Traditional crop diversity for sustainable development ...

Znt. J. Sustain. Deu. World Ecol. 3 (1996) 8-31

Traditional crop diversity for sustainable development of Central Himalayan agroecosysterns R.K Maikhuri', K S . Rao2 and K. G. Saxenas

Downloaded By: [Delhi School of Economics] At: 06:43 25 December 2009

'G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development, Garhwal Unit, P.Box-92, Srinagar Garhwal, 246174, U.P., India 2Kosi-Katarmal,Almora, 263643, U.P., India SSchoolof Environmental Sciences,Jawahar La1 Nehru University, 110067, New Delhi, India Key words: Central Himalaya, agroecosystem, traditional crop diversity, nutritive value, value addition, food security, conservation measures

SUMMARY A rich diversity of traditional crops occurs generally in the Himalaya and more particularly in Central Himalaya. Over forty species of food grains are grown in traditional agroecosystems of Central Himalaya, which have been managed by the local farming communities since time immemorial. These traditional crop varieties have evolved over centuries and are well adapted to the particular area. A number of edaphic, topographic and climatic factors associated with different selection pressures over centuries of cultivation resulted in immense variations in the crop species. The grain and by-product yield of the majority of the traditional crops cultivated across an altitudinal gradient were worked out and compared with common food crops (paddy, wheat, mustard) at two points in time (1970-74, 1990-94) and it was found that almost all the traditional crops had slightly higher yields during 1970-74 than between 1990-94. However, common food crops grown during the Xharif season had higher yields during 1990-94 whereas, Rabi season crops exhibited higher yield during 197074. The yield of rainfed paddy remained static over the years across the altitudinal gradient. Among the traditional crops cultivated during the Xhanf and Rabi seasons in mixed and pure forms at different altitudes were Macrotyloma unijbrum (at higher altitude), P a d h frutescens and Vigna mungo (at middle altitude) and Panicum miliaceum (at lower altitude) which were found to be eco-energetically efficient. Avena satzva (oat) and mixed cropping of Fagopyrurn escubnturti and potato had higher energy efficiency ratios whereas the latter also exhibited a higher monetary output/input ratio. Crops like paddy and wheat with mustard, grown in irrigated land were found to be more ecoenergetically efficient than the same crops grown in the rainfed land. In general, traditional crops possess higher nutritive value than the common food crops. The contribution of traditional crops to the local diet (kg/capita/year) and their energy and protein equivalents were higher during both time periods. It was observed that while exporting these traditional crops, the locals of the region are highly exploited by middlemen. Despite having huge potential, traditional crop diversity of this region has been reduced to a great extent during the last two decades. Besides, the area under Correspondence: R.K. Maikhuri, G.P. Pant Institute of Hinialayan Environment and Development, Garhwal Unit, P.Box-92, Srinagar Garhwal, 246174, U.P., India

8

Maikhuri et al.

Sustainable develqbmnt of Central Himalaya agroecosystems

cultivation with these crops has been declining rapidly. However, many of these crops possess immense potential to meet the growing food demand and ensure food security of an increasing population. Therefore, a comprehensive programme of conservation through various means and improvement of agronomic yield in their natural habitats is urgently needed.


INTRODUCTION By the year 2000, India will reach the 1000 million population mark of which 62 million (6% of India's total population) will be living in Himalayan states (Anonymous, 1992a). Yet the capacity of available resources and technologies to satisfy the demands of this growing population for food and other agricultural commodities remains uncertain. Agriculture has to meet this challenge, mainly by increasing production on land already in use and by avoiding further encrochment on land that is only marginally suitable for cultivation (Chapter 14, Agenda 21). The critical importance of plant genetic resources as a key component of natural resources management has been recognized. Their importance is often compared to that of water and soil for farm management. Traditional crop diversity holds the key to food security and sustainable agricultural development (Swaminathan, 1984, 1986, 1991, 1992; Maikhuri et aL (1996); Altieri, 1991).The growing population of the Himalaya, which depends on a finite area of farmland, will increase the need to depend on traditional underutilized crops and wild edibles (which are currently neglected or under-utilized) and most of them have tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses(Maikhuri et aL, 1991a; 1994). This requires that breeders have continuous and reliable access to plant genetic resources, especially traditional land races and related wild species. Food security can only be as good as the genetic diversity supporting it. The Himalayas serve as a reservoir for a large number of traditional under-utilized crop species which are yet to be exploited and utilized properly for the benefit of mankind (Gangwar and Ramakrishnan, 1989;Maikhuri et al., 1991c, 1994). Traditional crops like millets, pseudo-cereals, pulses, etc. have been consumed as a staple food from prehistoric times in the Himalaya particulary in Garhwal and the Kumaun hills. With the passage of time they were gradually superseded by wheat, rice, maize and potato. However, the production and consumption of these traditional crops still occupy an important place in Central Himalayan

villages where they are used for cooking, baking, brewing and many other things. Traditional under-utilized crops are generally considered inferior food grains as compared to common food crops, whereas their nutritional quality has been found to be as good as or even better than the latter in several aspects. Underexploited traditional crop resources of potential economic significance are known to play a crucial role in maintaining the subsistent life styles of traditional mountain societies (Maikhuri et al., 1991c, 1994). However, much to the disadvantage of these resources, present development policy ignored this vital resourcebase with regard to their scientific management. Neglect towards traditional crops on the one hand and a massive push towards technologies with ever increasing dependence on resources from outside seems to be one of the reasons for this crisis (Jodha, 1990; Swaminathan, 1991; Rao and Saxena, 1994; Ramagishnan et al., 1994). Consequences of this are disastrous both for biological diversity of the region as well as for developing sustainable agroecosystems.The steady erosion of these valuable traditional crops requires immediate steps for their conservation to save them for the future (Maikhuri et at., 1 9 9 1 ~ ) . Therefore, the present study on traditional crops grown across an altitudinal gradient of Central Himalaya is an attempt to understand: (1) traditional crop diversity and their decline; (2) crop yield and cropping patterns (at two points in time 1970-74 and 1990-94); (3) eco-energetic uses, ethnobotany and nutritional value; (4) contribution of these crops to the local diet at two points in time; and (5) strategy to conserve them scientifically through village or community level cooperatives, value addition, etc.

Study area and climate The study site is located in the Garhwal region of the Central Himalaya which is situated between 29"31'9" to 31'26'5" N and 77'35'5" to 80'6' E which covers an area of about 30 090 km2. The

InternationalJournal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology

9

viaikhuri et al.

Sustainable development of Central Himalaya agroecosystm


CENTRAL HIMALAYA

I

I

Figur.e 1 out1.ine map of the Central Himalaya and study area

river Tons separates it from Himachal Pradesh in the west, and the district boundaries of Nainital, Almora and Pithoragarh from Kumaun in the east. Beginning in the foothills of Shiwalik in the south, the region extends up to the snowcovered regions which form the Indo-Tibetan border in the north. Politically, the region incorporates the five hill districts of Uttar Pradesh, namely Pauri, Tehri, Dehradun, Chamoli and Uttarkashi, the latter two being border districts. The region comprises about 10.2% of the total area of the state (Uttar Pradesh) and has a population of 3.3 million. There are five major river basins (the Yamuna, Bhagirathi, Alaknanda, Ganga, and Ramganga) in the region (Swarup, 1993).

10

The altitude varies considerably, from about 300 masl to well over 6000 masl and climatic conditions are, therefore, very diverse. Depending on altitude, the climate can broadly be subdivided into submontane, montane and alpine. Moreover, as the mountainous areas vary in their edaphic and climatic characteristics, even over very short distances, the vegetation composition also varies correspondingly. Snowfalloccurs generally above 1500 masl in the winter. Thunderstormswith high velocity winds are the main characteristics of the spring season. For this study, a total of ten sites were selected of which nine were situated in the District of Chamoli and one site was located in the Tehri district of Garhwal Himalaya (Figure 1 ) . All the




study siteswere located in different valleys, remote, far-flung and isolated pockets of the Garhwal, as detailed below: Chamoli District:

Niti

valley, Pinder valley, Mana valley, Birhi valley, Alaknanda valley, Urgam valley, M a n d a k i n i valley, Nandakini valley, Mandal valley

Tehri District:

Bangar valley

Extensive cross-sectionalsurvey of Chamoli and part ofTehri Garhwal districts in Central Himalaya were conducted for a full four years from 19901994, during the Kharifand Rabi crop seasons, to study in depth the structure and function of traditional agroecosystems. The average monthly temperature in some parts of the study site was below 18-15°C; there were marked seasonal fluctuations in the temperature from 5 to 25°C or more between January and June. During the sowing period of the majority of these crops in mid-March-May, the temperature range of the area is 15-20°C and was followed by high summer temperatures. The tempreature again drops during the harvesting period. Average annual rainfall of most of the study sites is very high, monsoon rains are received from the latter half ofJune until September.

Description of the traditional agroecosystem Central Himalaya has a long heritage of subsistence economy, with agriculture being the core component, in which over 80% of the people are involved. The great variations in altitude, topography, climace, forest resources, availability of water for irrigation and socio-economic and cultural factors exist producing a variety of landuse patterns in the region. The heterogeneity becomes more complex when ecological conditions are superimposed. The traditional hill agroecosystem of the Central Himalaya exhibits a great deal of variability in crop diversity, crop composition, crop rotation, etc. along an altitudinal transect d u e to corresponding variations in a number of factors which influence agricultural practices. Thus, the region could be divided into three markedly different agrocliniatic zones along the elevational gradient (vertical zonation) (Figure 1).The zone

Maikhun et al.

between 500-1000 masl is considered as the lower altitude area, between 1000 and 1800masl as middle altitude and the 1800 to 2600 masl and above as the higher altitude area. Rain-fed and irrigated land use-systems are important in this region in which the former is the predominant form and covers almost 89% of the total agricultural land of the area. Mixed and mono-cropping, particularly in rainfed agroecosystem practiced on sloping terraces, has an extremely long tradition in this region. The cropping patterns generally upto 1800 masl, and sometimes 2000 masl, are built around two major cropping seasons uiz., Khanif (April-October) and Rabi (October-April). Traditional farmers of this region generally cultivate ten to twelve and sometimes more crop species in rainfed agroecosystem to meet all their food requirements throughout the year. The majority of the crops cultivated by them are traditional o r under-utilized a n d include Amaranthus spp., Hordeum himalayens, E h s i n e coracana,Fagopyrumspp., Setaria italica,Echinochloa fimentacea, Mamtyloma unafmm, Vigna urnbdluta, Parilla frutescense, etc. From rainfed agriculture generally three crops are taken every two years while from irrigated land two crops are taken each year. However, sometimes in a few localities at lower altitude, a third crop of hog millet (Panicum miliaceum) is also taken between AprilJune on an small scale from irrigated land. All these traditional under-utilized crops are largely grown along traditional lines. The main characteristic features of the agroecosystems of this region are the use of bullocks for draught power and humans for labour, the use of crop residues to feed livestock during winter months and the use of cow dung and forest litter as a source of farmyard manure to improve and maintain the fertility of the agricultural land. Human labour, particularly women, play a crucial role in almost all the agricultural activities in this region. Crop rotation is another important feature of rainfed agroecosystems to preserve the fertility of the soil, as well as to enhance or maintain crop productivity.At higher altitudes, particularly above 2000 mad, the cropping patterns do not follow the above cropping seasons found at lower and middle altitude, and most of the crops are cultivated between March and October (summer season crops) owing to cold climatic conditions.

International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology

11

Sustainable dtwelopment of Central Himalaya agroecosystems

In some specific localities of higher altitude a unique variety of wheat is cultivated which takes as much as 12 months (September-August) to grow and to be harvested. Contrary to the rainfed agriculture of lower and middle altitudes, where the land under mixed cropping of finger millet and pulses in the Khurif season remains fallow during Rabi season for 6 months, at higher altitude (> 2300 m) it remains fallow after the Rubi season crops for a longer (10 months) period.


MATERIALS AND METHODS Rainfed and valley land agroecosystems, where a variety of traditional crops are cultivated in pure and mixed forms with three replicate plots for each altitude of Garhwal Himalaya, were identified. Care was taken to ensure similar aspect and topographic conditions. Vegetation analysis of the rainfed and valley land cropping system was done when the majority of the crop species had attained maximum vegetative growth. The importance value index ( N I ) derived for each species is the sum of the relative frequency, relative density and relative dominance and is based on 20 quadrats per plot (Misra, 1968;Kershaw, 1973).The economic yield per plant under different cropping systems was determined in a plot as an average of 15 plants for a given species.The economic yield per hectare in all cases was calculated on the basis of yield from the entire plot. However, the grain and crop by-product yield of different crops during the period of 19’70-1974 was estimated, based on interviewswith elderly persons in the studyvillages. T h e input of energy through seed was calculated on the basis of the total energy expended to produce that fraction of the crop yield. Energy input through animal power (1 bullock/hour = 3.03 MJ) was based on Mitchell (1979). Labour inputs in worker hours was calculated for different cropping systems. Total food energy consumed was apportioned to each activity (Leach, 1976), according to the relative duration, on the basis of grouping involving either sedentary, moderate, or heavy work. An energy expenditure per hour of 0.418 MJ for sedentary work, 0.488 MJ for moderate work and 0.879 MJ for heavy work for an adult male and 0.331 MJ for sedentary work, 0.383 MJ for moderate work, and 0.523 MJ for heavy work for an adult female were

12

Maikhun et al.

used to calculate the labour energy as input into the system (Gopalan et al., 1978). The input of organic manure into the agroecosystems was converted into energy by multiplying the quantities by the standard replacement cost values in terms of commercial fertilizer given in Table 1. For calculating the output of energy under different agroecosystems (mixed and monocropping), the total economic yield of various crops was converted into megajoules of energy by multiplying with the standard values of various edible parts of crops (Table 1). The energy efficiency of each system was calculated as the output/input ratio. For cost-benefit analysis, labour charges for male and female workers and animal labour cost were calculated on the basis of prevailing daily wages. The monetary returns in terms of crops, feed and organic manure were calculated based o n the prevailing market price for each commodity.

Assessment of declining crop diversity It is very difficult to measure diversity, particularly of agricultural crops, and is also difficult to rank them in terms of rarity, endangered or extinct. Keeping these constraints in view, diversity of agricultural crops, particularly of Central Himalaya, were measured by adapting sound methodology. For measuring crop diversity more accurately, a total of about 150 villages across an altitudinal gradient (10-15 villages from each valley) were considered to assess the actual area under cultivation for different crops during Rubi and Khan. seasons. A door-to-door survey was made in each sample village to enumerate the total land area under cultivation for individual crops. The area under each crop in the past (during the 1970s to 1980s) and up to the present (during the period 1990-1995) has been worked out while interviewing the villagers in different localities. Information on the type and quantities of food consumed during the past and currently, as well as seasonally, have been collected in a similar manner. To understand the status of rarity, endangered or extinct of some these traditional land races, the head (elderly person) of each Family was interviewed regarding the extent of cultivation of these crops. The extent of cultivation of under-utilized species by each traditional farmer

InteriiationalJournal of Sustainable Development and World. Ecology

Sustainable deuelopment of Central Himalaya agroecosystem

Maikhuri el al.

Table 1 Energy value for different crops and other items used in the villages (value expressed as dry weight MJ equivalent)

G%YY Grain' Millets2 Pseudocereals* Pulses (various beans) I Leafy vegetables' Roots and tubers'

Mustard?


Straw' Fruit Milk Manure (replacement costY) Swine dung Goat dung Poultry dung Cow dung Farmyard manure

Energy value (MJ kg-I) 16.2 13.8 14.2 17.1 15.8 15.3 22.7 14.0 9.1 2.9

1.3 2.0 4.8 2.1 7.3

%N

%P20,

%K20

1.40 2.20 5.14 1.61

0.83 0.80 4.19 0.85

1.30 1.97 2.50 1.20

'Mitchell (1979) 'Gopalan el al. (1978) 'Dung is the faecal matter of the animal whereas farmyard manure is a mixture composted with vegetable matter

is based upon sampling done in these villages and localities during the cropping season over a twoyear period.

RESULTS Table 2 shows that the area under cultivation for many traditional crops has been declining tremendously during the last two decades (from 1970-1974 and 1990-1994) in the villages of Garhwal Himalaya located in the remote and farflungvalleys.Among the traditional under-u tilized crops, Panicum miliaceum, locally called chena, (cultivated in irrigated land) and Setaria italica (rainfed crop) are the fastest ripening crops (5560 days). The area under cultivation for both crops has been reduced by 65% and replaced by high-yielding rice varieties and cash crops, like soyabean. In the rainfed agroecosystem the area planted for the majority of traditional crops, such as Avena sativa,Fagqpyrumspp., Vignaspp., Hmdeum spp.,Macrotyloma uniflorumetc., has been reduced by 72-95% during the last two decades and mostly replaced by a variety of cash crops like potato, soyabean, rajma, pigeon pea, mustard, and amaranth. Though, the area under cultivation for paddy grown in irrigated and rainfed land has not been reduced (from 1970-1994), the

traditional varieties which were cultivated during the 1970s have been completely replaced by improved and high-yieldingvarieties of rice such as China4, Tai chung, Govinda, Saket-7,etc. Similarly, in the case of wheat, traditional varieties have been replaced by a high yielding variety like Sonalika. Cultivation of Parillujutescmse,Mamtylomaunaflorum and Vignaspp. have decreased rapidly and these are now on the verge of extinction. Figure 2a reveals that the yield of grain and crop by-products of various traditional crops cultivated in rainfed conditions at different altitudes was higher during 1970-1974 and declined slightly during 1990-1994. Among the crops cultivated at higher altitudes, the yield of Panicum miliaceum was higher during both time periods, followed by mixed crops of Macrotyloma and Eleusine. However, this latter crop, at middle altitude, and Panicum miliaceum at lower altitude, exhibit higher yields than others during both periods. The grain and crop by-product yield for the two periods of the majority of the traditional crops cultivated at higher altitude is shown in Figure 2b. Most of the crops at this altitude are sown in pure form, except for Fagopyrum tataricum and mixed crops of potato and Fagopyrum esculentum, and Amaranthuswith Phaseolusspp., all


13

Maikhuri et al.


Table 2 Area in ha/village under different traditional crops in Kharifand Rabi seasons during 1970-1974 and 19901994 (average of about 150 villages in eleven valleys of Central Himalaya)

Area in ha/village


Crops/cro@ing season Khanifseason crops Panicum miliaceum olyza sativa Awena satzwa Fagopyrum tataricum Fagopyrum esculentum Panlla j-utacense Setaria italica Chyza sativa E h s i n e coracana Macrotylona uniflorum Echinochloa fmmentacea Vigna spp. Rabi season

Triticum aestivum + Brassica Hordeuni himatayens Hordeum wulgare Brassica campestris

1970-1 974

1990-1 994

4.2 4.2 5.8 8.6 4.1 1.3 2.3 1.2 9.6 2.1 2.5 3.3

4.9 14.2 3.4 1.5 0.3

14.2 17.1 7.0 2.0

14.2 4.7 1.1 2.0

-

0.8 11.2 6.1

-

0.7

-

other crops had higher grain and crop by-product yield during 1970-1974. The crop yield of potato and mixed crops of Amaranth with Phaseolus was significantly higher during 1990-1994. However, the yield of other crops showed marginal increase during the latter period. Grain and crop by-product yields of common crops cultivated in the Kharifseason reveal that the yield of almost all the crops was slightly higher during 1990-1994 (except for irrigated paddy) than 19’70-1974 (Figure 3a). Among the various crops, maximum yield was obtained for potato grown at higher altitude. In rainfed conditions the yield of paddy remained almost static over the years. Except for Brassica, the grain and by-product yield of wheat with mustard at all altitudes was higher during 1970-1974 (Figure 3b). The yield of mixed crop wheat and mustard cultivated in irrigated land at lower altitude was generally 2-3 times greater than that grown in rainfed conditions. Among the crops cultivated at different altitudes in pure and mixed forms, Macrotyloma uniJflorum at higher altitude, Parilla and Vigna mungo at middle altitude, and Panicum miliaceum at lower altitude, had a higher energy (on a grain

14

Replacemat crop

% decline an traditional cmps

65.5

high yielding rice varieties high yielding rice varieties

-

potato potato + rajama

78.5 82.5 92.7 100.0 65.2

rajama soyabean

soyabean high yielding rice varieties soyabean t amaranth soyabean t amaranth pigeon pea pigeon peat amaranth high yielding wheat varieties potato, amaranth t rajama improved mustard varieties no change

-

36.5 100.0

72.0 100.0

72.5 84.3 ’

no change

yield basis) and monetary efficiency ratio (Table 3). However, when both grain and crop by-product yield are considered together the energy efficiency ratio is higher for Panicum miliaceum grown at higher and lower altitudes and for mixed cropping of Macrotyloma with Eleusine at middle altitudes. At higher altitude, the majority of crops are cultivated in pure form (Table 4).The energy efficiency ratio was highest for oat (Avenasativa) followed by mixed cropping of Fagqbprn tataricum with potato, oat with Amaranth and Amaranth with Phaseotus. However, when grain and byproduct outputs are considered together, the energy efficiency ratio was higher for oat and lowest for H o r d e u m UuZgare. T h e monetary efficiency ratio was higher for crops cultivated in the mixed form, with maximum values for Fagopyrum tatan’cum grown with potato. Among the Kharijseason crops, paddy grown on rainfed land at all the altitudes exhibited the maximum energy efficiency ratio at middle altitude (Table 5 ) . However, the monetary efficiency ratio was higher for the same crops grown at higher altitude. Irrigated paddy had higher energy and monetary efficiency ratios than the rainfed paddy. Potato had the maximum monetary output/input ratio.


Maikhuri et al.

Sustainable deuelopment of Central Himalaya agroecosystm

-

(4

Pm Panicum miliaceum Pf - Parilla frutescence P+E+A Potato + Eleusine + Amaranth


-

Pm

Pf

P+E+A

Mu

M+E

Pf

-

Mu Macrotyloma uniflorum M+E - Macrotyloma + Eleusine P+Vm Potato + Vigna mungo

-

P+Vm

HA

Mu

M+E

Pm

MA

Mu

M+Ec

LA

Fe - Fagopyrum esculentum Ft - Fagopyrum tataricum Fe+P - Fagopyrum esculentum + Potato A+Ph Amaranth + Phaseolus

As - Avena sativa Av+A - Avena sativa + Amaranth Hy - Hordeum himalayens Hv - Hordeum vulgare

-

8.1

6.1

4.1

2.1

0.1 As

Grain yield (1970-74)

As+A

HY

Hv

Grain yield (1990-94)

Fe

Ft

Fe+P

By-product (1970-74)

A+Ph

By-product (1990-94)

figure 2 (a) Grain and crop by-product yield (kg x 103/ha/yr) of different traditional crops cultivated across an altitudinal gradient in different valleys of Central Himalaya. HA = high altitude, MA = middle altitude, LA = low altitude. (b) Grain and crop by-product yield (kg x 103/ha/yr) of different traditional crops cultivated only at higher altitude between 1800-2500 mas1 in Central Himalaya

Mustard was both energetically a n d economicallyefficient, with a maximum efficiency ratio at lower altitude (Table 6 ) . At higher and middle altitudes wheat is grown in pure form in rainfed land whereas at lower altitude it is combined with mustard and had a higher energy

efficiency ratio. Wheat with mustard grown in irrigated land was more highly efficient than that grown on rainfed land. The cultivation and processing of all these crops are simple. Diverse and versatile food items can be prepared in a variety of forms. Furthermore,


15

Muikhuri et al.

Sustainable development of Central Himalaya agroecosystems

St - Solanum tuberosum 0 s - Oryza sativa

(4

'Ol 8-

6-

4-

2-

00s'


St'

0s'

St'

0s' MA

HA

LA

Ta - Triticum aestivum Bc - Brassica compestris Hv - Hordeum vulgare T+B - Triticum + Brassica 5-

4-

3-

2-

Bc'

Ta'

HA Grain yield (1970-74)

Hv*

Ta*

BC'

MA Grain yield (1990-94)

T'B'

Ta'Bc"

LA By-product (1 970-74)

By-product (1 990-94)

Figure 3 (a, b) Grain and crop by-product yield (kg x 103/ha/yr) of common traditional crops cultivated in rainfed and irrigated land across an altitudinal gradient of Central Himalaya. HA = high altitude, MA = middle altitude, LA = low altitude, *rainfed, **irrigated

the majority possess important medicinal properties (Table 7 ) . Average per capita food production and requirement at two points in time (kg/l/day/ year) is presented in Table 8. The per capita annual average crop production, particularly of

16

cereals, millets, minor grains and pseudocereals was higher during the period 1970-1974 than 1990-1994. However, the average per capita food consumption was higher in 1970-1974, when a variety of food items were consumed including millets, minor grains and pseudocereals, in equal


Maikhuri et al.

Sustainabk deuebpment of Central Himalaya agroecosystems

Table 3 Energy output/input pattern (MJ/ha/yr) and efficiency ratio for different traditional crops grown in pure andmixedform at different altitudes ofcentral Himalayaduring 1990-1994.Values in parentheses for monetary input/ output and efficiency ratio (Rs/ha/yr)

Energy (MJ)

Grain + by-product

Input (total)

output (total)

Grain yield

(pure) (pure) (mixed) (pure) (mixed)

1355 (1908) 1130 (1840) 1826 (2130) 718 (2530) 2067 (3042)

89951 (5310) 27082 (6157) 41988 (5802) 28 870 (11800) 88518 (9755)

20.8 8.9 7.8 24.0 12.5

66.4 20.0 23.0 40.2 42.8

(2.8) (3.3) (2.3) (4.7) (3.2)

Middle altitude( 1000-1800 mad) Parilla frutescensc (pure) Parilla t Vigna mungo (mixed) Mamotyloma unaflorum (pure) Mamotyloma t Eleusine cwacana (mixed)

1292 (1694) 932 (1998) 718 (2415) 1740 (2690)

32 903 (8325) 33 327 (1 I 087) 19 744 (6640) 70 402 (5664)

10.8 17.6 12.6 10.4

25.5 35.8 27.5 40.5

(4.9) (5.5) (2.7) (2.3)

Lower altitude (500-1000 masl) Panicum miliaceum Macrotyloma uniftoruni Mamotyloma + Elusine coracana

854 (2303) 913 (2267) 3513 (4784)

99290 (7510) 23562 (8840) 70797 (5905)

35.5 13.8 5.8

116.2 (3.3) 25.8 (3.3) 20.1 (1.2)

Elcvation/cropping pattern

High altitude (1800-2400 mad) Panicum miliaceum Paillafrutescense Panlla + Amaranth + Eleusine Mamotyloma unifrorum Mamotybma + Eleusine


Energy outputhput ratio

(pure) (pure) (mixed)

Table 4 Energy output/input pattern (MJ/ha/yr) and efficiency ratio for different traditional crops cultivated in mixed and pure form at higher altitude (1800-2500 mad) of Central Himalaya. Values in parentheses for monetary input/output and efficiency ratio (Rs/ha/yr)

Energy (MJ) Input (total)

Cr@ingpattern/crop combznation Auena sativa Auena satiua t Amaranthus spp. Hordeum himalayens Hordeum uulgare Fagofirurn esculentum Fagofirurn tataricum F a g o w m esculentum + potato Amaranthus spp. t Phaseolus spp.

(pure) (mixed) (pure) (pure) (pure) (pure) (mixed) (mixed)

463 1107 3362 2772 2788 1702 3648 2424

(800) (1560) (2300) (2479) (2875) (1698) (5440) (2430)

proportion to common cereals. However, due to rapid changes in food habits, the consumption of millets and minor food grains has been reduced drastically.Between 1970 and 1974 milk and its byproducts were also consumed in larger quantities than during 1990-1994. Surplus food grains and other food products during both time periods were either sold in the market or exchanged for other essential food commodities. Based on the nutritional scale suggested by Gopalan et aL (1978), the availability of food calories and protein were higher between 1970-1974 than 1990-1994.

Energy output/input ratio output {total)

G a i n yield

36784 (3392) 55741 (7164) 51216 (5100) 51 523 (4624) 54408 (8820) 42 606 (3037) 89 368 (28232) 157 222 (21140)

32.3 15.8 6.0 5.9 7.2 9.7 16.3 13.1

Grain + byproduct 79.4 50.4 15.2 12.9 19.5 25.0 24.5 64.9

(4.2) (4.6) (2.2) (1.9) (3.1) (1.8) (5.2) (8.7)

It is evident from Table 9 that traditional pulses like Vigna angularis and Macrotyloma unifirum (locally called laldhal and gahat) possess the highest protein content, followed by Amaranthus spp. and Hordeum himalayens. The millets, like Echinochloa fmrnentacea and Eleusine coracana, pseudocereals like Fagopyrum esculentum, and common food crops such as rice are, in general, low in proteins whereas Panicum and Setaria have moderate amount, on a par with wheat and barley. The calorific value was maximum for Himalayan barley followed by Fagopyrum spp., and least for


17


Maikhuri et al.

Table 5 Energy output/input pattern (MJ/ha/yr) for common crops cultivated during the Kharif season in rainfed and irrigated agroecosystems of Central Himalaya. Values in parentheses for monetary input/output and efficiency ratio (Rs/ha/yr)

E w g y output/input ratio

Energy (MJ) Ehation/cro@ingpattern

Input (total)

output (total) ~~

Grain yield ~~~

Grain + byproduct

~~~

Higher altitude (1800-2400 mad) Rainfed agroecosystem

Solanum tuberosum W z a sativa

6061 (5368) 4772 (3474)

35 323 (22 736) 115 188 (9357)

5.1 8.8

5.8 (4.3) 24.1 (2.7)

2568 (2572)

73838 (6213)

13.2

28.7 (2.4)

3225 (4715)

72785 (8183)

8.4

22.6 (1.7)

4700 (3857)

164800 (13286)

14.8

35.0 (3.9)

Middb altitude (1000-1800 mad) Rainfed agroecosystem Wza sativa

Lower altitude (500-1000 mad) Rainfed agroecosystem Downloaded By: [Delhi School of Economics] At: 06:43 25 December 2009

Oryza sativa

Irrigated agroecosystem

Oryza suttva

Table 6 Energy output/input pattern (MJ/ha/yr) for common crops cultivated during the Rabiseasoh in rainfed and irrigated agroecosystems at different altitudes of Central Himalaya. Values in parentheses for monetary input/output and efficiency ratio (Rs/ha/yr)

Enera output/input ratio

Energy (MJ)

Ehation/cropping pattern

Input (total)

output (total)

Grain yield

Grain + bypoduct

4551 (5065) 3052 (2479)

57890 (9200) 59711 (5166)

4.3 8.2

12.3 (1.8) 19.6 (2.1)

3412 (4013) 2465 (2060)

19880 (5253) 32650 (2415)

3.9 4.6

8.9 (1.3) 13.2 (1.2)

1520 (2702) 3278 (3260)

43 336 (10 200) 48006 (6452)

12.7 5.1

27.2 (3.8) 14.6 (2.0)

3970 (4136)

95 627 (14 925)

1.9

26.6 (3.6)

Higher altitude (1800-2400 mad) Rainfed agroecosystem Triticum aestivum Brassica cumpestris Middle altitude (1000-1800 masl) Rainfed agroecosystem

Triticum aestivum Hordeum uulgure Lower altitude (500-1000 mad) Rainfed agroecosystem

Brassica campestris Triticum iBrussicu Irrigated agroecosystem

Triticum aestivum iBrassica campestris

Echinochloa. Cereals such as rice and wheat are a

rich source of carbohydrate followed by millets, whereas pulses have lower carbohydrate contents. The fat content was highest for Setaria followed by Fagopymm, and least for rice and Panicum. Echinochloa and Setaria (millets), A m a r a n t h u s (pseudocereals) and Macrotyloma and Vigna, are rich in minerals (above 3.2%) whereas common food crops like wheat, rice and maize have lower

18

mineral contents. Pseudocereals, in general, have a higher fibre content than the millets, pulses and cereal crops. In general, more food items of all the categories except vegetables were consumed during 19701974 in the villages located at different altitudes than during 1990-1994. The total food quantity (per capita yr') and their energy and protein equivalents consumed were largest in people of


Mazkhuri et al.

Swkzinabk development of Central Himalaya agroecosystems

Table 7 List of some of important traditional crops of Central Himalaya with their brief agronomic description, uses and ethnobotany. (1) Local name, (2) Altitude range, (3) Harvesting period Brief agronomic deseripion

Uses and ethnobotany

A rainfed crop cultivated at higher altitudes of Garhwal Himalaya. It takes a long period to ripen because of the cold climate

The grains are ground to flour for making chapatis. It is also consumed as “sattu” perpared by roasting ripe grains and grinding into a meal. It is also used for making a local drink called “daru“

Pseudecereals Amranthus uiridis (1) Chuwa (2) 1000-3500 mas1 (3) May-Nov

Grows well in higher Himalaya on moist, acidic soils. Generally, cultivated under mixed cropping

The seed is used in breakfast cereals. When heated, the grains pop and taste like a nuttyflavoured popcorn. Grain is also cooked with milk and sugar. Bread is prepared from the grain. Young shoots and leaves are used as a vegetable

Amaranthus caudatus (1) Kedari-chua (2) 1200-2200 mas1 (3) May-Oct

It requires well-drained moist sites and appears to prefer neutral and basic soils. For seeds to germinate and establish roots, amaranth requires moisture

The grain is roasted and popped, ground into flour or boiled with gur/jeggry. Young shoots and leaves are used as a vegetable

Fagopymm escubntum (1) Oggal (2) 1200-3000 masl (3)July-Oct

Annual herb, fast growing and prefers cold climates and drained sandy soils. Usually grown in rainy season

The grains are used to treat colic, choleraicdiarrhoea and all kinds of abdominal ailments. It is mostly used to make flour for bread “halwa” and porridge. The leaves and young shoots are eaten as a vegetable. This crop has a high commercial as well as medicinal value

Fagokyrum tatancum (1) Fafar

Annual herb cultivated in the same manner as F. esculentum. It is a hardy plant, requiring a short season and will grow on poor soil

The grains are inferior to F. esculentum. The flour has a dark and bitter taste. The fresh leaves are used as a vegetable. It is a good source of rutine which is used in medicine

Grown in free-draining soils devoid of moisture, in mixed cropping systems

A highly nutritious pulse mostly consumed in winter. Soup made from the grain is believed to maintain body warmth during severe winters. Boiled seeds are ground to make “pakori”fanu and chapatis. The grain soup is used as a cure for kidney stones

Phaseolus vulgaris (1) Rajma (2) 1800-2800 mas1 (3)June-Oct

A sub-erect or twining annual, mostly cultivated in higher Himalayan villages under mixed as well as mono-cropping

It is known to be a good and nutritious pulse, mainly consumed by rich people

Vipa umbelluta ( I ) Gurens or La1 dal (2) 2000-2500 masl (3) May-Oct

Generally cultivated in rainfed conditions of mixed cropping with Eleusine corucanu

Grain is used as a dhal. Tender shoots are also consumed

A Past-growing crop which matures in 50-60 days. It is sown just after harvesting wheat and is ready for harvestjust before rice transplanting

The grains are eaten whole, boiled, sometimes ground into flour for making bread. It is also used for porridge. It is fermented to make a beverage called daru by Bhotiyas of the higher Himalaya

Botanical name


Cereals/grains Hordeum himalayas (1) Va-Jau (2) 2800-4000 masl (3) Oct-May

(2) 1800-3500 mas1 (3)July-Oct Pulses Mamotyloma uniflorum (1) Gahat (2) 500-2700 masl (3) May-Oct

Millets/Minw gruins Panicurn rniliaccurn (I) Chena (2) 500-2700 masl (3) April-mid July


19

Maikhuri et al.


Table 7 Continued Brief agronomic descripion

Uses and ethnobotany

Avena sativa (1) Oat ( 2 ) 2000-3500 mas1 (3) May-Sept

Tall annual herb cultivated at higher altitude in mixed and monocropping systems

It is commercially exploited for the fungus, ergot, used in medicine. The uninfected grains are rich in protein, and their flour may be used as a substitute of wheat flour. It is cooked with rice or seed is used for the preparation of local beer, called “daru”

Setaria italica (1) Koni ( 2 ) 200-1800 mas1 (3) April-Sept

Mostly cultivated in rainfed conditions with paddy as a mixed cropping. It prefers red or black soils

Roasted grain is eaten. Grains are cooked and consumed as a substitute for rice. Cooked grains are known to be good for patients suffering from typhoid fever, pneumonia etc.

Echinochloafrumentacea (1) Jangora (2) 800-1800 mas1 (3) Oct-Sept

Rainfed crop which thrives on light sandy soils. Grown in mixed cropping with rice, Setaria, etc. Seeds broadcast

The grains are consumed mcstly by the poorer section of the society and are either cooked in water, like rice, or parched or boiled with milk, curd and sugar. It is sometimes mixed with rice and fermented into beer and alcohol locally called daru. The cooked grains when mixed with curd are given for patients suffering from jaundice. The husk of the grains is used to rub the skin of patients suffering from the same disease. The above-ground part used as a good fodder

An important traditional oil-yieldingcrop cultivated in rainfed conditions. Grown in mixed form with finger millet and amaranth. The seed is broadcast or planted in poorly delineated rows. It is harvested before the seed has completely matured otherwise they scatter when the plant is removed. Threshing is done by spreading the plants on a tarpaulin or clean ground and then beating them with sticks

Oil is edible and also used as a medicine especially during winter


Botanical name

Oil seeds Parilla fmtescense (1) Bhangjeera (2) 800-1800 mas1 (3) Oct-Sept

Table8 Average percapitafood production and consumption between 1970-1974and 1990-1994 in Central Himalaya, Values in parentheses are kg or I/capita/day Average per capita food production (kg/l/yr) Food items

1970-74

1990-94

Average per capita food consumption

Average per capita/yrfood requirements (kg/l/yr) suEested suggested by Gopalan et al., 1978

(kg/l/yr) 1970-74

1990-94

Quantity (kg)

Food i t e m ~

Rice Wheat Barley Millet/pseudocereals

105 20 30 31

120 28 02 56

85.5 20.0 10.0 102.0

(0.23) (0.05) (0.02) (0.28)

Pulses Vegetables Mustard oil/ghee Milk Fruit Meat, fish and eggs

34 10 6 183 4

12 31 10 65 6

18.0 30.0 25.6 150.0 4.0 30.0

(0.05) (0.08) (0.07) (0.41) (0.01) (0.08)

-

-

120.0 (0.328) 28.0 (0.08) -

-

42.0 (0.12) 25.5 82.1 12.8 7.3 10.9 29.9

(0.07) (0.22) (0.04) (0.02) (0.03) (0.08)

Cereals Pulses Vegetables Fruit Milk Fat and oil Meat, fish and eggs

~

~~~~

190.0 25.5 82.1 10.9 7.3 12.8 21.9

(0.520) (0.070) (0.225) (0.030) (0.020) (0.020) (0.060)

Average per cnpitci land holding in Central Himalaya is estimated at about 0.191 ha (Swarup, 1993)

20


Sustainable deuelopment of Central Himalaya agroecosystems

Maikhuri et al.

Table 9 Nutritive value of traditional (grain, millet, pseudocereals,pulses and oil seeds) and common crops, per 100 g edible portion

Crop species 1. Traditional mops (a) Grain and pseudocereals Hwdeum himalayas Amaranthus spp. Fago)yrum esculentum Fagofirurn tataricurn

10.8 10.0 11.3 13.2

351* 320* 323* 349*

13.1 15.5 10.3 9.2

62.3 60.1 65.5 63.2

1.2 1.9 2.4 2.0

4.2 9.0 8.6

2.7 3.5 2.3

11.9 11.9 11.2 12.4

341* 307* 331* 332*

12.5 6.2 12.3 7.1

70.5 65.5 60.9 72.5

1.1 2.2 4.3 1.5

2.2 8.3 8.0 3.7

1.9 4.4 3.3 2.8

2. Traditional pulses Mamolyloma uniJorum Vigna angularis

11.8 13.4

321* 323*

22.0 24.1

57.2 54.5

0.5 1.0

5.3 3.8

3.2 3.2

3. Cereals and grains Triticum aestivum Oryza sativa Hordeurn uulgare

12.6 12.5 11.0

346* 346* 336*

12.0 6.9 12.6

71.2 77.1 66.8

1.5 1.1 2.0

1.2 0.5 5.0

1.5 1.9 2.6


(b) Millets Panicurn miliaceum Echinochloafmmentacea Setaria italica Ehsine cwacana

-

-

Source: Golpan et al., 1978 *Estimated calorific value for these crops

higher Himalayan villages as compared to the people inhabiting middle and lower altitude villages during both time periods (Table 10).The contribution of food energy and protein from traditional crops was maximal in the diet of locals of higher Himalayan villages followed by middle and lower altitude villages, respectively, during both time periods. I n o t h e r words, the consumption of traditional crops increased with increase in altitude. Among the traditional crops consumed, millets and minor grains contribute more to the local diet than pseudocereals and pulses across the three different altitudes, with heavier consumption at higher altitude. Food of animal origin contributes less to local diets than that from plants. The food energy and protein obtained from animal products (sheep, goats and wild animals like boar, deer, etc.) and vegetables was also largest in higher Himalayan villages than in villages of middle and lower altitudes at both points in time. It is interesting to mention here that there was a negligible dependency on marketbought food grains during 1970-1974 but that dependency has increased sharply between 19901994. However, in higher Himalayan villages traditional food crops are still not purchased but exchanged for common crops to meet food

requirements and this shows the changing pattern in food habits of the people. Table 1 1 indicates that, during both periods investigated, t h e traditional crops were consumed throughout the year in higher Himalayan villages, particularly during winter and that less were consumed during the rainy and summer seasons. Similarly, in the middle and lower altitude villages traditional pulses are consumed during the summer and rainy season, with maximum consumption during 1970-1974. In higher altitude villages between 1970 and 1974 ten times more energy was obtained from traditional crops than from common food items whereas only seven times the energy equivalent was obtained during 1990-1994. This was especially the case during winter whereas during summer the proportion of traditional crops in relation to common food items was minimal. However, in the villages located at middle altitude the proportion of traditional to common crops in the local diet in terms of energy did not show much variation. A variety of traditional and cash crops have been exported every year by the locals of higher and mid-Himalayan villages which provide cash income to meet other basic requirements


21

Sustainable deuelopment of Central Himalaya agroecosystem

Maikhuri et al.

Table 10 Per capitaannual consumption of different traditional crops by the locals in relation to other food items at different altitudes of Central Himalaya at two time periods (1970-1974 and 1990-1994)


Food items

Lower altitude (500-1000 masl)

Middle altitude (1000-1800 masl)

Higher altitude (1800-2400 mad)

Energy Protein Quantity equivalent equivalent (kg/l) (MJ) (kg)

Enera Protein Quantity equivalent equivalent (kg/U (MJ) (kg)

Enqy Aolein Quantity equivalent equivalent (kg/l) (MJ) (kg)

1970-1974 Traditional crops Common crops Imported/exchanged Animal products Vegetables

86.4 105.0 3.0 97.2 16.0

1170.4 1637.6 51.4 295.3 248.8

9.35 12.00 0.70 4.90 1.32

90.4 92.0 127.2 26.0

1252.6 1441.0

10.86 10.00

150.6 58.0

2085.0 903.0

17.7 7.7

384.3 404.3

6.20 2.15

206.8 85.0

627.0 1321.8

10.5 7.0

Total

307.6

3403.5

28.3

335.6

3482.2

29.20

500.4

5437.2

42.9

1990-1994 Traditional crops Common crops Imported/exchanged Animal products Vegetables

24.9 119.9 68.7 50.5 20.5

369.8 1942.5 1119.7 152.7 318.8

3.79 11.70 7.28 2.66 1.70

70.4 103.7 54.4 74.2 26.5

963.4 1680.0 885.1 227.8 412.5

8.68 8.80 5.83 3.90 1.90

122.8 49.8 56.1 102.3 40.6

1730.2 806.7 908.8 323.6 631.3

15.7 4.6 4.6 6.4 3.5

Total

284.5

3903.5

27.13

329.2

4168.8

29.10

371.6

4400.6

34.8

-

-

-

-

-

Table 11 Seasonal consumption pattern (MJ per capita/season) of traditional crops at different altitudes of Central Himalaya at two time periods (1970-1974 and 1990-1994) Lower altitude (500-1000 masl)

Crop varieties

Middle altitude (1000-1800 masl)

Higher altitude (1800-2400 masl)

Winter

Rainy

Sumw

Winter

Rainy

Summer

Winter

Rainy

Summer

718.6 948.1

249.40 1129.80

202.4 1325.6

816.4 991.6

249.0 998.6

187.2 1492.0

1416.0 1335.0

253.0 2016.0

316.0 1886.2

356.2 901.4

13.60 1244.03 1257.6

648.4 682.4

220.2 1110.7

115.0 1215.7

1232.6 149.3

314.2 1067.6

183.4 1198.4

1970-1 974

A. Traditional crops B. Common crops and other food items 1990-1 994

A. Traditional crops B. Common crops and other food items

(Table 12). The per capita annual cash earned from these crops was approximately Rs 1389. The economy of people inhabiting the higher Himalayan villages is largely dependent on crops such as amaranth, kidney bean and potato. Recently, while conducting this study (export/ exchange of traditional crops), it was observed that the natives of this region are exploited by middlemen traders who are earning more than 50% benefit from this. It is observed that the majority of farmers of this region always prefer to exchange the traditional crops for common food items like rice, gur, salt

22

and that the quantity of these items exchanged depends upon the items needed for their own consumption throughout the year (Figure 4). However, traditional crops, such as Amurunthw and Fagopymm, are always exchanged for rice whereas other crops, like pulses and potato, are generally exchanged for wheat, salt and sometimes clothes. While exchanging traditional crops for common food items, middlemen traders maximise profits by buying cheap, outdated and dumped food items from the godown of the big shopkeepers of the nearest urban centre (which are not sold in the open market by big shopkeepers).


Maikhuri et al.

Sustainable development of Central Himalaya agroecosystem

Table 12 Export of traditional and other cash crops (per capitaF’) from higher and mid-Himalayan villages located between 1200-2400 masl of Central Himalaya

@antity (kg1

Traditional and other


cash mops Amaranthus spp. FagopyTum escuhntum Fagopymm tataricum Phaseolus vulgaris Vipa angularis Macrotyloma uniflrum Cajanas cajan Ckow viscosa Potato

46.5 14.6 8.0 19.3 11.0 16.0 19.0 1.5 336.0

Total

471.9

2

Monetaq Selling pice equivabnts in local market in local market (Rs/kg) (Wkg) 8.0 9.0 8.0 10.0 8.0 9.0 12.0 10.0 0.8

Selling pnce in nearest urban centre (Rs/kg)

Monetaq equivalents in nearest urban centre

15.0 18.0 15.0 15.0 12.0 20.0 25.0 40.0 3.0

697.5 262.8 120.0 289.5 139.2 320.0 225.0 60.0 1008.0

372.0 131.4 64.0 193.0 92.8 144.0 108.0 15.0 268.8 1383.0

Net prof2 gained by middlemen traders (Rs/kg) 7.0 9.0 7.0 5.0 4.0 11.0 13.0

30.0 2.2

3122.0

Kidney bean 16 kg 3

Potato 300 kg 4

HIGHER HIMALAYAN . VILLAGES (1800-2400 masl) (capitaly r l )

i

LOCALMARKET

EXCHANGE OF FOOD ITEMS

Outsiders act as middleman traders

FOOD ITEMS

Cost in Rs Rice - Rs 71kg, Wheat - Rs 4/kg, Salt - Rs 2/kg, Gur - Rs 1O/kg 4 3

2

Rice 36 kg or Wheat 60 kg Rice 23 kg or Wheat 42 kg Rice 18 kg or Salt 48 kg or Cur 10 kg

1

Rice 37 kg

DISCUSSION Genetic erosion: threat to Himalayan agroecosystems The hilly areas of Central Himalaya are centres of crop diversity (Jain and Sastry, 1978; Arora, 1980, 1990; Khoshoo, 1992). The Himalayas have a

more heterogeneous environment than the plains. Furthermore, the valleys, plateau and hills are spatially isolated from one another and contacts between farming communities are less frequent compared to the valleys. Different crop plants were introduced into the Central Himalayan region by the early migrants.


23


Sustainabb development of Central Himalaya agroecosystems

Maikhun et al.

Varied edaphic, topographic and climatic factors, the 1950s, the spread of modern “Green Revolution” varieties of corn, wheat, rice and as well as different selection pressures over other crops have rapidly squeezed our native centuries of cultivation, resulted in immense landraces. Modern varieties were adopted on 40% variation (Arora and Nayar, 1984; Arora, 198’7). ofAsia’s rice farms within 15years of their release, Indigenous varieties evolved over a span of and in the Philippines, Indonesia, and some other centuries and are adapted to particular areas. countries more than 80%of all farmers now plant The old varieties (usually called primitive cultivars the new varieties (Myers, 1984,1986; Barett, 1988; or land races) withstood the rigors of time, escaped Ried and Miller, 1989; McNeely et al., 1990; attacks from insects, pests and diseases, and Anonymous, 1992b). In India 30 000 indigenous tolerated harsh climatic conditions. They possess varieties of rice grew prior to the “Green the desired agronomic and genetic traits from Revolution”. Today there are not more than fifty which high yield and resistant sources could be (Shiva and Vanaja, 1993). developed (Altieri, 1991; NRC, 1989; McNeely et In the Himalayan Gazetters of 1882, Atkinson aL,1990).They are defined as native domesticated listed 48 varieties of rice, saying that there were or semi-domesticated plant species which are yet thousands of other undescribed varieties. Today to receive the attention of scientists who will only seven or eight of these varieties are still exploit their full potentials. They are an integral cultivated, with only Ramjawan, Thapachini, part of the subsistence agricultural system,suitably Lalmati and Rikhva in irrigated land and adapted to the native farmer’s small plots, poor Ghiyasuin rainfed areas. Wheat has also lost soil, mixed farming, diet and way of life of the innumerable varieties, 90% of the irrigated land family, village and community (Table 7), Those is covered by a single improved variety called crops are known by different names, such as Sonalika. A number of local varieties of maize, underexploited crops, crops for marginal lands, soyabean (locally called Bhatt) and potato found poor persons’ crops and neglected mountain here are totally extinct (Shiva and Vanaja, 1993; crops. More recently they have also been called Kothari, 1994). life-support crops, the lost crops (as in the Andes This has also led to a change in the food habits mountains) (Vietmeyer, 1989). of the traditional society living in the Himalaya, Recently, while conducting the survey in the who have now replaced locally grown pulses like villages located in several valleys and remote area guhat (horse gram) and traditional varieties of of the Garhwal Himalaya, it was found that over soyabean (black bhatt) with rajma, wheat and the last two decades (from 1970-1974 and 1990potato. While providing energy, the latter do not 1994) the area planted with many of these provide enough proteins and micronutrients, traditional or under-utilized crops has declined leading to deficiency diseases and a general at an alarming rate ( Maikhuri et al., 1 9 9 1 ~ ) . lowering of the health status of the population Similar information of genetic erosion of crop (Shiva and Vanaja, 1993). One of the most plants have been recently reported from several dangerous effects of such cash crops and improved other mountain countries such as Nepal, Pakistan, varieties has been the gradual erosion of crop Afganistan, Bhutan, Tibet, etc. (Pratap, 1990; diversity. Anwar and Bhatti, 1990;Roder and Gurung, 1990; The major causes which are directly and Saiju, 1990; Regmi, 1990; Houpei et aL, 1990). indirectly responsible for this genetic erosion and The rate of erosion in the indigenous rice varieties for creating imbalances in traditional was very high in Baluchistan. The indigenous rice agroecosystems are: varieties occupied 40% of the total rice cultivated in 1972‘-1973 but, during 1983-1984, it fell to (1) Infra-stuctural development, roads and 2%. A shift from subsistence to commercial consequent exposure; farming, due to the Patfeedar Canal, can be (2) Illusions about quality of coarse and fine considered the major cause of genetic erosion in grains; the region (Anwar and Bhatti, 1990). (3) Aspirations for off-farm employment; Loss of genetic diversity could imperil agricultural sutainability. How much the genetic (4) Lack of specified programmes a n d base has already eroded is hard to say, but since incentives;

24


Swtainabb development of Central Himalaya agroecosystems

( 5 ) Abandonment of traditional agroecosystems by the indigenous population;

(6) Socio-economic and cultural change;

(7) Migration of hill population to the plains in search of employment;

(8) Deterioration of traditional agroecosystem caused by the introduction of modern high-yielding crops and cash crop varieties; (9) Replacement of mixed cropping by monocropping; (10) Deterioration of natural habitats caused by man-induced environmental changes;


(11) Lack of scientific interest in these crops. Thus, the reduction of biological diversity and its impacts on the sustainability of Himalayan agroecosystem is emerging as a major issue of present times (Maikhuri, 1991c; Rao and Saxena, 1994; Ramakrishnan et al., 1994). Growing awareness of this global problem has prompted increased study of the subject to clarify the nature of the problems caused by the reduction in crop diversity in the agroecosystems. The task goes further to find a range of existing indigenous knowledge and appropriate technological and policy options available to help solve these problems. However, before one can indentify appropriate technological options for traditional crop biodiversity-basedHimalayan agroecosystems, a critical look at the relevance, need, and application feasibility of the new effort is essential.

Yield and eco-energetic of traditional crops Held data for traditional crops at two points in time across an altitudinal gradient reveal that the majority of the crops exhibited almost stable yields whereas yield of common food crops increased slightly during 1990-1994. It suggests that hill agroecosystems with traditional crops are ecologically and economically viable and still have the potential to support the food requirements of a growing population in the region, provided it is developed on a value-based system through appropriate technological inputs based on indigenous knowledge to enhance the agronomic yield a n d simultaneously integrating the

Maikhuri et al.

component of value addition (Ramakrishnan et aZ., 1994; Rao and Saxena, 1994). Enormous work on energetics/ecoenergetics of hill agroecosystems have been carried out by various workers in different parts of the Himalaya (Pandey and Singh, 1984; Sharma, 1991; Ralhan et aZ., 1992; Semwal and Maikhuri, in press). Similar studies were done for land under shifting cultivation (jhum) in the northeastern hill region of Himalaya by Toky and Ramakrishnan (198182), Misra and Ramakrisnan (1982), Maikhuri and Ramakrishnan (1991, 1992), Ramakrishnan (1992). Most of the workers (particularly in Central Himalaya) have concentrated their efforts on those agroecosystemswhere generally common food crops, improved crop varieties and cash crops (vegetables) were grown. However, very little work has been undertaken in agroecosystems with traditional crops (Sharma, 1991; Negi, 1994). In view of this, eco-energetic studies were carried out for most of the traditional crops grown in mono- and mixedcropping across an altitudinal gradient for assessing their potential. Based on this study it was observed that most of the traditional crops cultivated in higher Himalaya in mono- or mixedcropping exhibited higher energy and monetary efficiencies than those grown at middle and lower altitudes. In addition to this, traditional crops cultivated across an altitudinal gradient perform with almost similar potential or better than the common food crops.

Traditional crops and food security Food security has been defined by the F A 0 committee on World Food Security as the economic and physical access to food, for all people, at all times. This implies that food should be available throughout the year to sustain household energy and health, and to meet nutritional requirements. Considering the situation in the Himalayan region, traditional crops have many advantages as food crops for household food security, with finger millet, barnyard millet, amaranth, buckwheat and hog millet etc. as possibly the most significant. In several parts of the Himalaya most of the population lives in small hamlets and villages and practices subsistence farming. Among the main crops grown for home consumption are millets, pseudocereals and cereals. Policy makers often


25

Maikhwi et al.


Sustainable development of Central Himalaya agfoecosystems

consider traditional crops to be cheap food meant for the poor, and direct agricultural attention towards the major cereal crops. These are relied on to increase local food production, as they did during the “Green Revolution” in the plains and Bhabar regions. Regular rainfall is a prerequisite for the successful establishment of rice, wheat and maize. If the rains fail, local food security may depend on drought-resistant traditional staples such as millets and minor grains. In many areas, particularly in valleys, irrigated agriculture is already established, fertilizers and pesticides are available, and conditions are more appropriate to continue the cultivation of high yielding varieties. On the other hand, these regions also have their own local traditional crops. The yields of these crops could be considerably improved by selective breeding and increased production inputs. A production or consumption system based on only two or three food crops is extremely vulnerable, a n d is likely to be nutritionally unbalanced (Ramakrishnan et al., 1994). Emphasing traditional crops in addition

most effective use of family labour throughout the cropping period and provides some insurance against failure of one o r more crops, but it is not conducive to t h e highest yields for each component (Semwal and Maikhuri in press). Erosion of genetic diversity of traditional crops and the role of changes in food habits is aggravating the food insecurity problem in mountains but are, as yet, not considered as important as expansion of cultivated cropland and low crop yields. Crop yield data during two periods of time in Central Himalaya suggest that yields of most of the traditional food crops have been more stable than that of common food crops. Unfortunately, human preferences for consumption of wheat and paddy, more so paddy, are recent changes in the food habit. Thus the food insecurity problem at present is likely to be due to past changes in food habits and population growth rather than only to the decline in yields.

attain special status in times of natural calamity and famine. Yet these are staple crops that farmers are already very familiar with, offering s ~ e r a l ideal qualities as crops for food security in the region. They have high tolerance to the poorer soils resulting from soil erosion on steep slopes*require less fa11owperiods and reduce population pressure on the land and, in the case of millets and pseudocereals, they have more tolerance of insects and pests encountered in the middle agroecological zones of the Himalaya. Some harvests of certain traditional crops can, if necessary, be made during the growth cycle within 50 to 60 days, such as Panicum miliaceum, Setaria italica, Fagopyrum spp. although harvest should preferably not begin within a minimum period of 120 days. Land holdings are small and inputs are limited in subsistence farming. Pressure on agricultural land from population increase has resulted in much shorter fallow periods and hence less fertile soils. In some areas, due to migration of the people to the plains, the land has been abandoned and the soil is less productive. Traditional farming systems involve mixed cropping. This ensures the

cheapest so;rces of dietary energy, in the form of proteins and carbohydrates, in the ~ i ~ shown in Table 9, the majority oftraditional crops of the mountains have the highest calorific geld. Such traditional crops are particularly valuable in the mountains where most of the population depends on vegetable protein and carbohydrate foods as dietam, staDles. I Based on the present study, it is quite evident that very few people in the Himalayan villages suffer from a simple protein deficiency. Increasing the consumption of traditional food items could provide the much needed protein currently provided by other foods such as cereals and pulses. Traditionally, in the Himalayas many of these traditional crops supplement the wheat and rice meal. The significance of these crop resources cannot be assessed from the number of hectares under cultivation and the amount of production (which cannot be large) but from the kind of contribution they make to support lives under difficult Himalayan conditions. For example, in areas where meat and milk were historically scarce the domestication of grains with a superior protein

26

Nutritive value of traditional crops

I

I


~

l

~

Maikhun et al.


content was affected to keep the population wellnourished. While in the Andes, crops like quinoa improved the daily diet of the native people, so, in the Himalayan region, crops like amaranth, chenopods, hog millet, buckwheat and several kinds of beans and little known wild edibles helped nourish the people (Pratap, 1990; Maikhuri et aL, 1991b,c).


Traditional crop diversity needs conservation As is well documented by Toky and Ramakrishnan (1982),Ramakrishnan (1992), andAltieri (1991), diversity plays a significant role in maintaining the long-term stability of traditional agroecosystems in a variety of ways such as: it helps to minimise crop loss to insect pests, improves soil fertility when incorporating legumes in the crop mixture, minimises losses from plant diseases and nematodes, inhibits o r suppresses weed growth, increases productivity per unit area, produces a varied diet, conserves soil from erosion on steep slopes and insures against crop failure (whenone crop is lost, the others usually produce an acceptable yield). However, during the recent past, innovative crop varieties and the introduction of high yielding varieties are rapidly transforming traditional diverse agroecosystems into fields with monoculture/uniform crops which have raised the productivity of one crop through high inputs but have met with limited long-term success.These approaches neither recognise the value of mixed cropping as risk-avoidance, nor do they admit the difficultyof maintaining the necessary inputs such as fertilizers, improved seed, pesticides, etc. Unfortunately, they replace traditional cultivars and may be responsible for the elimination or uprooting of centuries of accumulated experience and knowledge of cultivation and uses of these crops. Once a local traditional crops is totally displaced, its unique characteristics are gone for ever (NRC, 1975; Miller et al., 1984; Altieri and Merrick, 1987; McNeely et al., 1990; UNESCO, 1994). Though the area under cultivation with these traditional crops has declined precariously in many parts of the region, there are still a very few areas located in remote and far-flungvalleyswhere many of these crops are still being cultivated on a smaller scale. However, it is difficult to conserve

such resources by merely depositing them in a gene bank. In view of long-term agroecosystems stability, however, these crops should not be isolated from their traditional uses, culture and folk sciences from where they evolved during past centuries and have very close associations and introgression with their weedy and wild relatives (Altieri and Merrick, 1987). Various views and ideas have been proposed from time to time by scientists to conserve the crop diversity,specifically those crop species which are either at the brink of extinction, rare or threatened or endangered. The scientists have proposed ex situ (i.e. botanical gardens, gene banks, etc) and i n situ (i.e. protecting the natural habitat in its pristine purity) conservation measures to conserve the extent of genetic diversity. It is of utmost importance to protect those areas or regions where rapid cultural or environmental changes are occurring, hoping to salvage as many varieties as possible for placement in seed banks or botanical gardens (Nabhan, 1985). On the other hand, it is widely accepted that there are areas/regions where traditional crops are still being cultivated but where their long-term survival is threatened. In that situation maintenance and conservation of traditional agroecosystems in their totality is the only sensible strategy to preserve i n situ repositories of crop germplasm (Nabhan, 1985; Altieri and Merrick, 1987).Traditional agroecosystemsof the Himalaya are entirely based upon centuries of accumulated experience by farmers who did not depend upon external scientific information or other external inputs. Furthermore, the management of traditional agroecosystemswill be maintained only when guided by intimate local knowledge of the plants and their requirements and what local management practices are likely to be most productive. Thus, while conserving traditional crop diversity, local knowledge which is presently available, must be utilized. Before planning for conservation, in-depth location-specific studies and surveys should be carried out to evaluate agroecosystems for understanding the rarity and perilous situation of these crops. It is evident from the present study that the areas under cultivation of many traditional land races are stiIl so precariously low that their long-term survival remains in serious doubt (i.e. Hordeum himalayens and Parilla frutecense) . In that situation it is more important to consider rescue techniques to assure


27


that some seeds are conserved ex situ while some of these crops on the list of endangered or threatened species (i.e. F a g o p y ~ mtatancum, F. esculentum, Panicum miliaceum, Vigna umbellata, Setaria italica, Macrotyloma uniJEorum, etc.) may still be cultivated on a smaller scale by a very few families in remote and far-flung valleys. Greater effort should be exerted to encourge at least a few farmers to conserve them in situ (in their own agricultural land).


Value addition or new frontiers for traditional under-utilized crops of Himalaya Value addition of traditional crops is another viable a n d appropriate strategy for their conservation in their natural habitats. In addition, small co-operatives either at village or community level should be opened to take sole marketing responsibilities so that the proper benefit would reach the locals and thereby the interest of the farmers towards cultivation of these crops would be increased. Before planning any conservation measure for traditional crops, efforts have to be made to increase their production and to promote their uses in a variety of ways as food in the market. Policy-makers should not only promote policies to increase consumption of traditional crops as human and animal foods, but should also support research that will extend their utilization. Efforts should be made to promote new technologies appropriate for use by the rural population to produce a variety of processed foods from these crops. This strategy will generate employment and improve incomes in rural areas. If demand is stimulated farmers will be encouraged to produce more traditional crops which can be used in the medicine and food industries and thereby .these traditional crops could be saved and conserved.

CONCLUSION Traditional crops are essential components of the diet in many parts of the Central Himalaya. In the higher Himalayan region it has been estimated that 40% of dietary energy comes from finger millets, barnyard millet, a n d a m a r a n t h .

28

Maikhuri et al.

Traditional crops have the potential to provide more dietary energy per hectare than common crops, and some traditional crops, such as amaranth, finger millets, hog millets etc., can be cultivated in different agroecological regions across altitudinal gradients, to provide increased food security. The contribution of traditional food crops (kg/capita/yr) in the local diet, particularly in higher Himalayan villages, was very high as compared to that of people in middle and lower altitude villages. From the point of view of nutrition, many of these traditional crops and pulses, such as Amaranthus, Himalayan barley, Fagopyrum spp., Macrotyloma and Vigna spp. may prove to be superior t o c o m m o n crops a n d pulses. Traditional pulses (Macrotyloma and Vigna spp.) have 1.5 to 2.0 times more protein than wheat and 2 to 4 times more protein than rice, the latter being the most widely grown crop in the world. The crop yield data and .eco-energetic analysis reveal that they have high ecological and economical potential and thrive well even under adverse environmental conditions on marginal land with limited inputs. Many of these crops cultivated in the higher Himalayan zone in mixed o r mono-cropping systems possess tremendous eco-energetic potential. Attainment of food security requires that a nation or region should produce those products from which it will enjoy some natural a n d economic advantages. For many parts of the Himalaya, traditional crops offer considerable benefits and potential. Many food deficit areas of Central Himalaya are forced to import large quantities of grain to meet local production shortfalls. Payments for food imports are a heavy drain on the regional economy. Increased production and consumption of domestically produced food staples such as millets/minor grains, pseudocereals and pulses will increase food supplies and broaden the food base at household, regional and national level. A number of policies and actions can be identified that may lower production and marketing risks and assist smallholder farmers of the Himalaya in raising traditional food crop production, thus reducing household food insecurity. Agricultural extension services should also be reoriented to target the smallest farmers. At




present these services have little or no impact on input use and land management practices. Training content, appropriate technology focus and dissemination practices should b e reassessed and modified, based on Himalayan conditions, to increase their effectiveness. A training component should also focus on marketing skills for farmers who are diversifying and marketing their crops. Emphasis o n cultivation of traditional food crops in areas where they have seen reduced cultivation should be targeted by the extension workers. In terms of infrastructure, access to markets both for cash crops and for the marketed shares of traditional food crops could be increased if rural roads are planned in areas where poor farmers are concentrated rather than where large production units are located. Traditional food crop collection facilities should be community-based to facilitate p r o d u c t marketing, so that they would not be exploited by middlemen. Bottom-up development of farmer cooperatives will be the key strategy for the conservation of traditional crops a n d development of Himalayan agroecosystems. One reason for the lack of success of many cooperatives in the Himalaya, particularly in Central Himalaya, is that either autonomous farmer organisations were not fully trained or were not allowed to develop and co-operatives were usually controlled by the Government. Farmer co-operatives can operate in any one or all of the following areas: p r o d u c t i o n ,

Maikhun' et al.

processing, marketing, consumption, credit and savings. Co-operatives, either at village o r community levels, have to be established in remote and wide-reaching areas and valleys, to increase price stability for farmers. Integration of production, processing a n d marketing through farmer co-operatives can capture economic benefits because of scale and higher net returns. Since the agroecosystems of Central Himalaya are entirely managed a n d operated by the womenfolk, actions to empower them in smallholder households through training in technical, leadership and organisation skills may contribute to changing roles within t h e households and control by women over a greater share of household income. This may, in turn, contribute to greater household food availability when income rises and also help to conserve traditional crop diversity which is of utmost importance for future food security of the Himalayan mountain societies.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors are grateful to the Director, G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development for encouragement and facilities, the help of the Director of the TSBF programme and Prof Mike Swift who shared his ideas with us. We are also grateful to the Scientific Editor, Dr Helen Lee, for her critical comments and suggestions. The help of Mr R.P. Sati for typing the manuscript is gratefully acknowledged.

REFERENCES Altieri, M.A. and Merrick, L.C. (1987). In situ

conservation of crop genetic resources through maintenance of traditional farming systems. Economic Botany, 41, 86-96 Altieri, M.A. (1991). Traditional farming in Latin America. The Ecologist, 21, 93-6 Altieri, M.A. (1995). Agro-ecology puts synergy to work to create self-sustainingagro-ecosystem.Ceres FA0 Review 154,Vol. 27, 15-23 Anonymous (1992a).Action plan f m Himalaya, 68 pp. Himauikas occasional publication No. 2 Anonymous ( 1992b). Global biodiversity strategy: Guidelinesfm action to save, study and use eurth s' biotic

wealthsustainably and equitably,244 pp. (Washington, DC: WRI, IUCN, UNEP) Anwar, R. and Bhatti, M.S. (1990). Status of genetic resource potential of the mountains of Pakistan. MFS Discussion paper seriesNo. 21. (Kathmandu,Nepal: ICIMOD) Arora, R.K. (1980). Native food plants of the northeastern tribals. In Jain, S.K. (ed.) Glimpses offndian Ethnobotany, pp. 91-106. (New Delhi: Oxford IBH Publishing Co.) Arora, R.K. and Nayar, E.R. (1984). Wild relatives of crop plants in India, 97 pp. NBPGR Science Monograph, 7


29


Sustainable deuelopmt of Central Himalaya agroecosystems

Arora, R.K. (1987). Ethnobotany and its role in domestication and conservation of native plant genetic resources. In Jain, S.K. (ed.) Manual of Ethnobotany,pp. 94-102. (Jodhpur:Scientifk Publ.) Arora, R.K. (1990).PluntgeneticresourcesoftheHimuluya: Indian Perspective.Position Paper. (Nepal:ICIMOD) Barett, S. (1988).Economicguidelinfiforthe conservation of biological diversity. (Gland: IUCN General Assembly) Gangwar, A.K. and Ramakrishnan, P.S. (1989). Cultivation and use of lesser-knownplants for food value by tribes in north-east India. Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment, 25,253-67 Gopalan, G.B., Ramasastri, V. and Balasubramanian, S.C. (1978). Nutritive value of Indian foods, 204 pp. (Hydrabad: National Institute of Nutrition) Hinman, C.W., Cooke, A. and Smith, R.I. (1985).Five potential new crops for arid land. Environmental Conservation, 12, 309-15 Houpei, L., Yuying, X. and Qiang, T. (1990). Crop germplasm resources in Tibet and their reasonable utilization. (Kathmandu, Nepal: ICIMOD Commissioned Position Paper) Jain,S.K andSastry,A.R.K.(1978).Plantresourcesin the Himalaya. In Anonymous (ed.) Proceedings ofNationa1 Seminar, pp. 98-107. (New Delhi: Department of Science and Technology) Jodha, N.S. (1990). Mountain upculture: search for sustainability. MFS Discussion Paper Series No.2. (Kathmandu, Nepal: ICIMOD) Kershaw, KA. (1973). Quantitative and Dynamic Plant Ecology, 308 pp. (London: Edward Arnold) Khoshoo, T.N. and Subrahmanyam, G.V. (1986). Conservation of Biological diversity. In Chopra, V.L. and Khoshoo, T.N. (eds.) Conservation for Productive Agriculture. (New Delhi: Indian Council for Agricultural Research) Khoshoo, T.N. (1992). Plant diversity in the Himalaya: conservation and utilization, 102 pp. (Kosi Almora: G.B. Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development) Kothari, A. ( 1994).Eco-regeneration,“Hopefwthefuture’’, S u r q of the Environment, pp. 173-77. (Madras, India: The Hindu Publication) Kumar, A. and Ramakrishnan, P.S. (1990). Energy flow through an Apatani village ecosystem of Arunachal Pradesh in north-east India. Human Ecology, 16, 315-35 Leach, G. (1976). Energy and Food Production, 137 pp. (Guildford: IPC Science and Technology Press) Maikhuri, R.K. and Ramakrishnan, P.S. (1990). Ecological analysis of a cluster of villages emphasizing land use of different tribes in Meghalayain northeast India. Agriculture Ecosystem and Environment, 31, 17-37

30

Maikhuri et al.

Maikhuri, R.K. and Ramakrishnan, P.S. (1991a). Comparative analysis of the village ecosystem function of different tribes living in the same area in Arunachal Pradesh in north-eastern Indian Agricultural Systems, 35, 377-99 Maikhuri, R.K. (1991b). Nutritional value of some lesser-known wild food plants and their role in tribal nutrition. A case study from northeast India. Tropical Science, 31, 397-405 Maikhuri,R.K.,Nautiyal,M.C.andKhali,M.P.(1991~). Lesser-known crops of food value in Garhwal Himalaya and a strategy to conserve them. FAO/ IBPGR Plant Genetic Resources Newsletter, 86, 33-66 Maikhuri, R.K., Saxena, K.G. and Rao, K.S. (1996). Conservation of agricultural crop diversity: Problems and prospects in Central Himalaya. Ecology, Environment and Conservation (in press) Maikhuri, R.K., Semwal, R.L., Singh, A. and Nautiyal, M.C. (1994). Wild fruits as contribution to sustainable rural development. A case study from the Garhwal Himalaya. International Journal of Sustainable Deuelopment and World Ecology, 1 , 5 6 6 8 McNeely, J.A., Miller K.R., Reid W.V., Mittermeier R.A.andWerner,T.B. (1990). ConseruingtheWurfd’s Biological Diversity, 193 pp. (Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, WRI, C I, WWF and World Bank) Miller, K.R., Furtado, J., Cyrille, de K, McNeely, J.A., Myers, N., Soule, M.E. and Trexler, M.C. (1984). Issues on the Preservation of Biological Diversity. In Repetto, R. (ed) The Global Possible: Resmrw, Deuelopmmt and the New Centuv. (London: Yale University Press) Misra, R. (1968).Ecology Workbook,244 pp. New Delhi: Oxford and IBH Publishing Co.) Misra, B.K. and Ramakrishnan, P.S. (1982). Energy flow through a village ecosystem with slash and burn agriculture in northeastern India. Agn‘cultu~al S y s t m , 9, 57-72 Mitchell, R. (1979).An analysis ofZndian agro-ecosystemr, 180 pp. (New Delhi: Interprint) Myers, N. (1984). Thepzmuy source: Tropicalfmfit and ourfuture. (New York: W.W. Norton) Myers, N. (1986). Biological resources of the tropics. In Chopra, V.L. and Khoshoo, T.N. (eds). Conservationfor Productive Agriculture. (New Delhi: Indian Committee for Agricultural Research) Nabhan, G.P. (1985). Native crop diversity in Aridoamerica: Conservationof regional gene pools. Economic Botany, 39,387-99 National Research Council (1989). Lost crops of the Incas: Little knownplunts ofthe An&s with promisefor wmld-wi& cultivation. (Washington, DC: National Academy Press) National Research Council (1975). Under-exploited



Swtainable development of Central Himalaya agroecosystem

troficalplants with promising economic value, 189 pp. (Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences) Negi, G.C.S. (1994). High yielding us. traditional crop varieties: A socio-agronomic study in Himalayan village in India. Mountain Research and Development, 14,251-4 Pandey, U. and Singh, J.S. (1984). Energy flow relationships between agro and forest ecosystems in Central Himalaya. Environmental Conservation, 11,45-53 Pratap, T. (1990). Biological diversity and genetic resources: Some issues for sustainable mountain agriculture. Paper presented in the International symposium on Strategiesforthe Sustainable Mountain Agriculture. (Kathmandu, Nepal: ICIMOD) Ralhan, P.K, Negi, G.C.S. and Singh, S.P. (1992). Structure and function of the agroforestry system in the Pithoragarh district of Central Himalaya: An ecological viewpoint. Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment, 35,283-96 Ramakrishnan, P.S. (1992). Shifting agriculture and sustainable development - An interdisciplina?y study from north-eastm India. Man and the Biosphere series, Vol.10, 424 pp. (Paris and Carnforth: UNESCO and Parthenon) Ramakrishnan, P.S., Purohit, A.N., Saxena, K.G. and Rao, K.S. (1994). Himalayan Environment and Sustainable Development. (New Delhi: INSA, Diamond Jubilee Publication) Rao, K.S. and Saxena, K.G. (1994). Sustainable development and rehabilitationof degraded village lands inHimalaya. Himavikas Publication No. 8,286 pp. (Dehradun: Bishan Singh Mahendra Pal Singh) Reid, W.V. and Miller, K.R. (1989). Keeping options alive: The scientijc basis for conserving biodiversity, 128 pp. (Washington, DC: World Resources Institute) Regmi, P.P. (1990). Indigenous underexploited mountain crop resources of Nepal i n retrospect and prospect. Commissioned Position paper. (Kathmandu, Nepal: ICIMOD) ioder, W. and Gurung, P.R. (1990). Mountain crop resources of Bhutan in retrospect and prospect. Commissioned Position Paper. (Kathmandu, Nepal: ICIMOD)

Maikhuri et al.

Saiju, H.K. (1990). Plant resourcesforeconomicsustenance of the mountain people: A review of the medicinal and aromatic plants. Commissioned Position Paper, International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development. (Kathmandu, Nepal: ICIMOD) Semwal, R.L. a n d Maikhuri, R.K. (1996). Agroecosystem analysis of Garhwal Himalaya. Biological Agriculture and Horticulture,Vol. 13/3 (in press) Sharma, S. (1991). Energy budget studies of the some multiple cropping system of Central Himalaya. Agricu1tureEcosystem.sandEnuironmnt, 36, 199-206 Singh, V. (1995). Biodiversity and farmers: Experiences from Garhwal Himalaya, India. Paper presented at the Beijer Research Seminar, Rota Kinabalu, Malaysia 16-19 May Shiva, V. and Vanaja, R.P. (1993). Cultiuatingdzuersity: Biodiversity conservation and seed politics. Research Foundation for Science Technology and Natural Resource Policy, 130 pp. (Dehra Dun: Natraj Publishers) Spedding, C.R.W. (1979). A n introduction to agricultural systems, 169 pp. (London: Applied Science Publishers) Swaminathan, M.S. (1984). Nutrition and agricultural development - New Frontiers. Food and Nutrition, 10,3341 Swaminathan, M.S. (1986). Conservation and sustainable agriculture development. In Chopra, V.L. and Khoshoo, T.N. (eds.) Consmation for Productive Agn'culture. (New Delhi: Indian Council for Agricultural Research) Swaminathan, M.S. (1991a). Sustainable agriculture: For a new synthesis. Frontline, March 30 April 12, 85-7 Swaminathan, M.S. (1991b). Sustainable agriculture systems and food security. Outlook on Agriculture, 20,243-9 Swaminathan, M.S. (1992). Cultivating food for a developing world. Enuironmental Science and Technology, 26, (110) 4-7 Swamp, R. (1993). Agricultural economy of Himalayan region: urith special reference to Ganuhal Himalaya. Volume 11,288pp. (GyanodayaPrakashan, Nainital, India)

iternational Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology

31