachers

120

17.68

2.73

t-value

3.29 Students

200

16.56

Level of Significance Significant at 0.05 level

3.44

From the table -9, it is observed that the calculated‘t’ value (‘t’ = 3.29) is more than the table value (1.98 at 0.05 level of significance). So, it is significant and it indicates that Teachers and Students do differ in their attitude towards the pass-fail system at secondary level. Hence the null hypothesis is rejected. FINDINGS OF THE STUDY The following findings have been come out through the present study:

 

                                     

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1. The secondary school teachers possess favourable attitude towards the Pass-Fail System in school education. 2. The secondary school students have not strongly favourable or unfavourable attitude towards the Pass-Fail System in school education. 3. The secondary school teachers of Arts and Science streams do not differ significantly in their attitude towards the Pass-Fail system. 4. The Male and Female teachers do not differ significantly in their attitude towards the PassFail system. 5. The Male and Female teachers of Arts stream do not differ significantly in their attitude towards the Pass-Fail system. 6. The Male and Female teachers of Science stream do not differ significantly in their attitude towards the Pass-Fail system. 7. The Boys and Girls students do not differ significantly in their attitude towards the PassFail system. 8. The Teachers and Students do differ significantly in their attitude towards the Pass-Fail system.

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CONCLUSION Pass-Fail system is the integral part of the system of education. Whatever the actions have been taken by the Indian Government to abolish the pass-fail system, it is really true that the pass-fail system has some positive impact on education. Through the present study it is found that most of the teachers have supported the pass-fail system in school education. According to them, the pas-fail system in education influences the student’s performance. They also argued that if the pass-fail system is removed from the system of education, students are lost their interest in education and also lost their competitive attitude to do better something. In the other side, it is also found that the attitude of students towards the pass-fail system is not highly positive or negative. Most of the students have moderate attitude towards the pas-fail system. But it is also found that boys and girls students are not possess the same attitude towards the pas-fail system. The girls students have less positive attitude towards the pass-fail system than the boys students. Because generally it is found that girls are more anxious about their examination than the boys. Through the present study it is also found that there is significant difference between teachers and students in their attitude towards the pass-fail system. Teachers have more favorable attitude towards the pass-fail system than the students. Therefore, it is very necessary to reconsider the matter of removing or not removing the passfail system in education for maintaining and improving the quality of education. REFERENCES Ebel, R. L. (1980). Evaluation of students: implications for effective teaching. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis,2,47-51. Gage, N. L., & Berliner, D. C. (1998). Educational Psychology (6th Ed.). Boston, MA:

 

                                     

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Houghton

Mifflin

Company.

Michaelides, M., & Kirshner, B. (2005). Graduate Student Attitudes toward Grading Systems. College Quarterly, 8, 4. Miller, B.M., Kalet, A., Van Woerkom, R.C., Zorko, N., Halsey, J. (2009). Can a Pass/Fail Grading System Adequately Reflect Student Progress? Virtual Mentor, 11, 842-51. Milton, O., Pollio, H. R., and Eison, J. A. (1986). Making Sense of College Grades. San Francisco:Jossey-Bass Publishers. Quann, C. J. (1984). Grades and Grading: Historical Perspectives and the 1982 AACRAO Study. Washington DC: American Association of Collegiate Registrars and Admissions Officers. Rohe, D.E., Barrier, P.A., Clark, M.M., Cook, D.A., Vickers, K.S., `& Decker, P.A. (2006). The Benefits of Pass-Fail Grading on Stress, Mood, and Group Cohesion in Medical Students. Mayo Clin Proc. 81, 1443-48. Roeser, R. W., Midgley, C., & Urdan, T. C. (1996). Perceptions of the school psychological environment and early adolescents’ psychological and behavioral functioning in school: The mediating role of goals belonging. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88, 408-422. Sadler, D. R. (1983). Evaluation and the improvement of academic learning. Journal of Higher Education,54,60-79.

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Schevitz, T. (2000, February 24). UC Santa Cruz to start using letter grades. The San Francisco Chronicle,17. Stallings, W. M. & Leslie, E. K. (1970). Student attitudes toward grades and grading. Improving College and University Teaching,18,66-68. Weller, D. L. (1983). The grading nemesis: An historical overview and a current look at pass/fail grading. Journal of Research and Development in Education,17,39-45. Winter, R. (1993). Education of Grading? Arguments for a Non-subdivided Honours Degree. Studies in Higher Education, 18, 363-377.    

 

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315      A Peer Reviewed International Journal of Asian Research Consortium

AJRSH: ASIAN JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN SOCIAL SCIENCE & HUMANITIES EXPLORING STRENGTH DISPARITIES BETWEEN PHYSICALLY ACTIVE AND SEDENTARY MEN DR. GAJANANA PRABHU B* *Assistant Professor, Department of P.G. Studies and Research in Physical Education, Kuvempu University, Shankaraghatta, Shimoga.

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ABSTRACT Purpose of this study was to reveal facts pertaining to strength differences between Dollu Kunitha performers (N=25), Yakshagana artists (N=25), Physical Education Teachers (N=25) and Bank Employees (N=25). Strength is one of the most important health related physical fitness component. Considerable amount of strength is most essential to any individual in order to carry out his daily activities. Active life style along with adequate amount of physical activities is desirable. Male subjects belonging to Malnad region were randomly selected for this purpose. Data was collected through standard hand grip dynamometer in the field setting. The data was statistically treated using one way analysis of variance (ANOVA). Findings of the study revealed that there were disparities among grip strength of individuals belonging to four groups under study. Results of the study are discussed in detail. It was concluded that, observing a physically active life style is inevitable in order to possess higher grip strength. KEYWORDS: strength, hand grip dynamometer, active lifestyle. ___________________________________________________________________________ INTRODUCTION Today’s citizens are less physically fit than their ancestors who lived over a hundred years ago. The striking disparities in burden of illness and death experienced by racial and ethnic minorities, despite improvements in the overall health of the nation, are a serious public health concern facing our country. The concept of total fitness encompasses the whole philosophy of health, the social, emotional and physical condition of an individual. A totally fit individual has the strength, speed, agility, endurance and social and emotional adjustments appropriate to his age and sex.

 

                                     

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Physical activity continues to be a key factor for the prevention and management of many risk factors, chronic diseases and functional disabilities associated with ageing up to old age (e.g., Blumenthal & Gullette, 2002; Paterson, et. al., 2004). Both moderate and vigorous exercise is favored in physical activity recommendations (e.g., World Health Organization, 1997). Because middle-aged adults have both fewer health problems and higher physical activity than older adults, recommendations for middle-aged adults usually refer to activities with higher energy expenditure. By contrast, vigorous physical activities such as fast cycling or tennis are not always indicated for individuals with cardiovascular or musculoskeletal disorders, in particular if these are caused by decades of sedentary living habits and a progressive loss of musculoskeletal function (Blair, et. al., 1992).

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Despite the well-known benefits of physical activity, most adults and many children lead a relatively sedentary lifestyle and are not active enough to achieve these health benefits. Regular physical activity, fitness, and exercise are critically important for the health and well being of people of all ages. Research has demonstrated that virtually all individuals can benefit from regular physical activity, whether they participate in vigorous exercise or some type of moderate health-enhancing physical activity. Even among frail and very old adults, mobility and functioning can be improved through physical activity. Therefore, physical fitness should be a priority for all ages. A complex interplay of promoting and constraining variables affects an individual’s decision to walk, bike, or get involved in sports and exercise. Propensity towards physical activity is caused not only by individual capacities and experiences but also by social relationships and the physical characteristics of settings. There has been considerable debate among scholars about the relative importance of individual, social, and physical/environmental variables for physical activity. Physical activity and inactivity were affected by different determinants, with physical activity being mostly influenced by environmental factors, and inactivity being primarily determined by socio demographic and personal factors. Increasing physical activity is an effective way to maintain body composition and potentially prevent obesity. Physical activity has been shown to induce health related benefits in males and females of all age groups and characteristics. Individual characteristics include a person’s age, gender, race/ethnicity, income, education, biomedical status, etc. A number of studies have been able to establish strong correlations between the existence of certain individual characteristics and one’s propensity to engage in physical activity. Yakshagana is one of the most popular tradition theatrical forms of Karnataka. It is difficult to categorize Karnataka's Yakshagana as folk, rural or classical. It can be said to be a form of theater that encompasses many performance traditions. Having its origin in the Bhakti movement in southern India, Yakshagana literally means the songs of the celestial beings. Dollu Kunitha on the other hand is a major form of folk-dance performance in Karnataka. It is performed mainly by men and women of the Kuruba community of Northern Karnataka. The present study intends to examine the association between lifestyle effects and strength differences. It includes subjects practicing different forms of folk/theatre arts, physical education teachers and bank employees, especially of Malnad and coastal region.

 

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY The purpose of the study was to assess disparities in strength among Dollukunitha artists, Yakshagana artists, Physical Education Teachers and Bank Employees. METHODOLOGY The subjects for the study included randomly selected Dollu Kunitha performers (N=25), Yakshagana artists (N=25), Physical Education Teachers (N=25) and Bank Employees (N=25) of Malnad region. Assessment of dominant hand grip strength was done by Analogue Hand Grip Dynamometer. Leisure time of the subjects was made known and the subjects were accordingly approached. The data was mostly collected in field settings, except for BE, with prior consent from the subjects. Three trials were permitted to each subject and the best was recorded. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was applied to find difference between groups. The LSD post hoc test was used wherever the F-ratio was found to be statistically significant. The level of significance chosen was 0.05. ANALYSIS OF DATA & RESULTS The raw data on grip strength of all the four groups were subjected to descriptive statistics as well as ANOVA. Table 1 provides descriptive statistics on grip strength.

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TABLE 1. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS ON DOMINANT HAND GRIP STRENGTH OF DOLLUKUNITHA ARTISTS, YAKSHAGANA ARTISTS, PHYSICAL EDUCATION TEACHERS AND BANK EMPLOYEES Groups Dollu Kunitha artist Yakshagana artist P E Teachers Bank Employees

N

Mean

Std. Deviation

Minimum

Maximum

25 25 25 25

35.24 30.88 34.48 31.96

4.7459 5.6518 4.6199 6.0723

29.00 22.00 25.00 22.00

51.00 43.00 43.00 46.00

Table 1 shows Mean and Standard Deviations of all the four groups on dominant hand grip strength. It is evident that the data is normally distributed and homogeneity of sample in terms of Standard Deviation is satisfactory. In order to examine any statistical significance in the mean scores of dominant hand grip strength among the groups, ANOVA was carried out. The results are presented in Table 2.

 

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

TABLE 2. SUMMARY OF ANOVA ON DOMINANT HAND GRIP STRENGTH AMONG DOLLUKUNITHA ARTISTS, YAKSHAGANA ARTISTS, PHYSICAL EDUCATION TEACHERS AND BANK EMPLOYEES Between Groups Within Groups Total

Sum of Squares 317.640 2704.400 3022.040

df 3 96 99

Mean Square 105.880 28.171

F

Sig.

3.758

.013*

* Significant at 0.05 level as F (3, 96)

Table 2 on ANOVA indicates significant difference in dominant hand grip strength among Dollukunitha artists (35.24), Yakshagana artists (30.88), Physical Education Teachers (34.48) and Bank Employees (31.96). The calculated value is greater than the tabulated F-value (2.6802) required for significance at .05 levels in this study. Hence, to distinguish among the superiority of dominant hand grip strength among the four groups LSD post hoc test was applied and results are depicted in table 3. TABLE 3. SUMMARY OF POST HOC TEST FOR MEAN DIFFERENCES ON DOMINANT HAND GRIP STRENGTH AMONG DOLLUKUNITHA ARTISTS, YAKSHAGANA ARTISTS, PHYSICAL EDUCATION TEACHERS AND BANK EMPLOYEES

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Dollukunitha artists Yakshagana artists Physical Education Teachers

Yakshagana artists 4.3600 ---

Physical Education Teachers --0.00036 --

Bank Employees 3.2800 ---

Table 3 for LSD post hoc test on dominant hand grip strength among Dollukunitha artists (35.24), Yakshagana artists (30.88), Physical Education Teachers (34.48) and Bank Employees (31.96) for differences in paired final means indicates significant values between Dollukunitha artists and Yakshagana artists (.005); Dollukunitha artists and Bank Employees (.031); and Yakshagana artists and Physical Education Teachers (.018). This does mean that inculcating Dollukunitha as a hobby is better for acquiring high grip strength than yakshagana or following a sedentary life style, as in the case of Bank Employees. Further, the results demonstrated the fact that, the P E Teachers possessed higher grip strength than Yakshagana artists. The results have been depicted in figure 1.

 

                                    

AJR RSH                                       Volume 2, Issue 11 (Novem mber, 2012)      ISSN 2 2249‐7315     

Fig gure 1. Mean ns plot on Dominant D H Hand Grip S Strength

DOMINANT HAND GRIP STRENGTH (in Kgs)

3 36 3 35 3 34 3 33 3 32 3 31 3 30 2 29 2 28 Dollu Kun nitha artist

Yakshagana arrtist

P E Teachers

Bank Emplo oyees

GROUPS

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DISCUS SSION ON FINDINGS F The resuults of the study s demon nstrated signnificant resuults in termss of grip strrength amonng various groups g in thee present crooss sectional study. It waas evident thaat the Dolluk kunitha grouup possessedd higher gripp strength thhan Yakshaggana group annd bank empployees. Furrther, Physical Education Teachers possessed p hiigher grip sttrength than Yakshaganaa group. Thee significancce nitha group in i in the ressults may bee due to the greater invoolvement off hands by thhe Dollukun their pro ofessional en ndeavor. Siimilarly, Phhysical Educcation is a profession where activve physical involvemen nt is utmostt essential aas comparedd to Yakshhagana perfo ormance. Thhe a consisten nt with Glicckman, Colllinsworth annd Murrayy (2006) staating that thhe results are benefits associated with w exercisse include aachieving optimal bodyy composition, increaseed nd endurancee, flexibility, and balancce. Further, tthe research conducted by b muscularr strength an Chorley et. al. (2009) has conccluded that aerobic capacity and uppper body strength s werre p n in the dancce classes. increasedd following participation CONCL LUSION It is conncluded that the improvement in grrip strength is site speccific. In ordeer to enhancce physical performancce in terms of musculaar strength it i is essentiial to involv ve in expliccit olvement of specific musscle group iss involved. IIn order to possess p higheer activitiess where invo grip strenngth one neeed to observe an active llifestyle. Inddulging in Hobbies like folk f art/dancce where acctive involveement is neceessary facilittates in gaining higher physical p fitneess, especiallly strength.

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

REFERENCES 1. Blair, S. N., Kohl, H. W., Gordon, N. F., & Paffenbarger, R. J. (1992). How much physical activity is good for health? Annual Review of Public Health, 13, 99-126. 2. Blumenthal, J. A., & Gullette, E. C. D. (2002). Exercise interventions and aging: Psychological and physical health benefits in older adults. In K. W. Schaie & H. Leventhal & S. L. Willis (Eds.), Effective health behavior in older adults (pp. 157178). New York: Springer. 3. Glickman, E, L., Collinsworth, T, A., and Murray, L. (2006) “Exercise Testing and Prescription in the Enhancement of Physiologic and Overall Well Being in the Older Adult”. Published by the Forum on Public Policy 4. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grip_strength 5. http://www.mapsofindia.com 6. Chorley, M., Connolly, M. K., Quin, E., and Redding, E. (2009) “dance 4 your life A dance and health project” Research article reviewed online at http://www.nklaap.com 7. Paterson, D. H., Govindasamy, D., Vidmar, M., Cunningham, D. A., & Koval, J. J. (2004). Longitudinal study of determinants of dependence in an eldery population. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 52, 1632-1638.

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8. World Health Organization. (1997). The Heidelberg Guidelines for promoting physical activity among older persons. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 5, 1-8.

 

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315      A Peer Reviewed International Journal of Asian Research Consortium

AJRSH: ASIAN JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN SOCIAL SCIENCE & HUMANITIES A COMPARATIVE STUDY ON COMMITMENT AND SATISFACTION OF MEDICAL AND NON-MEDICAL PERSONNEL OF PRIVATE HOSPITALS RAJKUMAR GIRIDHARI SINGH* *Assistant Professor, Department of Management, Mizoram University, Aizawl.

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ABSTRACT The paper attempts to explore the differences concerning the level of commitment and work satisfaction between medical and non-medical personnel as well as between male and female employees of the private hospitals in the state of Manipur (India). The study analyses the data with independent samples t-test to find out the significant differences among the employees. The result shows no significant differences between medical and non-medical employees of the private hospitals with regard to satisfaction as to relationship behaviour; satisfaction as to pay and compensation; and satisfaction as to training and career development as well as that in terms of commitment of the employees. Similarly, the result shows no significant differences between male and female employees of the private hospitals except as regards training and career development factors of the hospital by which female employees are relatively more satisfied than their male counterpart employees. KEYWORDS: Private hospitals, employees’ commitment, employees’ satisfaction, medical personnel, non-medical personnel. ___________________________________________________________________________ INTRODUCTION Today, trade unions may have less relevance in the private sector, but the relationship between employer and employee is always as important as it was decades before. An employer requires new skills and competencies and high levels of commitment from the employee, if he has to survive in a globalizing economy. However, in return he also has to meet the employee rising expectations – more demanding pay for challenging jobs and give more attention to the quality of life. To meet the challenges confronted in today’s employeremployee relationship there has been a shift from control to commitment in the organisation’s

 

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

philosophy. It has long been recognized that positive attitudes of employees and contributions from them are a source of competitive advantages. Clear understanding of organisational commitment is expected of organisational executives who can work out the organisation’s strategic management. The concept of employment commitment lies at the heart of any analysis of Human Resources Management. As in other service organisations, hospital policies and planning also need to address the human resources vis-à-vis system’s issues in order to make the system responsive to the needs of the community. Hospital has a major impact on the health of the population. Satisfied employees are likely to be more committed to the organisation. Again, hospitals’ committed employees are likely to contribute to the successful implementation of hospital policies. The commitment, competencies and skills of people working in the hospital organisation have significant implications for any effort to provide quality service to the patient.

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LITERATURE REVIEWS There have been many studies conducted with regard to the commitment of the employee to the organisation. It has long been a major focus of organizational research. Most studies have tried and identified the factors to understand both the individual and organizational performance; and considerable attention has been given in trying to understand the reasons for its cause; the different types of commitment that exist; the form that this commitment takes; and the outcomes that result when it exists (Meyer & Allen, 1991; Dessler, 1999; Muthuveloo and Rose, 2005; Cohen, 1999). Again, there has been considerable amount of research conducted on employee’s work satisfaction and organizational commitment. Muthuveloo and Rose (2005) opine that the relationship between human resource management practices, employee commitment and the financial performance of firms has important implications for improved integration of research across several business school disciplines. They have identified that the perception of the employee is the foundation of his/her motivation, leading to higher organisational commitment, and that employee perception forms the antecedent of organisational commitment. According to Meyer & Allen (1991) commitment as a psychological state, is conceptualized into three approaches and identified as affective (a desire), continuance (a need) and normative (an obligation). Affective commitment refers to the employee’s emotional attachment to identification with, and involvement in the organization. Employees with a strong affective commitment continue to serve the organization because they emotionally identify with it. Continuance commitment refers to an awareness of the costs associated with leaving the organization. Employees whose primary link to the organization is based on continuance commitment remain because they need to do so. Finally normative commitment reflects a feeling of obligation to continue employment. Employees with a high normative commitment feel that they ought to remain with the organization through thick and thin. As analysed by Price and Muller (1981), work satisfaction refers to the degree to which individuals “like,” or are “happy” with work, while commitment refers to their degree of “attachment” or “loyalty” to the organizations (Price and Muller, 1981). The study of Omolayo and Owolabi (2007) investigates monetary reward as a predictor of the commitment of employees in medium-scale organizations in Nigeria. The study found that no significant difference exists at the commitment level in terms of monetary rewards offered between more tenured and less tenured employees as well as between male and female employees; and again between high educated and low educated employees.

 

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

The importance of commitment was also highlighted by Walton (1985). He advocated a commitment strategy that is concerned with the development of communication, education and training programmes, initiatives to increase involvement and ‘ownership’, and the introduction of performance and reward management processes. Commitment will only be gained, if people understand what they are expected to commit to. Commitment is enhanced, if managers can gain the confidence and respect of their teams; and the training to improve the quality of management should form an important part of any programme for increasing commitment. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY This study aims to find out the status of organisational commitment and job satisfaction of the employees. Considering the state of the literature available on the relationship between work satisfaction and organizational commitment, and the fact that these two work attitudes have important consequences on organisational strategy implementations, this paper attempts to investigate the differences concerning the level of commitment and work satisfaction between medical and non-medical employees of the private hospitals in the state of Manipur. It also identifies whether there is any differences in the perception between male and female employees of the private hospitals with regard to the level of commitment and work satisfaction. HYPOTHESIS The following hypotheses were tested 1. There is no significant difference as regard to the level of commitment and work satisfaction between medical and non-medical personnel of the private hospitals.

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2. There is no significant difference in regard to the level of commitment and work satisfaction between male and female employees of the private hospitals. METHODOLOGY Data have been collected through schedule in three biggest multi-specialty private hospitals of Manipur (India) namely Shija Hospitals and Research Institute (SHRI), Christian Medical Centre (CMC) Hospital, and Imphal Hospital and Research Centre (IHRC). To understand the satisfaction and commitment of the employees of the hospitals, the perception of the employees has been collected on 4 dimensions viz. relationship behaviour, pay and compensation, training and career development, and employees’ commitment. Data have been collected through the use of Likert’s type scale and summated scores were identified on 4 dimensions. The items were scored as 5 for excellent, 4 for good, 3 for satisfactory, 2 for poor and 1 for very poor. The 23-item schedule when put to test for reliability shows a Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.865. The reliability coefficient for relationship factors was 0.882; the reliability coefficient for pay and compensation factors was 0.811; the reliability coefficient for training and development factor was 0.747. The reliability coefficient for commitment factors was 0.544. The average score has been calculated by using weighted arithmetic mean on each factors i.e. X = ∑fixi/N where, xi = level of agreement measured in 5 points scale (Likert)

 

                                     

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fi = number of respondents in each category of agreement N = ∑fi = total number of respondents The study analyses the data with independent sample t-test to find out the significant differences among the employees of the hospitals SAMPLE The sample consisted of 129 respondents, which include 65 medical staffs and 64 non-medical staffs. Of the total 65 medical staffs, 16 Doctors, 46 Nurses and another 3 Medical technicians have been included in the sample. Regarding non-medical staffs, respondents include Front office staffs, Housekeepers, Accountants, Storekeepers, Marketing executives, Electrical engineers, etc. In terms of gender, there are 67 males and 62 females. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS EMPLOYEES’ PERCEPTION OF RELATIONSHIP BEHAVIOUR FACTORS OF THE HOSPITAL

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To understand the perception of employees on the relationship behaviour factors of the hospitals, schedules containing 5 items viz. “friendliness of the people you work with; respect you received from your supervisor; respect you receive from your juniors; punctuality of your supervisors; and communication with your supervisor were enquired from the employees”. The minimum summated score can be 1 x 5 = 5 and the maximum summated score can be 5 x 5 = 25. The average score of 15(i.e. 3 x 5) or more is considered to be satisfactory. TABLE-1: “T-TEST” SUMMARY TABLE SHOWING THE RELATIONSHIP BEHAVIOUR FACTORS OF THE HOSPITAL BETWEEN MEDICAL AND NONMEDICAL EMPLOYEES Category Mean S.D. N t-value Remarks Medical 19.09 4.156 65 0.730 p>0.05 Non-medical 19.58 3.370 64 From the Table-1, it can be seen that the t-value is 0.730 with a p-value of 0.467 which is not significant at 0.05 level with df =127. It shows that there is no significant difference in the scores for medical personnel with mean of 19.09 and standard deviation of 4.156; and non-medical personnel with a mean of 19.58 and standard deviation of 3.370. It can also be observed that the mean score of all the two groups of employees of hospitals is more than 15 which indicates satisfaction of the employees of both groups. TABLE-2: T-TEST” SUMMARY TABLE SHOWING THE RELATIONSHIP BEHAVIOUR FACTORS OF THE HOSPITAL BETWEEN MALE AND FEMALE EMPLOYEES Category Mean S.D. N t-value Remarks Male 19.10 3.936 67 0.714 p>0.05 Female 19.58 3.619 62

 

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

From Table-2, it can be seen that t-value is 0.714 with a p-value of 0.477 which is not significant at 0.05 level with df =127. It shows that there is no significant difference in the scores for male employees with mean of 19.09 and standard deviation of 3.936; and female employees with a mean of 19.58 and standard deviation of 3.619. It can also be observed that the mean score of all the two groups of employees of hospitals is more than 15 which indicates satisfaction of the employees of both groups. It may therefore be said that in terms of relationship behaviour factors of the hospital, both the medical and non-medical personnel have no significant differences in their perceptions. The same is true between male and female employees also. EMPLOYEES’ PERCEPTION ON PAY AND COMPENSATION FACTORS OF THE HOSPITAL To understand the satisfaction of employees on the pay and compensation of the hospitals, schedules containing 5 items viz. “the amount of pay you receive; fringe benefits you receive; savings for your future; link between performance and pay; and provisions of free lunch and dinner by the hospital were enquired”. The minimum summated score can be 1 x 5 = 5 and the maximum summated score can be 5 x 5 = 25. The average score of 15 (i.e. 3 x 5) or more is considered to be satisfactory.

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TABLE-3: “T-TEST” SUMMARY TABLE SHOWING THE PERCEPTION ON PAY AND COMPENSATION FACTORS OF THE HOSPITAL BETWEEN MEDICAL AND NON-MEDICAL EMPLOYEES Category Mean S.D. N t-value Remarks Medical 12.49 3.532 65 0.627 p>0.05 Non-medical 12.09 3.689 64 From the Table-3, it can be seen that the t-value is 0.627 with a p value of 0.532 which is not significant at 0.05 level with df =127. It shows that there is no significant difference in the scores for Medical personnel with mean of 12.49, standard deviation of 3.532 and Non-medical personnel with a mean of 12.09 and standard deviation of 3.689. It can also be observed that the mean score of all the two groups of employees of hospitals is less than 15 which indicates that both the group of employees are not satisfied with regard to pay and compensation of the hospitals. TABLE-4: “T-TEST” SUMMARY TABLE SHOWING THE PERCEPTION ON PAY AND COMPENSATION FACTORS OF THE HOSPITAL BETWEEN MALE AND FEMALE EMPLOYEES Category Mean S.D. N t-value Remarks Male 11.81 3.594 67 1.612 p>0.05 Female 12.82 3.565 62

 

                                     

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From the Table-4, it can be seen that the t-value is 1.612 with a p value of 0.110 which is not significant at 0.05 level with df =127. It shows that there is no significant difference in the scores for male employees with mean of 11.81 and standard deviation of 3.594; and female employees with a mean of 12.82 and standard deviation of 3.565. It can also be observed that the mean score of all the two groups of employees of hospitals is less than 15 which indicates that both the group of employees are not satisfied with regard to pay and compensation of the hospitals. The analysis indicates that in terms of pay and compensation factors of the hospital, both the medical and non-medical personnel have no significant differences in their perceptions. The same is also true between male and female employees. EMPLOYEES’ PERCEPTION ON TRAINING AND CAREER DEVELOPMENT FACTORS OF THE HOSPITAL To understand the perception of employees on the training and career development of the hospitals, schedules containing 7 items viz. “Chances that you have learn new thing; adequacy of training for your job activity; competency of the trainer; competencies of the HR manager in resolving employees grievances; career path of the employees for your organization; the amount of job security you have; and career growth opportunities were enquired”. The minimum summated score is 1 x 7 = 7 and the maximum summated score can be 5 x 7 = 35. The average score of 21(i.e. 3 x 7) or more is considered to be satisfactory.

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TABLE-5: “T-TEST” SUMMARY TABLE SHOWING THE PERCEPTION ON TRAINING AND CAREER DEVELOPMENT FACTORS OF THE HOSPITAL BETWEEN MEDICAL AND NON-MEDICAL PERSONNEL Category Mean S.D. N t-value Remarks Medical 65 1.939 p>0.05 23.11 2.878 Non-medical 64 21.78 4.668 From the Table-5, it can be seen that the t-value is 1.939 with a p value of 0.055 which is not significant at 0.05 level with df =127. It shows that there is no significant difference in the scores for Medical personnel with mean of 23.11, standard deviation of 2.878 and Non-medical personnel with a mean of 21.88 and standard deviation of 4.668. It can also be observed that the mean score of all the two groups of employees of hospitals is more than 21 which indicates that both the group of employees are satisfied with regard to training and development of the hospitals. TABLE-6: “T-TEST” SUMMARY TABLE SHOWING THE PERCEPTION ON TRAINING AND CAREER DEVELOPMENT FACTORS OF THE HOSPITAL BETWEEN MALE AND FEMALE Category Mean S.D. N t-value Remarks Male 21.27 4.227 67 3.740 p0.05 Non-medical 19.77 3.853 64 From the Table-5, it can be seen that the t-value is 0.596 with a p value of 0.517 which is not significant at 0.05 level with df =127. It shows that there is no significant difference in the scores for Medical personnel with mean of 19.38, standard deviation of 2.702 and Non-medical personnel with a mean of 19.77 and standard deviation of 3.853. It can also be observed that the mean score of all the two groups of employees of hospitals is more than 18 which indicates that both the group of employees are satisfactorily committed to the hospitals.  

                                     

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TABLE-6: “T-TEST” SUMMARY TABLE SHOWING THE COMMITMENT LEVEL OF THE MALE AND FEMALE EMPLOYEES Category Mean S.D. N t-value Remarks Male 19.18 3.881 67 1.432 p>0.05 Female 20.00 2.535 62 From the Table-6, it can be seen that the t-value is 1.432 with a p-value of 0.155 which is not significant at 0.05 level with df =127. It shows that there is no significant difference in the scores for medical personnel with mean of 19.18 and standard deviation of 3.881 and non-medical personnel with a mean of 20 and standard deviation of 2.535. It can also be observed that the mean score of all the two groups of employees of hospitals is more than 18 which indicates that both the group of employees are satisfactorily committed to the hospitals. Therefore, the result indicates that both the medical and non-medical personnel have no significant differences in their commitment to the organisations. The same is true between male and female employees also.

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SUGGESTION AND CONCLUSIONS Thus, this study which aims to find out the status of organisational commitment and job satisfaction of the employees explores the status of differences in the commitment and satisfaction of the employees of the hospital between medical and non-medical personnel as well as between male and female employees of the private hospitals in the state of Manipur. The result shows no significant differences between medical and non-medical employees of the private hospitals in the state of Manipur with regard to satisfaction about relationship behaviour; satisfaction on pay and compensation; and satisfaction on training and career development. In terms of commitment of the employees also, no significance differences are found between medical and non-medical employees. Similarly, with regard to satisfaction on relationship behaviour and satisfaction on pay and compensation, the result shows no significant differences between male and female employees of the private hospitals in the state of Manipur. However, significant differences are found between male and female employees in terms of training and career development factors of the hospital. On training and career development factors, female employees are relatively more satisfied than their male counterpart employees. It is known that employees’ satisfaction leads to loyalty for and commitment to the organization; as loyal and committed employees can give strategic advantage in accomplishing the corporate goals. Loyal employees stay longer, resist competitive job offers, do not actively look for other employment and recommend the company to others as a good place to work. Therefore, modern hospital executives, managers or strategists should have an awareness of the commitment and work satisfaction of the employees to take strategic initiatives. People work for a variety of reasons, although they may not be able to articulate them. Findings from research and practice suggest that several factors including interest in work, competent supervision and personal reward lead to job satisfaction and

 

                                     

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performance. For workers to get motivated, pay and compensation is a significant motivator and a frequent measure of the value an employer places on jobs and jobholders. The study found both the groups of employees are dissatisfied with the existing pay and compensation. Smith et al. (2005, p.248) have rightly put: “It should be of critical importance in healthcare; it should be comparable to or even exceed the compensation systems of similar organizations in the market to give the organization a competitive edge. Again, although compensation is not the only factor associated with attracting and retaining employees, it is unquestionably important”. Therefore, hospital executives need to find a solution in resolving the issue of pay and compensation.

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Regarding training and career development, it is important to identify development, training and knowledge management needs for all staff throughout the organization. Johnson et al. (2005, pp.205-206) have observed: “Healthcare organizations need to manage their knowledge appropriately and create a culture that enables everyone to learn continuously. Organizational purpose, mission, vision, culture, and strategies dictate, in most circumstances, the need for organizational development plans, and these plans drive group and individual training and learning needs to enhance as well as acquire employees’ knowledge, skills, and abilities.” In hospital as a service organization, there is a high degree of customer-employee interaction. It is a highly labour intensive organization, where the satisfaction of employees is vital for achieving the organizational objectives. Offering the highest quality of health care services to those who need them is the main goal of health care system especially for institutions like Hospitals. To improve the quality of patient care and to retain qualified health professionals, evaluating employee satisfaction is a necessity. The employee behaviours have a direct bearing on the personal and organisational outcomes that are achieved. Job satisfaction and organizational commitment of staff is always a fundamental component of human resources quality. A high level of job satisfaction typically leads to career success for employees and talent retention for organizations. Therefore, assessing the job satisfaction level of employees and identifying the factors that influence job satisfaction should be practiced by the Hospital managements as regular feature. REFERENCES Allen, N. J & Meyer, J. P. (1990). The measurement and antecedents of affective, continuance and normative commitment to the organization, Journal of Occupational Psychology, 63, pp.1-18. Cohen, A. (1999). Relationships among Five Forms of Commitment: An Empirical Assessment. Journal of Organizational Behavior, Vol. 20, No. 3 (May, 1999), pp. 285-308. Dessler, G. (1999). How to Earn Your Employees Commitment. The Academy of Management Executive, Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 58-67. Johnson, J.A., Ledlow, G.R. & Kerr, Jr., B.J. (2005). Organizational Development, Training, and Knowledge management in: Fried, B. J., Fottler, M.D. and Johnson, J. A. (Eds.) Human Resources in Healthcare: Managing for Success. Health Administration Press: Chicago.

 

                                     

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Meyer, J. P. & Allen, N. J. (1991). A three-component conceptualization of organizational commitment. Human Resource Management Review, Vol. 1, No.1, pp.61-89. Mottaz, C.J. (1987). An Analysis of the Relationship between Work Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment. The Sociological Quarterly, Vol. 28, No. 4, pp. 541-558. Omolayo, B. and Owolabi, A.B. (2007). Monetary Reward: A Predictor of Employees’ Commitment to Medium Scale Organizations in Nigeria. Bangladesh e-Journal of Sociology. Vol. 4. No. 1. Price, J. and Mueller. C. (1981). A Causal Model of Turnover for Nurses. Academy of Management Journal, 24, pp.543-565. Rajendran Muthuveloo, R. and Rose, R.C. (2005). Typology of Organisational commitment. American Journal of Applied Science 2 (6): 1078-1081, 2005. Smith, H. L., Fried, B.J., Amerongen, D.V. & Crisafulli, J. (2005). Compensation Practices, Planning, and Challenges in: Fried, B. J., Fottler, M.D. and Johnson, J. A. (Eds.). Human Resources in Healthcare: Managing for Success. Health Administration Press: Chicago.

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Walton, R E (1985). From control to commitment in the workplace. Harvard Business Review, 63, pp. 76–84.

 

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315      A Peer Reviewed International Journal of Asian Research Consortium

AJRSH: ASIAN JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN SOCIAL SCIENCE & HUMANITIES THE CULTURAL HEGEMONY OF BOLLYWOOD IN SOUTH ASIA: DE-POPULARIZING BANGLADESHI CINEMA MD.TOWFIQUE-E- ELAHI* *Ph.D Candidate, Department of Human Sciences, Graduate School of Integrated Arts and Sciences, Hiroshima University, Japan. ABSTRACT

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If ‘hegemony’ is considered to be rule exercised by winning consent, it suggests that hegemonic power has a distinct ability to influence culture on a mass scale. With this in mind, I consider Bollywood to be not only a cultural construction: it is also a production of power, and power of persuasion. Employing such ideological perspectives, this paper deals with the domination of the film culture of South-Asian countries like Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, or Sri Lanka by Indian popular cinema known as Bollywood. In this discussion, I examine how Bollywood has become not only a producer of cultural artifacts but also a power of cultural construction that dominates local film industries among the South Asian nationals. Focusing in the case of Bangladesh, this paper examines how Bollywood has won audience choice and taste in Bangladesh. How could Bollywood become so persuasive? At the same time, I argue that the impact of Bollywood domination over local cinema is one of the main reasons for the decline of the Bangladeshi national film industry. KEYWORDS: Cultural Hegemony, Bollywood, South Asia, Bangladeshi Cinema. __________________________________________________________________________ INTRODUCTION 1. CONCEPTUALIZING CULTURAL HEGEMONY Although Antonio Gramsci’s (1891-1937) never provides a precise and exact definition of the term ‘hegemony’ in his Prison Notebooks (1929-1935), the theoretical framework of this  

                                     

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concept generally suggests the interrelationship of the social classes as determined by a dominant ideology or class. In other words, it is about the domination of one social group over another. Gramsci construes his idea of hegemony as “the ‘spontaneous’ consent given by the great masses of the population to the general direction imposed on social life by the dominant fundamental group; the consent is ‘historically’ caused by the prestige which the dominant group enjoys because of its position and function in the world of production.” (Gramsci, 1971: 12) Thus, the concept of hegemony can be understood through the ‘organization of consent’ by which the ruling class wins the ‘consciousness’ of other social groups and takes the leadership without employing violence or other overt coercion. Such ‘consent’ can be gained by means of ‘ideological apparatuses’ of the state: for instance, schools, churches, or the media. Gramscian theory of cultural hegemony is a set of ideas which analyzes culture on major two levels: ‘political society’ and ‘civil society’ (Kiros, 1985: 100). The dominant group maintains its power over ‘political society’ and ‘civil society’ through force, consent, or the combination of both. For Gramsci, political society becomes dominant through using force while civil society rules through consent. He contends that power can be wielded in the realm of ideas and knowledge used to gain consent rather than through force. He deploys and develops this notion of domination from a historical point of view and describes how the ruling class in an existing society goes about winning the ‘consent’ of subordinate groups in order to keep power. Thus, the phenomenon of hegemony can also be underlined simply as the ‘process of moral, philosophical, and political leadership that a social group attains only with the active consent of other important social groups.” (Artz and Murphy, 2000:1)

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Drawing on Marxism, Gramsci attempts to theorize his notion of hegemony through analyzing the ‘social relations of power’ and posits economic dominance for the hegemonic group. He notes: ‘[a]lthough hegemony is ethico-political, it must also be economic, must necessarily be based on the decisive function exercised by the leading group in the decisive nucleus of economic activity.’ (Gramsci, 1971: 161) Gramsci also argues that though social relations are determined economically, an economically dominant group needs to establish hegemony to keep power. To achieve hegemony, the ruling class must forge alliances through compromise with other social classes that may gain political and cultural leadership. Gramsci calls this ideological struggle ‘war of position.’ Raymond Williams (1977) considers hegemony to be ‘beyond culture,’ ‘beyond ideology’ and to be process-oriented. Holub (1992: 104) paraphrases nicely Raymond’s work and points out that ‘hegemony is a lived system of meanings and values, not simply an ideology, a sense of reality beyond which it is, for most people, difficult to move, a lived dominance and subordination, internalized.’ In short, hegemony is a process of political domination through ideological domination. And such ideological domination is comprised of popular ‘common sense,’ which ‘becomes a

 

                                     

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critical terrain of political struggle.’ ‘Common sense’ in such a case refers to ideas and things that already exist and everybody knows. Gramsci considers ‘common sense’ to be an effective means of domination as it ‘is not something rigid and immobile, but is continually transforming itself, enriching itself with scientific ideas and with philosophical opinions which have entered ordinary life. [It] is the folklore of philosophy.’1 From this Gramscian point of view, many scholars, including Stuart Hall (1982), argue that mass media (e.g. newspapers, TV, films) are the major sites where the hegemonic control and power are practiced. According to Hall (ibid) ideologies are circulated through media which re-present particular texts or messages of particular meanings. As he points out, ‘representation is a very different notion from that of reflection. It implies not the active work of selecting and presenting an already existing meaning, but the more active labour of making things mean.’ (ibid: 64) Thus, in media, the exercise of the power of a consensus-based theory of meaning is the common phenomenon of hegemony. Employing such ideological perspectives, this paper deals with the domination of the film culture of South-Asian countries like Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, or Afghanistan by Indian popular cinema (mostly Hindi). In this discussion, I examine how Bollywood has become not only a producer of cultural artifacts but also a power of cultural construction that dominates local film industries.

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2. THE HEGEMONIC ROLE OF BOLLYWOOD IN SOUTH ASIA In general, Bollywood productions consist of popular Indian Hindi cinema, especially Hindi musicals. Such stylized Hindi song-and-dance, emotional melodrama, and love and romancebased plots are not merely cultural and aesthetic components of this ‘Third World Cinema’ but in fact constitutes a form that is resistant to the dominant world culture of film: ‘a difference internal to the dominant idiom, a variation that is related to but distinct from the globally hegemonic Hollywood.’ (Prasad 2003) Although the word ‘Bollywood’ is derived from a combination of ‘Bombay’ (the city now called Mumbai) and ‘Hollywood,’ the term now refers to a broader range of a global cultural industry which is ‘a more diffuse cultural conglomeration involving a range of distribution and consumption activities from websites to music cassettes, from cable to radio.’ (Rajadhyaksha 2003:27) Along these lines Mishra (2008:3) positions Bollywood as ‘at once a fad, a taste, an Indian exotica, and a global phenomenon growing out of the cultural and political economy of a film industry based primarily in Mumbai.’ Bollywood, then, does not refer only to popular Hindi films, but rather a wide range of cultural productions, from film songs, premiere shows, film posters, photo shoots, celebrity shows, film magazines, film awards, TV programs, and live performances, and even mobile ringtones. All these and more are associated with this cultural industry. Globalization and its impact on increasing transnational migration and the circulation of cultural commodities have made these products more accessible worldwide. The growth of cable, VCRs, CDs, DVDs, satellite TV channels, and now the Internet, has opened the global horizon to Bollywood productions.

 

                                     

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In terms of production, distribution, exhibition, reception, and consumption, Bollywood has become a near-global film industry. India has the largest film industry in the world, which produces around 1000 films annually. Bombay-based Hindi films, which constitute 20 percent of total production, are circulated locally and globally.2 Bollywood films are now seen in South Asia and Southeast Asia as well as in East Africa, Mauritius, the Caribbean, the Middle East, the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Australia and in European countries. People of South-Asian origin, from Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal, or Afghanistan, living in the US, the UK, Canada, the Middle East, Africa and Europe may be considered to have a sort of diasporic identity of ‘South-Asianness,’ encouraging the spread of Bollywood culture. Hollywood’s world domination of movie culture constitutes the best evidence of American cultural hegemony operating through the medium of film.3 It is not an exaggeration, though, to say that Bollywood films have also achieved global reach and, more particularly, Bollywood’s singular rule over the South-Asian nations is apparent. As Banaji (2010:3) points out, ‘India dominates the locale. Even more narrowly, anxieties about or celebrations of Indian popular cultural representations remain a key subject for much output on the politics and history of South Asian Media.’

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The mass of people in the South Asian subcontinent are used to watching Bollywood films, soap operas, musicals, music videos, or celebrity shows, to mention only a few, as one of their activities of daily life. In addition, the impact of ‘Bollywoodization’ has played a vital role in changing this region’s language, fashion, styles, and trends, and above all, cultural norms and values. Bollywood films are screened in Sri Lankan theaters regularly throughout the year and almost every day at least one film is shown on local television. Although Sri Lankan films are highly acclaimed internationally, the Bollywood films are dominating the entire film culture of the country. ‘Our main problem is with the Bollywood film. Not with the American film, which is really the problem in Europe. Here, our screen time is taken by the Hindi film, where music and dance combine with the story.’4 Pakistan, which has always had controversial relationship issues with India, is also flooded by Bollywood culture. Despite the political tensions between India and Pakistan, Indian Hindi films have been hugely popular in Pakistan through transnational media sources from the very beginning. ‘Bollywood has already invaded our homes. Our cable networks air Indian films the very day they are released in India. Besides, we have easy access to all kinds of CDs and DVDs.’5 Although Indian films were banned in Pakistan from 1965 to 2008, Hindi films remain one of the most popular modes of entertainment there. Indian Hindi cinema’s domination of the market has also caused the deteriorated of Lahore-based Pakistani cinema (known as Lollywood). While Pakistan had 1,300 cinema theaters across the country and produced around 300 local movies annually during the 1970s, in 2005 there were only 270 theaters remaining and only 18 films were produced.6  

                                     

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Bollywood film culture is also a common phenomenon in Nepal. As in Pakistan, Bollywood has also captured the Nepalese film market. As Shresthova (2010) points out, ‘Hindi films arrived in Nepal in the 1950s when film theaters first appeared. Since then, Hindi films dominated, and continued to dominate, in Nepal’s cinema halls. Media technology innovations including VHS tapes, satellite television channels, privately owned FM stations, and digitization further increased the accessibility of Hindi films and ensured Hindi films’ continued ubiquity in Nepal’s urban hub.’7 Indian Hindi films are not only popular cultural items in Nepal: in addition, Bollywood is associated with the notion of modernization of the country as well.8 All the examples mentioned above suggest that Bollywood has emerged as the most dominant cinematic form in the region. Certainly, to some degree, the industry possesses a distinct mode of ‘power,’ which influences almost every sphere of cultural life in contemporary South Asia. So, if hegemony is considered to be rule exercised by winning consent, it suggests that hegemonic power has a distinct ability to influence culture on a mass scale. With this in mind, I consider Bollywood to be not only a cultural construction: it is also a production of power, and power of persuasion. In the following sections of this paper I will describe how Bollywood has won audience choice and taste in Bangladesh. How could Bollywood become so persuasive? At the same time, I argue that the impact of Bollywood domination over local cinema is one of the main reasons for the decline of the Bangladeshi national film industry.

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3. THE EMERGENCE OF BOLLYWOOD IN BANGLADESH After the postcolonial period and the partition of India and Pakistan in 1947, Indian Hindi films were shown along with other foreign films from the US, the UK and Italy. Bangladesh, then called East Pakistan, imported 19 Indian films in 1963. Later, Indian films (both Hindi and Bengali) were strictly banned after 1965 in the country due to the political conflict between India and Pakistan. This ban on Indian films was issued to protect the Pakistani local film industry (in Lahore, Karachi and Dhaka) and to promote an ‘anti-Hindu and anti-Indian’ nationalist discourse highlighting Islamic norms and values, which Raju (2008) calls ‘Pan-Pakistani.’9 The ban on Hindi cinema remained unchanged even after the emergence of independent Bangladesh in 1971. After independence, Pakistani films (Urdu films) were also banned in Bangladesh. During the mid 1970s the ‘Wage Earners Scheme’ started to import foreign films into Bangladesh. (Quader 1993, Islam 2008) According to the ‘Scheme’ all kinds of Indian sub-continental films (with subtitles or without subtitles) were strictly prohibited. Although officially Hindi film screenings were strictly prohibited in independent Bangladesh, they were still hugely popular. As Ziad (2010) points out, due to the rising popularity of Indian films, just after liberation, Bangladesh produced about 60 to 70 percent of the number of movies it had produced before, and even these locally-made films were copied either from Indian Bengali or Hindi or Madrasi films.  

                                     

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It is noticeable that Bollywood films (mostly Hindi films) began their significant infiltration due to the technological advent of VCPs and VCRs during the 1980s despite the Bangladeshi government’s banning of Indian cinema. As Wahid (2007:4) describes, ‘neither the state television nor any cinema hall then was allowed to telecast or show any Indian movies in the country. VCRs, for the first time, brought a breakthrough to that stagnant condition by opening the door to easy access for Hindi films in Bangladesh.’ Within a short period of time VCPs and VCRs became popular all over Bangladesh from the center to the periphery. Both the ‘Video Cassette Shop Act’ (1985) and the ‘Bangladesh Video Association’ (1987) increased the availability of these devices. These video devices created a huge Hindi film market, which also began to change audience choice and taste. Transnational Cable Television Channels should be considered within the context of media globalization. These electronic media play a vital role in increasing the consumption of Bollywood products in Bangladesh. For instance, satellite TV channels were launched in Bangladesh in the early 1990s. (Page and Crawley 2001, Wahid 2007) Although the inauguration of American news network CNN (Cable News Network) pioneered this transnational broadcasting, the popularity of cable TVs boomed due to the broadcast of entertainment programs on STAR TV and other Indian Hindi Channels like Zee TV, Zee Cinema, Sony Entertainment and others. (ibid)

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In Bangladesh now, more than 80 TV channels are viewable from urban areas to marginal villages, and 32 Channels provide Hindi films and programs. As Raju (2008:157) argues, ‘though city dwellers have been able to access satellite television channels only since the 1990s, most Bangladeshis living in small towns and even villages also watch Bollywood films, film trailers and film songs on various transnational television channels ranging from B4U (Bollywood for You) to MTV India.’ Like VCP/VCRs or satellite televisions, the other technological devices, for instance, VCDs and DVDs, are also easier and cheaper for watching Bollywood films. Whenever a new Bollywood film is released, it is pirated immediately for VCDs and DVDs and becomes available all over the country. Thus, the rise of Bollywood consumption in digital electronic media and print media (as the dailies, weeklies, and other magazines feature Bollywood regularly) and Bollywood celebrity shows, musical performances, fashion shows and other frequent show biz events in Bangladesh clearly indicate that it has emerged ‘as one of the most popular modes of entertainment’ in Bangladesh. 4. BANGLADESH CINEMA AT PRESENT: ISN’T IT DWINDLING DOWN? Historians claim that with the release of the full-length Bengali sound feature Mukh O Mukhosh (The Face and The Mask) in 1956 in the then East Pakistan, Bangladeshi cinema officially launched its journey, despite some dispute about the first filming and screening in the undivided Bengal (both Bangladesh, the then East Pakistan, and the Indian West Bengal part). The national film industry was established in Dhaka in 1957 as the East Pakistan Film Development Corporation (EPFDC, now known as BFDC). It should be noted that ‘Bengali/Bangla Cinema’ refers to both the movies produced in  

                                     

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Kolkata, the capital of West Bengal in India and in Dhaka, the capital of the then East Pakistan. Bangladeshi cinema is targeted to a particular viewer/consumer of ‘Bengalispeaking, Bengali-Muslims and some non-Muslims and non-Bengalis living within the postcolonial state called Bangladesh.’ (Raju 2006: 123) I use the term ‘Bangladeshi cinema’ to refer to both the commercial production of such films and, in a larger sense, to ‘national cinema’-films which deal with the history and culture of the populace of that particular land. However, like other countries of the subcontinent, cinema has been a huge popular mode of entertainment in Bangladesh since the advent of the medium. As a new technology and a tool of entertainment, film-watching was so popular that immediately after liberation, 30 films were produced in war-torn Bangladesh in 1972. The number jumped to 46 in 1976. The huge popularity of Bangladeshi cinema also speeded up the spread of theaters across the country. According to the Bangladesh Motion Picture Exhibitors Association (BMPEA), while only 340 theaters were running before the independence of the country, the number increased dramatically, to 700, within a decade (1971-81) in the newly-born Bangladesh. Although a number of films were produced in Dhaka in pre-independent Bangladesh, local Bangla cinema (also called Dhakai cinema) did not become popular until the release of Roopban in 1965. Deriving from a popular folktale and a form of Jatra (village operetta), the film Roopban (directed by Salhuddin) depicts a story of love and desire, devotion and duty, as representative of all Bangladeshi’s image and emotion.

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Immediately after the independence of Bangladesh in 1971, ‘social films (family drama)’ ‘folk (costume-fantasy/mythological)’ and ‘war films’ along with other romantic films were developed as film genres. In the 1970s, the film industry produced a particular set of films (called ‘war films’) that mobilized a view of the national essence of Bangladesh. Among them veteran director Zahir Raihan’s Jibon Theke Neya (Glimpses of Life, 1970) is noteworthy for the portrayal of Bangladesh nationalist discourse. Other praiseworthy local films, just to namely a few in the newly-independent Bangladesh, were Titas Ekti Nodir Nam (A River Named Titas, 1973), Lathial (The Infantry, 1975), Golapi Ekhon Trene (The Endless Trail, 1976), Surjasangram (The Great Struggle, 1976), Sareng Bou (The Sailor’s Wife, 1978), and Surjodighal Bari (The Ominous House, 1979). Thus, later in the 1980s and 1990s the local film industry locally known as Dhallywood (the studio located in Dhaka, the capital of the state) produced other romance, fantasy, and action genre films. It should be noted here that almost all Dhallywood films are merely translated and transformed versions of Indian movies. Dhallywood films, in other words, local Bangla cinema, neither has any unique cinematic structure nor any distinct narratives. Rather the local Dhallywood films have been developed in line with the Indian cinematic modes (musicals with simple plots) from the very beginning. In this current discussion, however, I would rather emphasize the recent decline of the local film industry in Dhallywood instead of describing the development of Bangladeshi  

                                     

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cinema, which has been adequately presented elsewhere. In doing so, I have considered Dhallywood’s inevitable domination and penetration by Bollywood film culture as one of the most threatening factors. In independent Bangladesh, 31 films were produced in 1974. Among them 11 films were imitated from Indian Hindi films. (Islam: 2008: 87) There are numerous films which were either copied or imitated from popular Hindi films. Stories or parts of stories are borrowed from Hindi films directly or indirectly. For instance, Dost-Dushman (Friend and Enemy, 1977), one of the most popular films of Bangladesh, is considered to be a direct copy one of India’s hit films, Sholay (Flames 1975). Among others, Nishan (1977) was copied from the Hindi Gora Aur Kala (1972), Ankhi Milon (1983) from Bollywood hit Nadiya Ke Paar (1982), and Naseeb (1984) was nothing but the reflection of another popular Hindi film Khoon ka Badla Khoon (1978). Some Hindi films are even remade without changing their titles, musical tunes, or storylines. Keamat Theke Keamat (DDay to D-Day, 1992) is the best example in this regard. As Bollywood culture has already widely infiltrated Bangladesh since the early 1980s, Dhallywood films are blindly copying from Bollywood films and trying to cope with them. Producers and directors were even using violence and soft pornography to attract the audience and keep their businesses afloat, but the middle class audience was drawn away and the entire film culture began to suffer.

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It is worth pointing out that the local film industry is in decline in contemporary Bangladesh. The production of Dhallywood films and their audience reception are at risk. Although Dhallywood is considered to be a medium-sized film industry, which used to produce around 80 feature films annually, the present scenario is as disappointing as it is challenging. Despite the dramatic rise in the number of film productions until the late 1990s, the sharp decline of Dhallywood film productions in recent years suggests that the local film industry is deteriorated in terms of its popularity, reception and consumption. For instance, while Dhallywood produced 96 feature films in 2007, the number fell to 63 films in 2009. There were only 45 films produced in 2010. Again the number fell more dramatically, as only 11 films appeared 2011.10 Besides, Bangladesh has also witnessed a dramatic decline in the number of movie theaters during the last couple of decades. Statistical data from the BMPEA shows that while the number of theaters reached 902 and 1230 during the period of 1981-90 and 1990-2001 respectively, there were only 740 theaters remaining across the country during the decade 2001-2010. Among these remaining theaters, a number are facing problems that put their survival at risk. Many cinemas have already shut down forever and some have turned into shopping centers. In addition, due to the deterioration of the local film industry, the Bangladesh Government is also losing a large amount of revenue. While the financial contribution of Dhallywood to the national treasury was 84.098 million BDT (Bangladeshi Taka) during the fiscal year 2000-01, the figure fell to 63.865 million BDT in the year of 2004-05 according to

 

                                     

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data from the Bangladesh Film Development Corporation.11 It seems clear, then, that the Bangladeshi local film industry, Dhallywood, is dwindling. If so, a number of factors are responsible. As I mentioned earlier, the fact that Bollywood has emerged as an imperial ruler in several South Asian countries, for example Pakistan, Sri Lanka, or Nepal, is one of the most important factors in the lack of sustainability in local cinema. Bangladeshi cinema faces the same challenge. 5. BOLLYWOOD VERSUS LOCAL BANGLADESH CINEMA: THE AUDIENCE PERCEPTIONS Very few scholars (i.e. Raju 2008, Wahid 2007) have attempted to analyze how cultural production from Bollywood are circulated, received and consumed in Bangladesh. But even these writers fail to address how such productions, like Hindi films, become popularized regarding audience perception. This paper, however, is an attempt to spell out why people prefer watching Bollywood films over local films. How are they being popularized? What are the cultural narratives of Bollywood that are embedded in the audience’s mind and what guides their choices? In response to such queries, ethnographic fieldwork was conducted in the Thakurgaon12 district in Bangladesh. The predominant focus of enquiry in the research was to identify audience perceptions about Bollywood culture. Interviews were done with a wide range of people who varied by class, race, religion, gender, profession and ethnicity (Table 1).

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TABLE 1 Occupation

Number of Participants

Farmer Businessman Service holder (Govt. & NGO) Student Housewife Shopkeeper Daily Labor (Rickshaw puller etc) Butcher Sportsman Seamstress Beautician Total interviewee

5 5 6 10 10 4 5 1 2 1 1 50

Among the 50 people interviewed (age range 9 to 52+), the number of male participants was 32 while the number of female was 18. They were selected randomly from both urban and rural areas. All the interviewees answered ‘yes’ in response to the question whether they watch Bollywood films or not.

 

                                     

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Despite watching Hindi films regularly, their access to this ‘cultural production’ varied in different classes. Generally, it is seen that middle class or upper middle class families have cable connections and can watch Hindi films at home easily. Some families have VCD or DVD players and as soon as a new Hindi film is released, they rent a pirated copy from a video shop. On the other hand, comparatively lower middle classes or poorer viewers who cannot even buy a TV, let alone a cable connection or a CD player, also have access to Hindi films from a variety of sources. For instance, while the interviewer was questioning a poor family in a village about Indian films, Saiful Islam, the householder, responded thus: E.T: Do you watch Hindi films? Saiful: Who doesn’t? We all watch Hindi films every day more or less regardless. E.T: How do you watch? Do you have TV or a cable connection? Saiful: No, we do not have a TV. Look, I am a day laborer. I work in other people’s land. I live from hand to mouth. How can I buy a TV? E.T: So, where and how do you watch films? Saiful: Usually, I watch films, Hindi songs and dances along with other villagers sitting in the tea stall (close to his house) after coming back from my work.

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E.T: Why in a tea stall and how? Saiful: All the tea stalls or grocery shops in this village either have a dish line (satellite TV channels) or a CD player. The shop-owners play films and songs all day long to attract customers. We enjoy it while gossiping and taking tea. E.T: What films do they show? Saiful: Mostly Hindi films, sometimes Bangladeshi too. E.T: Well, what about your other family members, your wife and daughter? Saiful: They go to a neighbor’s house to watch films in different channels now and then. Despite the unavailability of global media sources, people living in remote villages in Thakurgaon watch Bollywood films ‘more or less regardless’ of age, sex, or class. Urban people living in Thakurgaon Town are much more familiar with Bollywood productions than are people in small villages. Villagers and lower class people still watch local Bangladeshi films, but the city dwellers hardly watch them at all; they consider Indian films to be their major mode of entertainment. Nazma, a housewife who was interviewed for the survey, simply replies: E.T: Do you watch film?  

                                     

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Nazma: Yes, I like watching films. E.T: What kind of films? Nazma: I like Indian Hindi and Indian Bengali films E.T: Don’t you watch Bangladeshi film? Nazma: We hardly ever watch Bangla cinema (local film). E.T: Well, which films do you prefer more? Nazma: I prefer watching Hindi films to local Bangla cinema. E.T: Why? Nazma: Hindi films are modern. Hindi films are easy to understand. Their stories and style are really entertaining.

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These social practices in watching Hindi films clearly indicate that a ‘mass audience’ not only in Thakurgaon but also in contemporary Bangladesh has received Bollywood as its main form of media entertainment. And if it is true that cinema is the medium that forms the ‘genuine mass audience’; we must admit that Bollywood has succeeded in creating such a ‘mass audience’ in Bangladesh ‘in the sense of large-scale reception of the identical message or performance.’ (McQuail, 1997:5) The ethnographic fieldwork found that 57.5% of respondents preferred watching Bollywood films. Only 20% of respondents liked local Dhallywood films. Even the Indian Kolkata-based Bengali films are popular in Bangladesh. The data from the field survey shows that 17.5% of audiences prefer watching Kolkata Bengali films. And only 5% of the audience was found to like watching both Bangladeshi and Indian cinema. In an in-depth interview with the president of the Bangladesh Motion Picture Producers Association (BMPPA), Masud Parvez simply and plainly acknowledged that Bollywood has captured the entire film culture of Bangladesh: ‘Bangladesh’s film industry is in a coma now. That is mainly because of Bollywood films. We cannot compete with them. Bollywood is a big industry. Their budget for a film production is 100 times more than ours… These popular Hindi films are available through thousands of pirated copies. They are broadcasted on various cable TV channels every hour of a day. They are popular because they have glamour, modern technology, skilled professionals, everything. We are lagging behind them….’ Although it is argued that Hindi films cater to a mass audience with its colorful and entertaining dances and songs, music, attractive actors and actresses, fashions and style, it can also be seen that ‘textual power’ or ‘message meaning’ is influential for positioning Bollywood as dominant. In a discussion in a village tea stall (also a small grocery shop for daily commodities), surrounded by lower middle- and lower-class people of different ages watching a Hindi film,

 

                                     

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one interviewee voted for Bollywood: E.T: Which films do you like most Bangladeshi or Indian Hindi? Razzak : I watch Hindi cinema more. E.T: So, you mean you also enjoy Bangladeshi cinema. Razzak: No, Sometimes I watch Kolkata Bangla cinema (Indian Kolkata Bengali film)…. E.T: Why do you like Hindi films? Razzak: What Hindi cinema can, Bangla cinema cannot…. In support of Razzak’s opinion Ruhul Islam, a sportsman, adds, ‘I have stopped going to movie theaters since 2005 when I saw Alomoti Prem Kumar. Now almost every day I watch Indian Hindi cinema. We like it because they have everything. Bangla cinema has nothing’ Masud, a rickshaw puller, simply wonders: ‘Is there any meaning to Bangla Cinema…?’

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Such simple paradigms from different viewers suggest that while the big-budget and modern technology-based glamorous Hindi films are attracting mass audiences, there is a dramatic fall in the number of Bangladeshi moviegoers due to its poor filmmaking technique. As Nasreen and Fahmidul (2008) point out, the deterioration of Bangladeshi film has opened the way for Bombay to colonize the film market. And the similarities between the Bengali and Hindi languages mean there is no barrier between the two markets. Bollywood films are also viewed in Bangladesh from different points of view, especially in terms of fashion or style as a mode of modernization. Young generations are the first followers of this trend. Nasima, a beautician works in her own beauty parlor, reveals her perception about watching Hindi films: ‘Celebrities in Hindi films are not only popular in our country for their acting or beauty but also for their fashion, hairstyle, or dress-up. Often young girls and brides come to me and they request me to do their make-up according to their favorite star, like Katrina, Kareena or Aishwarya… So I don’t watch Hindi films only for amusement…. I also learn techniques of beauty.’ The fascination with Bollywood films is deeply entwined with our intrinsic assimilation to Indian culture. In another interview, a university student named Kamrul explains, ‘The Rasa (the Sentiments) of watching Bollywood films are certainly different from Western films. Let’s talk about the recent Bollywood hit film Ra One. Even though the film is just a Hindi version of Iron Man or other Hollywood movies, the Hindi film is much more associated to our culture.… Bodyguard was another hit film. The love and sacrifice story of the film explicitly and vividly relates to our emotions, feelings, desires, or family bonds.’

 

                                     

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Kamrul’s metaphorical usage of the term Rasa consolidates his argument of Indian cultural integration with Bangladeshi viewers. The diverse cultural tradition of India — evolving over 5000 years — also founded the Bengali culture long before the British Empire in this subcontinent. Chatterjee (2010) describes how Bengali culture (including part of Bangladesh and West Bengal in India) is grounded and developed in line with ancient Hindu culture. He traces out four important points in the cultural construction of Bengal: Sanskritization, Islamization, Anglicization and Marxism. For our current discussion, let us take ‘Sanskritization’ into account. The doctrine of Rasa (an essence, taste, or savor) is derived from Sanskrit literary theory. Bharata Muni (first century A.D.: 105) defines Rasa in his famous Sanskrit dramaturgy Natyasastra as: ‘The Sentiment is produced (rasa-nispattih) from a combination (samyoga) of determinants (Vibhavas) and consequents (Anubhavas) together with transitory states (Vyabhicari Bhavas).’ According to Bharata, ‘no meaning proceeds [from speech] without [some kind of] Sentiment (rasa).’ He says, ‘rasa is realization of one’s own consciousness as colored by emotions’. Thus, artists in any performance, such as dance or drama, convey emotions, and the audience feels empathy with them.

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Unlike rasa, other Sanskrit literary works or art forms, for instance, the two major epics Mahabharata and Ramayana, Indian classical dances (bharat natyam, Kathak and so on) and all other art and aesthetic forms and norms are culturally practiced, experienced and also institutionalized in Bengal (Bangladesh and Indian part) that shape such cultural association. With this in mind, we can see that the narratives of Bollywood films certainly provide a set of texts or meanings and these texts are not merely accepted by audiences passively. Instead the viewers interpret and perceive them from the context of their own socio-cultural background. Local Bangla cinema or contemporary Dhallywood films, on the other hand, are less powerful compared to Bollywood productions. From the viewpoints of the respondents in the field interviews, Bollywood can be considered a powerful ‘site of ideological production’ (Prashad 1998:9) in terms of cinematic text, structure, message, or meaning, whatever the particular narrative of the movie is. CONCLUSION Throughout this paper, I have attempted to document how Bollywood culture has been dominant not only in contemporary Bangladesh but also in other South Asian countries. In terms of their industrial production, distribution, exhibition, popularity, and widespread consumption, it can be assumed that the cultural productions of Bollywod have emerged as a form of ‘soft power’ in South Asia, especially in Bangladesh. Nye (2004) argues that soft power uses various powerful means to shape the preferences of others. He writes:

 

                                     

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“soft power is more than just persuasion or the ability to move people by argument, though that is an important part of it. It is also the ability to attract, and attraction often leads to acquiescence.” (2004:6) Although the power of globalization has strengthened the transmission of Bollywood culture, it is the hegemonic power of this particular cultural industry which has been able to dominate all South Asian nationalities. In this way, Bollywood, like the Hollywod productions that acted in a similar mode of soft power, has gained widespread cultural influence in the media and markets of South Asian countries, specifically in Bangladesh. It is also evident how popular Hindi films -in other words, Bollywood- may impose their values on local cinema. NOTES                                                             

1 Gramsci (1971) shows how ‘common sense’ functions as an ideological power that is indispensable to hegemony, cited in Rupert Mark (2005), “Reading Gramsci in An Era of Globalization,” Critical Review of International Social And Political Philosophy, Vol. 8, No. 4 p. 487; 2 According to Ganti (2004), a number of film studios produce the figure all over India in approximately 20 languages, and the Bombay film industry produces roughly 200 films per year.

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3 Byungju Shin and Gon Namkung (2008), “Films and Cultural Hegemony: American Hegemony ‘Outside’ And ‘Inside’ the 007 Movie Series,” in Asian Perspective, vol.32, No.2, p. 115 4 Famous Sri Lankan director Lester James Peries says that Hindi films are imposing their mainstream culture on local film. Quoted in Arnold, Chole (2004), “Home Truths for Sri Lankan film,” BBC News, October 18 http://news.bbc.co.uk/pr/fr/-/2/south_asia/3747370.stm 5 Pakistani producer and studio owner argues that Pakistan film culture has been dominated by Bollywood films. Quoted in Ghafoor (2005), “Pakistan’s dilemma — Bollywood or bust?”, BBC News, June 9 6 ibid 7 Shresthova Sangita (2010) examines the huge consumption of popular Hindi cinema and shows its cultural influence in “Under India’s big Umbrella? Bollywood dance in Nepal,” South Asian Popular Culture, Vol. 8 No.3, P311 8 ibid 9 See Raju, Zakir Hossain (2008), p. 155-166 10 see the official website of the Bangladesh Film Development Corporation

 

                                     

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http//:www.fdc.gov.bd/ 11 ibid 12 The district, Thakurgaon, located in the northwest part of Bangladesh around 470 km from the capital Dhaka. It consists of five sub-districts (Upazila) namely Thakurgaon Sadar Upazila, Pirgonj Upazila, Ranisankail Upazila, Haripur Upazila, and Baliadangi Upazila. The fieldwork was conducted mainly in Thakurgaon Sadar Upazila (Town). REFERENCES Artz, Lee and Bren Ortega Murphy (2000). Cultural Hegemony in the United States, CA: Sage Publications Banaji, Shakuntala (ed. 2010). South Asian Media Cultures: Audiences, Representations, Contexts, London and New York: Anthem Press Bharata Muni (first century A.D). Natyasastra (in Sanskrit), Manomohan Ghosh (Trans. 1950). Calcutta: The Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal Chatterjee, Pranab ( 2010). A Story of Ambivalent Modernization in Bangladesh and West Bengal: The Rise and Fall of Bengali Elitism in South Asia, New York: Peter Lang Publishing Ganti, Tejaswini (2004). Bollywood: A Guidebook to Popular Hindi Cinema, New York: Routledge

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Gramsci, Antonio (1971). Selections from the Prison Notebooks, Quintin Hoare and Geoffrey Nowell Smith (ed. and translated), New York: International Publishers Islam, Ahmed Aminul (2008). The Motion Picture of Bangladesh: Socio Economic Background (in Bengali), Dhaka: Bangla Academy Kabir, Alamgir (1979). Film in Bangladesh, Dhaka: Bangla Academy Kiros, Teodros (1985). Toward The Construction of a Theory of Political Action; Antonio Gramsci: Consciousness, Participation and Hegemony, Lanham: New York, University Press of America Hall, Stuart (1982). ‘The Rediscovery of ‘Ideology’: Return of the Repressed in Media Studies’ in M.Gurevitch, T.Bennet, J. Curran and S.Woolacott. (ed.) Culture, Society and the Media, London: Routledge Holub, Renate (1992). Antonio Gramsci: Beyond Marxism and Postmodernism, Routledge: London McQuail, Denis (1997). Audience Analysis, California, USA: Sage Publications Mishra, Vijay (2008). Bollywood Cinema: A Critical Genealogy, pdf print edition, Wellington, New Zealand: Asian Studies Institute  

                                     

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available at http://www.victoria.ac.nz/slc/asi/publications/17-bollywood.pdf Nasreen, Gitiara and Fahmidul Haq (2008). The Film Industry in Bangladesh: Popular Culture in Crisis (in Bengali), Dhaka: Shrabon Prokashoni Nye, Jr., Joseph S (2004). Soft Power: The Means To Success In World Politics, New York: Public Affairs Page, David and William Crawley (2001). Satellites over South Asia: Broadcasting, Culture and The Public Interest, New Delhi: Sage Publications Prasad, Madhava (2003). ‘This Thing Called Bollywood’ Seminar Magazine 525:May 2003 Accessed 5 May 2012 Quader, Mirza Tarequl (1993). The Bangladesh Film Industry (in Bengali), Dhaka: Bangla Academy Rajadhyaksha, Ashis (2003)‘The “Bollywoodization” of the Indian Cinema: Cultural Nationalism in a Global Arena’ Inter-Asia Cultural Studies, 4.1: 25-39 Raju, Zakir Hossain (2006). Bangladesh: Native Resistance and Nationalist Discourse in Anne Tereska Ciecko (ed.) Contemporary Asian Cinema: popular Culture in a Global Frame, Oxford. New York: Berg

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------- (2008) ‘Bollywood in Bangladesh: Transcultural Consumption in Globalizing South Asia’ in Youna Kim (ed.) Media Consumption and Everyday Culture in Asia, New York: Routledge Wahid, Zeenat Huda (2007). Emergence of Satellite Television and Enigmatic Geo-political Strategy of Bangladesh Government, Bangladesh e-journal of Sociology, 4 .1 Williams, Raymond (1977). Marxism and Literature- Marxist Introductions, London and New York: Oxford University Press Ziad, Abdullah (2010). The Cinema of Bangladesh: A History of Five Decades (in Bengali), Dhaka: Jyotiprokash

 

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315      A Peer Reviewed International Journal of Asian Research Consortium

AJRSH: ASIAN JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN SOCIAL SCIENCE & HUMANITIES RECONSTRUCTING IDENTITY AND ETHNIC MOVEMENTS IN NORTH-EAST INDIA: AN ANALYSIS ON THE MISING MOVEMENT PANKAJ BORAH* *Assistant Professor, Arya Vidyapeeth College, University of Gauhati, Guwahati, Assam, India.

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ABSTRACT Cultural diversity is the unique feature of North-East India. It is the homeland of different communities known for their distinct cultures and habitats. As a means to strengthen the nation building process, the policies of homogenization and assimilation designed by the post-colonial state to integrate different ethnic categories within the fold of composite Assamese nationalism opened the door for ethnic movement and cultural reconstruction in this region. The Mising movement to esatablish separate socio-political identity is a significant one among them. In this paper I would like to analyse the causes of these movements and the process of Cultural re-construction as a means of separate identity formation, with a special analysis on the Mising movement of Assam. KEYWORDS: Ethnic Movement, Homogenisation, Assimilation, Language Act.,Assamese nationalism. ________________________________________________________________________ INTRODUCTION The region of Northeast India has been the homeland of various communities known for their distinct cultures and habitats. As a means to strengthen the nation building process, the post colonial policies of homogenization and assimilation to integrate different ethnic categories within composite Assamese nationalism opened the door for ethnic movement and cultural reconstruction in this region. The wide spread Politics of Ethnic Identity in Northeast India has assumed a great political importance in last few decades. The politics of this region has been increasingly designed by the movements of various ethnic groups for maintaining distinct ethnic identity. Since the demographic composition of the region is diverse with various ethnic groups having different languages, cultures and customs, the ethnic assertion in this region is mostly linguistic and cultural in nature. In a bid to maintain different lingocultural identity most of the ethnic groups of this region has been demanding separate socio 

                                     

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political identity. The state of Assam, is a complex mosaic of different tribal ethnic groups, with some shared ethnic characteristics as well as tremendous variety in terms of historical memories, distinct cultural features, beliefs, languages or dialects, which are numerically less in number than the dominant majority Assamese speaking group.

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CULTURAL HOMOGENISATION AND RISE OF DISCONTENT IN NORTH-EAST INDIA ‘Nation building’ has been a dominant objective of the 20th century and most states have aimed to build culturally homogeneous states with singular identities. Sometimes it became successful but at the cost of repression and persecution (Mahanta 2007:130). The process attempts either to exterminate cultural groups or to wish them away elicits a stubborn resilience. The efforts of homogenisation and policies of assimilation designed by the post colonial state to integrate different ethnic categories within the broader fold of composite Assamese nationalism opened the floodgates to a raging torrent of ethno-nationalist movements in northeast India (Saikia 2011:3). The emergence of these movements was a significant manifestation of grievances related to socio-economic and political disparities, and of threats to ethnic identity that increasingly became apparent in the first few decades of state building. The dominant elites of this region during the phase tried to shape a regional identity that affirmed their power and privileges over the region. Increasing regionalist domination that was sought by regional elites, however proved to be costly for ethnic minorities, which, in turn, created the anxieties of these communities over their relative status in relation to the largely dominate Assamese-speaking community. There was emergence of chain of autonomy movements through which tribal ethnic minorities of North-East India sought cultural as well as political autonomy. Globally, cultural identification is on the rise. People of the world are mobilising a new around the old grievances along cultural identity. People want the freedom to practice their religion openly, to speak their language, to celebrate their ethnic, religious, traditional heritage without fear of ridicule or punishment or diminished opportunity (Mahanta 2007:128). The idea is very simple but profoundly unsettling. Cultural identification is bound to be there in Northeast India and it is likely to proliferate. Different tribal communities of North-East India started movement and mobilized their people to achieve greater territorial autonomy. In Assam the phenomenon had become significantly visible in the 70’s and 80’s, while the number of groups mobilising since then is increasing what is even more puzzling is the variation in terms of degrees and strategies of mobilisation used by these groups seeking autonomy. Some have mobilised peacefully, while others have taken to armed conflicts (Saikia 2007:50). WHO ARE MISINGS The Mising are an ethnic group inhabiting the districts of Dhemaji, Lakhimpur, Sonitpur, Tinsukia, Dibrugarh, Sibsagar, Jorhat and Golaghat of Assam state in India. A few live in and around Pasighat of East Siang district of Arunachal Pradesh. They are the second largest tribal group in North-East India, second only to Bodos in Assam. They belong to greater Tani community which comprises many tribes in Arunachal Pradesh in India and Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR) in China. All Tani tribes share linguistic, cultural and ritual similarities. All Misings trace back their root to Abutani or Abo Tani (The first man on earth) like any other Tani tribes.

 

                                     

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The Mishings are an Indo Mongoloid tribe settled in the plains of Assam. Originally, they were hill dwellers and lived along with the Adis in Arinachal Pradesh. On the basis of the legends of the tribe and available historical records, they moved to the plains of Assam around the 13th century A.D. Still they retain their mythological, linguistic and institutional affinity with the adis and the Nisis of Arunachal Pradesh. After their migration to the plains considerable changes have taken place in their ecology, patterns of adaption, cultivation, language , rituals, dress and house construction . One theory says that Misings presently living in plains of Assam were not a one single tribe, but evolved into one when many tribes from various Tani tribes in Arunachal Pradesh migrated to plains of Assam in search of fertile land as well as in search of civilisational progress. Over a period of time, they became known as Miris as they acted as middle men between tribes of hills of Arunachal Pradesh and people of plains of Assam like Ahoms, Kacharis etc. Miri means middle men in old Assamese language. This explains presence of many Mising clans with different Mising dialects as well as different levels of development.

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MISING SOCIAL STRUCTURE Misings organise themselves broadly into two clans or groups, Pegu and Doley. All Mishings with other surnames align themselves with either Pegu or Doley. There is no marriage between same clan, i.e. a Mising man with Pegu surname will never marry a Mising woman with Pegu surname. A Doley will marry Pegu and vice versa. Misings classify themselves in many subcastes. It is interesting to see many sub grouping among small tribal group like Misings. Most probably, this grouping is based on Mising dialect speaking style. Some groupings of Misings are : 1. Barogam ( 12 Gam) 2. Dogam ( 10 Gam) 3. Athgam ( 8 Gam) Here Pegu and Doley belong to Barogam, highest hierarchy. Others like, Mili, Kutum belonged to Dogam. Most probably these groupings were based on some title (Khel) by Ahom kings. There are certain clans of Misings which have been traditionally more advanced than many tribes in Assam in terms of education, prosperity, land owning etc. They are normally found on the banks of river Subansiri (Obonori in Mising language). The yearly floods ensured that majority of Misings lived a life of abject poverty and misery. Agriculture being their main occupation, floods affects them in more ways than one. Moreover, due to their affinity towards living close to river banks brings about Malaria and water-borne diseases. But 94% of them still continue to live along the banks of Brahmaputra and its tributaries, unfazed by the disasters striking them. MISINGS AND SOCIO-POLITICAL BACKWARDNESS The Misings previously known as Miris, were originally a hill tribe who inhabited in the range of Miri hills in between the Siang and the Subanshiri district of present of Arunachal Pradesh. Their folk literature suggests that the Misings had migrated to and settled mainly in both the banks of the Brahmapurta in Assam in many hundred years ago. The Mising remain free and independent for a long time. Coming originally from the hills, they came into the contact into the Ahoms since the early 17th century. The Ahom rulers recruited the Misings for the fighting force and gave them important assignments in the state administration. The success of the Ahoms form a new era of socio-political fusion of different aboriginal groups, including the Misings, culminating the creation of not only and enlarge kingdom but also a composite race and culture as well. Thus the policy of the Ahoms was to form an integrated

 

                                     

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society of the Mongoloid tribes by the process of Ahomisation, which has opened the door for the Misings culture to become a part of the larger Assamese culture in the subsequent period.(Phukon 2007).The British who succeed the Ahoms in Assam had followed a policy of non-interference in the internal administration of the tribes. The natural process of evolution of the Misings was affected by the changed economic and political conditions under the colonial regime. Because of their non-industrial background, the Misings hardly found any space in the modern economic sector to accommodate themselves. At any rate, during the British rule the Mising remain backward educationally, socially and politically.

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The post-colonial development in Assam has a far reaching impact on the Misings as it was on other tribal ethnic groups including Bodos. The first few decades of state-building were charaterised by concentration of political power and limited representation of ethnic minority in Assam. In order to overturn the long standing dominance of the Bengalis, the Assam Government legislated majoritarian ethnic polity on key issue of the socio-economic development of the Assamese speaking groups. The state used the strategies not only to consolidate power but also to justify the ethnic dominance over minority ethnic groups (Saikia 2011:123). The language policy of 1960s’ marked a new chapter in this history. These policies become a primary point of controversy and further politicized cultural identity, particularly language. All other groups including Misings feared that the increasing Assamese domination would create further problems in their socio-cultural development and thus would hamper the overall development of the community including social, cultural, economic and political. These groups were worried on the language policies of the state because their languages and dialects were not given equal weight. Even after decades of independence, we see that the Misings remain much backward than other sections of the Assamese society. Indeed they had not only been experiencing the problems of alienation, unemployment, economic and political oppression under the existing socio-economic system but also discrimination in achieving their rightful place in the society. In a underdeveloped region like Assam, economic development is accompanied by increased inequality, because the rewards are allocated on the basis of strength and persistence of the organized sector of the society (Phukon 2007:189). Therefore Mising elite thought that unless they are organized, nobody would care for the development of the community. In view of this, they started to organize the community with a new vigiour. THE MOVEMENT FOR SEPARATE IDENTIY The Misings still remain backward educationally, economically and politically. The emerging Mising educated elite strongly feel the necessity of maintaining their distinct socio-cultural organizations, such as Mishing Agom Kebang, Mishing Bane Kebang, Mishing Dirvi Kebang, Takam Mising Porin Kebang and so on. They have realized that without organizing the community on a sound footing they cannot conserve their language and culture. With the spread of education the Misings have become increasingly organized and articulate for maintaining their distinct Mising identity. The emerging Mising elite have realized that the development and prosperity of the community depends on the maintenance of distinct Mising identity. For this reason, since the last sixties of the last century the Mising elite started mobilizing the community on the basis of their lingo-cultural traits capable of bargaining of with the ruling elite for safeguarding their interest. The Mising have been feeling a sense of deprivation in the greater socio-cultural formation. As a measure of removing their socio-

 

                                     

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economic, cultural backwardness and oppressed political status the Mising leadership started a movement demanding an autonomous state for the Misings. The movement they started, wants to establish separate socio-political and cultural identity. As a first step, vigorous efforts were made to promote their original language and script. It is well known that not only Misings, but Bodos, Dimasas and other tribal groups also started movements for the recognition of minority languages as a medium of instruction in the primary and higher education in the wake of the language policies of Assam. They believed that development of their mother tongue and its use as a medium of instruction would make them able to compete with the majority Assamese speaking groups.

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Mising Agom Kebang, the Mising Literary Society, formed originally in 1924 launched a cultural revivalist movement to fight against the implementation of the Assam Language Act.(1960) on the grounds that the act restricted the material choices of the community, such as their access to job, higher education as well as representation in the political system(Pegu 1998:85). The movement sought to preserve Mising culture and languages and reduce Assamese language proficiency as a major requirement for the socio-economic advancement of the Misings(Saikia 2011:125) For the most part of the 1970s’ and the first half of the 1980s’ the movement was lead by the intellectual elite only. It was only in the mid 80s’ that other Mising groups organized by Students, political leaders and social activist joined the movement. In the first few years of the movement they started publication of valuable literary works of the Mising language. Some of the prominent literary works such as the Miri Path (Miri lesson) written by Kamal Chandra Padum and the Miri duwan of Mising Agom written by Bibhishan Pegu were published during these periods(Nath 1998:148). Besides the promotion of the language, another key issue of the movement was to develop the language in its written form by using the Roman script instead the Devnagari that was used until then. The emphasis on the Roman script can be acknowledged as a manifestation of reactive nationalism, where by the tribal minorities including the Misings expressed a strong sense of aversion to the Assamese language in the Devnagri script.(Saikia 2011:125) The state government set up a committee to solve the Devnagri-Roman controversies that gave its decision in favour of Devnagri. The recommendations were taken as an act of imposition by the pro-Roman Activist. In a last- ditch effort these activists form the Roman script Council (Roman lipi Parishad), which finally proclaimed the adoption of the Roman script.(Nath 1998) The 2nd phase of the movement to establish separate socio-cultural mising identity was started in the early 1980s and this movement was led by Takam Mising Porin Kebang (TMPK), a Mising student’s organization. In the meantime agitations started for territorial autonomy by the political activits. The movement has a far reaching impact that it became able to unite the community as a whole. With a greater mass support they started protests in the streets through rallies, demonstrations etc. After mass pressure through public rallies and protests demonstrations, the activits finally ménage to persuade the government, in 1987, to allow mising languge in primary schools in the areas inhabited by misings (Nath 1998: 150-52).

 

                                     

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The third phase of the movement is characterized by the demand for greater political autonomy. To establish their political autonomy they demanded devolution of the local powers to the Misings by forming an autonomous body within Assam. The movement was basically launched by the Mising student’s organization, Takam Mising Porin Kebang (TMPK). The student’s leaders wanted greater political autonomy specified in terms of of the six schedules (Art-244) of the Indian constitution. The idea was that to extent the area of the administration of the district council to other districts of Assam where there is more than 50% Mising population. At any rate, with the growing rate of popularity of autonomy movement, the Mising Autonomous Council (MAC) was created in 1995. But duo to its procedural lapses, the MAC has not been able to function and discharge its obligation as envisaged in the Mising Accord, 1995. The stumbling block is the boundary delimitation of the council area.

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CONCLUSION Cultural pluralism is one of the basic features of North-East India. While enjoying the colourful social life the people of this region are also experiencing the adverse affects of it due to the appearance of ethnic oriented discords in the fields of politics and administration. The policies of homogenisation and acculturation imposed by the post-colonial state to integrate different ethnic categories within Assamese formation opened the way for ethno-nationalist movements in north-east India. These movements were the significance manifestation of grievances related to socio-economic and political disparities, and of threats to ethnic identity that increasingly becomes apparent in the first few decades of state building. Among them,the Mishings movement is an important one. In the multicultural social set-up of the Assam they were historically assimilated to the Assamese formation. But, they have been feeling a sense of deprivation of their legitimate share in the process of greater Assamese nationality formation. The process of development was also lopsided. As a means of removing their Socio-economic backwardness and oppressed political status the misings of Assam started movement for separate identity. REFERENCES

 



Ahmed, Abu Nasher Saied (Ed): Nationality question in Assam OKD &Akansha publishing house-2006.



Barpujari, H.K.( 1992) The Comparative history of Assam,vol.II, Publication Board Assam Guwahati,



Baruah, D.P Assam District Gazetter, Goalpara District, Guwahati, 1979



Baruah, Sanjib, India Against Itself-Assam and Politics of Nationality, Oxford University Press, 1999



Dutta,P.S, .: Autonomy movement in Assam, omson publications-1933

                                     

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Gait, Edward,( 1992) A History of Assam, Lawyers Book Stall, Guwahati,



Mahanta, N.G.(2007)’ Ethnicity,State And Identity:From Confrontation To CoExistence’ in Problems of Ethnicity in the North-East India.Ed.B.B.Kumar, Concept Publishing Company ,New Delhi



Mipun, Jatin, The Mishings (Miris) of Assam: Developing of a new life style, Gyan Publishing House, New Delhi,



Nath, Dambarudhar,1998 The Mising Languge Movement in Assam, in Jawahar Jyoti Kuli (ed), The Misings, Their History and Culture, Guwahati, North East Publishers.



Nath, , Dambarudhar, (2011) Religion and Society in North East India, DVS Publishers,Guwahati



Pegu, Ranoj.1998 Autonomy Movement of the Mising People, in Jawahar Jyoti Kuli (ed), The Misings, Their History and Culture, Guwahati, North East Publishers.



Saikia,Pahi. (2011), Ethnic Mobilisation and Violence in Northeast India, Routledge India

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Phukan,Girin, 2007, Ethnic Assertion in Assam, Understanding The Political Economy of Mising Identity, in R.K Bhadra and M. Bhadra (ed) Ethnicity, Movement and Social Structure, Contested Cultural Identity, Rawat Publications, New Delhi.

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315      A Peer Reviewed International Journal of Asian Research Consortium

AJRSH: ASIAN JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN SOCIAL SCIENCE & HUMANITIES ACADEMIC USE OF E- LEARNING TECHNOLOGY: THE ROLE AND EFFECTIVENESS IN AN ACADEMIC CONTEXT DR. SHRIKRISHNA PATEL*; DR. NISHA PANDEY**; SANJAY SRIVASTAVA*** *Faculty of Education, D.A.V. Training College, Kanpur, India. **Faculty of Education, D.A.V. Training College, Kanpur, India. ***Faculty of Education, D.A.V. Training College, Kanpur, India. ABSTRACT

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This paper identifies the present role and effectiveness of Academic use of e – learning technology and its important areas in an academic context. The first objective is to identify the role of ICT, especially e – learning in education and training of teaching staff. The second objective related to understand the effectiveness of e – learning, which is further subcategorized in to two key issues. 1. Factors of e- learning implementation in the context of challenges, Opportunity and adoption of e- learning technology. 2. Factors influencing effective and ineffective e-learning implementations among academic staff of different disciplines. (Adopted from, Bechar 1994). A structured interview scheduled with close ended questions was prepared by the researcher and was used for data collection in the present study. The sample comprised of 200 academic staff (Professor, Associate Professor, Assistant Professor, Head of Department., Directors and Principals) which were categorized in 4 knowledge and disciplinary groups (adapted from Becher 1994), each group consists of 50 participants which were randomly selected from the selected colleges affiliated to Kanpur University.

 

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

The data was collected using survey method. Statistical analysis was performed using chi squire test. There is a significant difference between their rationales. Pure Science and Technologies Academician rationale emphasizes practical applications; in contrast Pure Social Science, Humanities and Applied Social Science academics' rationale emphasizes the literature review and research findings. The results showed that the difference of knowledge regarding eLearning technology acceptance was found to be significant among different disciplines KEY WORDS: e-learning, ICT, Disciplinary differences. ______________________________________________________________________ INTRODUCTION The role of e-learning today is closely linked with staff training in educational institution the purpose of which is to improve the knowledge and skills of employees. Hence, employees become more competent at, and familiar with, their daily works. The development of the information society and the wide spread diffusion of integrating e – learning (ICT) give rise to new opportunities for learning and new digital skills and competences that are necessary for employment, education and training of staff, self development and participation in society. (Yves Punie, 2006)

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Teachers are a key element in establishing the use of e – learning in education many teachers themselves lack skills and training in the use of the technologies or opportunities to apply and develop their knowledge and skills. (Hillary Perraton, 2002) The fundamental changes in learning environment demand the change in pedagogical approach. The emphasis on constructivist approach demands the teacher to be “Practical Intellectuals, curriculum developers and generators of knowledge in practice. (Chai et. al. 2011) Teachers are the catalytic agents of change and focus in any society should be to provide teacher education of the highest quality. Only enlightened and emancipated teachers lead communities and nations to march towards better and higher quality of life. Teacher is the only living element in the teaching process that has to deal with the human beings that too have diverse needs, since teacher is an indispensable element in the process of teaching learning, proper education, and training of the teacher is most important. (Sangeeta, 2005) The future delivery of education is envisaged through eLearning technology providing lecturers with superior teaching tools. Volery (2000) argues that online methods facilitate more effective education and offer significant advantages over traditional teaching methods. This can be via full blown technological implementation or limited technology based environments such as bulletin boards, virtual lectures and e- Libraries. McClelland (2001) contends that in eLearning environments lecturers can offer constant educational support, as students are able to communicate with classmates and lecturers, visit web sites and view course material regardless of their time and location. To maximize the potential of eLearning teaching tools Holley (2000) advocates two methods to modify the learning process. Firstly, educational re-engineering that will revolutionize classroom practices and secondly educational fortification that will improve the learning courseware through technology.

 

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

Despite the apparent advantages of eLearning teaching tools there appear to be certain practical problems with regard to utilizing these techniques in educational learning environments. Teare (2000) explains that initially the process of teaching via eLearning may demonstrate features of educational enrichment but in reality eLearning methods prove highly problematic. Teare’s (2000) studies suggested that some students who participated in online learning courses found the delivery of course content impractical and frustrating due to technological failures. These finding’s imply that the problems with eLearning initiatives are not the value of the delivery methods but the reliability of the technology supporting them. Volery (2000) identified that university students who participated in Virtual lectures found the experience rewarding and rated them as a valuable learning tool. However, nearly two thirds of the students in the class did not participate fully because of technical problems i.e. frustrations in trying to connect and utilize the networked systems. Recent studies indicate that the success of eLearning methods in higher education can only be measured according to the effectiveness of delivery, training staff may be regarded as a major challenge in the adoption of eLearning initiatives. It is acknowledged that some academics working in higher education are reluctant in accepting aspects of technology in their teaching and learning.

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Lecturers in higher educational institutions must accept and embrace technological advancements offered by eLearning. Holley (2002) explains that lecturers have to adopt new educational approaches in order to maintain the quality of courses. Collectively, the evidence offered on the role of lecturing staff in contemporary eLearning courses suggests that online learning should not be regarded as an alternative to a traditional tutor. Effective eLearning programmes use lecturing staff combined with the appropriate technology to deliver effective learning. In addition, the lecturer is not only the knowledge source but is also a knowledge navigator using the Internet as a teaching tool. In the light of research literature on changing environment the take-up and use of e – learning by academic staff will be a critical factor in the success of attempts to integrate networked technologies into university teaching. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY There has been little research work to date that investigates the ways in which academic practice varies in relation to e – learning technology although there is a significant tradition of research concerned more broadly with disciplinary differences amongst academics, the main aim of this study was to identify the current role and effectiveness of Academic use of e-learning technology and its key issues in an academic context OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 1. The first objective is to identify the role of ICT, especially e – learning in education and training of teaching staff. 2. The second objective related to understand the effectiveness of e – learning, which is further subcategorized in to two key issues. I.

 

Factors of e- learning implementation in the context of challenges, opportunity and adoption of e- learning technology

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

II.

Factors influencing effective and ineffective e-learning implementations among academic staff of different disciplines. (Adopted from, Bechar 1994)

METHODOLOGY SAMPLING The sample comprised of 200 academic staff (Professor, Associate Professor, Assistant Professor, Head of Deptarment Principals) which were categorized in 2 knowledge and disciplinary groups (adapted from Becher 1994), each group consists of 100 participants which were randomly selected from the selected colleges affiliated to Kanpur university. DISCIPLINARY DIFFERENCES

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The research related to disciplines simplifies academic practice in a variety of clusters or groupings. Becher (1994), for example, uses a four-fold taxonomy. TABLE 1. KNOWLEDGE AND DISCIPLINARY GROUPS (ADAPTED FROM BECHER 1994) Disciplinary Groupings Nature of knowledge Pure Sciences - Cumulative; atomistic Group 1 concerned with a. Pure Sciences (e.g. Physics) “Hard (crystalline/tree-like) universals, quantities, simplification; Pure” b. Technologies (e.g. mechanical resulting in discovery/explanation Technologies - Purposive, pragmatic, (knowengineering) “Hard Applied” how via hard knowledge); concerned with mastery of physical environment; resulting in products/techniques. Reiterative; holistic (organic/river like); Group 2 a. Humanities (e.g. history) and pure concerned with particulars, qualities, social sciences (e.g.anthropology) complication; resulting in understanding/ interpretation. “Soft Pure” b. Applied social sciences (e.g. Functional; utilitarian (know-how via soft knowledge); concerned with enhancement of education); “Soft Applied” [semi] professional practice; resulting in protocols procedures. INSTRUMENT SAMPLING OF ORGANIZATIONS/ INSTITUTIONS A large number of academic institution were asked to provide information, either by interviews (face-to-face or phone) or by providing the data. Finally, only 30% of them agreed. These institutions were from several sectors (especially science, social science and humanities, engineering institutions) located in the three districts of Uttar Pradesh; Kanpur Nagar, Kanpur Dehat and Unnao. Each interview normally took about 30 minutes. Most questions are open-ended, which offer interviewees more flexibility and freedom to answer.

 

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

Altogether there were 200 academician interviewees (90 in Kanpur Nagar, 60 in Kanpur Dehat and 50 in the Unnao District) including directors, Principals, Head of Departments, Professors, Associate Professors and Assistant Professors from various academic institutions, among 200 academician 100 from disciplinary group 1 and other 100 from disciplinary group 2. The survey instrument was developed by the researchers after an extensive review of literature and scales used in different educational backgrounds guided by the theoretical base of the study. This instrument was sent to seven experts who were working in the field of ICT in education in different universities of Uttar Pradesh to determine its face and content validity. The instrument was improved in the light of the feedback from these experts. A pilot study was conducted with 151 volunteer teachers of different disciplines to establish its internal consistency and reliability. After analyzing the data resulting from the pilot study, three items were removed from the instrument. The final instrument consists of three parts. The first section, which consist 5 questions, focuses on the Perceived Satisfaction of Use of e – learning technology. The second section consists of 4 questions related to perceived convenience of e- learning technology. The third section deals with perspective towards using e – learning technology. The last section consists of motive to use e – learning technology. RESULTS Data analysis from the interviews with academicians of different disciplinary groups.

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Altogether there were 200 academician interviewees (90 in Kanpur Nagar, 60 in Kanpur Dehat and 50 in the Unnao District) including directors, Principals, Head of Departments, Professors, Associate Professors and Assistant Professors from various academic institutions.

 

                                    

AJR RSH                                       Volume 2, Issue 11 (Novem mber, 2012)      ISSN 2 2249‐7315     

FIGU URE 1: PER RCENTAGE ES OF INT TERVIEWE EES AGREE EING WITH H STAFF TR RAINING AND A INTER RACTIVE LEARNING G (IL)

90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Kanpur Dehaat

1 69 6

2 58

3 45

Kanpur Nagaar

8 81

72

63

Unnao

6 65

49

35

1.

Staff training g is useful froom the organnization’s peerspective (665% in Unnaao vs. 81% in i K Kanpur Nagaar vs. 69% inn the Kanpurr Dehat)

2.

Combination of staff traiining and innteractive e-llearning is uuseful (49% in Unnao vvs. C 722% in Kanpuur Nagar andd 58% in thee Kanpur Deehat)

3.

Innteractive e-learning is the t most effeective type of o learning (335% in Unnao vs. 63% in i Kanpur Nagaar vs. 45% inn the Kanpurr Dehat. K FIGUR RE 2 PERC CENTAGES S OF INTER RVIEWEES S' OPINION NS OF E-LE EARNING FOR ST TAFF TRA AINING

Interrview Reesults Analysis ‐‐ 2 % of Inverviewees opinions

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% of Interviewees agreeing g g

Interview Reesults A Analysis ‐‐1

100 80 60 40 20 0 No

1 10

2 28

3 37

Yes 

90

72

63

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

1. Staff training is useful from the organization’s perspective (Yes: 90%; No: 10%) 2. E-learning is the most suitable way for training (Yes: 72%; No: 28%) 3. Self-improvements in competencies of new computer tools and technologies is made possible through e – learning. (Yes: 63%; No: 37%) Data analysis from the Questionnaire with academicians of different disciplinary groups. TABLE- 2: COMPARISON OF DISCIPLINARY DIFFERENCES AMONG ACADEMICIANS IN THE CONTEXT OF PERCEIVED SATISFACTION OF USE OF E – LEARNING TECHNOLOGY S.No.

1

2

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3

4

5

Perceived Satisfaction of Use

Learning to use e-Learning would be easy for me a. Agree b. Disagree c. Undecided e-Learning would be easy to use. a. Agree b. Disagree c. Undecided My interaction with e-Learning would be clear and understandable. a. Agree b. Disagree c. Undecided I have the basic IT skills to conduct e – learning based lessons. a. Agree b. Disagree c. Undecided e-Learning technology adoptable for me. a. Agree b. Disagree c. Undecided

*Significant

 

df = 2

would

Group 1 n = 100 %

Group 2 n = 100 %

Total n = 200

X2

85 10 5

75 15 10

80 12.5 7.5

21.96*

90 7 3

75 20 5

82.5 13.5 4

8.54*

78 20 2

64 30 6

71 25 4

4.83

54 40 6

45 31 24

49.5 35.5 15

12.74*

60 30 10

45 40 15

52.5 35.5 12.5

9.56*

be

Level of Significance = 0.05

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

TABLE- 3: COMPARISON OF DISCIPLINARY DIFFERENCES AMONG ACADEMICIANS IN THE CONTEXT OF PERCEIVED USEFULNESS OF E – LEARNING TECHNOLOGY Perceived Convenience

1

2

3

4

Using e-Learning would enhance my effectiveness in teaching learning. d. Agree e. Disagree f. Undecided The e - learning exposed me to new perspectives on the use of IT in teaching. d. Agree e. Disagree f. Undecided Using e-Learning would increase my productivity d. Agree e. Disagree f. Undecided I am able to identify and evaluate e – learning resources d. Agree e. Disagree f. Undecided

*Significant

df = 2

Group 1 n = 100 %

Group 2 n = 100 %

Total n = 200

X2

75 18 7

50 27 23

62.5 22.5 15

15.2*

78 16 6

56 32 12

67 24 9

10.42*

73 21 6

60 32 8

61.5 26.5 7

54 40 6

45 31 24

49.5 35.5 15

8.58*

12.74*

Level of Significance = 0.05

TABLE- 4: COMPARISON OF DISCIPLINARY DIFFERENCES AMONG ACADEMICIANS IN THE CONTEXT OF ATTITUDE TOWARDS USING OF E – LEARNING TECHNOLOGY Journal of Asian Research Consortium                  256                  http://www.aijsh.org                                                                                      

S.No.

1

2

3

4

Perspective Toward Using

I dislike the idea of using e-Learning. g. Agree h. Disagree i. Undecided I generally have a favorable attitude towards using e-Learning. g. Agree h. Disagree i. Undecided I believe it would be a good idea to use this eLearning for teaching- learning process. g. Agree h. Disagree i. Undecided Using e-Learning is not a ideal concept g. h. i.

*Significant

 

Agree Disagree Undecided df = 2

X2

Group 1 n = 100 %

Group 2 n = 100 %

Total n = 200

10 85 5

25 65 10

17.5 75 7.5

10.74*

68 22 10

55 30 15

61.5 26 12.5

3.58

84 10 6

66 24 10

75 17 8

9.82*

14 80 6

30 62 8

22 71 7

Level of Significance = 0.05

8.36*

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

TABLE- 5: COMPARISON OF DISCIPLINARY DIFFERENCES AMONG ACADEMICIANS IN THE CONTEXT OF INTENTION TO USE OF E – LEARNING TECHNOLOGY S.No.

1

2

3

Motive to Use

I can design and create e learning based materials for instruction during teaching learning process j. Agree k. Disagree l. Undecided I can adapt and integrate e - learning resources in my lessons/ lectures. j. Agree k. Disagree l. Undecided I am able to identify and evaluate e – learning resources j. Agree k. Disagree l. Undecided

*Significant

df = 2

Group 1 n = 100 %

Group 2 n = 100 %

Total n = 200

X2

63 30 7

48 42 10

55.5 36 8

4.54

82 12 6

60 26 14

71 19 10

11.74*

60 32 8

45 40 15

52 5 36

4.98

Level of Significance = 0.05

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TABLE 6 COMPARISONS BETWEEN FACTORS INFLUENCING EFFECTIVE E-LEARNING IMPLEMENTATIONS FROM GROUP 1 (PURE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGIES) AND GROUP 2 (HUMANITIES, PURE AND APPLIED SOCIAL SCIENCE) Rank Factors 1. Systems that speed up and simplify the processes Network and systems that speed up and easy access. 2. Systems that assist the institutions in providing instant international reach to meet its targets. 3. Use of e- learning saves training costs and ongoing operational costs. 4. Strong support and cooperation from the technical teams, top level management and colleagues. 5. Supportive and flexible organisation cultures and management.

Rank Factors 1. Systems that speed up and simplify the processes Network and systems that speed up and easy access. 2. Systems that assist the institutions in providing instant international reach to meet its targets. 3. Strong support and cooperation from the technical teams, top level management and colleagues. 4. Staff training program that is designed to suit the needs from different groups of users. 5. Use of e- learning saves training costs and ongoing operational costs.

DISCUSSION Analysis for factors influencing effective e-learning implementations.

 

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

Table 6 demonstrates that Group 1 and Group 2 have the same opinions for the top factors influencing effective e-learning implementations, which are shown in bold print. Many Group 1 Participants feel that the primary objective is to speed up the daily processes and to simplify the complicated processes in engineering or Pure Science. The reasons are: (1) Quality time is a focus in Science Discipline; (2) It takes them too much effort to deal with specific problems due to the lack of competencies. In Group 1 Participants opinions, effective e-learning implementations should help them to handle their tasks better, by either reducing the time to complete the entire processes with ease, or assisting them to over-come problems by new skills learnt from e-learning. This may improve the individual performance, and then the team performance. Eventually this assists the institutions to reach its targets, since individual and team performance have improved. Some Group 2 Participants feel that effective e-learning implementation should increase efficiency or productivity by speeding up or simplifying the work or the processes. Some academics feel that the purpose of implementing e-learning is to improve the quality of their employees, which is a usual institutional target. By improving the efficiency, this also achieves part of the organizational targets. Some academics regard "strong support from the teams and management" as the most important factor. This supports Information systems review in Section Two that problems are often related to human and management issues There are some differences between both groups' factors. For instance, "strong support and co-operation" is ranked the fourth factor for Group 1 participants but ranked the third factor for academics. Another factor, "cost-effectiveness" is ranked the third for Group 1 participants but ranked the fifth for Group 2 participants.

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TABLE 7 COMPARISONS BETWEEN FACTORS INFLUENCING INEFFECTIVE E-LEARNING IMPLEMENTATIONS FROM GROUP 1 (PURE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGIES) AND GROUP 2 (HUMANITIES, PURE AND APPLIED SOCIAL SCIENCE) Rank Factors 1. Systems and network that are too difficult to handle and involves complexity in use 2. Systems that add extra unnecessary work to the employees 3. Disagreements or conflicts within the teams or management 4.

5.

 

Rank Factors 1. Systems and network that are too difficult to handle and involves complexity in use 2. Poor project management 3.

Abusing / misusing e-learning 4. system (For example, using it for computer games) Technology that are not user-friendly 5. (For example, poor online presentation)

ignorance of staff training and poorly organized training without proper feedback Disagreements or conflicts within the teams or management Systems that add extra unnecessary work to the employees

                                     

AJRSH                                      Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315     

ANALYSIS FOR FACTORS IMPLEMENTATIONS

INFLUENCING

INEFFECTIVE

E-LEARNING

There is only one common agreement between Group1 participants and Group 2 participants, as shown in bold print. Both groups have similar opinions on commenting their reasons, stating that if the systems are too difficult to set up and use, this will cause various problems such as delay, inefficiency and cost-ineffectiveness, which obviously are ineffective implementations. CONCLUSION The above analysis reveals an interesting finding about differences between Group 1 (Pure Science and Technologies) and Group 2 (Humanities, Pure and Applied Social Science) regarding factors influencing effective and ineffective e-learning implementations. Both groups have close ideas in identifying factors influencing effective implementations but have some variations in identifying factors influencing ineffective implementations. There is a significant difference between their rationale Group 1 (Pure Science and Technologies) rationale emphasize practical applications, in Group 2 (Humanities, Pure and Applied Social Science) contrast rationale emphasize the literature review and research findings. However, more data should be obtained to further support this point. REFERENCES Becher, T. (1990). The Counter-culture of Specialisation. European Journal of Education, 25 (3), 333-346.

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Becher, T. (1994). The Significance of Disciplinary Differences. Studies in Higher Education, 19 (2), 151-161. Becher, T., &Trowler, P. R. (2001). Academic Tribes and Territories (2nd Ed.), Oxford: Oxford University Press. Bennett, S. and Marsh, D. (2007) Handbook of Online Education, London: Continuum International Publishing group Ltd. Chai, C.S., Lim, C.P., (2011). The Internet and Teacher Education: Traversing between the digitized world and school, Internet and Higher Education, 14, 3- 9. Freeman and Capper, (1999). Exploiting the web for education: An anonymous asynchronous role simulation, Australia Journal of Educational Technology, 15(1), 95-116. Hargis, J., (2001). Can students learn Science using the Internet?, Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 33 (4), 475. Hilary Perraton, Charlotte Creed and Bema- dette Robinson (2002). Teacher Education Guidelines: Using Open and Distance Learning: Technology Curriculum, Cost, Evaluation, Paris: UNESCO Holley, D. (2002). "Which room is the virtual seminar in please?". Education and Training, 44(3), 112-121.

 

                                     

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McClelland, R. (2001). Web-based Administrative Support for University Students. The International Journal of Educational Management, 15(6), 292-303. Sangeeta (2005). Reforming Teacher Education to foster inclusion in the new millennium: University News, 43(18) Teare, R. (2000). Modelling the Virtual University. The Journal of Workplace Learning, 12(3), 111-123. Volery, T. (2000). Critical success factors in online education. The International Journal of Educational Management, 14(5), 216-223.

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Yves Punie and Marcelino Cabrera (2006). The future of ICT and Learning in the Knowledge Society in 2020, Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities Downloaded from http:// www. Jrc. Es/homepages/publications.cfm

 

                                     

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AJRSH: ASIAN JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN SOCIAL SCIENCE & HUMANITIES PANCHAYATI RAJ INSTITUTIONS AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN PUNJAB DR. M.S. GILL*; RAMA** *Professor, Department of Sociology, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, Punjab. **Head, Department of Sociology, Pt. M.L.S.D. College for Women, Gurdaspur, Punjab.

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ABSTRACT Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) have been proclaimed as the vehicles of socioeconomic transformation in rural India. The passage of 73rd constitutional amendment in 1992 was a turning point in the history of rural development in India. The Punjab Panchayati Raj Act came into effect on 21st April 1994 replacing the Punjab Gram Panchayat Act 1952 and the Panchayat Samiti and Zila Parishad Act 1961. 73rd amendment has given constitutional recognition to the Panchayati Raj Institutions for maximizing social upliftment of the rural population. An intricate analysis is imperative to augment our understanding of the role of Panchayati Raj Institutions as a whole. The present paper aims to find out various factors having positive impact on the development of rural society as well as factors negating the effectiveness of such institutions to fulfill its root objectives. ________________________________________________________________________ INTRODUCTION In India about 72 percent of the population lives in villages. The development and progress of the country lies in the development of the villages. Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) have been proclaimed as the vehicles of socio-economic transformation in rural India. The passage of 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act in 1992 was a turning point in the history of rural development in India. This Amendment seeks to promote Panchayati Raj as an institution of local self government, provides for a well defined tenure; safeguards against prolonged supercession; regular elections; power and meaningful representation for women; reservation for weaker sections; devolution of powers and adequate finance (Rao, 1993). The Punjab  

                                     

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Panchayati Raj Act came into effect on 21st April 1994 replacing the Punjab Gram Panchayat Act 1952 and the Panchayat Samiti and Zila Parishad Act 1961. With the passing of the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992 the State Government enacted a new Panchayat Act, the Punjab Panchayati Raj Act, 1994 on 21 April, 1994. The key focus of the amendment is to ensure rural development by empowering PRIs. Rural development is a comprehensive and multidimensional concept that connotes overall development of rural areas to improve the quality of life of rural people. The Rural development through PRIs involves implementation of various Centre Sponsored and State Funded Schemes for poverty alleviation, employment generation, sanitation, capacity building, women’s social and economic empowerments, apart from provision of basic amenities and services. The guiding and driving force of is to endow PRIs with such powers and authority as may be necessary to enable them to function as institutions of self government in rural areas. 73rd amendment of Constitution of India has provided social scenario with assured participation of rural people especially women folk and weaker section of society, in achieving their envisaged aspirations and other needs. Against this backdrop, the present study is expected to highlight various factors for augmenting effectiveness of Panchayati Raj Institutions for rural development of Punjab. OBJECTIVES AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

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73rd Amendment has given constitutional recognition to the Panchayati Raj Institutions for maximizing social upliftment of the rural population. An intricate analysis is imperative to augment our understanding of the role of Panchayati Raj Institutions as a whole. It is required to find out various factors having positive impact on the development of rural society as well as factors negating the effectiveness of such institutions to fulfill its root objectives. The study is expected to highlight various factors for augmenting effectiveness of Panchayati Raj Institutions for economic and social development of rural India. It will be useful for the policy makers and planners in addition to those interested in rural development. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Punjab is one of the progressive states in India. The poverty in rural areas is still in abundance. As per Punjab Human development Index -2001(Human Development Report 2004 Punjab), the districts of Punjab has been categorised into three levels. From these three levels of HDI, one district each i.e. Gurdaspur (ZP1), Nawan Shahr (Shahid Bhagat Singh Nagar, ZP2) and Muktsar (ZP3) has been selected randomly so as to make it representative of the universe. Further from these districts, one tehsil each again has been selected randomly. From these three tehsils again three blocks namely Dhariwal, Aur and Lambi have been selected using the random table. From the selected blocks, one each Gram Panchayat with the Scheduled Castes and the non-Scheduled sarpanch has been taken for the study. Thus, in all six Gram Panchayats have been selected randomly. From these selected Gram Panchayats 34 respondents each have been taken up to have the feel of the people about the Panchayati Raj Institutions. The data has been collected with the help of a pre-tested structured interview schedule that has been prepared for the respondents and the electorates respectively keeping the objectives of the study into consideration.

 

                                     

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The interview schedule includes both open ended and closed ended questions. The researcher visited the villages, Panchayat Samitis, and Zila Parishads to collect data and information about the functioning of the PRIs. FINDINGS As per the Constitution, the elections of the Gram Panchayats are to be held after every five years. Majority of the respondents (84 per cent) states that the elections are held regularly after five years where as the rest reply that the elections are held after a gap of more than five years. It means that nearly 16 per cent of the respondents are not aware of the last elections.

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In the Scheduled Castes headed villages, majority of the respondents finds that being a Scheduled Castes (32.4 per cent) in the reserved constituency is important. But having political affiliation (34.3 per cent) irrespective of caste helps one to dominate in the elections. In the non-Scheduled Castes headed villages, it is the Upper Castes that dominates the elections. In view of the respondents, numerical strength is another variable that defines the dominant position in the village elections. Personal reputation is not of much significance in the process but ability to lead and connection with the leaders of political parties does have significance. For this, the respondents hold that the elections are not contested on party line but certain factors may have a prominent role in getting elected. As per the respondents, the main factor that contributes the elections to panchayat as a member is political affiliation of one or the other regional political party; may be ruling or opposite. In this regard, most of respondents apprehend that political influence is a major factor to get elected as panchayat member. Other factors like money and personal reputation have negligible impact. The electorates have also reported that the political affiliation helps them in elections and later to get more grants. Before reservation mostly land lords have dominated the election process but after reservation the situation has changed as only a small percentage of the total respondents hold that landlord and Upper Castes dominate in the elections. Out of the total sample, fifty per cent of the respondents hold that Jats are having more representation in the Gram Panchayats, whereas other fifty per cent find that it is the Scheduled Castes. It is true as in the nonScheduled Castes headed panchayats there is more representation of Jats and vice versa in the case of the Scheduled Castes headed panchayats. This corroborates the above that Caste is an important variable and reservation has strengthened the position of the Scheduled Castes to enter the political sphere. The role of development of the weaker sections of the society (including women and the Scheduled Castes) has been assigned to the Gram Panchayats. In view of the electorates, Gram Panchayats have provided training, employment and facilities to the weaker sections. These have also implemented various welfare schemes for them. As per the electorates, the Scheduled Castes headed Gram Panchayats have emphasized on providing training and employment while those headed by the non-Scheduled Castes on providing facilities and welfare schemes to these sections. As reported by the respondents, relations are sympathetic towards the female members. Some of the respondents have hold that no importance is given to the female members and some are of the view that male members listen to the female members but do not act accordingly. This depicts not only the lower status of the female members and their

 

                                     

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negligible role in decision making. This is supported by some of the electorates who are of the view that female are participating passively in the process. The main reason for the passive participation as cited by the electorates is that it is the husbands or any other male member of the family who participate in the process on their behalf. Some percentage of the electorates has said that female members participate but they are not listened. A few of them have cited ignorance of the female members regarding the matter. It is also revealed that in the non-Scheduled Castes headed panchayats passive participation of the female members is high. Another weaker section, whose participation has been ensured under the Panchayat Act, is the Scheduled Castes. The study points out that big proportion of them do not participate and if participate they do so on provocation in the decision making as expressed by the respondents. In this regard, the majority of the electorates (70.8 per cent) are of the view that the Scheduled Castes members are participating actively, rest believe that these members are participating passively. Further data reveals that in the Scheduled Castes headed panchayats as compared to the non-Scheduled Castes headed panchayats, the Scheduled Castes members are participating more actively. The reason for passive participation as cited by the majority of the electorates (42.8 per cent) is that the Scheduled Castes are still given lower status in the panchayats. Some are of the view that land owners dominate the Gram Panchayats so the Scheduled Castes are not listened. It is also seen that in the non-Scheduled Castes headed panchayats, the Scheduled Castes members are given lower status but it is not in case of Scheduled Castes headed panchayats.

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Majority of the electorates from the Gram Panchayats, Panchayat Samitis and Zila Parishads are not satisfied with the functioning of PRIs. The main reason for this is the political interference at all levels. Bureaucracy is another hurdle in smooth functioning. The electorates of the Panchayat Samitis have largely (60.0 per cent) held that it is the political leaders who distribute funds to villages. Sometimes even Panchayat Samitis are not taken into confidence and cheques are distributed by local MLAs and MPs themselves. A few of the electorates are of the view that BDO himself decide distribution and allocation of funds to Gram Panchayats. The level of awareness about their rights/duties/functions among the electorates at all the three levels of PRIs is less than expected. They are aware about the various schemes where funds flow from Centre or State Government, but lack awareness about the efforts to be put by them. Regarding utilisation of funds at the Gram Panchayat level, all the electorates are of the view that the funds are properly utilized for the purpose these are sanctioned may be the grants are received for the purpose twice or thrice. As reported by them there is no flexibility in utilisation of funds. Respondents are of the view that the Scheduled Castes headed panchayats get more funds from MLAs, rural development projects and other government schemes as compared to the non-Scheduled Castes headed panchayats. This may be because of the emphasis laid by the respective governments on the development of the weaker sections. It may also be because of the variation in terms of party affiliation. The same is apprehended by the electorates of different levels that political affiliation helps them to get more grants.

 

                                     

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Some respondent are of the opinion that people in the villages have forcibly occupied common land. In the villages headed by the Scheduled Castes the number of such cases is more as compared to the non-Scheduled Castes headed ones. This may be because the political and bureaucratic interference and political affiliation with the ruling party of the panchayats have contributed and also encouraged the people to forcibly occupy village common land. Majority of the respondents (51.0 per cent) states that the Panchayats organize lectures to provide information about the development schemes to the rural people. The seminars/workshops are organized for electorates of Gram Panchayat by the Department of rural development to provide information about schemes of rural development and in turn the electorates organize lectures in the villages to transmit that knowledge to the people. The strategies of rural development do not limit creating awareness about various schemes of government but to take concerted efforts in the field of raising crop production through the introduction of new varieties of crops, improvement in cattle stock, promote horticulture and other subsidiary occupation that augment income of the rural people and generate employment opportunities. The respondents were asked to provide information about the efforts made by the Panchayats in this regard. Although these functions are in the preview of Gram Panchayats under the Act, but none of the panchayats under study is doing anything in this direction as reported by the respondents. When the same question was put to the Gram Panchayat members, they too showed indifference. The electorates were having knowledge of Government schemes like Indira Awas Yojna and MNREGA but they were not having knowledge of development schemes where they have to put efforts. SUGGESTIONS

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Some of the suggestions made by the respondents and electorates are:

 

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To ensure people’s participation in PRIs, regular meetings should be held.

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The interference of political parties in the functioning of PRIs should be minimised.

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The grants to the PRIs should be given for fulfilling the diversified needs of the rural areas as per the requirements.

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The influence of bureaucracy over the PRIs should be minimised.

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Gram Panchayats should be given powers as laid down in the 73rd Amendment.

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The procedure for allocation as well as utilisation of grants to the Gram should be transparent and simple.

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The weaker sections of the society and women should be given due importance in the decision making process of PRIs.

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There should be awareness cum training programmes for the panchayat members regarding various aspects of rural development.

                                     

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The functioning of Panchayat Samiti and Zila Parishad needs to be made effective by giving them more powers for rural development process.

CONCLUSIONS To conclude, the study reveals that caste in rural society is still important and caste identities have assumed greater significance with the implementation of reservation policy at the grass root levels of PRIs. Legislative measures have sharpened the wedge between castes particularly Upper and lower ones and this is supported by political parties who try to avail political benefits by supporting the lower castes. This is evident from the fact that more funds are transferred to the Scheduled Castes headed Gram Panchayats than to the Non-Scheduled Castes headed Gram Panchayats under various schemes and even from the discretionary funds of the political leaders at the State and Centre level. This way caste and politics seem to be interrelated.

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The study further affirms that weaker sections particularly the SCs are forcibly occupying village common land and such occupancy is more in the villages headed by the Scheduled Castes sarpanch. It is justified through the support of political parties and lack of awareness (intended /unintended) about the duties related to forced occupancy of land and its vacation. This process is largely taking place because the lower castes are trying to control land with all means. Such tendency originates from the traditional system of power structure in which Upper Castes have been drawing their power through their hold over land. So, land is not only a symbol of prestige but of power as well. The functioning of the PRIs is marred by political and bureaucratic interference particularly at the first and second tier because of the low level of awareness among the electorates about the functions/rights/duties. No doubt, constitutionally all these have been specified but power to exercise these functions/rights/duties have not been devolved to these elected representatives at all levels. Even, the Gram Panchayats have not been given any right to generate resources to undertake rural development activities. They depend on Sate and Centre Government or other bodies for the same. There is no flexibility regarding utilisation of funds as funds are to be utilized for the purpose these are released. Interestingly, in politically influential villages funds are released for the same purpose time and again. With these shortcomings, the PRIs are not able to attain the objectives for which these have been enacted and for this reason, they are not contributing to rural development as was supposed to be. In short, the efforts of the Government to ameliorate the social and economic position of the weaker sections through PRIs are hampered by the structural inequalities which have been perpetuating in the rural society. Such inequalities are further supported by the political structure. So as to attain the path of development of rural society, PRIs need to be strengthened by devolving powers including financial powers and use of the local resources including human resources. Such process may help these institutions to come out of the clenches of the political parties and play an active role in the rural development.

 

                                     

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REFERENCES Altekar, A.S. (1958), State and government in ancient India, Delhi, Motilal Banarsi Dass. Gupta, D.N. (2004), Decentralization need for reforms, Delhi, Concept Publishing Co. Krishna Iyer, V.R. (1989), “ Panchayati Perestroika?”, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 24, No. 37, Sept., p.2051. Pal, Mahi (2004), “Panchayati Raj and Rural governance”, Economic and Political Weekly, Jan. 10-16, vol. XXXIX, No.2, p.137. Singh, Sukhdev (1998), “Three Tier Panchayati Raj in Punjab after the seventy-third amendment: An analysis”, Social Change, Vol. 28, No. 1, March, p. 79. Singh, Sukhdev, S.S. Gilland, D.S. Dev (1995), “Panchayati Raj in Punjab: An analysis”, Journal Of Rural Development, Vol. 14(2), p.117. Upadhyay, Videh (2002), “Panchayats And Paper Laws”, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 37, No. 29, July, p.2988. Sahai, Raghubir (1968), Panchayati Raj in India: A Study, Allahabad, Kitab Mahal. Maheshwari, S.R. (1985), Rural Development In India, New Delhi, Sage Publications.

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Desai, Vasant (1980), Panchayati Raj power to the people, Bombay, Himalaya Publishing Company.

 

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AJRSH 

    A Peer Reviewed International Journal of Asian Research Consortium

AJRSH: ASIAN JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN SOCIAL SCIENCE & HUMANITIES CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND ANCIENT CHINA JUNFENG CHEN1* YUAN HUANG2 1

Yuanpei College,Shaoxing University,900 Cheng Nan Road, Shaoxing 312000 China 2 School of law,Guizhou University,Guiyang 550000 China

ABSTRACT Constitutionalism as the realization of democratic politics, China is the hot research topic of the academia.We through the study of the history of the Constitution and the constitutional debate in China, tries to put forward the ancient China have no constitutional viewpoint of this one core.

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Keywords:Constitution,Constitutionalism,Ancient China,Constitutional development conditions ________________________________________________________________________ THE CONCEPT OF“CONSTITUTIONALISM” “Constitutionalism” in Chinese semantic interpretation can be decomposed into “constitution”and“political”.Xu Chongde① said “The constitutional democratic politics should be the implementation of the Constitution”[1] Yu Depeng ②then points out that “the constitution should be a good constitution, democracy, the rule of law is to restrict the abuse of government power, the constitutional protection of human rights.” [2] In the above discussion we can recognize the constitutional purpose and function- protection of democracy and the rule of law, limited power,the protection of human rights. This function is the nature of the constitutional Karl • J • Friedrich③think : “ provisions and maintenance of human rights.” We thinks, want to explain the concept of “constitutionalism” must understand the text semantics and its essential function contains the basic meaning of value. So we can make such understanding, constitutionalism is take the constitution as the tool,maintenance of democracy, human rights is the basic value orientation of political form.Constitutionalism is the Constitution in the national social life in the application as a symbol of the political system. “CONSTITUTIONALISM” HISTORICAL ORIGINS Karl Marx ④tells us, in the exploration of social existence of superstructure, must inspect the supporting the development of the economic base. Constitutionalism as political and legal systems as a part of superstructure, its development depends on certain economic foundation. Constitutionalism as a kind of political culture  

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originated from the ancient Greek period. The ancient Greek city-state is composed of a plurality of slavery as consisting of a “union”state, is located in the Mediterranean it by the ocean civilization baptism. Due to the lack of the means of production and living Island, the ancient Greeks started the maritime trade, contributed to the development of commercial economy.Because of the commercial trade and economic exchange in emphasizing the individual interests protection, which had originally thought of human rights. With the development of economy, the ancient Greek political life also gets developing, formed the rudiment of constitutional form. Its constitutional form of legislation , Constituent from 621 BC Dracula legislation to Pericles in 460 BC , by the road to open a civil rights civilians polity ( gradually all office open at each grade people to promote the citizens' Assembly to form the authority ) , power constraints, the supremacy of law in the city-state democracy to consolidate a constitutional form of Greek . In the middle ages, Europe formed the Eastern Mediterranean as the core business of trading system. Although the feudal system, religious and theological rule restricts the social production development, but the marine commerce and estate trade development needs to break the rule of feudal theology limited. With the European “City autonomy movement”, some city hope through the development of “supreme” laws to restrict the powerful feudal religious rule. The strength of strong city gained autonomy, their autonomy by the church or the feudal monarchy issued a decree recognized. In 1111AD, Germany Bayer privilege “charter”, in 1215AD the “Great Charter of liberties” and the subsequent “Lincoln city charter” were to some extent promote the democratic development in the autonomous city, in the practice of democracy, promoted the democratic and constitutional development. The world's first written constitution documents are the thirteenth Century war between Britain and France, the British domestic contradiction harmonization of product “the Great Charter of liberties”, it represents the constitutional history into the modern civilization. British constitutional government experienced a parliamentary form,“bill of rights”and“law of succession to the throne”formulation and the responsibility cabinet system formation, ultimately contributed to the contemporary British constitutional monarchy constitutional mode. In late eighteenth Century, the North American independent movement and French bourgeois revolution broke out.Along with the “1787 Constitution”and “Universal Declaration of human rights” promulgate, the Modern Democratic Republic of constitutional thought in the world began to spread widely. At the end of the nineteenth Century, along with the Western imperialist powers' invasion and the constitutional movement unfolds, constitutional thought has become popular in china. From 1909AD the Qing government issued by legal transplant "version of the Outline Constitution" to 2004AD people's Republic of China constitutional amendment (four) through, modern Chinese constitutionalism development already had hundred years history, the Socialist People's democratic constitutional government has become the modern Chinese political civilization, the pursuit of the goal. ON THE ANCIENT CHINESE WHETHER A CONSTITUTIONAL CONTROVERSY In ancient China there is no constitutional politics? Academics have been debating. From a logical point of view, can be moved such that a syllogism, i.e.: Major premise: constitutionalism is based on the Constitution The minor premise: Ancient China has no constitution; Conclusion:Ancient China has no constitutionalism. By this logic, judgment in ancient China there is no constitutionalism is the key issue that in

 

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ancient China there is no constitutional issue, the issue back to the constitution. On the ancient China have no constitution, there are more than academic discourse, but can be attributed to two kinds, namely “ Existence constitution” and “that no constitutional”. Existence constitution, that ancient Chinese is the presence of constitution. Holding a constitutional speaker, from the function of the Constitution and the effectiveness of starting to prove the ancient constitution and the modern constitution of common point. Chinese ancient books appeared in the “constitution” and other words, such as Book of history ⑤in the “Reference to the legislation of the king”, Guan-tzu⑥ , “A unified political can issue orders left and right.” etc.. The ancient “constitution” in law or fundamental law for meaning, and these “constitution” issued by the monarch, so “The monarch over national law.” [4], and some Scholars holds that “The proposed concept of constitution, covers the following aspects: (1),Rule the country; (2), Governance of government; (3), Distinguish good from evil; (4) People with legal governance .” The scholars believe that ancient China is a constitution, he from the function of the constitution,based on the ancient constitution with modern sense of constitution in common, that is, in the constitution efficacy, procedures and contents of similar, so as to prove the its views. These scholars see ancient “constitution”and modern constitution has many similarities, and uncritical think China ancient times is a constitution. Scholars have accused way: “if we only from ancient and modern constitution constitution, the modern constitution bearing the same function set out, will lead to a empirical errors, this kind of mistake led to the negative consequences also do not underestimate”. [5] In comparison, the opposite point of view more scholars from concept definition and constitutionalism condition to demonstrate analysis. Some scholars pointed out that “in ancient China 'constitution' never democratic thought”. [6] They think “ancient Chinese classics, the constitution is not contain limit state power and protect individual basic human rights connotation”.[7] ancient constitution is autocratic rule maintenance tools, of course, does not have the meaning of modern constitution. Some scholars put forward the ancient Chinese “Renyilizhi letter of constitutionalism principle requirement of human rights, justice, Li Xing, reasonable, and symbol tree loyalty”.[8] it seems to forget that Kindness, Justicial,Gentle,Intelligent,Faithful ⑦produced is based on hierarchy and autocracy, “these ideas contain certain humanism and democratic ideas,but it is just in the maintenance of autocratic monarchy premise, further consolidate the monarchy's strategy”. [9] In short, the ancient Chinese called “constitution” and modern significance of the constitution of the comparison, both in function and value orientation are essentially different. The modern constitution is the product of democratic politics, need certain social, economic, cultural and natural conditions, and ancient Chinese culture of absolutism and the caste system is very difficult to produce advocate democracy, equality, freedom of the constitutional civilization. WHY DID THE ANCIENT CHINA HAS NO CONSTITUTIONAL CIVILIZATION? China has experienced the primitive society, ancient slave society, feudal society three social forms. The three types of social formations to provide for oneself is the basis of natural economy.Since Han Dynasty, restraining commerce policy⑧ will occupy the population majority farmer restrictions on land. The obscurantist policy⑨, seclusion and autocratic rule of power always hampering democracy or the pursuit of democratic practice in china. From

 

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Han Dynasty (202 BC -220AD)to Qing Dynasty(1636AD-1912AD), the feudal autocratic monarchy strengthens gradually,the Confucian ethics, hierarchy concept deeply rooted in people's mind, these are advocating equality, freedom, human rights and constitutional unavailable in China the reason. Of course, the ancient Chinese power for such a great country, it is a good means to rule,maintained the closure, the existence form of provide for oneself, to adapt to the special requirements of certain period. But with the development of the times, the feudal autocratic system also led to ancient China backward, especially the modern Chinese become imperialist aggression object, this and our country has yet to develop democratic politics that the prosperity of the country have a certain relationship. Let us have a look into Western earlier democratic constitutional civilization. Such as Britain,France and other countries, in the constitutional period of development are economic transition period, the commodity economy and the capitalist industrialization development; thoughts on humanism, human rights, freedom and equality and other advanced ideas were spread widely, for the development of constitutionalism to create a positive thought culture atmosphere. The bourgeois revolution is the civilization of constitutionalism in the global spread of the process, the British constitutional monarchy, the establishment of the Republic of France, the establishment of the founding of the United States is the great practice of "constitutional government, the constitutional theory and practice in the western world the greatest political achievement".[10]constitutional protection of these countries in the subsequent centuries has always maintained a world power status. Contemporary China must develop socialist democratic politics. Socialist democratic politics is China's "constitutional", along with the development of the socialist cause, especially with the constitution as the core of socialist legal system perfect, we have reason to believe, our democracy will flourish, in order to achieve the grand goal of building a socialist harmonious society. EXPLANATION OF NOUNS ①Xu Chongde,(1929-)He is a Chinese famous jurist, Chinese constitution science director,Professor, doctoral tutor. ②Yu Depeng ,(1965-)He is a Chinese famous jurist, Professor. Karl•J•Friedrich ,Born in 1901, a German-born American political scientist.In the 19261971 at the Harvard University professor of political science.The main study of constitutionalism, democracy and totalitarianism, advocate from historical perspectives on modern politics. Karl Marx ,(1818-1883 ) He is the founder of Marx, the Communist movement and the spiritual leader of the proletarian.He was a famous thinker and philosopher.His correct thought was established as the guiding ideology of China. Book of history ,It is the Confucian classics,China's earliest extant historical records. Guan-tzu,It is a collection of essays in ancient China. Kindness; Justicial;Gentle;Intelligent;Faithful,It is one kind of Chinese ancient feudal ethics. restraining commerce policy,Physiocracy is feudal dynasties of past ages in China the most basic economic guiding ideology, its position is attaching importance to agriculture, the agriculture, industry and commerce development limited. The obscurantist policy , Ancient China a ruling way.The ruler to fool people, let people

 

                                                                         Volume 2, Issue 11 (November, 2012)      ISSN 2249‐7315 

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become ignorant people, thus more easily governed. References [1]ZHOU yezhong. Constitutional jurisprudence,China's higher education press,2004.8 [2]YU depeng. Constitutional jurisprudence, China's law press, 2009.5 [3][10] Karl • J • Friedrich. Transcendentalism: the religious dimension of Constitutionalism,SDX Joint Publishing Company,1997 [4]WANG guanghui(2000). Constitution as the fundamental law of evolution, CASS JOURNAL OF LAW,vol.2,127-135 [4][8]DU gangjian(2008).My Personals Views on Constitutionalism Based on RenConfucianism,Pacific Journal,vol.4,14-17 [5] WANG Qinglin(2008). Were There Constitutions in Ancient China?,Journal of Shanghai Normal University(Philosophy & Social Sciences Edition),vol.4,39-43 [6]QIAN daqun(1984). Brief introduction of constitutional meaning,Journal of Nanjing University,vol.2 [7]WANG dezhi(2004). On the transformation of the concept of Constitution in modern China,Jurists Review,vol.4 [10]DING jianjun(2005). Feudal autocratic culture's influence on our democratic constitutional thought, Academic Exchange,vol.6,18-21