UNESCO WORLD HERITAGE PROGRAM: MARKETING FOR MEANING Advanced Research Seminar, Spring 2013 10 May 2013 By: Anna Abelson, Sarita Dan, Emily Desjardins, Cristian Peña Suarez, Gabrielle McGinnis, Koba Sebiskveradze, and Kristen Warden
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY This white paper argues for an increased use of meaningful marketing to promote the awareness of, education about, and funding for the UNESCO World Heritage Program. Current scholarship on the Program has identified the areas of awareness, education, and funding, within the Program to be lacking. As a result of these two deficiencies, the UNESCO World Heritage Program is unable to effectively carry out its mission of conserving and preserving the world’s heritage that is of outstanding universal value to humanity for current use and future generations. To successfully fulfill the objectives of conservation and preservation set forth in the World Heritage Convention, the UNESCO World Heritage Program must address the areas of awareness, education, and funding. Many studies have offered ideas as to how to improve these areas. However, a majority of the work focused on improving the UNESCO World Heritage Program has promoted policy change as the vehicle for betterment. As the UNESCO World Heritage Program is part of a larger, bureaucratic institution, policy changes are incredibly difficult, if not often impossible to employ. Though the recommendations for policy expressed in these previous studies are warranted, another means for improvement that does not rely on policy must be identified. Through qualitative data analysis, this study has identified an alternative approach, one that bypasses the regulations of policy challenges, but will improve the Program’s ability to conserve and preserve. This white paper recommends that the UNESCO World Heritage Program focus on implementing a comprehensive marketing for meaning program to address issues of brand awareness and education, thus augmenting global knowledge on the Program and its meaning, as well as funding. By improving the brand awareness and funding capabilities, the Program will be able to better serve current and future conservation efforts.
2
TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION SIGNIFICANCE
5
UNESCO WORLD HERITAGE PROGRAM: CONTEXT
WHERE THE WORLD HERITAGE PROGRAM BEGAN
THE STRUCTURE OF THE WORLD HERITAGE PROGRAM THE MISSION OF THE WORLD HERITAGE PROGRAM THE PROCESS OF NOMINATION AND INSCRIPTION AN IMBALANCED LIST, AN INEFFECTIVE STRATEGY A LIST IN DANGER
7
8
9
9
11
12
13
15
THE PROBLEM: CONSERVATION
17
CONSERVATION, AWARENESS and EDUCATION CONSERVATION and FUNDING
20
22
RECOMMENDATION
23
RESEARCH DESIGN
26
ISSUES IMPEDING CONSERVATION
28
AWARENESS and EDUCATION
LACK OF LOCAL KNOWLEDGE ABOUT WORLD HERITAGE SITES LACK OF VISITOR KNOWLEDGE ABOUT WORLD HERITAGE SITES FUNDING THE BRAND and FUNDRAISING FACILITATING THE DONATION PROCESS
28
29
32
34
37
39
3
MARKETING FOR MEANING: TACTICS
TACTIC 1: REACH OUT to COMMUNITY EVENTS PARTNERSHIPS TACTIC 2: RE-‐DESIGN WEBSITE FOR LOCAL STAKEHOLDERS FOR TOURISTS
41
42
42
43
45
45
46
48
49
50
50
53
SEARCH ENGINE OPTIMIZATION TACTIC 3: CREATE a SOCIAL MEDIA STRATEGY
STAKEHOLDER INVOLVEMENT FOR TOURISTS TACTIC 4: IMPLEMENT INTERACTIVE ONSITE INFORMATION SYSTEMS DIGITAL APPLICATIONS ONSITE DONATION SYSTEMS TACTIC 5: DEVELOP SPONSORSHIP PROGRAMS
54
54
56
56
57
58
PARTNER FACILITATED COMMUNITY GENERATED TACTIC 7: UTILIZE OUTBOUND MARKETING
58
59
60
SITE SPONSORSHIP REWARDS PROGRAMS TACTIC 6: PRODUCE DEDICATED MEDIA
LIMITATIONS and OPPORTUNITIES
61
CONCLUSION
63
WORKS CITED
65
APPENDIX
126 4
INTRODUCTION In December 2012, international tourist arrivals hit the one billion mark worldwide (UNWTO “1 Billion Tourists”). By 2020, the United Nations World Tourism Organization projects this number to reach 1.5 billion. As access to and ease of travel continues to advance, tourist destinations are becoming more global in scope. Additionally, as the number of global tourists has grown exponentially, much research has focused on the impacts of increased visitation to destinations and their sites of significant universal significant heritage. As highlighted by Roders and van Oers: “over the last three decades and in tandem with the explosive growth of tourism, World Heritage [Sites] have become the icons of visitor destinations” (281). In an effort to preserve noteworthy examples of the world’s collective heritage in their current function and for future generations, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) adopted the World Heritage Convention in 1972. The World Heritage Convention was meant to “to encourage the identification, protection and preservation of cultural and natural heritage around the world considered to be of outstanding value to humanity” for use today and for future generations (“World Heritage” unesco.org). Today, 962 properties comprise the World Heritage List (WH List); the sites considered by the UNESCO World Heritage Program (UNESCO WHP, the Program) to best embody examples of the world’s unique and outstanding collective heritage. However, the UNESCO WHP is failing at achieving this mission of protecting and preserving these sites. Of the 962 sites on the WH List, 38 are considered to be in imminent danger of losing the very characteristics that warranted designation in the first place. Appropriately, these properties have been placed on the List of World Heritage in Danger and have been earmarked for increased attention. The 38 sites on the list are only the most dire examples of the Program’s failed attempt to protect universal heritage. Issues of conservation currently plague many of the sites on inscribed by UNESCO on the WH List. Multiple World Heritage Sites (WH Sites) both and on off The List of World Heritage In Danger feel the pressure of the Program’s inadequacies, resulting from a lack of
5
awareness and education as well as funding deficits which make the examples of unique heritage nearly impossible to conserve and preserve. Accordingly, there is a need for the UNESCO WHP to adjust its practices to better serve the requirements of the global heritage it pledges to protect. Many studies have examined the organization, calling for improvement to the Program through policy change. However, in a bureaucratic supranational organization such as the UNESCO WHP, policy changes are difficult, if not nearly impossible to implement. An Alternative approach to bettering the Program must be devised if it is to succeed in achieving the goal of global heritage conservation. This white paper argues for an increased use of marketing for meaning to promote the awareness of, education about, and funding for the UNESCO WHP brand. Marketing for meaning is defined in this white paper as a united initiative that integrates an organization’s efforts behind a singular goal that can generate significant impact. Marketing for meaning, or meaningful marketing, guarantees brand equity through marketing assets that appropriately communicate brand value to consumers. Achieved through a set of inbound and outbound strategies and tactics, meaningful marketing offers audiences useful information and the tools for interaction with the goal of developing long-‐term consumer and community relationships. It is argued that marketing for meaning will help alleviate the issues of awareness and education as well as funding that hinders the UNESCO WHP from successfully safeguarding the worlds’ examples of outstanding heritage through effective conservation. Through the enhanced understanding of and funding for the program, the ultimate goal of conservation and preservation of WH Sites can be achieved.
6
SIGNIFICANCE Scholarly work on the UNESCO WHP and the process of inscription, management, “policy and conservation” is well established (Bertacchini et al. “Embracing Diversity 280; Rakic 210). Yet, a gap remains in the feasibility in and understanding of “raising and efficiently allocating funds to preserve the World Heritage” (Bertacchini et al. “Embracing Diversity” 280). Up until this point, much of the research conducted in this area has centered on issues of organization and policy (Badman and Debonnet 201-‐04; Bertacchini et al. 281-‐86; Galis 232-‐33; Rao 167-‐70; Ahmad 299; Frey and Steiner “World Heritage List” 564-‐66; Keogh 612-‐615; Frey and Steiner “Correcting” 27,36,38; Affolder 361; Van der Aa 137). A highly bureaucratic institution, policy and guidelines are not easily changed and thus recommendations to change these are ultimately fruitless. Interviewee A, a Program Specialist at the head of the UNESCO WHP’s Sustainable Tourism Program echoed this sentiment in an interview on the topic. In the interview, Interviewee A remarked that “there is a reluctance to change the guidelines” a lengthy process which can take a period of several years to achieve, if at all (Interviewee A). As access to international travel and destination choice increase, the World Heritage brand (Rakic 212; Ryan & Silvanto “World Heritage Sites” 535) will become ever more exposed to global tourism competition. “It is widely assumed that the brand name ‘World Heritage Site’ associated with the UNESCO logo and title has a positive brand equity” (Poria et al. “Archeological Site” 198). However, this assumption is not a reality. Poria et al. add, “the concept of ‘brand equity’ is rarely addressed in tourism studies, although it is highly crucial to the understanding of tourists behaviors” (“Archeological Site” 199). Dewar et al. also noted: “awareness is the key component since without it there is no recognizable brand nor is the mission of […] the World Heritage Convention met” (325). Currently, there is no meaning behind the UNESCO WHP brand and without awareness the program has failed to achieve its’ goals. Interviewee C, a marketing professional who has worked with various UNESCO WH Sites, reiterated this sentiment stating: 7
there needs to be accountability […] the UNESCO WH [Sites] status needs to mean something to both the stakeholders and the general public […] without meaning the brand fails at what it is trying to achieve. By focusing instead on meaningful marketing to increase awareness of the World Heritage brand, this paper proposes a new avenue for the UNESCO WHP to take that effectively avoids the organizational and political impasses of past studies. The following sections will provide a basic context to the UNESCO WHP, the main problem of the program, a recommendation to solve it, and the research design and findings that led to the proposal outlined in this paper. A section highlighting specific implementation tactics follows as well as the limitations to and opportunities from this study and a conclusion. Throughout, the argument for marketing for meaning as a means to overcome the UNESCO WHP’s inadequacies is made.
UNESCO WORLD HERITAGE PROGRAM: CONTEXT Since its inception in the aftermath of the Second World War, UNESCO has acted to “contribute to peace and security by promoting international collaboration through education, science, and culture” (“The Constitution” unesco.org) and to create a sense of international community that would help to avoid another global conflict (“Organization’s History” unesco.org). To achieve that mission, the organization undertakes projects in global education, natural, human, and social sciences, communication and information sharing, and culture (“Introducing” unesco.org). Of these global programs, one of the most visible and renowned is the World Heritage Program. As with many bureaucratic intergovernmental organizations, however, the UNESCO WHP is not without fault. To comprehend the critical issues plaguing the UNESCO WHP brand, it is essential to understand the backbone of the program.
8
WHERE THE WORLD HERITAGE PROGRAM BEGAN
As the Egyptian temples at Abu Simbel came under threat of destruction due to the construction of the Aswan Dam (Ryan and Silvanto “Making and Management” 290, 294-‐95; Galis 208), and after the 1959 appeals from the governments of Egypt and Sudan, UNESCO organized the Nubia Campaign to dismantle and move the threatened structures to safety (“The World Heritage Convention” unesco.org; Ryan and Silvanto “Making and Management” 290, 294-‐95; Galis 208). In total, 22 monuments and architectural wonders were relocated away from the Nile in a project that took 20 years and over $80 million1 to complete (“Milestones” unesco.org; “The World Heritage Convention” unesco.org; Ryan and Silvanto “Making and Management” 290, 294-‐95; Galis 208). As a result of the Nubia Campaign, UNESCO and the International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) collaborated on a draft convention to protect the world’s international heritage (“The World Heritage Convention” unesco.org). The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) also drafted a resolution (Galis 208), which was combined with the UNESCO/ICOMOS document to into a single international mission, and on November 16, 1972 the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (the Convention) was born (“The World Heritage Convention” unesco.org; Galis 208; Ryan and Silvanto “Making and Management” 295; Bertacchini et al. “Embracing Diversity” 278).
THE STRUCTURE OF THE WORLD HERITAGE PROGRAM The WHP is governed by a General Assembly of representatives from the 190 countries, known as States Parties (Bertacchini et al. “Embracing Diversity” 281; Roders and van Oers 105; Figure 1). These parties have signed the Convention, agreeing to ensure that the world's heritage is identified, protected, and conserved through effective management that maintains the integrity and authenticity of sites on the list (Roders and van Oers 105; Dearborn and Stallmeyer 268; Rakic 211). Within that body, a World 1
All monetary denominations in this paper are in USD
9
Heritage Committee of 21 representatives (Figure 1) oversees the implementation of the Convention in functions ranging from nominations to funding. While this authority seems extensive, it is actually not, as the General Assembly and the Committee do “not deal with sites directly” (Ryan and Silvanto “Making and Management” 299; Interviewee A) and lack the capability to enforce site specific policies. The UNESCO WHP must work within the framework of the “United Nations System, which does not challenge the sovereign authority of Member States” (298). As described by Interviewee A, “The State Parties are the decision makers, UNESCO facilitates [...] it's an election process” (Interviewee A). The Committee can only advise, not directly intervene (Rakic 211), which ultimately renders it ineffective in terms of the day-‐to-‐day management and operation of sites, particularly in developing countries where, as Interviewee A admitted, “they have no resources” (Interviewee A). Figure 1: The Structure of the World Heritage Program
The Committee enlists the aid of three Advisory Bodies for consultation: the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) and the International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM) (“Advisory Bodies” 10
unesco.org; Rakic 211; Figure 1). It is these supplementary organizations that do the main support work providing counsel on the decision-‐making process, evaluating prospective and current properties, and training site workers in restoration methods and procedures (“Advisory Bodies” unesco.org; Rakic 211). However the Advisory Bodies do not “directly and actively” participate in the “process of preparing or advising” of States Parties during the nomination process (Rao 164). THE MISSION OF THE WORLD HERITAGE PROGRAM
The World Heritage Mission seeks “to encourage the identification, protection and preservation of cultural and natural heritage around the world considered to be of “outstanding value to humanity” (“World Heritage” unesco.org; Rakic 209). By declaring a site of Outstanding Universal Value, the onus is not only on the region or country to protect this place of heritage, but all of humanity (Ryan and Silvanto “Making and Management” 299; Rao 163). That declaration becomes problematic, however, when, as Buckley states, “World Heritage designation acts as an international top brand in [...] tourism” (70), without any financial, managerial, or operational support from the Committee to accompany the designation. Additionally, Rao writes that the phrase 'Outstanding Universal Value' has devolved from “'best of the best' towards 'representative of the best'” (163), essentially “devaluing” of the label” (162). Beyond site designation, additional goals of the mission include: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi.
Encourage countries to sign the World Heritage Convention and to ensure the protection of their natural and cultural heritage; Encourage States Parties to the Convention to nominate sites within their national territory for inclusion on the World Heritage List; Encourage States Parties to establish management plans and set up reporting systems on the state of conservation of their World Heritage sites; Help States Parties safeguard World Heritage properties by providing technical assistance and professional training; Provide emergency assistance for World Heritage sites in immediate danger; Support States Parties' public awareness-‐building activities for World Heritage conservation;
11
vii. viii.
Encourage participation of the local population in the preservation of their cultural and natural heritage; Encourage international cooperation in the conservation of our world's cultural and natural heritage. (UNESCO “World Heritage”)
Through achieving these goals, it was the Program’s belief that inclusion on the WH List will retain sites for both current use and preserved for future generations. Today, however, problems with awareness and education, funding, and conservation plague the program and inhibit UNESCO and the World Heritage Program from sufficiently meeting the goals put forth in the mission. THE PROCESS OF NOMINATION AND INSCRIPTION
The WH Site selection process occurs over the course of about two years from nomination to inclusion. Inherently political in nature (Dearborn and Stallmeyer 252), the process begins when a States Party places the prospective site on its country's Tentative List (“Tentative Lists” unesco.org; Galis 212; Ryan and Silvanto “Making and Management” 295). The Tentative List is in essence a “waiting list [that serves] as a means for focusing the attention of [...] donors on the work that needs to be completed” (“Making and Management” 296) before an official nomination can be filed. Official nominations are supposed to be written in conjunction with UNESCO recommended stakeholders such as “site managers, local and regional governments, local communities, NGOs” (“Tentative Lists” unesco.org), private business owners and the general public (Dearborn and Stallmeyer 252; Roders and van Oers 107), and include the following: justification for the inscription based on at least one of the ten selection criteria (“The Criteria” unesco.org; Galis 209-‐210; Figure 2), plans for “protection, management, authenticity and integrity” (“The Criteria” unesco.org), and “willingness and capacity of the countries responsible to take [...] measures to protect and manage the sites” (Ryan and Silvanto “Making and Management” 295, 299).
Upon receipt of the nomination portfolio, the Committee forwards the file to the Advisory Bodies – IUCN, ICOMOS, and ICCROM – to conduct an evaluation of the
12
submission and the site. Following that, the nomination portfolio is sent back to the Committee, where a vote is held to approve or deny the request for inclusion (“List Nominations” unesco.org).
AN IMBALANCED LIST, AN INEFFECTIVE STRATEGY
To date there are 962 properties on the WH List of which 745 are cultural, 188 are natural, and 29 are considered “mixed attractions,” or sites that possess both cultural and natural importance (“World Heritage List” unesco.org). The overwhelming majority of sites are in Europe and North America (Figure 3), are cultural in classification (“Global Strategy” unesco.org), and are primarily “towns and cities, religious monuments, Christianity, certain historical periods and 'elitist' [...] architecture” (Bertacchini et al. 278-‐79). As a result of this Eurocentric distribution of sites across the globe (Meskell 149; Rakic 211; Bertacchini et al. 278-‐79; Figure 4), “non-‐western and […] 'traditional cultures'” (Bertacchini et al. 278-‐79) are under-‐represented on the list.
Figure 2: The Selection Criteria for Placement on the World Heritage List (“The Criteria for Selection” unesco.org; Galis 209-‐210)
13
Figure 3: The Number of World Heritage Properties by Region (“World Heritage List Statistics” unesco.org)
Figure 4: The Number of World Heritage Properties Inscribed by Each State Party (“World Heritage List Statistic’s unesco.org)
14
In 1994, Advisory Body ICOMOS completed a six-‐year study that proved the Eurocentrism of the program and resulted in a “Global Strategy for a Representative, Balanced and Credible World Heritage List” (“Global Strategy” unesco.org; Bertacchini et al. 278-‐79; Rakic 211). The new strategy was employed to broaden and balance the World Heritage List with regard to type of site and geographic location. While there remains “a lack of empirical evidence evaluating the development of the imbalance” (Steiner and Frey 38), as of 2010 about half of sites were located in Europe and North America, leading scholars to conclude that the strategy has proven ineffective (Leask and Fyall, Leask qtd in Rakic 211-‐212; Bertacchini et al. “Embracing Diversity” 278-‐79). A LIST IN DANGER
The function of the List of World Heritage in Danger is to educate the global community on threats to sites on the WH List, and to provoke global action to save the endangered sites (“WH in Danger” unesco.org). The Committee adds sites to the List of World Heritage in Danger when they are “under threat from natural or man-‐made conditions” (Ryan and Silvanto “Making and Management” 297). The conditions can range from over-‐commercialization and commodification (Reeves and Long 6; Wang and Zan 323), to operational neglect, “management deficiencies and aggressive development” (Roders and van Oers 106), and lack of funding – particularly on the African continent where 42% of the “in danger” sites are located (Ryan and Silvanto “Making and Management” 298; Figure 5).
15
Figure 5: The List of World Heritage in Danger by Region (“World Heritage List Statistics” unesco.org)
The poor management that leads to an “In Danger” designation is often caused by a lack of education on the part of local stakeholders who, while viewing the World Heritage designation as a “real privilege and status” symbol, fail to comprehend certain concepts such as management and carrying capacity (Wang and Zan 322-‐323). This conception disparity can be detrimental to sites like Luang Prabang in the Lao People’s Democratic Republic where tourism impacts threaten the very quality of the city that made it special to begin with (Starin 649-‐51; Dearborn and Stallmeyer 248). The city of Lijiang in China is another example where too many bright lights and commerce have caused the Committee to give the city a warning (Wang and Zan 323). The goal of placing a site on the List of World Heritage in Danger is to draw urgent international attention to the site's issues, with the hope that said attention will bring money (Ryan and Silvanto “Making and Management” 298). While some scholars believe that the Committee is “making good use of the limited means and resources available to it” (Ryan and Silvanto “Making and Management” 299). The impact of being on the List of World Heritage in Danger is tenuous at best, particularly due to differing perceptions of what being on the List of World Heritage in Danger means (Gross 657; Meskell 147) or the lack of awareness that a site is “In Danger” at all.
16
Due to already limited authority of the Committee because of the sovereign powers of States Parties (Badman and Debonnet 201; Reeves & Long; Interviewee A), the Committee can only add and remove sites from the List of World Heritage in Danger, and advise States Parties whose sites are on that list (Ryan and Silvanto “Making and Management” 298; Rakic 211). The Committee cannot, however, enforce any conservation efforts to take place. Removal from the WH List thus becomes a critical measure. Yet this stripping of World Heritage status has only been done twice: to the Arabian Oryx Sanctuary in Oman, and to Dresden, Germany (Bertacchini et al. 279; Reeves and Long 14; Lee 6; Connolly 1). While not completely devoid of consequences, the infrequent nature of de-‐listing leave the threat on the empty side.
Scholarly work on the process of inscription, management, policy, and conservation (Bertacchini et al. “Embracing Diversity” 280; Rakic 210) is well established, but a gap remains in the understanding of how to raise and effectively allocate “funds to preserve the World Heritage” (Bertacchini et al. “Embracing Diversity” 280). As the UNESCO World Heritage brand becomes ever more exposed in travel-‐related press, it becomes increasingly important to identify and acknowledge areas of weakness and the solutions to fix them (Ryan and Silvanto “World Heritage Sites” 535-‐536, 541; Rakic 212). The impotent structure of the Program has resulted in an abundance of conservation, education, and funding weaknesses, as well as a largely weak brand equity.
THE PROBLEM: CONSERVATION
Though the mission of the UNESCO WHP is to conserve and preserve the sites on the WH List, the Program is currently not meeting its objective. Thirty-‐eight sites are inscribed on the List of World Heritage in Danger. Some of the sites on the list include the Liverpool Maritime Mercantile City in the United Kingdom; the Church of the Nativity in Palestine; the Fortress of Santiago in Portobelo, Panama; the Chan Chan Archeological Park in Peru; the Venezuelan City of Coro and its Port; the Historical
17
Monuments of Mtskheta in Georgia; the Humberstone and Santa Laura Saltpeter Works in Chille; and the Everglades National Park in the United States. In Liverpool, the weak brand value associated with UNESCO WH List designation and a lack of understanding of the heritage value to the city has caused the green-‐lighting of Liverpool Waters, an upcoming development project which will change the architectural character of the city (“Liverpool on List” NationalGeographic.com). Sheer neglect has thrust the Fortress of Santiago into almost complete degradation (“Five World Heritage Sites” NationalGeographic.com). At the Historical Monuments of Mtskheta almost the opposite has occurred. Conservation efforts have been underway to maintain the properties against environmental damage and age; however, a lack of awareness on the importance of appropriate conservation materials has led to the loss of authenticity at the sites (“Mtskheta” unesco.org). Ignorance as to the importance of proper conservation mechanisms has also caused the colonial Venezuelan city of Coro and its Port to lose architectural coherence, in building deterioration (“Coro” unesco.org; Larkin “Endangered Site”). The Church of the Nativity in Palestine is under severe threat as well: lack of available funding has significantly hindered the church’s ability to repair the fragile wooden 15th century structure from the stresses of time and the environment (“Endangered Site” SmithsonianMag.com). Similar funding issues have also plagued the Humberstone and Santa Laura Saltpeter works in Chile and the Chan Chan Archeological Park in Peru, which require more resources to protect the vulnerable properties (“Humberstone” unesco.org; “Chan Chan” unesco.org). The Everglades National Park in the United States faces monetary setbacks towards conservation efforts as well. Park authorities have lacked the funds to remedy pollution and water drainage problems that threaten the unique ecosystem (Ramsar 1-‐5). Lack of local and visitor awareness of conservation needs further compounds the problem.
18
Though 38 WH Sites are registered on the List of World Heritage In Danger, far more require immediate attention if they are to preserve the qualities of outstanding universal value that put them on the WH List to begin with. UNESCO WH Sites ranging across five continents including the Historic Town of St. George in Bermuda; Taos Pueblo in the United States; the Town of Luang Prabang in the Lao People’s Democratic Republic; China’s Old Town of Lijiang; the Valley of the Kings in Egypt; the Philippine Rice Terraces in the Cordilleras; the Old City of Dubrovnik in Croatia; Kunte Kinteh Island in the Gambia; Ghana’s traditional Asante Buildings; Robben Island in South Africa; and the Galapagos Islands in Ecuador are all in conservation related peril (“Watch List 2012” wmf.org; “Projects” GlobalHeritageFund.org). The World Monuments Fund designates 11 sites from the UNESCO WH List as being endangered in addition to those on the formal UNESCO List of World Heritage In Danger (“Watch List 2012” wmf.org). Similarly, the Global Heritage Fund, a separate but similar organization, identifies an additional five sites as being in need of immediate restoration and conservation (“Projects” GlobalHeritageFund.org). World Heritage Sites such as the Taj Mahal in India (“How to Save” SmithsonianMag.com), Venice and its Lagoon in Italy (National Geographic “Destination Scorecard”), and Machu Picchu in Peru (Roach NationalGeographic.com) are just a few of the properties that have been additionally recognized by research institutions as in imminent need of conservation for reasons ranging from age and environmental damage to the direct actions of tourists at the attractions. These sites and others have become threatened due similar awareness, education, and funding issues described in the paragraph above. Moreover, conservation efforts at sites on the WH List need to be ongoing, to maintain each WH Site and safeguard against future degradation. While there are many issues that affect the UNESCO WHP from effectively conserving and protecting the sites on the WH List, the problems arising from a lack of awareness and education and funding issues are manifold. The following section will address the relationship between awareness and education and conservation.
19
CONSERVATION, AWARENESS and EDUCATION Poor communication, lack of local involvement, political allegiances and rivalries, and improper prioritizations are all symptoms of a lack of education and awareness (Aplin 161-‐2, 167-‐8; Jimura 293-‐4; Frey and Steiner 560-‐2; Gillespie 289, 296-‐298; Meskell 146-‐ 150), which ultimately prevent conservation efforts at WH Sites. Lack of awareness and education with regard to WH Sites are two significant shortcomings that must be fixed if conservation efforts are to succeed. This knowledge gap often gets lost in the shuffle of political maneuverings inherent in the UNESCO WHP. Awareness and education issues related to conservation manifest through miscommunication regarding the impact, meaning, and importance of a UNESCO WH Site designation to local stakeholders and visitors and an inadequate understanding the physical and cultural needs of WH Sites (Aplin 156-‐7, 160-‐1, 164-‐6; Frey and Pamini 3; Frey and Steiner 564; Gillespie 289, 295-‐6, 299; Gross 657; Jimura 293-‐4). Understanding what WH Site designation means in terms of tourism impact and how it relates to conservation by all stakeholders, from site managers to visitors, has direct physical and social impacts on sites. Destructive impacts are often the result of little communication from the Committee to the local site managers and communities about proper conservation efforts and needs, as well as the value of upholding the World Heritage brand, in the form of WH Sites, to the community. The Program’s ability to conserve WH Sites is affected by education and awareness on and at the sites including, where the designation lines fall, what designation means to the community and visitors, and if the site is considered as one on the List of World Heritage In Danger (Aplin 156-‐7, 160-‐1, 164-‐6; Frey and Pamini 3; Frey and Steiner 564; Gillespie 289, 295-‐6, 299; Gross 657; Jimura 293-‐4). This concept is most easily understood by examining situations where effective communication has actually worked, such as in Jimura's study of Ogimachi, Shirakawa-‐ mura in Japan. In the study Jimura found that despite problems that arose with
20
increased visitation (high traffic, congestion, exploitation of local culture), the majority of locals in the community saw tourism as an important and successful industry for creating jobs, using heritage as a resource, enhancing community infrastructure, and generating income by using donation fees at sites (Jimura 289-‐91, 293). The benefits of the tourism industry and designation were properly communicated to local stakeholders at Ogimachi, Shirakawamura and thus affected their perceptions on and involvement in preserving and promoting heritage tourism. Additional studies of tourists in Israel (Poria et al. “Tourist Perceptions” 272) and locals in Australia (Aplin 168) demonstrated that when positive influences of tourism, brought about by the marketing cultural and natural heritage through World Heritage designations are understood by the stakeholders, a sense of pride in the site invokes an increased desire to participate in the conservation of culture and heritage (Jimura, 291-‐ 3). This pride, brought about by awareness and education and fostered through direct engagement with a WH Site, allows locals to feel more invested in the management of the sites and conservation of their heritage. Likewise, when the Galapagos Islands in Ecuador were put on the List of World Heritage in Danger, the Environmental Minister backed by the Ecuadorian Government made significant strides towards bettering preservation efforts (Gross 657; savegalapagos.org). As a result of the listing on the List of World Heritage in Danger, immigration and quarantine measures have been tightened, a $15 million Invasive Species Fund has been set up and the governance of the Islands has been strengthened (savegalapagos.org). The illustrative cases highlighted by the Galapagos, Jimura, Aplin and Poria et al. illustrate the importance of awareness and education of the impact of WH Designation in local communities to conservation efforts. As noted by Interviewee D, there is a need for the UNESCO WHP to raise brand awareness amongst professionals and the public to help protect WH Sites. In addition to brand awareness, monetary capital needed for conservation and maintenance projects. The following section highlights the critical relationship between funding and conservation.
21
CONSERVATION and FUNDING Successful conservation programs not only involve sufficient awareness and education of local stakeholders and tourists. Funding issues additionally exist regarding monetary distribution on local and governmental levels and allocation of funds towards conservation (Jimura 291-‐5; Frey and Pamini 1-‐2; Meskell 148). Conservation is a costly endeavor, and without sufficient funding such efforts are bound to come up short. While it can be argued that funding issues arise out of failures on the local government level to allocate funds towards conservation (Jimura 291-‐5; Frey and Pamini 1-‐2; Meskell 148), in the case of UNESCO WH Sites that is not exclusively true. The Committee is supposed to provide “influence, expertise, and funding” (Rakic 211), a flawed idea mainly due to the reality of the Committee's organizational weakness and actual budget for conservation (Rakic 211; Ryan and Silvanto 298; Bertacchini et al. 279). The World Heritage Fund (WH Fund; the Fund), the financial arm of the Committee, does not have the means to manage or finance site conservation, with a total budget of only $4 million per year and includes administrative and staffing costs (Frey and Steiner 559). In 2011, the total amount left for conservation projects was a mere $1.7 million (“WHC-‐12/36” unesco.org). This is especially insufficient when in reality it would take a yearly budget upwards of $11 million to fully execute the conservation goals of the Convention (Frey and Steiner 559). Though funding issues are still relatively unexplored (Bertacchini et al. 280), scholars such as Frey and Steiner, Frey and Pamini, and Bertacchini et al. have provided solutions to solve the fiscal issue that has inspired the recommendation outlined in this white paper. The current funding scheme in place is political and bureaucratic. The authors above argue for policy change as a solution to the fiscal problem. While the strategies highlighted in their research would most likely prove to be fruitful, they are also highly implausible as policy changes to the Operational Guidelines are nearly impossible to implement (Interviewee A). Subsequently, the UNESCO WHP must turn to other means of funding, and help WH Site managers do the same, in order to increase capital 22
available for conservation efforts worldwide. Increased and smartly allocated capital for conservation efforts is of cyclical benefit to the UNESCO WHP at large. Improved preservation of sites increases the UNESCO WHP brand value which in turn leads to increased awareness and education, followed by increased funding, and then again more money available for conservation (Frey and Pamini 3, 7; Frey and Steiner 555, 565-‐ 566; Gillespie 296-‐299; Meskell 150; Interviewee D).
For a property to successfully enable conservation through tourism, political bodies involved in the process must work together with other stakeholders in the local tourism industry to communicate with, and educate locals and tourists about conservation needs as well as the significance of the UNESCO WHP and the meaning behind site designation (Frey and Steiner 566-‐569; Jimura 290-‐292; Poria et al. “Tourist Perceptions” 273-‐4; Meskell 145; Interviewee C). The Program must improve its conservation efforts by increasing the awareness of and education about conservation issues and by promoting a new, interactive and comprehensive fundraising approach. Education and awareness drive conservation practices and development at WH Sites (Jimura 291; Poria et al. “Tourist Perceptions” 273, 555; Frey and Steiner 558-‐560). Through marketing for meaning, awareness of, and education on the UNESCO WHP brand on a global level can be achieved, and ultimately through the resulting increase of program funds, conservation initiatives and the goal of the Convention can be met. The recommendation to apply marketing for meaning as a means to better the UNESCO WHP is discussed in detail below.
RECOMMENDATION The UNESCO WHP must develop a meaningful marketing strategy, to be funded by diverting the WH Fund. While the Committee exercises day-‐to-‐day control over the WH Fund (“Convention Text” unesco.org), Regulation 6.7 of the Financial Regulations of the UNESCO WHP gives the Director-‐General of UNESCO certain control over the use and
23
allocation of funds and the ability to change financial regulations regarding how the Fund can be spent (“Financial Regulations” unesco.org). Diverting a portion of the WH Fund into marketing for meaning will increase awareness of and education about the UNESCO WHP, which will increase funding through online and on-‐site donations. Increased awareness and funding are essential in assisting conservation efforts at WH Sites. Properly maintained and preserved WH Sites, in turn help to augment UNESCO WHP brand equity and value. Product and company branding has generally been associated with private enterprises and less with the public sector, including international intergovernmental organizations (Interviewee C; Mihaita and Sebe 563; Hankinson 98). However, in the last decade international organizations, particularly non-‐profit organizations, have developed public relations departments in an attempt to communicate their vision and objectives with a global audience (Andreasen and Kotler 150). Donohoe adds, “[marketing] should be one of the many tools used to balance preservation and tourism priorities” (123) and is especially applicable for the UNESCO WHP. With a new focus on marketing and brand equity, many of these international organizations are creating a “commercial identity’ and have started to develop recognizable brands (Mihaita and Sebe 563). As Tapp notes, such practices are the very essence of brand management, irrespective of whether an organization’s management chooses to call them such (335). The Convention has been hindered from achieving its original objectives by a lack of awareness and insufficient funding (IUCN 1,3) and consequently, has suffered an image decline. New communication measures and increased brand awareness are necessary. Olins, in his article “On Brand” states that all successful businesses and organizations contain three key ingredients: technical or professional competencies, financial skills, and the ability to sell (7-‐8). Without a balance of the three elements, no organization or company can be managed successfully. Branding and the ability to sell are intrinsically tied together; without strong brand equity, one cannot sell a brand product.
24
Hankinson identifies five principles that must act in concert for a brand to be strong: “(1) brand culture, (2) brand leadership, (3) departmental coordination, (4) brand communications, (5) stakeholder partnerships” (99). Interviewee A additionally stressed the need for interconnected relationships across public and private sectors as a key component to the UNESCO WHP and subsequently brand. As the figurehead of the World Heritage symbiosis, the UNESCO WHP is “in a position to provide help” (Interviewee A). However, to be effective in delivering aid in the form of conservation and protection, the program must continue to foster “strong relationships not only with customers” (Hankinson 102) – in this case the States Parties, site managers – “but also with suppliers, the community, shareholders, and even competitors in order to deliver long term economic, social, and environmental value “ (102). Though the UNESCO WHP is not a commercial organization in the traditional sense, the importance of “fostering of stakeholder partnerships and building strong communication platforms [that focus] on funding and service delivery” (Hankinson 109), still apply. The UNESCO WHP mirrors international non-‐profit organizations like the World Wildlife Fund, Amnesty International, Habitat for Humanity, and importantly, UNICEF, which also operates under the auspices of the United Nations umbrella. Adapting the successful marketing practices of these organizations would help revitalize the UNESCO WHP’s image and increase global knowledge about the organization. Nathalie Kylander, an adjunct lecturer at Harvard University and noted scholar on non-‐profit branding, stated in an interview with Forbes.com: a strong brand drives cohesion and helps an organization build the capacity and skills to implement its social mission [and] results in trust among its many constituents, be they donors, beneficiaries, partners, or otherwise, which enables the organization to have greater impact (Kanani “Branding For Nonprofits” forbes.com). Achieving increased brand awareness and positive communication channels for the mission and meaning behind designation becomes a crucial ingredient in the long-‐term viability of the Program.
25
The changing landscape of the modern world has altered the mindset and duties of non-‐ profit managers and leaders, propelling them into new competitive arenas where astute brand stewardship can be a differentiating advantage (Kylander et al. 254). Organizations that are highly visible on an international scale, such as the Red Cross and Greenpeace, are often regarded as some of the most widely recognized brands in the world, and are more trusted by the public than the best known for-‐profit brands (Kylander and Stone 37). An Edelman Public Relations annual study from 2012 revealed that for the fifth year in a row, global NGOs are the most highly regarded organizations globally; and in 16 countries of the 25 surveyed they were more trusted than private business (Edelman). Consumer trust in a brand is regarded as a key component to brand loyalty (Lau and Lee 341). In the United States, Amnesty International is ranked as the 13th most trusted brand, with a 55% trust rating. Equally important perhaps, Amnesty’s brand trust increased from 36% in 2001 to 55% in 2004. In Europe, global non-‐profit brand trust is even greater, with Amnesty International ranking first with 63% followed by the World Wildlife Fund in fourth place, just behind Michelin and Microsoft at 59% and 57%, respectively. Research in the field of non-‐profit branding has concluded that branding plays a critical role for non-‐profit organizations and provides the opportunity to speak to various stakeholders (Kylander and Simonsin 64; Stegeman and Thompson 10; Faircloth 3). This white paper contends that by focusing on increasing the brand equity of the UNESCO WHP through meaningful marketing, the issues of awareness and education, funding, and conservation can be improved. In this and the previous section, awareness, education and funding identified as major problems hindering the UNESCO WHP from achieving its mission of conservation. This white paper has examined the aforementioned inadequacies presents the UNESCO WHP with an original solution: marketing for meaning. The research conducted to identify the above concerns is detailed in the following section.
26
RESEARCH DESIGN The recommendation for this paper has been based on an analysis of current scholarship, interviews, illustrative examples, and a survey. The details of the research methods used in this study are outlined below.
DOCUMENT ANALYSIS A range of issues regarding the UNESCO WHP were examined through analysis of scholarly articles, Program policy documents, and the UNESCO WHP website. INTERVIEWS: SEMI-‐STRUCTURED and SCOPING Chosen by purposive and convenience sampling, individuals including tourism industry consultants, heritage conservation experts, UNESCO staff members, marketing professionals, and academic scholars were questioned in semi-‐structured or scoping interviews. In total, six industry experts were interviewed. ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES Illustrative examples were used to explore the UNESCO WHP’s approach to the management and preservation of heritage attractions at specific sites, and the implementation of management practices that have shown to be either successful or deficient. SURVEY Of the 962 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, 270 were selected through nonprobability and purposive sampling to determine how many of these sites had a presence on the Internet. The first of the two criteria for selection was the availability of information for the WH Site on an official, authorized website after no more than two inquiries by a
27
global search engine. The second was how many positive results had social media integration. After a thorough examination of the qualitative data gathered through the document analysis, interviews, illustrative examples, and survey noted above, it is clear that the UNESCO WHP must focus its attention on increasing brand equity through awareness. The rest of this white paper is organized around presenting marketing for meaning as the key method to bettering the UNESCO WHP deficiencies of awareness and education, funding, and conservation.
ISSUES IMPEDING CONSERVATION Through the qualitative research methods outlined in the previous section, it was determined that a lack of awareness and education as well as insufficient capital to fill the WH Fund are the two main components thwarting the UNESCO WHP from fulfilling the objectives of the Convention. The following section will discuss the area of awareness and education in detail. AWARENESS and EDUCATION The available literature, research, and interviews examined in this study point to a lack of awareness in and understanding of the UNESCO WHP and the meaning behind site designation, which leads to deficiencies in conservation. Even those working with and in the same industry as the UNESCO WHP are unaware as to why the Program is an important one and what the values and meanings behind designation are (Interviewee C; Interviewee F). A problem with the brand as a whole, this deficit was pointed out in both the current research and the conducted interviews to be a reality for both site visitors and the local populations surrounding designated properties (Interviewee C; Interviewee D; Interviewee F, Hall and Piggin 406, 409; Poria et al. “Religious Site” 485;
28
Poria et al. “Archeological Site” 202; Dewar et al. 323, 329; Marcotte and Bourdeau 5; Somuncu and Yagit 9). LACK OF LOCAL KNOWLEDGE ABOUT WORLD HERITAGE SITES Community involvement in destination development, including that of UNESCO WH Sites is essential to a property’s success: it is the community and “their place of residence that is being promoted” (Prideaux and Cooper 37). The local populations direct involvement in the tourism industry is critical to the long-‐term success and development of attractions. WH Site communities “are [the] carriers and immediate custodians of cultural resources” of the UNESCO designated destinations (Keitumetse 49). However, for many UNESCO WH Site communities, the local population, businesses, and property managers are often unaware of the meaning of designation or that the local attraction is even designated at all (Marcotte and Bourdeau 6). In a study by Hall and Piggin in “Tourism Business Knowledge of World Heritage Sites in New Zealand,” a number of the surrounding businesses surveyed “were unaware of the status of the area, and also of what World Heritage means” (406). Timothy and Boyd that found WH Site designation to be “not generally understood by the public or even by WHS management and personnel” (Poria et al. “Archeological Site” 204). In the case of many designated sites, World Heritage status is pursued by national governments, with little involvement by local populations (Hall and Piggin 406; Ryan and Silvanto “Making and Management” 291; Aref 348; Interviewee E), despite the advising of the Committee (Interviewee A). As Aref makes note in his study on Shiraz, Iran, as in many destinations in the developing world, tourism development activities […] have been historically undertaken by the government and there has been little participation by communities. As a result, local communities have never really understood the need for tourism, or perceived tourism as an enterprise that contributes to the development of their lives and social welfare (348).
29
In a New Zealand case study, “the overriding majority of businesses […] never received information regarding the World Heritage status of the area” (Hall and Piggin 409). Somuncu and Yagit also discovered that only 27.88% of locals who live in and around World Heritage Sites in Turkey were aware of WHS designation (9). “Limited access to information” and a “lack of awareness” are top barriers to successful tourism development regarding community involvement (Aref 349). Local people – the “employees” (Hankinson 99) – are the stakeholders who interact with tourists– the “customers” (Hankinson 99) – on a daily basis and it is their relationship with the tourism industry and their understanding of and pride in UNESCO WH Site designation that ultimately decides a destination’s appeal and viability, or as Hankinson wrote, the “brand values and those perceived by external stakeholders” (99). If the service is good, Interviewee A stressed, the visitor experience is better; if the visitor experience is better, “then it means the site is well-‐managed” and will be better preserved (Interviewee A). Local populations should be well informed on the meaning behind designation and of the program itself. “In most parts of the developing world […] resident communities are invaluable custodians of cultural heritage and cultural landscapes” especially since they often inhabit and constantly put to use the monuments and sites also utilized as tourist attractions (Keitumetse 51). To engage the public in the tourism industry, the population must be educated on WHS designation and the benefits of tourism that follow. In their review of WH Sites in Turkey Somuncu and Yigit found that a lack of social awareness contributed to poor management and conservation of sites (4, 8) a point also noted by Interviewee E. Additionally, Kaltenborn et al. note: A key issue linked to the success in terms of utilizing the World Heritage Site status effectively […] is the development and local support and involvement, which has been increasingly been emphasized as crucial for obtaining sustainable development (99).
Without education on the meaning and benefits of WH Site status, local populations are not aware of the benefits that development can bring and, as a result, site managers
30
lack the required support and involvement necessary to make their respective destinations thrive (Somuncu and Yigit 9). As argued by Pike and noted in the study by Poria et al., “awareness is essential in creating brand equity […] and there is an apparent need to create [that] awareness” regarding WH Site status and meaning (“Archeological Site” 206). Tourism is a “phenomenon of affluent contemporary societies” and is still “a difficult concept to grasp for people in developing countries” (Aref 350). As discussed at length by Interviewee E, many people in the developing world, who have not traveled themselves, are often only greeted by the negative aspects of the industry, because they are not aware or in control of the preservation efforts taking place around them. These communities are not aware of the benefits of the tourism industry in general, let alone any positive aspects WH Site designation can bring. Once made aware of how designation and the ensuing developments can better the lives of local populations, however, community support for the tourism industry has been shown to consistently increase (Jimura 289-‐91, 293; Poria et al. “Tourist Perceptions” 272; Aplin 168; Interviewee E). As highlighted by Interviewee E: if the educational and awareness side [of the program] could be strengthened, then more people would be educated in sustainable development and management [and] then the sites would be better managed.
In their article “The World Heritage List: the Making and Management of the Brand”, Ryan and Silvanto argue that “the danger to heritage sites comes from overuse, but even more so from neglect” (298). Interviewee C observed this first hand: in Bermuda, capital city and UNESCO WH Site, St. George and it’s Related Fortifications, has deteriorated into nothing but a collection of “decaying empty buildings, cheesy restaurants, and a museum that is closed most of the time”. Community support yields the opportunity for community investment in an industry they see as being essential to their livelihood and to enhancement of their home. Additionally, “the support given by local residents to encouraging the development of tourism may also be a key factor in the level of support given to tourism promotion by the public sector” (Prideaux and Cooper 38). In the more successful UNESCO designated WH Sites: 31
the sense of creating change, development and socio-‐economic benefits, appear to be those where the community itself has responded actively through actions and investments rather than waiting for the externally driven effects of designation (Kaltenborne et al. 101). The active participation that Kaltenborne et al. explain and support is almost impossible if the communities themselves are not aware of the meaning behind UNESCO WH Site status or if their communities have properties designated at all. As seen in Bermuda and described by Interviewee C, the lack of local awareness and involvement with the UNESCO WHP has led to the near degeneration of a site that represents the “earliest English urban settlement in the New World” (“St. George” unesco.org).
LACK OF VISITOR KNOWLEDGE ABOUT WORLD HERITAGE SITES Research has shown that local communities are not the only ones who lack knowledge on the meaning behind UNESCO WHP and site designation (Poria et al. “Religious Site” 485; Poria et al. “Archeological Site” 202; Dewar et al. 323, 329; Marcotte and Bourdeau 5; Interviewee D). Even more so than local populations, many visitors to UNESCO WH Sites are unaware of the property’s status or the value of designation. In their study on designation effectiveness at religious sites, Poria et al. note a study by Hazan who found that “56% of her sample of visitors to National Heritage Parks in the United States designated as WHS were not aware that the site [was] a WHS” (“Religious Site” 485). Incredibly, the 44% awareness rate among visitors in Hazan’s study is actually high when compared to other global studies on the topic of UNESCO WHP brand knowledge. In the study conducted by Dewar et al. on WHS awareness of the Historic Center of Macao “the average visitor had only a vague understanding of WHS” (323) and “only 24% of the total respondents” (329) could recognize the UNESCO WH Site logo. In Poria et al.’s survey on the same topic at Caesarea in Israel, they found only 24.7% of the participants had seen the WH Site logo before, and only “10.5% of the total sample, knew its meaning” (“Archeological Site” 202). A slight improvement, 34.7% of their sample “claimed they were familiar with the term World Heritage Site” and “25.8% of the total
32
sample were able to explain it’s meaning” (Poria et al. “Archeological Site” 202). In a study Poria et al. carried out at the Basilica of the Annunciation in Nazareth, Israel only 10.2% of visitors recognized the WH Site logo and only 6.5% knew what it meant (Poria et al. “Religious Site” 487). Marcotte and Bourdeau additionally revealed in their study of Quebec City that, “tourists, especially those from the United States, as well as business visitors, were found to be generally unfamiliar with the World Heritage designation and its role” (5). The findings of these studies challenge the assumption that WH Site designation is a recognized and valued brand. The lack of awareness among visitors to WH Sites hinders the development of the properties and the promotion of tourism to the sites. For consumers to purchase brand products, in this case UNESCO WH Sites, they must first be aware that the brand exists and the benefit of the products offered. Ryan and Silvanto note: labels such as the WHS designation exercise an important influence on consumption decisions [and that…] Research suggests that endorsements or seals of approval reduce consumer search costs and provide a competitive advantage for a recommended product or service (“Making and Management” 292). Marcotte and Bourdeau add, “tourists for whom the cultural aspect is a key factor in the choice of a destination would thus be more sensitive to a World Heritage brand” (6). Pike, too, agrees with Ryan and Silvanto and Marcotte and Bourdeau: “with travelers spoilt by choice of available destinations, never before has it been more important for a destination to develop an effective brand” (258). The same sentiments are echoed again by Buil et al. who state: “brand awareness positively impacts perceived quality and brand associations” and that brand equity has a positive impact on consumer response. The authors state: Brand awareness is the first step to creating brand equity. This dimension refers to whether consumers can recall or recognize a brand and is related to the strength of a brand’s presence in consumers’ minds (Buil et al. 62-‐63). As branding and brand equity are integral to tourism development strategies and tourist demand (Ryan & Silvanto “Brand for all Nations” 206; Poria et al. “Archeological Site” 33
199), the awareness levels discovered in the aforementioned studies of WHS recognition must be augmented and addressed for the World Heritage Program to be effective. Awareness and education can be achieved through improved communication and collaboration among all stakeholders. Effective marketing with the goal of increasing brand knowledge provides a viable solution and allows the Convention to be proactive in achieving its mission of conservation (Aplin 172). Awareness and education are not the only requirements for a successful conservation program. The funding to support conservation activities is also needed. The following section discusses the lack of funding available to the UNESCO WHP for conservation efforts, and illustrates the connection between the insufficient capital and Program deficiencies in conservation. FUNDING Along with the spirit of international solidarity and starting with the preservation of Abu Simbel, the Convention established the WH Fund (“The Convention” unesco.org) to be used for the protection of the WH List. The fund was established as a trust, and is managed by the Committee as a special account and in accordance with the financial regulations of UNESCO (“Article 15” unesco.org). The purpose of the WH Fund is to support States Parties in need of international assistance to secure the protection, conservation, presentation, or rehabilitation of a designated site (Interviewee A). The fund is also the main source for supporting the daily activities and staff of the Committee. States Parties provide a majority of the available capital to the fund, the compulsory payment from which account for 60% of the total reserve ( “WHC-‐12/36” unesco.org). The remaining 40% is made up by voluntary States Parties contributions, private donor contributions, profits from the sale of official publications, and Funds-‐In-‐ Trust (“Funding”, “WHC-‐12/36” unesco.org).
34
Although there are a few revenue streams, coming mainly from the compulsory and voluntary contributions of the states parties, current available funds are inadequate to meet the mission of the UNESCO WHP (Interviewee A). The ongoing financial crisis has furthermore exasperated this already existing problem, as public spending on conservation has decreased (Interviewee A). Figure 6: World Heritage Fund Income 2011 (“WHC-‐12/36” unesco.org)
The World Heritage Fund is only able to generate roughly $4 million (“WHC-‐12/36” unesco.org) annually. The resources available to properties through the Fund, and especially to those in need like sites on the List of World Heritage in Danger, are too limited to assist in the necessary levels of conservation (Francioni and Lanzerini 290). In addition to conservation projects, the annual budget also pays for organization’s administrative costs. As a result, in 2011, only $1.7 million was used towards the conservation of the 962 WH Sites (“WHC-‐12/36” unesco.org). The financial restrictions of the WH Fund becomes clear, when compared to the World Monuments Fund (WMF) a New York based non-‐governmental organization founded in 1965 with a similar mission and objectives to the UNESCO WHP. In the 2011 fiscal year, the WMF supported approximately 100 fieldwork projects funded by $52.6 million, an 35
average of $500,000 per project (World Monuments Fund 26). Additionally, the Global Heritage Fund (GHF), founded only ten years ago and relatively new to the cultural conservation scene, has spent an average of $2 million on each of the 18 sites they have supported (GlobalHeritageFund.org). Considering the comparison, it is no surprise that the monies available are limited in reach (Frey and Pamini 3; Zacharias 309), especially when bearing in mind the cost of conservation projects noted by the World Monuments and Global Heritage Fund’s. If only accounting for the 38 sites on the List of World Heritage in Danger, each property would only receive approximately $45,000 per year in comparison to the millions of dollars that conservation efforts per site actually cost. For example, costs for the conservation of the Colosseum in Rome, have been estimated at $32 million dollars (“Consumer Group” ansa.it) The preservations plans for Pompeii, Italy have been undertaken by the European Union with a projected budget of $137 million (Povolido “Latest Threat Pompeii” nytimes.com). Moreover, the restoration of St. George’s Church in London cost $15.6 million dollars over a period from 2002 to 2006 (“Preservation Quarterly” World Monuments Fund 9). If the UNESCO WHP provided financial support to all 962 properties designated on the WH Site list, the average funding available would only be $1,750. The amounts are inadequate in the ability to meet any conservation needs. The limited budget prevents any meaningful support to a large number of WH Sites (Sayer et al. 306) and what financial support exists is minimal compared to the existing needs (Frey and Pamini 3). The capital available towards the support and conservation of the properties on the growing list is an amount that is inadequate by any reasonable standard (Bertacchini et al. “Embracing Diversity” 282). The fund falls far short of covering the whole cost of implementing the Convention (Francioni and Lanzerini 279; Interviewee A) and thus the UNESCO WHP is prohibited from fulfilling the goals of its mission.
36
The lack of monetary resources to fund the UNESCO WHP is not a new problem, but rather, has dogged the program from the start. As previously noted, compulsory payments by States Parties finance the biggest portion of the Fund. However, several of the States Parties are far behind in their compulsory payments and the Operational Guidelines lack the power to enforce compliance (UNESCO “Operational Guidelines” 61), which further deepens the budget deficit. The best remedy would be to apply policy changes and force the States Parties to remit owed payment, however, the total amount unpaid as of October 31, 2011 was only $874,585. Even if the UNESCO WH Committee could enforce payment, the core funding issue will not be alleviated (“WHC-‐ 12/36” unesco.org). The current support from individual donations and other sources ($57,393 in 2011) furthermore guarantees a limited and unreliable budget for the program to work with (“WHC-‐12/36” unesco.org). Therefore, the WHP is failing to achieve an effective source of capital to fund the goals of conservation. The need to develop an additional mechanism to leverage funds is obvious (Rao 169). Accordingly, meaningful marketing is an alternative and implementable approach that can be used to leverage additional funds without the need for policy change. The idea behind the concept and its relation to funding as well as implementation tactics are outlined below. THE BRAND and FUNDRAISING The UNESCO WHP must address the funding and budget deficiencies in a manner that is effective and surpasses the current financial shortcomings (Interviewee A; Interviewee B; Interviewee D). A strong brand is essential for fundraising and for enabling non-‐profit organizations to implement their missions successfully (Kylander et al. 274). Hou et al. (225) and Poria et al. (“Religious Site” 483) also argue that brand personality, brand image, and brand awareness of non-‐profit organizations have a direct positive impact on individual giving 37
intentions, making it easier for the organizations to collect donations. Lauer moreover contends that the communication of a non-‐profit brand image to individual donor is important, since identification with non-‐profit goals and values is a significant contributor to positively biased support behavior toward the non-‐profits by consumers (51). Dixon (52) and Harvey (84) additionally claim that branding can convey the values and beliefs of a non-‐profit to potential donors and suggest potent reasons why the organization might be worthy of support. Poria at al. add that there “seems to be an increase in volunteer support to the designated sites, resulting in savings on human-‐ resources costs” (“Religious Site” 483). The research reveals that brand awareness and equity directly influence giving intentions of individuals and ultimately, the funding available to inscribed sites on the WH List. Currently, studies note indifference in visitor’s willingness to pay for UNESCO WH Sites versus others available attractions (Poria et al. “Religious Site” 488; Dewar et al. 326). Alternatively, other studies have proved a positive correlation between strong brand equity the willingness to pay (Buil et al. 64; Ryan & Silvanto “Brand for all Nations “ 307; Chung et al. 1044-‐1045, Han et al. 457-‐458, Wehrli et al. 15). This is especially true when a brand and a cause, such as conservation, are linked. The studies by Chung et al. (1044-‐ 1045), Han et al. (457-‐458) and Wehrli et al. (15) all demonstrated an increase in tourists’ willingness to pay once they were made aware of conservation needs and how their donations would help. Combined, these findings signify the need for the program to strengthen awareness of and the meaning behind the UNESCO WHP brand, a recommendation also confirmed by Frey and Steiner (558-‐9), Poria et al. (“Tourist Perceptions” 273-‐4), and Interviewees C and F. Accordingly, the UNESCO WHP must emphasize strategic planning in regard to building brand awareness and equity. For UNESCO and the Program to improve brand equity, it is requisite that the organization alters its main revenue stream by facilitating the donation process. 38
FACILITATING THE DONATION PROCESS According to the Financial Regulations for the WH Fund, voluntary private donations are one of the methods that the UNESCO WHP has to obtain funds (“Funding” unesco.org). However, the UNESCO WHP has not focused efforts in this area, and has instead relied on the cooperation of the States Parties to contribute to an incredibly limiting budget (“WHC-‐12/36” unesco.org). During 2010 and 2011 the fund only collected $42,291 in online private donations, an average of $1,762 per month (“WHC-‐12/36” unesco.org). The most recent Statement of Cash Flow is even more alarming, as in the first quarter of 2012 only $4,143 was collected, an even lower monthly average than in previous years (“WHC-‐12/36” unesco.org). A critical success factor in an organizations ability to obtain donations is perception. The company must be perceived as a trusted entity (Long and Chiagouris 239; Martin 143; Waters 71). Therefore, it is essential to provide relevant information about the organization and the need for contributions during the solicitation process (Martin 143; Waters 62). The mission statement and examples of current project are examples of pertinent information that must be presented to potential donors (Martin 143; Waters 62). Providing this key information is a necessary first step, but doing so only establishes one-‐way communication if not done in tandem with additional outreach (Waters 63). Donors must be engaged in order to properly create awareness and convey the needs of the organization (Ingenhoff and Koelling “The Potential” 66; Long and Chiagouris 241; Sargeant 189). The solicitation process must not only transmit the organization’s message but also to receive feedback and comments from current and potential donors, creating a two-‐way communication process. The benefit of reciprocal communication is two-‐fold: interactive communication with the donors will help to identify information gaps in what is provided during the donation process. Successful communication with first-‐time donors is an opportunity for the
39
UNESCO WHP to build relationships that go beyond one-‐time donation. Building relationships with donors is fundamental to long-‐term program viability (Ingenhoff & Koelling “Web Sites” 147). Organizations need to take advantage of the opportunity not only to communicate with contributors, but also to persuade them to participate in long-‐term program memberships (Ingenhoff & Koelling “Web Sites” 147; Waters 61). If properly planned and nurtured, ongoing relationships with loyal contributors will create a sustainable revenue stream for the future. Finally, the process of donations must simple for the donor (Ingenhoff and Koelling “The Potential” 67; Waters 63). The more the process is simplified for potential donors the easier it will be for them to complete the donation. The UNESCO WHP must also create new partnerships to support an improved online donation process. Organizations such as JustGive.org not only provide simplicity on the donor side, but also for the participating organization (“What Makes Just Give Different?” justgive.org) and include the four essential components for successful fundraising outlined above. For potential donors, JustGive shows suggested donation amounts and what impact each amount will have on the organization or program the money will go to. Through the site potential donors have the option to make a donation as a 'Guest'-‐ without having to create a login and password, make regularly recurring donations, or to make memorial or gift donations in another person's name (“You and JustGive” justgive.org). For the organization, JustGive.org enables the creation of a “branded donation process” which includes, in addition to the same capabilities given to donors, the ability to send immediate tax receipts and thank you notes as well as the ability to track donations and donor information for the purpose of facilitating an ongoing relationship (“You and JustGive”; “Customize Donation Page” justgive.org). There is currently no uniform system to collect donations at WH Sites. As a result, the UNESCO WHP is missing a great fundraising opportunity. At each site there can be an “Official UNESCO WHP Area,” designated for collecting funds to help generate revenue
40
for both site-‐specific conservation efforts and global program needs. This area will be dedicated to providing information about the Program, its mission, the specific site, as well as significant projects currently under way and completed. The area will bolster the connection between visitors, the attraction, and the UNESCO World Heritage Program at large. Often visitors to WH Sites do not know that the sites are designated and part of the UNESCO WH List or what that even means. On-‐site donation centers will not only help the awareness gap, but also increase voluntary donations to the World Heritage Fund. On-‐site donations must be divided evenly between the actual collection site and the World Heritage Fund at large. The split system will guarantee that visitors are contributing to the sites they visit, and also will ensure the availability of funds to all designated properties. The recommended tactics towards implementing marketing for meaning aimed at increasing funding, as well as awareness and education, are outlined in the following section.
MARKETING FOR MEANING: TACTICS As part of the comprehensive marketing for meaning approach recommended in this white paper the following seven tactics are suggested for the UNESCO WHP to improve brand awareness and education as well as funding to aid the Program’s conservation efforts. The seven tactics include: reach out to the community; re-‐design website; create a social media strategy; implement onsite information systems; develop sponsorship programs; produce dedicated media; and utilize outbound marketing. These implementation tactics are described in the following section. 41
TACTIC 1: REACH OUT to COMMUNITY Local WH Site communities are a vital component of the UNESCO WHP. Accordingly, the Program must employ an on-‐the-‐ground approach to engage and educate site communities. Site nomination is often driven by national governments without the knowledge of or input from local populations (Hall and Piggin 406; Ryan and Silvanto “Making and Management” 291; Aref 348; Interviewee E), despite the World Heritage Program's emphasis on community involvement from the outset (Interviewee A). Community participation in the Program must start before sites are placed on the Tentative List, so that communities are involved from the beginning (Interviewee C). Policies of the UNESCO WHP hinder the ability to enforce any education efforts through official national channels, but the program does have the ability to open communication channels itself.
EVENTS One method to facilitate community engagement will be the placement signs at strategic locations around the attractions and within the community to communicate to local populations that their sites of cultural and natural heritage are under consideration for inclusion in the UNESCO WHP and what that designation would mean (Interviewee C). Additionally, events for the community at or near the nominated attractions can be used to relate the meaning behind designation and illustrate how each specific site represents an example of the world’s “outstanding universal heritage.” If a site makes it on to the official UNESCO WH List, outreach efforts must continue and highlight education components including how local citizens can use the UNESCO WHP brand to their advantage, marketing and promotional material strategy, and how they can help in the direct conservation of the sites themselves.
42
Meaningful marketing techniques in the form of community outreach are the first step towards involving the community with the UNESCO WHP to help with conservation. The local community must be given the opportunity to engage in the site planning and management process, and specifically with local marketing initiatives from the onset (Interviewee A). To facilitate, the UNESCO WHP must act in its advisory role, training key stakeholders through a series of workshops targeted at both site managers and volunteers from local tourism organizations. For conservation efforts at WH Sites to be appropriate to the communities they are located within, local stakeholder involvement in the creation of marketing materials is key (Interviewee A). By facilitating interaction between these parties, the promotion of a WH Site and the Program will include a consistent and uniform marketing message. Moreover, these workshops will teach the positive and negative impacts of tourism and how every community member can contribute to alleviating the negative effects. The workshops will communicate the potential physical impacts a WH Site designation will have on the local community, and the necessary steps that must be made in order to conserve the site and maintain its viability to the local tourism industry. Highlighting the great potential benefits of tourism will be key, but also making the communities aware of the possible negative impacts the industry can bring, local stakeholders will be better prepared to handle, and more willing to participate in, the tourism process (Poria et al. “Tourist Perceptions” 272; Aplin 168; Jimura 291-‐3) This on-‐the-‐ground engagement of the local community will elevate the UNESCO WHP brand, which in turn improves the ability to market and promote the Program, and empowers all stakeholders to partake in direct conservation of the sites. PARTNERSHIPS Partnerships are an effective means for the UNESCO WHP to facilitate the community outreach engagements, which will benefit both the Program and the local stakeholders.
43
Though the term “partnerships” tends to conjure the idea of corporate relationships and sponsors, the local community can also establish relationships with the UNESCO WHP that will benefit the Program and local stakeholders. The UNESCO WHP can develop cooperative relationships with educational institutions, specifically photography related programs. Photography students can donate their skills, creating unique and original imagery for promotional materials, in return for the opportunity to exhibit their photographs locally at the sites themselves, at larger international exhibitions. This system helps to both increase local awareness of the UNESCO WHP through their direct involvement, and generates materials the UNESCO WHP can use for broader awareness campaigns. Corporate partnerships should also be used to sponsor local training programs, which will in turn help the community secure skilled local staff and guarantee increased economic benefit to the people living in and around WH Site destinations. If local communities see positive monetary outcomes as a result of their heritage conservation efforts, they are more likely to continually engage in preservation programs (Jimura, 290-‐1, 293; Interviewee D). Though the Operational Guidelines of the UNESCO WHP do not allow the organization to enforce local hire laws, partnerships that work towards community capacity building in site communities can circumvent the policy obstacle. On a very basic level, the UNESCO WHP must cultivate local media partnerships with mainstream press and independent travel writers. These associations can spread the “conservation word” locally, and about the Program and its impact on the community. These relationships can communicate site-‐specific needs regarding conservation efforts, and the importance of heritage maintenance to locals. This has been done successfully in the initiative organized National Trust Historic Preservation and its magazine “Preservation.” In the campaign, the publication is being used as a communication platform to spread the message about the conservation needs of specific sites. An additional and important component of such a relationship would be the ability to
44
communicate site needs regarding conservation efforts, and the importance behind heritage maintenance to locals. The community outreach tactics outlined above not only work toward increasing education and awareness of the UNESCO WHP in site communities, but also serve to address brand awareness deficiencies in the general public and create locally driven conservation campaigns. TACTIC 2: RE-‐DESIGN WEBSITE The Program’s website must be completely re-‐designed to better communicate the necessity and meaning behind the UNESCO WHP (Interviewee B; Interviewee C). A user and search friendly website (Interviewee C) is critical in orienting users to any brand. Dividing the website into two portals, one for consumers and one for local stakeholders will help achieve an easily navigable site. FOR LOCAL STAKEHOLDERS In regards to local stakeholders, a designated platform will provide supplementary and specific information related to the management, operation, and conservation of WH Sites-‐ technical information that the general public does not need such as “tools and services” that “identify the best practices” (Interviewee A). The platform will also incorporate an intranet feature, complete with an online forum or message board, where various WH Site communities and stakeholders can connect, ask questions, share best practices, and generate new ideas. Additionally, the private intranet feature allows local stakeholders and site managers to share best conservation communication practices, ask for help, and generate ideas aimed at solving conservation issues resulting from cultural nuance impacts. More than just a means to disseminate information to site managers and the local community, the official UNESCO WHP website should serve to actually engage them in the program (Interviewee B). 45
FOR TOURISTS To the general public, the alternative portal will provide information about the history of specific sites, why each was inscribed on the WH List, and information on current conservation efforts. Segregating information on the site in this manner will result in a straightforward, more navigable website that does not present information overload to the viewer. Consumers require different information than site managers or stakeholders and a newly redesigned official website can facilitate this. Currently, the website is overly academic in language, inconsistent in content, and not intuitive to navigate (Interviewee B; Interviewee C). Visually boring the current site neither beckons visitors to explore it nor invites them to engage with the program (Interviewee C). The opportunity for consumers to engage with the UNESCO WHP is critical. In the current marketing landscape, there is a shift in the travel and hospitality industry toward more user-‐generated content and two-‐way communication (Interviewee B). Similar to the recommendation for an intranet for stakeholder use, the consumer portal of the official Program website must offer spaces that encourage a visitor-‐brand relationship and inter-‐community dialogue. Many travel brand sites, like Lonely Planet or TripAdvisor, invite users to submit questions, comments, and even content for review. Additionally, they feature user-‐generated content and spaces for visitors to share their personal experiences and tips with others. Each site-‐specific page on the UNESCO WHS website should include a section for visitor-‐authored experiences and tips for each destination. Communication with the Program on the whole can also be facilitated within this structure in the form of a blog-‐ one of the most relevant inbound sources of information by consumers affecting purchase choice (HubSpot “2012” 23; Jacobsen and Munar 39). Within the blog structure, site managers and visitors can submit feature stories to the official blog roll and share them with the international public. In the 2012 study by HubSpot, 57% of organizations surveyed acquired customers through the company blog (23). By 2013, that number had jumped to 82% (HubSpot “2013” 7), illustrating the dramatic growth and importance of such channels in contemporary communication.
46
The process of collecting online donations will also greatly improve with a website re-‐ design. The UNESCO WHP website must re-‐design the donation system to become more functional and user friendly. Additionally, the current website is not transparent as to where the donated money will go. Currently, a potential donor must first register and create an account through the donation portal (“Donate” unesco.org), but the donor will find little transparency as to how the contributions will be, and are, used. As noted by Waters, “if an Internet site is not providing the public with the information that it needs, the non-‐profit could lose a potential donor or a possible client” (63), a finding that supports a possible reason why the UNESCO WHP has collected so few funds though online donations. For the program’s website to deliver the first of the four elements outlined in the Findings section (provide relevant information, include pre and post donor communication, foster long-‐term relationships, and easy of use) it must incorporate its mission, ongoing projects, and information about the WH List and site designation in an easy to comprehend and uncomplicated manner. The website has to be oriented to users, where they can learn about the organization in an interactive way and feel motivated to donate. On the Donation Page, easy to read and engaging content must educate potential donors about the Program and informing them where the donated funds will go. More effective communication channels will build and improve long-‐term donor relationships. The current online donation process on the UNESCO WHP site is only set up to allow for one-‐time donations, which does not cultivate and facilitate long-‐term donor relationships. Instead, the donation process must offer the possibility of regular and ongoing donation systems in addition to one-‐time contributions (Hoefer 363). Non-‐ profit organizations such as Pencils of Promise (“Donate” PencilsOfPromise.org), Doctors Without Borders (“Donate” DoctorsWithoutBorders.org), and the Red Cross (“Donate Funds” RedCross.org), exemplify this practice; users have the option to join a membership program where a specified donation is collected each month via credit
47
card. As an incentive for membership in such an arrangement, the UNESCO WHP can offer exclusive access to information and monthly reports on the successful ways donations are being used. Regardless of the donation method chosen, the UNESCO WHP must offer information to donors who agree to receive daily, weekly, or monthly email blasts and social media updates outlining new program projects, conservation goals, and site happenings. Even if donors choose to donate on a one-‐time basis, they will be engaged in an ongoing relationship with the program. Lastly, for a donation campaign to be successful, it must be easy for users to complete. The required registration process for one time donors must be eliminated and made optional for those donors who would like their information stored on site for future donation-‐related use. The methods of collection should be expanded, as currently donations can only be made by credit card. A toll-‐free number and automatic system is one possibility. PayPal is another, as the system can accept donations from users who already have a PayPal account and prefer to donate that way. SEARCH ENGINE OPTIMIZATION The UNESCO WHP must increase Search Engine Optimization (SEO) to enhance the web presence of each WH Site. A fresh website is no use if potential consumers cannot easily find it when searching for related attractions. The importance of search engine optimization for the UNESCO WHP cannot be overlooked (Interviewee C). According to Xiang,
Search engines have the potential to influence an online traveler’s impression, intention, as well as attitude toward the website owned by a tourist destination and businesses themselves (“Travel Queries” 89). Xiang additionally notes 14% of queries on search engines are related to place names, 84% focus on cities and 14% on countries (“Travel Queries” 90). Accordingly, the UNESCO WHP must be attached to these search markets through SEO. The online tourism domain is extremely complex and “search engines, to a great extent, define the practical boundaries of the online tourism domain” (Xiang “Role of Social Media” 181). 48
HubSpot’s 2013 study confirmed SEO to contribute 14% of consumer leads. In relation to tourist consumption, Xiang found that “two-‐thirds of online travelers use search engines for travel planning” (“Role of Social Media” 179). On the Google platform alone, over 2 million queries occur every minute of every day (Creotivo). The current partnership with the widely popular search engine should be structured to increase visibility of the program with user query. In the survey of 270 WH Sites on the Google search engine, only 139 were found to have a website designated solely for the purpose of communicating information to the public. Of the 139, 72 World Heritage Sites relied on the websites of other organizations such as a National Parks Department or Tourism Board. The remaining 59 sites, predominantly in developing nations of South America and Africa, had no easily found web presence at all. TACTIC 3: CREATE a SOCIAL MEDIA STRATEGY Along with an improved website, the UNESCO WHP must create and implement a comprehensive social media strategy that applies and be customized to individual sites. Pritchard notes: We are already seeing a shift from a mechanistic, manufacturing, industrial society to an organic, service-‐based, information-‐centered society, and increases in technology will only continue this shift to a globalized, connected world (350).
As current generations, referred to by Interviewee C as the “touch and swipe generation,” increase their dependence on mobile digital platforms (Creotivo; Honigman), it is essential that the UNESCO WHP and its stakeholders communicate across these channels (Interviewee C). In the survey of 270 UNESCO WH Sites on Google, only 78 sites with their own designated web presence provided links to a social media page. It is neither feasible nor necessary for the UNESCO WHP to manage social media platforms for designated sites. However, what the UNESCO WHP can and needs to do is educate site communities and stakeholders on social media strategies and communication techniques, thus making them accountable (Interviewee B; Interviewee C). 49
STAKEHOLDER INVOLVEMENT To facilitate stakeholder involvement in this manner, the UNESCO WHP must focus on educating local communities and site managers on various social media techniques and strategies across multiple digital platforms. These include the creation of official and consistent Facebook pages for each site, and the use of username handles and hashtags that promote the specific sites and connect them to the UNESCO WHP at large. Social media platforms provide site managers and the community with a vehicle to take the marketing of their destinations into their own hands (Interviewee C). One example for this type of locally driven engagement is a “Week in the Life” Instagram campaign where every week, a different local stakeholder would be in charge of the site’s official Instagram account, showing the world the UNESCO WH Site as viewed through the eyes of the local community. For Facebook and Pinterest similar strategies can include a locally generated “Photo of the Day,” and for Facebook along with Twitter, a daily site statistic or tip. FOR TOURISTS Social media allows the UNESCO WHP to communicate with consumers via their preferred methods, but also importantly encourages consumer interaction with the Program. Inbound marketing specialist HubSpot found that social media generates 14% of all leads and 13% of customers for all brands combined. Additionally, another study by HubSpot on the state of inbound marketing found that social media tactics have a significantly higher lead-‐to-‐close rate than traditional outbound marketing channels (“2012” 22). As the current generation of travelers has grown to rely on social media as an essential daily function (Creotivo; Interviewee C), the UNESCO WHP must create and implement a comprehensive social media strategy. The strategy must begin with the creation of an official Facebook page to replace the current “cut and paste” Wikipedia sourced version (“About World Heritage Sites” Facebook.com). A presence on Facebook is essential for brands looking to attract consumers. The 2012 report by HubSpot
50
determined that 80% of social media users in the United States preferred to connect to brands via Facebook. A follow up to the study, conducted in 2013, ascertained that 52% of marketers surveyed have found customers through the platform. Additionally, for every 1,000 likes a brands Facebook page generates, an organization’s website enjoys an additional 1,400 visits a day (HubSpot “2013” 83), which augments brand awareness across the global population. The UNESCO WHP must also utilize Instagram to increase global awareness of the brand. The social media platform Instagram similarly provides a great opportunity for the UNESCO WHP to increase global awareness of its brand. The WH Sites are invaluable assets, with stunning architecture, scenic views, and exotic wildlife, and photographs are a compelling source of consumer motivation, especially in the tourism industry (Prayag 213; Jacobsen and Munar 40; Yuksel and Agkul 716). Instagram is a searchable database of user-‐generated images from around the world, connected through common hashtags and geo-‐tagged locations. Currently, the Program does not use this channel effectively. The hashtag #unescowhs currently yields just 20 connected images. Variations of the tag have similar results: #unescosite with 80 images, #unescoheritagesite with 130 and #unescoworldheritagesite and #unescoworldheritage with 822 and 486 respectively. To put those numbers into perspective, more than 5 million photographs are uploaded to the site daily (Honigman) and the platform houses over 1 billion in total (Creotivo). Conversely, WH Sites whose management has created their own Instagram hashtags have had higher results, however these hashtags do not make connections between the sites and the UNESCO WHP. The UNESCO WH Site Angkor Wat in Cambodia has 34,443 photos connected to the hashtag #angkorwat; WH Site Stonehenge has 31,204 photos attached to its eponymous tag; Machu Picchu in Peru has 30,466; and the Eiffel Tower on the Banks of the Seine in Paris has 443,428 (Instagram). The gap between actual presence of UNESCO WHP on the platform and the available opportunity is vast. On specific WH Site websites, Facebook pages and onsite as well, relevant hashtags to connect the sites with the program need to be featured and actively promoted. 51
Pinterest is an additional social media platform the UNESCO WHP should engage with. Using imagery as well, Pinterest boards collect various images around one theme. The platform is especially useful for sites such as WH Cities, which are comprised of more than just one building or attraction. Through Pinterest, the UNESCO WHP can bridge multiple site-‐related components under one brand umbrella. Pinterest is especially important in this regard, as 97% of all users are female (Honigman), and as such have been shown to make most travel related purchasing decisions for households. Additionally, 28.1% of Pinterest users have an annual household income of over $100,000 making them a prime target audience for tourism related brands such as the UNESCO WHP. It has also been determined that 15% of the 17 million brand engagements that have occurred on the site, happen on brand boards. Through these platforms, the UNESCO WHP will encourage users to interact with the Program and provide social media content themselves. As noted by Xiang in the “Role of Social Media”, user generated content is especially popular in the online travel sector (179). The multiple platforms invite consumers to post and share “their travel-‐related comments, opinions, and personal experiences” (Xiang “Role of Social Media” 179). Pritchard adds, “user-‐generated content…[is] central to those holiday decisions that are based on recommendations as they are excellent sources of word-‐of-‐mouth feedback about destination experiences” (349). There is a great opportunity for the UNESCO WHP to leverage a destination through social media user participation (Interviewee D). World Heritage designation doesn’t mean anything “unless the destination brings it to life” (Interviewee D). Social media “can convey rich imagery […] and it is its seamless combination of information, contact, transaction, entertainment, and relationship services that distinguishes” the platforms from the analog world (Pritchard 349). The growing popularity of social media networks provides the ideal vehicle for this to occur. To generate interest in newly developed social media platforms, the UNESCO WHP will need to create campaigns for broad based, user communication outreach (Interviewee D). The “New7Wonders” campaign launched in 2007 across various media
52
communication platforms and has generated more than $5 billion worth of economic value to date (New7Wonders.com). The UNESCO WHP must produce and use campaigns to engage potential and current visitors with the sites. While the UNESCO WHP policy does not allow for the common population to vote on which sites are or are not designated as UNESCO WH Sites, users can vote for their favorite sites, pictures, or destinations in various contest mediums. For example, tourists to UNESCO WH Sites can submit their own site photographs to the Program using the website directly or social network hashtags. Once submitted the general public can vote on which they think are best, the top 100 of which become part of a traveling photo exhibition that will tour sites across the globe for the following year. The comparable strategy implemented by the New7Wonders project drew more than 100 million votes and launched an “unprecedented global dialogue” (New7Wonders.com) centered on note only the project, but also the world’s collective heritage. A comprehensive social media strategy will enable the UNESCO WHP to facilitate online donations to be used toward the conservation of sites on the WH List. The Internet and current social media technologies such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and Pinterest provide the opportunity to use communication channels that are comprehensive, connected, and integrative (Hart et al. 182). Through live social media, donors will have the opportunity to directly communicate with the program, ask questions as to funding needs, and feel engaged with the donation process on the whole. To improve communication, it is crucial to acknowledge donors for furthering the Program’s cause (Hart et al. 189). TACTIC 4: IMPLEMENT INTERACTIVE ONSITE INFORMATION SYSTEMS Along with a comprehensive social media strategy, the UNESCO WHP must make interactive information systems available to tourists onsite so that they can continue their engagement with designated properties while actually there.
53
DIGITAL APPLICATIONS Incorporating mobile digital technologies into a larger marketing program will be a key consideration in the re-‐branding of the UNESCO WHP. The UNESCO WHP must develop an official Program application for the various SmartPhone platforms. “Seventy-‐three percent of SmartPhone owners access social media networks through [applications] each day” (Creotivo). An official program application will serve to make information on WH Sites easily accessible and viewable in real time and onsite, a necessity of successful consumer engagement (Interviewee C). The digital application can be downloaded before coming to the site, or QR barcodes at each property will allow visitors to scan and download the application in the moment. Small, unobtrusively placed QR barcodes are especially useful at attractions that do not allow for more traditional communication methods such as signage. As determined through the current research and interviews, lack of information is one of the main factors responsible for the scarcity of UNESCO WHP brand awareness by visitors to sites, and ultimately brand equity (Hall and Piggin 409; Interviewee C; Interviewee D). Noted by Interviewee D: “the lack of promotion and information” is one of the biggest threats to the UNESCO WHP as the value of the program “is being lost.” With the inclusion of an official SmartPhone application and push notifications sent to users when near a World Heritage Site, awareness of the program and properties will be made known to those who may have been otherwise unaware. Once onsite, information about the specific property, including its history and significance as a unique example of the world’s heritage, can be easily accessed on-‐the-‐go, so that users can engage with the attraction while at the destination. ONSITE DONATION SYSTEMS Interactive onsite information systems are particularly useful in facilitating the donation process. First and foremost, the creation of a donation area must include relevant information for people to learn about the UNESCO WHP’s mission and ongoing projects 54
where the donations will be used. One method for this information to be presented is through the use of a touchscreen “giving kiosk” similar in size and usability to the self-‐ check in systems in hundreds of airports worldwide. The location of the donation kiosks must be considered in relation to the size of the site, and the site's capacity. The kiosk occupies little space, but it must not disturb the site's terroir, and additionally must be able to accommodate visitors quickly and efficiently. At larger WH Sites, such as Luang Prabang in Lao People’s Democratic Republic, or the Banks of the Seine in Paris, France, kiosks can be placed in strategic locations across the site or city, such as in local hotels or businesses who are interested in partnering with the site managers to raise funds. Additional signage must be placed near the kiosks to indicate what the kiosks are and why they are necessary. The use of touchscreen kiosks will facilitate donor communication with the UNESCO WHP. The digital technology allows for the submission of user questions, comments, and concerns directly to the Program and site managers, who can then respond via email or social media networks. For those who may not want to provide this information digitally, alternative communication methods to the kiosk will be offered, including written forms and pre-‐paid envelopes. Strengthened communication goes hand in hand with facilitating long-‐term relationships via online donations, and the touchscreen kiosk will have the option for visitors to both give a one-‐time donation as well as sign up for a continual donation program. Both types of donors will be asked to share an e-‐mail address or to follow the UNESCO WHP through different social media channels. As long as donors agree to share this minimal personal information, the Program will maintain the relationship through valuable information about ongoing projects. To make the kiosk easy to use, both a credit card and cash systems will be available so as not exclude donors simply due to the collection means. Providing both options will help avoid currency exchange, worries about donation security (visitors may not feel 55
secure leaving cash in donation boxes) or alternatively, a lack of credit card. At properties where available electricity hinders the use of a giving kiosk, alternative means of donation collection can be implemented. For example, sites can sell postcards to visitors, each with a varying monetary value according to multiple donation increments. Once the “purchase” has been made, the donor will receive a brochure with additional information regarding the UNESCO WHP and an invitation to visit the official program website to learn more about the organization, site, and projects. TACTIC 5: DEVELOP SPONSORSHIP PROGRAMS Partnership relationships provide an opportunity for the UNESCO WHP to increase brand awareness, funding, and ultimately program effectiveness. Sponsorship programs developed with partners are a powerful way for the Program to ensure continued preservation and use of heritage attractions for current and future generations. SITE SPONSORSHIP Partnerships should be used to help implement onsite donation techniques. The UNESCO WHP must engage with travel businesses, airlines, Online Travel Agencies (OTA’s), and other corporate sponsors to help endow a fundraising program. Partnership organizations can participate in onsite donation systems and directly and positively affect the WH Fund budget. Directly relating to the onsite donation campaigns outlined in the previous section, companies can sponsor kiosk purchases for single or multiple sites. Examples of this sort of relationship can be seen in cities such as New York City, where global finance firm Citibank has sponsored a share bike program in return for logo placement at bike stations and on the bikes themselves. Slightly larger in scope, companies can sponsor the actual designated sites themselves in an “Adopt a Site” program, agreeing to fund conservation needs at the particular location. This is a similar approach to what is being done in Rome with the retail
56
company Tod’s funding of conservation of the Colosseum (“Consumer Group” ansa.it). In return, the company has been allowed to place their logo on entrance tickets and has additionally garnered much international press for the relationship. The UNESCO WHP is not unfamiliar with these sorts of partnerships. The organization has an arrangement in place with the Fondation Franz Weber in Switzerland where the latter signed a five-‐year agreement to reinforce support for the Rapid Response Facility and to develop a new project for the sustainable preservation of the Dja Faunal Reserve in Cameroon (“Partnerships” unesco.org).
REWARDS PROGRAMS Many airlines, online book agents and corporations incorporate rewards programs in their relationship with consumers. More than being used only to book hotels or flights, these programs often let consumers chose how to spend their points on everything from the aforementioned travel related purchases, subscriptions to magazines, or donations to designated charities. Building strategic alliances with the airlines, OTA’s, and corporations in this manner, in which consumers can donate reward program points to the Fund in a agreed upon point to dollar ratio, will help to additionally alleviate current funding inadequacies. Rewards with meaning, or a Cause-‐Related Loyalty Marketing platform, redefines cause marketing with the sheer number of possibilities rewards programs provide. According to research firm Colloquy, at least $16 billion worth of reward points and miles went unredeemed in 2011 alone. KULA, a platform for giving, converts unused rewards into cash contributions for over 2.5 million causes in 39 countries (“About” KulaCauses.com). Companies such as KULA provide an available link between consumers, partners, and the UNESCO WHP. While consumers may not want to contribute actual money to the UNESCO WHP, parting with rewards points is a much easier transaction.
57
TACTIC 6: PRODUCE DEDICATED MEDIA Dedicated media and programming can be used to educate the public on the UNESCO WHP brand, the meaning behind designation, tourism impacts and ongoing conservation projects. PARTNER FACILITATED The UNESCO WHP must work towards developing formal relationships with a variety of media outlets. While a partnership is currently in place with the History Channel, the Program must engage with other global outlets to develop a global audience and international brand awareness. Supplementary networks could include the British Broadcasting Channel (BBC), the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS), Cable News Network (CNN), InterActiveCorp (IAC), and the Travel Channel. Barry Diller of IAC and Ted Turner of CNN have even directly expressed interest in working with the UNESCO WHP (Interviewee B). By securing these and similar networks, the UNESCO WHP can develop dedicated programming that will both educate the public as to the brand itself and the meaning behind designation to the WH List. Newer social media outlets, especially YouTube are also essential to secure with partnership opportunities. YouTube records over 4 billion video views each day (Creativo; Oreskovic “YouTube” reuters.com) and provides an ideal platform for internally produced, financially cost effective programming. Airlines offer a unique opportunity for the UNESCO WHP to develop and promote dedicated media content. In-‐flight entertainment systems currently have options for educational travel related programming and additionally play such content on shared screens to a captive audience. This will be a useful way to raise awareness of UNESCO WH Sites and the destination itself by means of highlights, WHS route maps, and destination guides. The Program and partners can create and provide additional in-‐flight print materials as an additional medium to communicate educationally driven content to travelers. If a flight is going to Cusco, Peru for example, with travelers heading to visit 58
the WH Site Machu Picchu, the airline can feature in flight video and print materials that explain the “do’s and don’ts” of touring there, such as not climbing on or taking the rocks, and the negative impact such actions can have. In the already established relationship with the Panasonic Partnership Report, Panasonic provides an update highlighting initiatives for the development of sustainable tourism, preservation of the sites, and engagement with the local community. Panasonic additionally developed “The World Heritage Special,” an hour-‐long program broadcast across 193 countries and regions on the Travel Channel while also leveraging a Facebook platform (Panasonic News Portal TOP). The UNESCO WHP must establish similar relationships with international print publications such as the Herald Tribune, The New York Times, The Guardian, The Times of India, or Reference News. Through these associations, the UNESCO WHP can secure weekly columns and feature articles highlighting the specific sites, the program, and its mission. The agreement between the UNESCO WHP and major publications will address the scope of the relationship and can include a calendar of press trips as well as an agreement to number of deliverables made by each publication per designated term. COMMUNITY GENERATED The UNESCO WHP, and its representatives on the ground must partner with local businesses, such as hotels and restaurants, to reinforce awareness of local attractions as part the UNESCO WHP. As illustrated by Hall and Piggin (406), as well as Marcotte and Bourdeau (5), community generated promotion of the UNESCO WHP is lacking. In exchange for placing the Program’s logo and other Program related information on their own promotional materials, the UNESCO WHP will create a destination site guide as a component to specific site pages, highlighting and linking to local business partners. The simple and mutually beneficial system will promote the UNESCO WHP brand locally, as well as to visitors, and will additionally improve local business community by promoting the destination on the whole. When the community understands the positive benefits of
59
tourism, and specifically UNESCO WHP related tourism, they are more likely to conserve the heritage of the WH Site and associated attractions-‐ the ultimate goal of the UNESCO WHP. In conjunction with the approach for community generated promotion to increase brand awareness, the same materials must be used to convey cultural beliefs and nuances to tourists. This can be achieved by distributing those materials at hotels, restaurants, and other local merchants. The materials will highlight “what the visitor can expect,” and outline the very cultural differentiations that make each site and destination unique in the first place. TACTIC 7: UTILIZE OUTBOUND MARKETING The Program must leverage access to the global travel community by improving existing education and awareness outreach programs sponsored via current partners such as TripAdvisor, and by creating new corporate opportunities. Companies like Tripadvisor and Expedia have access to extensive email databases and consumer purchase patterns and use software to effectively select consumers for specific, targeted promotions and campaigns. The UNESCO WHP must leverage the partnership with TripAdvisor, and create partnerships with Expedia or similar companies (Interviewee B). Consumers who purchase and research heritage tourism products will be identified and sent specific communication and promotions regarding the program, the site and the outstanding universal value that makes the site an important one to be visited. Targeted marketing and partnership strategies can help alleviate the issues the Program currently faces. Partnerships with local businesses can be used to educate visitors about conservation efforts and the needs of local WH Sites. Site managers and marketers must develop and distribute free postcards or brochures to the visiting public, which they can do in participating hotels, restaurants, shops and other tourism related sites. The content of these giveaways will be especially helpful at sites on the List of World Heritage In
60
Danger, a designation visitors may not be aware of, or just simply in locations where conservation needs are not being met. Airline and OTA partnerships can be used to disseminate similar information to tourists on a broader scale. The substance of email blasts, print materials, and digital content can be geared towards conservation education in WH Site areas that need it. OTA’s can provide information with travel reservations to WH Site regions and include relevant information regarding the ongoing conservation efforts at the destination. Additionally, OTA’s such as Expedia, Orbitz or Booking.com, an option to donate to the Program will be presented to consumers when purchasing packages to UNESCO WH Site locations. This would be similar to current donation campaigns to offset a consumer’s carbon footprint.
As with any research study, the recommendation and findings in this paper are not without limitations. The limitations of the research design of this paper are noted in the following section.
LIMITATIONS and OPPORTUNITIES This paper has illustrated the need for the UNESCO WHP to market its brand in order to generate increased awareness levels and brand equity. However, this study is not without limitations. The confines of this research present opportunities for future research. Semi-‐structured and scoping interviews were conducted with six individuals. Future research should seek out more interview candidates, and include other important stakeholders such as site managers, business owners in WH Site areas, and members of WH Site communities.
61
The results of the survey of 270 WH Sites were limited by the small sample size and type of sampling (nonprobability and purposive), as well as language barriers. If this study was to be expanded upon in the future, the entire WH List should be examined and the survey performed on search engines in multiple languages. The comparison of the UNESCO List of World Heritage in Danger to the 2012 World Monument Fund Watch List, and the Global Heritage Fund's list of conservation projects is limited. Having only compared UNESCO’s list of endangered sites to those of two other organizations, the results do not account for other catalogues of heritage in trouble such as ICOMOS’s “Heritage at Risk Report” report, or National Geographic, which regularly recognizes heritage destinations under threat. Future study should compare the UNESCO List of World Heritage in Danger to those of additional well-‐ reputed research institutions. Outside of the research design, the examination of current scholarship and qualitative data demonstrates the potential effectiveness and importance of integrating a new marketing based approach for the UNESCO WHP in order to reestablish the Program’s image and encouraging positive brand awareness. Though studies exist on the UNESCO WHP brand identity, there is still a need for more understanding in this area. The UNESCO WHP is a global platform, and research on the brand identity of the Program should be so as well. Currently, few scholars specialize on the topic in specific geographic regions (Poria et al. “Tourist Perceptions”; Jimura; Gillespie; Ripp; Dewar et al; Gross; Aplin; Starin; Dearborn and Stallmeyer; Wang and Zan; Marcotte and Bourdeau; Hall and Piggin; Somuncu and Yagit), but more widespread studies in this area would benefit the knowledge base for the Program to work with. Based on the best practices of other international non-‐profit organizations, it is assumed that increased brand knowledge on the UNESCO WHP will ultimately lead to elevated public support for and donations to the program. However, studies to prove this point should be conducted and the lack thereof, is a limitation to the analysis of this study.
62
Additionally, the research that exists today on giving motivation focuses on the general population. Heritage Tourists generally tend to fall into a specific socio-‐economic demographic. To more accurately access the potential for voluntary tourist contribution to the UNESCO WHP, a research study into the specific donation patterns and drivers should be explored. A recent player in the marketing world, social media is quickly proving to be the future of promotion practices. Many scholars argue the need for interactive communication between a brand and the customer and social media seems to provide just that. The field of marketing in general will benefit from future comprehensive studies in this area, which explore the effect of various forms of social media on consumer purchase behavior. Lastly, the authors of this study acknowledge that through increased use of marketing for meaning, a greater number of tourists will become interested in and visit WH Sites. Increased visitation can augment already existing issues of tourist capacity at some WH Sites. Amplified Program and WH Site promotion leading to an increase in tourist traffic will require site managers to monitor and adjust WH Site policies according site capacity as to not further intensify any conservation concerns.
CONCLUSION This paper has argued the need for the UNESCO World Heritage Program to increase the use of meaningful marketing to promote the awareness of, education about, and funding for the UNESCO World Heritage Program. Through multiple forms of qualitative research, this study has identified the areas of awareness, education, funding and the lack thereof as directly and negatively impact the UNESCO WHP’s ability to achieve its goal of conservation effectively.
63
There has been much research on how to improve the UNESCO WHP in this way; however, the current studies have focused on infeasible policy change. This white paper instead provides an alternative, fresh, implementable approach that does not rely on the Program’s ability to enforce States Parties. The recommendation made in this white paper is to divert the WH Fund towards marketing for meaning. A unified approach centered on a single goal and communicated through appropriate channels to all stakeholders in a variety of inbound and outbound techniques, marketing for meaning engages both locals and the public with the Program and fosters long-‐term relationships aimed at conservation. Marketing for meaning will directly address the issues of awareness, education, and funding that currently impede the Program from achieving its mission of preserving the world’s heritage for current use and for future generations. This paper outlines seven approaches to marketing for meaning that are appropriate to the UNESCO WHP. These seven tactics include: reaching out to the community; a complete re-‐design of the current website; the creation of a social media strategy; the implementation of interactive onsite information systems; development of a sponsorship program; production of dedicated media; and the utilization of outbound marketing. By employing these seven tactics, the UNESCO WHP will be able to improve brand equity and value in the long-‐term. Strong brand equity has been tied to improved global support of organizations and improved fiscal success, the platforms on which conservation efforts rest. Through marketing for meaning the UNESCO WHP can bypass bureaucracy and work towards successfully achieving its mission of conserving and preserving the world’s heritage that represents outstanding universal value to humanity.
64
WORKS CITED “1 Billion Tourists” UNWTO. 8 April 2013. . This page illustrates the growing tourism industry over the past 63 years. In that time international tourist arrivals went from 25 million to 1 billion on 13 December 2012. The website employs visually stimulating infographics which easily engage the audience in the simple, but meaningful content. "133 Places Rated: Europe / Italy: Venice and Lagoon.” NationalGeographic.com. 28 April 2013. . This assessment is an excerpt from a larger study that measured the authenticity and stewardship of European destinations, based on the opinions of Delphi panelists who examined the destinations using six criteria. The quotations selected for the Venice write-‐up were balanced, illustrating not just the problems, but the value the city still has for visitors. “2012 Watch Map.” WorldMonumentsFund.org. 28 April 2013. . This page on the World Monuments Fund website is specifically dedicated to sites that the organization considers to be endangered. The Watch began in 1996 and is updated every two years. This page allows users to access detailed information about the problems with each site, and provides information on how to help and nominate future sites that are in danger. The site is easy to navigate and user friendly; it provides detailed and transparent information about the organization and its activities. The video and photo materials are particularly effective. “'Acqua Alta,' High Water Returns To Venice, Italy (PHOTOS).” HuffingtonPost.com. 16 October 2012. Web. 28 April 2013. This article and photoset discussed the phenomenon of rising floodwaters in Venice, and how tourists view it as an amusement while it is actually a serious issue related to cruise ship traffic and waterway overcrowding. The photoset is the real value of the article, as seeing tourists forced into rain boots and onto higher ground (of which there is little in Venice) is shocking. The photos of Saint Mark's Square, where the waters were knee high, are particularly striking.
65
“Advisory Bodies.” whc.UNESCO.org. 24 February 2013. . This page describes the three outside organizations that assist the World Heritage Committee in their decision-‐making and monitoring processes. All are NGOs or intergovernmental. As vital components of the World Heritage Convention, these three organizations and their functions within the World Heritage framework are crucial to the overall process of World Heritage Site designation and management. Ahmad, Yahaya. “The Scope and Definitions of Heritage: From Tangible to Intangible.” International Journal of Heritage Studies. 12 (2006): 292-‐300. This article examined the scope and definition of the word and concept of heritage as used by a number heritage charters around the world, until internationally consolidated at the World Heritage Convention in 1972. After a time, many countries broadened the scope and definition of heritage, leading to what is now known as “tangible” and “intangible” heritage: however, there remains a lack of standardization across international lines. The article illuminates one of the great challenges facing cultural heritage preservationists and organizations such as UNESCO. How can one properly manage and sustain a World Heritage Site without understanding the type of heritage that it is, and therefore know what the needs of that particular heritage are? Aplin, Graeme. “Kakadu National Park World Heritage Site: Deconstructing the Debate, 1997-‐2003.” Australian Geographical Studies. 42 (2004): 152-‐174. Aplins's study discussed the ramifications and outcomes of the controversial occurrences that plagued the conservation efforts at the World Heritage Site. A uranium mine was to be placed on site according to the Australian government in an effort to create nuclear energy for Australia, however, local Aboriginal rights were disregarded since their home in on and near the park as were the environmental ramifications of such a project due to the radioactivity of the mine. This study demonstrated that World Heritage Site was willing to intervene and use all their resources to win the debate and stop the production of the mine due to the wide media coverage and large amount of debate and controversy of the subject. This protected their image and showed that they have the power to protect and conserve sites if pressed to do so, through widespread awareness.
66
“Asante Traditional Buildings.” WorldMonumentsFund.org. 28 April 2013. . This page on the World Monuments Fund website provides information about the Asante Traditional Buildings, and the ongoing conservation efforts. Overall, this page is valuable source of initial information about the site. The accompanying photographs on the page bring additional weight to the information. Also, it clearly indicates that this site is also on the World Heritage List, which is useful information for cross-‐examination of sources. Aref, Fariborz. “Barriers to Community Capacity Building for Tourism Development in Communities in Shiraz, Iran.” Journal of Sustainable Tourism. 19 (2011): 347-‐359. Community capacity building is a fundamental issue regarding tourism development. In his examination of Shiraz, Iran Aref conducts a survey of community leaders to reveal community capacity building to be essential to tourism development and lack thereof, a barrier to successful development. In many destinations, community members are limited as to their involvement in development which subsequently results in a multitude of the negative impacts associated with the tourism industry. Aref uses the illustrative example of Shiraz, Iran to make his case for the need of community capacity building at tourism destinations. His argument is both grounded in research and easy to follow. Aref builds upon current scholarship in an engaging way and provides a compelling viewpoint advocating for CCB as a means for tourism development. Badman, Tim, and Guy Debonnet. “The List of World Heritage in Danger.” Environmental Policy and Law. 39 (2009): 201-‐204. Badman and Debonnet's brief paper illustrates IUCN's 2009 report to the World Heritage Committee on how to improve the application of the List of World Heritage in Danger. This summary highlights the key challenges noted in the paper, and also details the recommendations provided. Though short, the content of this paper effectively explains the conclusions IUCN reached, and the recommendations are indicative of the ongoing issues with the World Heritage Program, namely the complete involvement of other stakeholders. Badman and Debonnet's recommendation for further analysis on the use of the List of World Heritage in Danger is valid but unexplored, as no methods of further analysis are explained.
67
Bartholet, Jeffrey. “How to Save the Taj Mahal?” SmithsonianMag.com. September 2011. Web. 28 April 2013. The article reflects on the debate over 350-‐year-‐old monument that now shows signs of distress from pollution and shoddy repairs. The author provides an overview of the reports from the Indian press that the latest government efforts to control pollution around the Taj are failing and that the gorgeous white marble is deteriorating—a possible casualty of India’s booming population, rapid economic expansion and lax environmental regulations. The criticisms are a measure of how important the complex is to India and the world, as a symbol of historical and cultural glory, and as an architectural marvel. If the symbolic power of the Taj can be harnessed to fight for a cleaner river, cleaner air and better living conditions, all the better. The Taj Mahal is a singular masterpiece that will likely be around for many years or even lifetimes to come, but which, despite best efforts, cannot last forever. Becker-‐Olsen, Karen, and Paul Ronald Hill. “The Impact of Sponsor Fit on Brand Equity: The Case of Nonprofit Service Providers.” Journal of Service Research. 9 (2006): 73-‐ 83. As the non-‐profit sector becomes increasingly competitive, it is critical for non-‐profit service organizations to become more brand centered and to differentiate themselves in the marketplace. The article shows that high-‐fit sponsorship programs between non-‐profit firms and business positively influence brand identity via broad associations and brand meaning, brand response, and brand relationships through specific associations. However, the authors state that low-‐fit sponsorship program are likely to hinder nonprofit brand management strategies by negatively affecting brand identity and brand knowledge. The article investigates the ability of corporate sponsorships to influence the value of nonprofit service brands. Corporate sponsorship was selected as the context for the research because for-‐profit companies have successfully leveraged their brands though sponsorships. While the article provides an insightful platform for consideration, it doesn’t address the diversity aspect of sponsorship relationships. Hence there are some gaps in the authors’ assessments. Bertacchini, Enrico, and Donatella Saccone. “Toward a Political Economy of World Heritage.” Journal of Cultural Economics. 36 (2012): 327-‐352. As the process of inscription of World Heritage Sites is based on selection criteria agreed by the Convention parties, this may be influenced by several factors, which 68
affect the World Heritage composition. This article analyzes the institutional and political determinations affecting World Heritage listings. Using panel data, the authors provide us with evidence on the existence of some crucial factors within the World Heritage system, which led to an unbalanced distribution of World Heritage Sites. Previous studies often focused on the economic nature of heritage goods. This study, however, paid particular attention to the role of the World Heritage List as a tourist attraction, and authors Bertacchini and Saccone explore determinations of potential biases behind the nomination and selection process of World Heritage Sites. This article is very useful for researchers interested in World Heritage Sites. It extends the knowledge about the conditions influencing the process of sites inscription. Bertacchini, Enrico, Donatella Saccone, and Walter Santagata. “Embracing Diversity, Correcting Inequalities: Towards a New Global Governance for the UNESCO World Heritage.” International Journal of Cultural Policy. 17 (2011): 278-‐288. This paper argues that the World Heritage List is imbalanced in terms of site conservation and resources used to evaluate. The authors propose three steps towards a policy change that would change the governance of the list, including: the implementation of a Preservation Tax, a better defined set of values and needs for each site by way of a ranking system, and the adoption of an economic valuation system that would address the regional imbalance of the World Heritage List. The paper adds, in a well-‐reasoned manner, to the existing literature on policy changes that could enhance and improve the management of the World Heritage List, particularly by proposing after-‐effects of such new policies. What the paper does not do, however, is consider the difficulties in changing World Heritage List policy; the omission of these limitation lessens the validity of the argument. Brattli, Terje. “Managing the Archaeological World Cultural Heritage: Consensus or Rhetoric?” Norwegian Archaeological Review. 42 (2009): 24-‐39. Through an “actor-‐network analysis,” this article concluded that the management of the cultural heritage contributes directly to how cultural heritage is defined by the organization or party in charge of said management. The results indicate that properly managing and understanding heritage in locations outside of the “Western” world is primarily a cursory exercise. Without a global understanding, cultural heritage will remain a “varnish” on preservation, lacking true meaning or impact. The implications of this article illustrate the challenge faced by cultural heritage managers and UNESCO alike. Without a standard definition of cultural heritage and
69
a standard plan to manage such a heritage site, and without recognition that the current standards account only for Western sites, all sites worldwide will suffer. Buckley, Ralf. “The Effects of World Heritage Listing on Tourism to Australian National Parks.” Journal of Sustainable Tourism. 12 (2004): 70-‐84. This study of Australian World Heritage Areas and the impact of designation on tourism numbers is one of many studies on the subject. With regard to the World Heritage 'brand,' the results of the study are inconclusive, as the Australian sites have too few data to measure sufficiently. With a caveat about the limitations in place, the study indicates that Australian World Heritage Areas receive more tourist traffic than so designated sites. The author's recommendation that UNESCO increase its data collection and analysis capacities is a solid one, as it is desperately needed. Where the author fails, however, is in recognizing that the World Heritage Program has a reporting program in place, though it remains reliant and is underused on self-‐reporting by sites. Buil, Isabel, Eva Martinez and Leslie de Chernatomy. “The Influence of Brand Equity on Consumer Responses” Journal of Consumer Marketing. 30 (2013): 62-‐74. Brand awareness and brand equity are important components to consumer purchasing patterns. Buil et al. explore brand value based on the above and find that brand awareness is the first necessary step in augmenting overall brand equity. Moreover, the scholars find that strong brand equity directly impacts the consumer’s willingness to pay a price premium for the brand. The study by Buil et al. helps lay the groundwork on which the recommendation in this paper is based. By increasing brand awareness, and thus brand equity, the UNESCO World Heritage Program will directly tap into a market of consumers with a higher willingness to pay a price premium for an experience with the brand. To the point, clear to read and engaging, Buil et. al represent a straightforward argument on the importance of brand equity. Burns, Willam C.G. "Belt and Suspenders? The World Heritage Convention’s Role in Confronting Climate Change." Review of European Community & International Environmental Law. 18 (2009): 148-‐163. Burns' study of how the World Heritage Program is currently addressing the issue of climate change, particularly as the issue relates to the List of World Heritage in Danger, and found that the issue is largely ignored. He suggests changes in the Operational Guidelines, policy, to remedy this.
70
This article was insightful in its call for acknowledgment of climate change as a crucial issue that impacts both natural and cultural heritage sites, but loses impact when it calls for policy change. Burns provides enough background into the bureaucracy of the WHP that he should have recognized this as a limitation.
Chhabra, Deepak. “Proposing a Sustainable Marketing Framework for Heritage Tourism.” Journal of Sustainable Tourism. 17 (2009): 303-‐320. Chhabra tested a new sustainable marketing protocol on 24 U.S. museums to determine if such a marketing model would be successful. Results showed that the majority of museums do not have marketing plans in the first place, and that they are hesitant to implement any sort of marketing strategy. Though limited by sample size, Chhabra's recommendation that museum staff be educated on the usefulness of marketing, for the long-‐term viability of the museum itself, is sound enough to call for further exploration. Chhabra, Deepak. Routledge Critical Studies in Tourism, Business and Management: Sustainable Marketing of Cultural and Heritage Tourism. Florence, KY: Routledge, 2010. Chhabra’s book is a comprehensive discussion on a niche topic. The book outlines the marketing of heritage tourism, how to implement sustainability within heritage tourism, case studies, and goes into the future of the topic. A key part of the text is a section on creating a “Strategic Sustainable Heritage Tourism Marketing Model.” The section discussing the marketing model is of the utmost importance, as it delves into critical success factors such as partnerships, local involvement, authenticity, and conservation. Chhabra explains how crucial it is to have all these aspects be a part of the marketing mix for cultural and heritage tourism, so that these sites can be properly marketed to visitors and stakeholders, and in a sustainable way. Chung, Jin Young, Gerard T. Kyle, James F. Petrick, and James D. Absher. “Fairness of Prices, User Fee Policy and Willingness to Pay among Visitors to a National Forest.” Tourism Management. 32 (2011): 1038-‐1046. This article examines the relationship between fairness of prices, user fees, and Willingness to Pay amongst tourists to the Chattahoochee National Park in the US. The researchers found that the tourists are more willing to support the fees if the money goes towards improving or maintaining the site and not necessarily developing new attractions. They also found that there was a low financial support amongst tourists for education compared to that of environmental protection and upkeep of facilities. They found that if place identity, or emotional attachment to the site, is strong then there will be a higher support for fee pricing even if they don’t 71
think the price is fair. they found that the higher the price fairness is, the more support the park has for fee spending which leads to a higher Willingness to Pay, if the public are informed on what their money is being spent on. This strong emotional attachment can be likened to the feeling of pride in World Heritage Sites on part of the locals and how tourists can too become emotionally tied to a site and therefore, wish to conserve it more and will pay more money to do so. The large sample size led to a low difference in the mean values of the results. The researchers could use a smaller sample size in the future to get more accurate results. They do suggest some interesting topics for future research, such as studying AP (appropriate pricing) versus Willingness to Pay in that it could provide further practical implications in the research and the industry. This could be applied to World Heritage Sites and how they can implement Willingness to Pay strategies as well as AP strategies for World Heritage Sites in terms of conservation efforts. Connolly, Kate, and et al. "Bridge Takes Dresden Off UNESCO World Heritage List." The Guardian, Online ed. 25 June 2009. Web. . This newspaper report on the de-‐listing of the Dresden Elbe valley summarizes the back and forth that occurred between the World Heritage Committee and the local government which, for reasons of infrastructure, needed to build a bridge to ease traffic issues. The highlight of the article is the result of a poll that showed that a majority of Dresden city residents did not care if the city was de-‐listed, despite the alleged cost. It emphasizes the World Heritage Committee's lack of relevance when juxtaposed with the everyday needs of a local government. “Consumer Group Wants Private Colosseum Restoration Halted”. www.ansa.it. 29 April 2013. . This newspaper reports on the legal complain of a consumer group against the 25 million euro renovation plan for the Colosseum that the shoe company Tod’s is sponsoring. The group claims lack of transparency on the bidding process and demand a new bidding process than it believes it can bring up to ten times more resources. This article shows how a good initiative of partnership for conservation can bring problems with the community if the process lacks transparency. Even though the
72
final result for this case is open, this could bring serious image problems to the brand. "Coro and Its Port.” whc.UNESCO.org. 28 April 2013. . This page is the World Heritage Program's full and thorough physical description of this site, the historical description, and other facts. The presentation is academic, the text not easily digestible, the layout (a giant wall of text) visually unstimulating. Creotivo. 27 April 2013. http://www.creotivo.com/blog/infographic-‐100-‐social-‐ networking-‐statistics-‐facts-‐for-‐2012/ This blog post by brand developer Creotivo presents a compilation of social networking statistics for 2012 in the form of an infographic. The statistics were compiled via data from 18 reputed social media research webpages. The infographic presents compelling data in a visually appealing form. Without getting caught in blocks of text, the data is easy to decipher comprehend and link together. The infographic makes a strong impact on the reader. “Current Projects.” Globalheritagefund.org. 28 April 2013. . This page on the Global Heritage Fund website provides an entry point into exploration of the organization's current conservation and preservation projects. The sidebars allow for easy navigation to other parts of the website, including information about other conservation projects. This page in particular is visually stimulating and easy to navigate. The quality of the photography is beautiful, there is social media interfacing, and user-‐friendly menus to direct web surfers where to look next. “Customize Donation Page.” JustGive.org. 28 April 2013. . This part of JustGive.org's website provides detailed information on how a non-‐ profit organization can use JustGive.org's services to improve their donation process and motivate donors and potential donors to give. This site is simple and easy to read, with clear and concise bullet points to illustrate all of the advantages that a partnership with JustGive.org can provide.
73
Dearborn, Lynne Marie, and John Charles Stallmeyer. “Re-‐Visiting Luang Prabang: Transformations Under the Influence of World Heritage Designation.” Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change. 7 (2009): 247-‐269. This article evaluated the impact of a World Heritage Designation on the city of Luang Prabang, Laos, from the influx of tourists to the changes in the constructed (i.e. non-‐nature-‐based) environment. Through observation of tourists and residents, and examination of photographs and other documents, the authors concluded that despite the regulations in place, Luang Prabang has an imbalanced heritage narrative. Certain aspects of the site's history are more valued than others, and the cultural landscape of the city is now one that exists solely for tourists. Luang Prabang serves as a prime example of how poor management can result in a degradation of a site or city's quality from not just an environmental perspective, but from a socio-‐economic and sociocultural perspective. UNESCO sites must have sustainable management plans, or else the value of the site will continue to deteriorate. The Luang Prabang case study stands as an example of what not to do. De Cesari, C. “World Heritage and Mosaic Universalism: A View from Palestine.” Journal of Social Archeology. 10 (2010): 299-‐324. In this article author De Cesari studies UNESCO’s worldwide cultural heritage preservation program through ethnographic and textual examination. The Author argues that World Heritage has been shaped by contemporary political discourses centered on the negotiation and management of cultural diversity, from assimilation to multiculturalism. After thorough analysis, the article concludes that some reforms in world heritage have inspired mosaic or liberal multiculturalism; however this way of seeing and managing cultural differences tends to effect a reification of dynamic cultural process. Moreover, it fails not only to affirm and solidify differences, but asymmetries between world heritage sites as well. This article clearly adds new layers in the knowledge of world heritage subject, especially by investigating globalization of heritage in the form of World Heritage. It provides very interesting insights about established multifaceted relationship between heritage and the nation state. Dewar, Keith, Hilary du Cros, and Wenmei Li. “The Search for World Heritage Brand Awareness Beyond the Iconic Heritage: A Case Study of the Historic Centre of Macao.” Journal of Heritage Tourism. 7 (2012): 323-‐339. Dewar et al. study UNESCO World Heritage Program brand awareness at the Historic Centre of Macao. It is generally assumed by many that the UNESCO World Heritage Program represents a robust global brand. In their study, Dewar et al. challenge this claim. Their results reveal low levels of awareness and understanding of the 74
significance of designation, demonstrating the weakness of the Program and a strong and recognizable global brand. The findings of Dewar et al. strengthen the argument that the UNESCO World Heritage Program is in fact, a weak and not widely recognizable brand. Though the article wavered towards technical side, and the language used was at times cumbersome, the findings and argument of the study were easy to comprehend. Dickinson, Sonia and Alison Barker. “Evaluation of Branding Alliances Between Non-‐ profit and Commercial Brand Partners: The Transfer of Affect.” International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing. 12 (2007): 75-‐89. Dickinson and Barker’s article examines growing interest in the trend towards co branding alliances between non-‐profit and commercial entities, which aim to transfer associations and affect between each brand partners. The authors support the notion that both commercial entities and non-‐profit organizations can benefit from branding alliances, however the criteria of a successful partnerships still needs to be defined. The article provides evidence that while collaboration is important and has potential benefit for each partner – there is a reliance on partner selection and fit between alliance partners. While the corporate entities can transfer original brand attitude from a partner to their own brand which is a more economical way of managing brand knowledge, at the same time the non-‐profit brand knowledge structures usually have higher levels of trust and confidence that can be transferred to the commercial entity. From the non-‐profit entity’s perspective, branding alliances are also beneficial as they are cost-‐effective particularly with marketing expenditures and revenue enhancement. The authors suggest that the measure of an impact the brand alliance can produce is ultimately the spillover effect. While the article brings some valid points, there is definitely a need for further research as the knowledge related to branding alliances between non-‐profit and commercial entities is quite limited. Dixon, M. “ Small and Medium-‐Sized Charities Need a Strong Brand Too: Crisis Experience.” Journal of Nonprofit and Volunteer Sector Marketing. 2.1 (1997): 52-‐ 57. This paper examined the benefits and constraints in developing process of a strong brand image and identity for smaller charities. Research focused on a medium sized charity “Crisis” for 18 months between 1996-‐1997. The author concluded that clear organizational values and messages were first priority in the process of building brand identity. The involvement of all stakeholders, from junior staff member to senior management team, is vital in this process. Market research and consistent exploration of new opportunities for branding also play very important role.
75
The merit of this paper is that it provided very specific recommendations on building brand and identity for non-‐profits when these organizations were still an emerging sector of modern society. “Donate.” DoctorsWithoutBorders.org. 28 April 2013. . The Doctors Without Borders donation website allows donors to clearly see: why the money is important, where the money goes, what each donation amount can pay for, and ways donations can be made. The donation process is completely transparent. The site is simple and yet detailed enough to provide everything that a non-‐profit organization should provide in order to entice donors to give. “Donate.” PencilsofPromise.org. 28 April 2013. . This organization's donation website makes donation simple, in three easy steps. First, a donor declares how much he or she would like to give. Second, the donor chooses between “one time only,” “monthly,” or “annually.” Third, the donor chooses a payment method from either PayPal or a major credit card. The site also notes how the money will be used. The site is almost too simple in how little information it provides. It seems to make an assumption that any person who is viewing the page already knows about the organization and its mission, all of which is elsewhere on the website. That said, the donation process could not be simpler, which is an effective strategy. “Donate Funds.” RedCross.org. 28 April 2013. . This area of the Red Cross website acts as a gateway to the donation portal, where donors can indicate the amount they wish to give, where they have the option to make a monthly donation or a memorial donation, and where they can elect to have their billing information saved for future giving purposes. The gateway page also provides links to other means of donation or fundraising, including by the U.S. Postal Service. This webpage provides few details about the organization, which could mean that the organization is assuming that any visitor to the page already knows about its work and mission. That said, the process is straightforward and easy to navigate, and would not likely detract any potential donor from giving. 76
Donohoe, Holly M. "Sustainable Heritage Tourism Marketing and Canada's Rideau Canal World Heritage Site." Journal of Sustainable Tourism. 20 (2012): 121-‐142. Donohoe's case study of a Canadian World Heritage Site found that a sustainable marketing plan can succeed if it contains including community involvement and partnerships. She found that a sustainable marketing plan improves awareness of the World Heritage Program, a sense of community pride, improved fundraising for preservation activities, and increased awareness of the environmental issues surrounding the site. This study adds to current marketing literature by focusing on the new concept of sustainable marketing. Using one World Heritage Site as a case study gave the research a focus and clarity, and replicating the research in future studies would assess the validity of the results. Faircloth, J.B. “Factors Influencing Nonprofit Resource Provider Support Decisions: Applying the Brand Equity Concept to Nonprofits.” Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice. 13 (2005): 1-‐15. The purpose of the research was to extend brand equity concepts developed in the for-‐profit sector to a nonprofit setting; to demonstrate the importance of measuring and distinguishing the antecedent factors of brand equity which influence biased resource provider support for the nonprofit; and to suggest preliminary application of findings to nonprofit marketing practices. This study was the first reported research to empirically apply the brand equity construct to the nonprofit sector and examined antecedent factors which influenced increasingly constrained resource providers to behave in a biased manner to nonprofits when controlling for an individual's internal altruistic tendency to volunteer. This research provided two contributions to the extant branding and brand equity literature. First it demonstrated antecedents and their dimensions that influence resource providers based on brand equity. Secondly, it empirically applied brand equity and its antecedents in the nonprofit literature. Despite the limitation that this study looked at only specific nonprofit organizations, which was not necessarily representative of all non-‐profits, it had practical managerial implications back in 2005 and opened the avenues for future research. Facebook. Instagram (Version 3.5.1): 2012. Mobile Application Software 28 April 2013. The Instagram platform is an image sharing network comprised of over 1 billion photographs. Users can follow other users or search for specific images via hashtag. However, as the digital image library is constantly expanding, generating data that is consistent one day to the next is difficult. 77
The digital application is easy to navigate and perform search queries on. Fang Han, Zhaoping Yang, Hui Wang, and Xiaoliang Xu. "Estimating WTP for Environmental Conservation: A Contingent Valuation Study of Kanas Nature Reserve, Xinjiang, China.” Environmental Monit Assess. 180 (2011): 451-‐459. This article examines the Willingness to Pay of the public when visiting the Kanas Nature Reserve in China. The study showed tourists tended to demonstrate more Willingness to Pay for environmental conservation of the biodiversity, ecosystems and cultures in this reserve once they know that that is what their donations are going towards. It also suggested that there should be conservation fund that is supervised by the public for environmental conservation and ensures that the money goes towards conservation and nothing else. They also suggest the implementation of interpretation programs to enhance the importance of the resources, and the awareness and education of the tourists by the locals, which cause the public to be more invested in giving money towards conservation. This article claims that it produces results that can and should be used by policy makers since they collected their data and analyzed their results with the widely accepted CVM model. The idea that tourists will be more willing to pay for conservation efforts once they know exactly what their money is going towards, adds to the idea that more awareness and education will lead to more money for conservation at World Heritage Sites. “Five World Heritage Sites in Danger, Plus Two Successes” NationalGeographic.com 28 April 2013. . National Geographic’s website featured a short article discussing some of the sites on the List in Danger. The five sites at risk discussed consist of: Timbuktu, Mali; Church of the Nativity, West Bank; Liverpool Maritime Mercantile, U.K.; Portobelo, Panama; and the Tomb of Askia, Mali. The two sites that have been removed from the List of World Heritage in Danger, which is very rare, are the Shalimar Gardens in Pakistan and the Rice Terraces in the Philippines. This article is very short and simple, but very helpful for presenting a visual for sites that are at great risk. It breaks it down to easy to understand concepts, such as how urban redevelopment, specifically a site that was just approved, are threatening Liverpool’s historic docklands. It is limited in that it is just a surface level representation, and it only discusses five sites that are in danger, and two “success” stories. 78
Francioni, F., and F. Lenzerini. “The 1972 World Heritage Convention: A Commentary.” Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008. The topic of the conservation of the world cultural and natural heritage has been important to academia and industry practitioners since its approval in 1972. The 1972 World Heritage Convention: A Commentary, book edited by Francesco Francioni (European University Institute), with Federico Lenzerini (University of Siena), is the first commentary book to this instrument ever published. The book is divided into four parts: It opens with an introduction to significance and impact of the World Heritage Convention, by the book’s lead editor, Francesco Francioni. Second part is the actual commentary to the Convention; the third is the relationship of the Convention with other systems of heritage protection; and the fourth is the conclusions. Appendixes containing key documents for a better reading of the book follow. In this book authors are analysing world heritage convention within the context of heritage preservation law. They also argue that international instruments while they must be understood in the light of certain concepts, must be also be applied in depth, but without losing touch with general structure of international law. This book is a very good examination of such a multi-‐dimensional and complex international system as World Heritage Convention. It offers valuable insights into the World Heritage Convention and its operation, bringing together contributors from several areas of the world, both academics and practitioners. Frey, Bruno S. and Paolo Pamini. “Making World Heritage Truly Global: The Culture Certificate Scheme.” Oxonomics. 4 (2009): 1-‐9. Frey and Pamini’s study discuss the interactions between stakeholders in tourism and the environment and how low preservation is at sites. They find that management is low and bad because funds are low. They discuss the poor distribution of funds through the WHF and the WHC to sites and how “Eurocentric” the process is. They suggest having the richer countries pay to support the poorer countries who wish to be on the list and need to be in order to save their cultural and natural heritage. They suggest that there needs to be a global agreement on what should be conserved and how a WHU (unit) system and well as certification can increase funds and therefore conservation at World Heritage Sites. Frey and Pamini’s study demonstrated great suggestions for improving funding and increasing awareness in conservation at World Heritage Sites and potential World Heritage Sites. They analyzed and criticized the political feasibility of implementing such strategies, which demonstrated the large amount of bureaucracy that takes place at the sites and how unfeasible it is to try and change that. Instead implementing marketing and funding strategies like these to increase brand awareness for WH Sites would increase funds and therefore conservation efforts. 79
Frey, Bruno S., and Lasse Steiner. “World Heritage List: Does It Make Sense?” International Journal of Cultural Policy. 17 (2011): 555-‐573. Through a literary analysis of the UNESCO charter, and other scholarly work on the UNESCO regulations, this article presents positive and negative effects of World Heritage designations, and argues that a definitive conclusion of UNESCO's effectiveness on a site is unnecessary. Instead the authors argue that the World Heritage List is more beneficial to sites that do not have the resources to conserve, whereas regional and national heritage lists are more likely to benefit sites that are already well-‐visited and marketable, and also where a UNESCO designation would not invoke mass, destructive tourism. Their study showed that there is a need and want for education and awareness that can be achieved through marketing initiatives and funding programs such as certification for sites. This should increase awareness and therefore knowledge of conservation management at the sites. While the article makes a clear and concise presentation of the positive and negative effects of UNESCO designation on a site, the argument that such a designation is more beneficial to a site without resources raises a few eyebrows. Still, it reflects a contrary view, and should be considered in a complete analysis of the issue of UNESCO designation and its impact on the site and surrounding community. “Funding.” whc.UNESCO.org. 24 February 2013. . Without funding, the process of World Heritage preservation and protection could not be achieved. This page discloses the ways in which UNESCO makes and distributes money for specific projects. While not the most thorough explanation of the funding process, this page does provide insight into where funding comes and goes, and how it is allocated. Fyall, Alan, Brian Garrod, and Anna Leask. Managing Visitor Attractions: New Directions. Oxford: Elsevier, 2003. In contrast to some of their other publications, this book by Fyall and Leask (along with Garrod) tackles visitor attractions as a whole, and not just heritage or sensitive attractions. However, there is a section devoted to World Heritage Sites here. The authors cover the nature of attractions, development of attractions, management, marketing, and future trends. When it comes to attractions and marketing, Fyall and Leask seem to be the experts. One drawback of this text is its publication date, but it still contains relative information on the subject matter for this white paper. This text is especially useful 80
in discussing world heritage attractions in the context of brand management and marketing. Galis, Allan. “UNESCO Documents and Procedure: The Need to Account for Political Conflict When Designating World Heritage Sites.” Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law. 38 (2009): 205-‐235. Through an explanation of the World Heritage List nomination and designation process, and several compelling examples of sites in conflict (in Cambodia/Thailand, Japan, Israel/Palestine, and Democratic Republic of the Congo), the author depicts sites in danger not from poor management or lack of conservation, but from strife within the country nominating said sites. The author's intent was to call for an increased consideration of political circumstances when selecting World Heritage Sites, and his understanding of the development and evolution of the policies and procedures surrounding the World Heritage List add strong support to his argument. His suggestions for procedural improvement are well argued and reasonable, yet his calls for change and transparency do not account for the inherent political wrangling it would take to do so. Gillespie, Josephine. “World Heritage Management: Boundary -‐ Making at Angkor Archaeological Park, Cambodia.” Journal of Environmental Planning and Management. 56 (2012): 286-‐304. Gillespie explored the gaps in education on conservation and site management on the local level as well as the World Heritage Committee's poor communication and designation skills in making boundaries for the archaeological site clear for the professionals and locals who work and live there. Her study showed that those who worked closely on the designation and site-‐management team had a greater understanding of where the boundaries were as well as what to conserve and protect at the site. The study proved effective in demonstrating the educational and awareness gaps between the political and local entities at Angkor and how it can affect conservation efforts at the site and the livelihoods of the people who live and work there. There needs to be an all-‐round knowledge of where the site’s jurisdiction is so that people living on or near the site know the rules for living and working there as well as the tourists so that they don’t invade the privacy of the local communities when visiting the site. 81
Gilmore, Audrey, David Carson, and Mário Ascenção. “Sustainable Tourism Marketing at a World Heritage Site.” Journal of Strategic Marketing. 15 (2007): 253-‐264. This study of marketing at the Giant's Causeway World Heritage Site in Northern Ireland revealed that site managers and other stakeholders demonstrated a lack of understanding how to use marketing, and particularly, sustainable tourism marketing, effectively. The study adds to the body of research on sustainable tourism, sustainable tourism marketing, and how both could be used at a World Heritage Site. Using one World Heritage Site as a case study gave the research a focus and clarity, and replicating the research in future studies would assess the validity of the results. “Global Strategy.” whc.UNESCO.org. 24 February 2013. . The Global Strategy was launched in 1994 to balance out the spread of World Heritage Sites across the globe. This site describes in detail the process by which this strategy was conceived and adopted, its on-‐going exercises to maintain the integrity of the strategy, and provides links to other study results, meetings, and internal progress reports. The information on this page is clear and insightful, providing a base with which one can begin to explore the criteria for designation and the nomination process. Goodwin, Dr. Edward J. "The World Heritage Convention, the Environment, and Compliance." Colorado Journal of International Environmental Law and Policy. 20 (2009): 157-‐198. Dr. Goodwin's comparative analysis revealed that the World Heritage Committee does not employ non-‐compliance techniques when States Party members fail to adhere to the guidelines and mission of the World Heritage Program. Dr. Goodwin's primary suggestion seems to be for the World Heritage Committee to act. Simply that. He makes little concession for the fact that the World Heritage Program, while governed by the Committee of only 21 individuals, every member of the General Assembly has a voice. Recommending that the World Heritage Committee take action without input or consultation with the sovereign voices of the States Parties only borrows trouble for the future.
82
Gross, Michael. “Fears Over New Galapagos Status.” Current Biology. 20 (2010): R656-‐ R657. Gross' short article on the loss of Galapagos' place on the List of World Heritage in Danger brings to light the educational gaps between the World Heritage Committee and the industry as well as governments on what being added and removed from the List of World Heritage in Danger really means. Educational gaps in labeling, designation and branding presents significant challenges for the World Heritage Committee and the World Heritage Program in managing sites and thoroughly protecting and preserving the sites. If there is a lack of awareness and education in branding, it can lead to the lack of conservation efforts and eventual de-‐valuation of World Heritage Sites. Gunn, Clare A., and Turgut Var. Tourism Planning. New York City: Routledge Taylor and Francis Group, 2002. This book was used in the Tourism Planning course as a textbook and provides a lot of information on quality tourism planning and practices that benefit all stakeholders on the economic, environmental and cultural level through the minimizing of negative impacts in these areas as well as maximizing the benefits for these areas in the region through long-‐term, cooperative tourism development planning. This book proves to have helpful general information, statistics, practices, principles and theories that are brought about through case studies as well as general literature. Hall, Michael C. and Rachel Piggin. “Tourism Business Knowledge of World Heritage Sites: A New Zealand Case Study.” International Journal of Tourism Research. 4 (2002): 401-‐411. The seminal study by Hall and Piggin points out that the UNESCO World Heritage Site is in fact, not as strong a brand as it was assumed to be. In the communities surrounding two World Heritage Sites in New Zealand, few businesses and locals knew that the areas were designated as World Heritage Sites, what World Heritage Site status meant, and how to use World Heritage Site status as a means of promotion. The study demonstrates significant gaps in the ability of the organization to convey its message at the simplest level-‐ to the stakeholders directly involved in the sites. The study exemplifies the need of the UNESCO World Heritage Program to strengthen the brand and market, not only to potential tourists, but inwardly to stakeholders as well.
83
Hall and Piggin present an eye-‐opening argument and a new view onto a notion most assumed to be true. The resulting study is engaging, well written and well argued. Handwerk, Brian. “Injections Could Lift Venice 12 Inches, Study Suggests.” NationalGeographic.com, 12 January 2012. Web. 28 April 2013. This article discusses the problem of rising waters in Venice, and the proposal to inject seawater underneath the natural foundation of the city and raise it up. Handwerk goes on to discuss other locations where this practice has been done; he also presents the local stakeholder viewpoint that the flooding is part of the attraction to Venice, and that to locals, the flooding is not a problem. The article presents a full picture of the situation in Venice and what solutions are being proposed to reverse the damage. Hankinson, Graham. “Managing Destination Brands: Establishing a Theoretical Foundation.” Journal of Marketing Management. 25 (2009): 97-‐115. This study proposed the development of a destination branding theory, to complement the theory and practice of destination marketing. Hankinson conducted both a literature review and a series of interviews with Senior Managers from Destination Marketing Organizations, and found five tactics that cause successful destination branding: stakeholder partnerships, brand leadership, departmental coordination, brand communications. The study was limited due to sample size, but it added to the existing literature on the topic, of which there was currently little. Nevertheless, the findings were clear and well presented, and are worth further study. Hankinson P. and W. Lomax. “The Effects of Re-‐branding Large UK charities on Staff Knowledge, Attitudes and Behavior.” International Journal of Nonprofits and Voluntary Sector Marketing. 11 (2006): 193-‐207. This study conducted survey of 465 charity staff in 10 large UK charities in 2006 for the purpose of addressing a knowledge gap by evaluating the effects of re-‐branding large UK charities on staff knowledge, attitudes and behavior. The study found that the impact of re-‐branding had a positive effect on staff knowledge and attitudes all levels, making them feeling more motivated, involved and valued as a consequence. However, the study also demonstrated that not all staff feels engaged with the re-‐ branding process for the organization to capitalize fully on enhanced staff performance.
84
Despite the fact that results of this study based on 10 UK charities, this study provided very a detailed examination of whether and how rebranding affects charity staff in terms of knowledge, attitudes and behavior. The study was important, first, because staff play a pivotal role in the successful delivery of its services. Second, staffs perform a vital part in creating and managing the external image. Third, because rebranding provides staff with an opportunity to re-‐evaluate the organizational focus and scope against a background of change.
Hart, Ted, James M. Greenfield, Steve MacLaughlin, and Philip H. Geier, Jr. Internet for Nonprofits Management -‐ Strategies, Tools and Trade Secrets. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2010. This book is a comprehensive discussion on how new technologies can be used effectively by nonprofit organizations. The book presents, through several case studies and chapter written by leading internet professionals, strategies and tools for nonprofit to manage their social media and web sites to better their internal operations as well as the communications with their members and the community. Volunteer recruitment, donor modeling, website design, and mobile technology are some of the areas discussed in this book. This text is an important contribution on social media and Internet, in a field with limited scholar research. The concepts discussed in this book represent an important contribution to how Internet can generate an impact on nonprofit organizations. Harvey, J. “Benefit Segmentation for Fund Raisers.” Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science. 18 (1990): 77-‐86. The author examined the applicability of benefit segmentation to gift giving behavior in American philanthropy. Particular attention was paid to the Third Independent sector, which had become very important part of American society in 80’s and 90’s. The results of this study had practical implications for managers in third sector, suggesting that the essential element to improving the fundraising effectiveness of nonprofits is to tailor strategies to different markets. The author also concluded that both donor and community based socio-‐economic characteristics were important descriptors of these strategies. The study provided good insights in understanding the charitable exchange by examining the benefits underling such transactions, and about the development of the non-‐profit sector and its fundraising strategies in the 1980’s and 1990’s in America.
85
“Historical Monuments of Mtskheta.” whc.UNESCO.org. 28 April 2013. . This page is the World Heritage Program's full and thorough physical description of this site, the historical description, and other facts. The presentation is academic, the text not easily digestible, the layout (a giant wall of text) visually unstimulating. There are no links to other external sources about the monument, and the links to information about the ancient monuments of Georgia, and the Parliament of Georgia are missing. Honigman, Brian. "100 Fascinating Social Media Statistics and Figures From 2012." The Huffington Post. TheHuffingtonPost.com, 29 Nov. 2012. Web. 28 Apr. 2013. . Honigman’s article compiles 100 statistics for social media networks including Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, Pinterest and Google+. The statistics highlight the growing public reliance on the social media networks and suggests this trend is one that will continue. The compilation by Honigman is divided by social media platform and accordingly very easy to decipher and read. The statistics presented are interesting, thought provoking, and relevant to the current consumer landscape. Hou, J., L. Du, and Z. Tian. “The Effects of Nonprofit Brand Equity on Individual Giving Intention: Mediating by the Self-‐Concept of Individual Donor.” International Journal of Non-‐Profit Sector Marketing. 14 (2009): 215-‐229. Non-‐profit organization usually rely more on individual donors and less on the government for funding. This articles studies effects of nonprofit organizational brand equity and individual self-‐concept on individual giving intention. Authors collected 393 valid samples in China. This article is useful for practitioners and researchers by extending our knowledge of individual giving intention and self-‐ concept of individual donor. Findings of this research has reveled influences of brand personality, brand image, and brand awareness of the nonprofit organization has positive direct impact on individual giving intention. Practical implicating of this research is that it suggests the relevance of the brand equity construct as a tool for managers in nonprofit organizations coping with scarce resources. Despite that this research provided useful insights in the examined subject, it still has some limitations. The research was conducted in China; therefore, it is difficult to generalize the results because traditional culture, utilitarianism and other factors tend to influence individuals giving behavior. Additionally, there are many different kinds of nonprofits 86
and their mission and values are also different, this difference can also influence donor preferences. HubSpot. “The 2012 State of Inbound Marketing: 2012 Report on Inbound Marketing Practices and Trends.” 4 (2012): 1-‐42. This survey conducted by inbound marketing specialists HubSpot analyzed the responses of 972 business professionals to determine the current state of marketing practices. The study found that the trend in marketing is going towards the use of inbound strategies, which are both more effective in reach and cost. Additionally, the study determined that social media has become the most important in bound marketing technique for businesses, as the various networks generate the most new customer leads. The data presented in the report was straightforward, fascinating and engaging. The use of simple text combined with visually compelling infographics communicated hundreds of statistics in an easy to comprehend manner. HubSpot. “The 2013 State of Inbound Marketing: HubSpot’s Fifth Annual Review of Inbound Marketing Trends and Tactics.” 5 (2013): 1-‐175. The fifth Annual Report by HubSpot on the state of inbound marketing revealed the trends towards inbound techniques are continually growing at a rapid rate. Not only are more businesses using inbound marketing strategies for promotion, the reliance on these techniques within businesses is expanding as well. The high return on investment from these strategies is the reason behind the fast growth of inbound marketing programs. The study includes data received from over 3,300 international “executives, business owners, and marketers”. As with the 2012 report, this review of inbound marketing was presented clearly through interesting facts and statistics, laid out clearly through simple text and engaging graphics. Ingenhoff, Diana, and A. Martina Koelling. “The Potential of Web Sites as a Relationship Building Tool for Charitable Fundraising NPOs.” Public Relations Review. 35 (2009): 66-‐73. This paper examines the potential of Websites and online communication tools to help nonprofit organizations to achieve a two-‐way communication with their contributors. The research method investigated, via content analysis, 134 Swiss nonprofit organizations. Findings showed that the potential of the internet to generate dialogic communications was not used properly. Organizations are not using chat room, forums, surveys or other tools to generate communication.
87
However, organizations were aware of the need to better communicate as they were replying requests from potential donors or media. This study is an important contribution for the topic of two-‐way communication with potential donors. The main concept of generating dialogic communication is very important for all type of organizations. Although the author does not mention social media as one of the communication tools, this can be explained by smaller use of these tools in 2007 (when the research was implemented). However social media clearly appears as one of the answers for the communication problem stated in this study. Ingenhoff, Diana, and A. Martina Koelling. “Web Sites as a Dialogic Tool for Charitable Fundraising NPOs: A Comparative Study.” International Journal of Strategic Communication. 4 (2010): 171-‐188. This paper studies how nonprofit organizations (often with a limited budget) can use their websites strategically to communicate with their stakeholders. The authors analyzed how charitable fundraising in Germany and Switzerland used their websites for dialogic communications with donors and media. Findings showed that while nonprofit organizations provided well-‐designed websites, they were failing to engage the public in dialogue. New trends such as blogs or podcast were not being implemented. Additionally the study shows that donors were being addressed with the information in the websites but not the media. This paper presents a broad study in Switzerland and Germany about nonprofit organizations’ websites. Lack of dialogic communication is founded in both countries. Additionally, little information to media is presented as one of the aspect to improve. Podcasts and blogs are presented as alternative for improving communication. It is possible to conclude that social media would have been the next most likely recommendation. “International Assistance.” whc.UNESCO.org. 24 February 2013. . As a crucial part of the funding process, UNESCO makes available emergency assistance to those sites and State Parties who request it. This page provides a brief explanation of the process, and provides links to additional information and the application process. The entry page merely provides an overview on the application process, but it is transparent in the fact that it is only a portal, and the links to the additional information are clear and visible. Interviewee A. Personal Interview (Semi-‐Structured). 19 March 2013. 88
Interviewee A is a high-‐level staff member at the UNESCO World Heritage Center. He provided detailed background information about the nomination and designation process, and indicated that designation process was not only about identifying the “Outstanding Universal Value” of a potential site, but about developing a comprehensive management plan. Interviewee A stated that while the World Heritage Convention is best global strategy for sustainable development at heritage sites, balancing conservation efforts among all 962 sites on the World Heritage List is a challenge. Cultural differences and the infeasibility of a one-‐size-‐fits-‐all approach are key setbacks. He also acknowledged that changing policy is a long and cumbersome process due to having the sovereign parties ratify any changes. Interviewee A also emphasized that one of the biggest challenges facing the World Heritage Program is a lack of financial resources, particularly as the World Heritage List grows so rapidly. Interviewee A demonstrated reserve at the beginning of the interview, but over the course of the 45 minutes, he became more relaxed with the research team and opened up to answer the questions actively and in an engaged manner. Interviewee B. Personal Interview (Scoping). 10 April 2013. This interview was with an expert in hospitality and destination branding and marketing. As a scoping interview, Interviewee B provided background on this area of expertise. A key part of the interview was the discussion of the struggle of World Heritage Sites and other cultural destinations, between tourism and conservation, and balancing on that fine line. The interviewee is an expert in their field, but is less familiar with UNESCO and World Heritage Sites. They provided some insight into how to approach the complicated issue of advising the body of UNESCO’s World Heritage Convention, but since they have not worked with an “intra-‐national” body such as this, they admitted that their knowledge was somewhat limited. Interviewee C. Personal Interview (Scoping). 5 April 2013. Interviewee C is a hospitality and tourism marketing expert who discussed at length her experience in the industry, and shared her expertise in branding both destinations and specific tourism entities. She offered suggestions about how the World Heritage Program can engage in marketing, and specifically modern marketing techniques such as social media interaction, to promote the Program and educate the public at large about the meaning of World Heritage Site designation.
89
Interviewee C was candid about her lack of understanding of the World Heritage Program, and was emphatic that “it has to mean something.” Her candor was tremendously valuable, and her suggested tactics and courses of action were sound. Interviewee D. Personal Interview (Semi-‐Structured). 21 March 2013. Interviewee D is a respected expert in Tourism Development, who agreed to an interview where she discussed the importance of awareness of the World Heritage Program and how many global citizens do not know anything about the Program, the mission of the Program, and what they – the citizens – themselves can do to aid in conservation efforts. She discussed the importance of social media strategies and how creating one could help the World Heritage Program to increase awareness of the Program and educate stakeholders about the mission and why that mission is important. The subject articulated her opinions and recommendations in a manner that was as candid as it was engaging, and based on her experiences with her clients from around the world. Interviewee E. Personal Interview (Semi-‐Structured). 11 March 2013. Interviewee E is an academic professional with real-‐world experience as a tourism development consultant who spoke about the implementation of education and capacity-‐building programs. Education and capacity-‐building programs allow local communities and citizens to be more involved and educated in tourism management and conservation at the sites. The subject also discussed how there is a lack of awareness and understanding of the purpose of the World Heritage Program on a global level. The subject was passionate and comfortable with the interview team. She was engaging and candid and provided many insights and well-‐articulated suggestions that allowed the research team to shift its focus towards marketing in order to increase awareness of the World Heritage Program, which would in turn enable more community engagement and involvement with local heritage. Interviewee F. Personal Interview (Semi-‐Structured). 12 March 2013. Interviewee F is an expert in the field of heritage conservation and preservation. Despite over three decades of experience, he admitted to a lack of understanding of the World Heritage Program. He discussed openly his opinion on the Program from his pseudo-‐outsider's perspective which, despite what he indicated he believed, was reflective of many findings related to lack of awareness of and education about the World Heritage Program.
90
Interviewee F was guarded and lacked confidence in his ability to discuss the World Heritage Program. While he was vocally forceful and candid in his call for more transparency as to what the Program means, how it operates, and why the Program matters, his body language reflected an apologetic state, as if he were fearful of being quoted publicly, despite being aware that he could remain anonymous. Once off the record at the end of the scripted interview, he became even more candid. “Introducing UNESCO: What We Are.” UNESCO.org. 24 February 2013. . This page summarizes UNESCO's mission and goals for global dialogue and peace for all. Links are provided to specific information about UNESCO's broader program (outside of World Heritage Sites). Because UNESCO is not solely World Heritage preservation, it is important to understand the greater breadth of their policies, and the layout of the links are clear and easily navigable. However, the contrast between the UNESCO website and that of the World Heritage Program is striking in terms of navigability, layout, and overall clarity. Jacobsen, Jens Kr. Steen and Ana Maria Munar. “Tourist Information Search and Destination Choice in a Digital Age” Tourism Management Perspectives. 1 (2012): 39-‐47. Jacobsen and Munar study the impacts of digital information on destination choice specifically to Majorca. Through self-‐reported data collected via questionnaire, the researchers found there to be a high reliance on the Internet as a source of destination information as well as a critical importance on word-‐of-‐mouth knowledge. Though the study was boring to read, the information the article contains is important for studies in the contemporary, digital age. Jimura, Takamitsu. “The Impact of World Heritage Site Designation on Local Communities -‐ A Case Study of Ogimachi, Shirakawa-‐mura, Japan.” Tourism Management. 32 (2011): 288-‐296. Jimura’s study focused on the good and bad conservation efforts taking place at this particular World Heritage Site in Japan. He found that the people wanted to target to a specific group of tourist, namely domestic, to decrease traffic to the site since it had grown after being designated a World Heritage Site. They did not know how to engage in target marketing, however, and the political bodies demonstrated poor communication with the locals in what to conserve and in establishing boundaries 91
for the site. Many locals complained about invasion of privacy from the tourists and the WHC complained about a decrease in conservation efforts because the site itself was not being maintained, however, Japanese culture seeks to conserve the “spirit” of the site more so that the actual site itself. Jimura’s fascinating study showed that there are gaps in communication, awareness and education on the local level, but that they wish to learn more about World Heritage Site status and designation and, especially, how to manage and protect the site through tourism marketing strategies. The study demonstrated a need and want for locals and other stakeholders to communicate and work together and educate each other in cultural sensitivities as well as tourism implementation efforts and designation of World Heritage Site status at the site.
Kaltenborn, Bjorn P., Jorn Thomassen, Line C. Wold, John D.C. Linnell and Birgitte Skar. “World Heritage Status as a Foundation for Building Local Futures? A Case Study from Vega in Central Norway.” Journal of Sustainable Tourism. 21 (2013): 99-‐116. Kaltenborn et al. examine the conflict between heritage conservation and community needs. As rural communities look to use their heritage as a means for economic development, there comes a tradeoff between industry demands, World Heritage Site designation, and local desire. While tourists want to experience these areas in their “authentic” state, many community members often feel designation and tourism should not limit other arenas of development. This conflict between tourism development and the local community is important for UNESCO to understand when cultivating sustainable management strategies at World Heritage Sites that benefit both tourists and prioritize the needs of the local community. Although insightful and useful to the field of research on World Heritage Site designation and the local community, the article by Kaltenborn et al. was dry and difficult to read. Kanani, Rahim. “Branding for Nonprofits: New Research, New Insights.” Forbes.com, 01 March 2012. Web. 28 April 2013. Mr. Kanani's interview with Nathalie Kylander, a noted scholar in the field of non-‐ profit branding, discussed how non-‐profits can use strategic brand management to help achieve long term goals, and create cohesive internal identity. The interview was insightful, well presented, and easy to digest. By choosing to present the interview on Forbes.com, the writing was clear and accessible, decidedly not academic.
92
Keitumetse, Susan O. “Sustainable Development and Cultural Heritage Management in Botswana: Towards Sustainable Communities.” Sustainable Development. 19 (2011): 49-‐59. Using the principles of sustainability outlined in the 1992 Rio Declaration, Keitumetse suggests community participation is especially relevant to the management of cultural heritage tourism destinations. Keitumetse argues communities are critical to development as they are the custodians of culture and the people who interact with tourists on a daily and intimate basis. By focusing on cultural heritage tourism development in Botswana, Keitumetse is able to illustrate the needs of host communities in the developing world and in a region primed to become an increasingly important player in the tourism field. As UNESCO’s World Heritage Program looks to more evenly distribute inscripted sites across countries and continents, knowledge of Africa and African community needs will be increasingly important to the program guidelines. Keitumetse’s argument is brief but clear, and effectively argues the connection of communities to sustainable tourism development. Keough, Elizabeth. “Heritage in Peril: A Critique of UNESCO’s World Heritage Program.” Washington University Global Studies Law Review. 10 (2011): 593-‐615. In this article, the author investigates UNESCO’s World Heritage Program, which has created a culture of economic and political quagmires rather than cooperation and preservation. The author addresses the problematic effects of the program and identifies ways in which some of those effects can be mitigated. She suggests that this will result in restoring some of the noble ideas upon which the World Heritage Program was founded. The article focuses on the legal and procedural problems of the World Heritage Convention’s Operational Guidelines that cause ineffective implementation of policy and derail the World Heritage Program from its goal. The author posited that necessary organizational and structural reforms, of an out-‐of-‐ control bureaucracy such as UNESCO and the World Heritage Convention, will strengthen the World Heritage Program’s commitment to conservation and send the message that the World Heritage Convention is the premier global organization dedicated to protect the best of nature and of man. This article provides clear and well-‐argued insights into understanding the organizational structure and operation of UNESCO, and its relationship to the World Heritage Convention.
93
Kylander, N., J. Quelch, and B. Simonin. “Building and Valuing Global Brands in the Nonprofit Sector.” Nonprofit Management and Leadership. 17 (2007): 253-‐277. The growing interest in branding has captured the attention of nonprofit leaders. The multiple roles and stakeholders that international nonprofit brands must address make nonprofit brand building complex and challenging. In their research authors investigated topic how and if nonprofit brand building differs from for-‐profit brand building. Unlike other studies, which stresses importance of branding for nonprofits, authors examined value and role of brand for nonprofit organizations. The merit of this study is that it draws some strategic lessons on brand building and brand valuation activities of international nonprofits. It adds more knowledge on the strategic role and relevance of brands for international nonprofit organizations. Also, this study provides nonprofit leaders and managers with some practical insights in their understanding of brand building activities from best practices in the field. Landorf, Christine. “Managing for Sustainable Tourism: A Review of Six Cultural World Heritage Sites.” Journal of Sustainable Tourism. 17 (2009): 53-‐70. In her article, Landorf examines tourism development at cultural World Heritage Sites. She highlights the importance of cogent management plans to the ultimate viability of cultural World Heritage Sites through the exploration of six geographically diverse designations. As tourism and interest in World Heritage Sites continues to grow, Landorf notes the importance of community education and involvement in development activities in World Heritage Site locations as being integral to their ultimate success. A major deficiency noted in the plans examined was the lack of detail and definition of the relationship community stakeholders should have with the sites. This clearly written article provides valuable information on the topic of World Heritage Site tourism development and the impacts development has on host communities. Larkins, Karen. “Endangered Site: Port City of Coro, Venezuela.” SmithsonianMag.com, March 2009. Web. 28 April 2009. This Smithsonian article from March 2009 declares that Coro is fading and failing. Though allocated $32 million to put towards restoration and preservation purposes, the Venezuelan government has seemingly done nothing to help. This inaction ultimately led to Coro being placed on the List of World Heritage in Danger, where it has remained since 2005. Though slightly dated, this article provides a deeper level of detail to supplement other information on the city of Coro. The layout is simple; the photographs are 94
lovely. The point of view is unbiased, and effectively discusses the problems that a particular World Heritage Site is facing. Lau, Geok Theng and Sook Han Lee. “Consumer’s Trust in a Brand and the Link to Brand Loyalty” Journal of Market-‐Focused Management. 4 (1999): 341-‐370. The study by Lau and Lee examines the effect of consumer trust in a brand on brand loyalty. They found that brand characteristics were essential in building a strong brand company, that is all programs tied under one brand umbrella effect company image on the whole. Lau and Lee also discovered that if consumers had trust in the brand, they were likely to be loyal long-‐term customers. The findings in this study were presented in a straightforward, easy to follow manner. At times, however, the article was boring due to the high usage of technical verbiage. Lauer, L. “ How to Use a Total Marketing Approach to Renew Your Organization and Make an Impact.” Nonprofit World. 13 (1995): 51-‐55. Despite the fact that public relations, marketing, and advertising had become professional specialization areas in 1995, the author argued that non-‐profits needed to plan strategically and view these functions as parts of an integrated whole. To meet the challenges of time and revitalize organization, the paper suggested ten specific elements that needed to be included in the total marketing plan of non-‐ profits: an identity positioning theme, a visibility program, interaction with target audiences, a set of bold initiatives, employee orientation programs, creative task force, a volunteer steering committee, a fundraising campaign, and the synergy of all elements working together. Though paper was written in 1995, it provides useful recommendations that still resonate for contemporary nonprofit organizations. Leask, Anna and Alan Fyall (eds.). Managing World Heritage Sites. Oxford: Elsevier, 2006. Managing World Heritage Sites breaks down a complicated subject into three major parts: the management of sites, revenue, and strategy. The authors first give a brief introduction to the subject of World Heritage Sites before delving into those three topics, and then afterward there are nine separate case studies to highlight the authors’ points. Though a bit dated, the book contains solid, foundational information for academic research on World Heritage Sites. The authors make the material manageable by dividing it into smaller, comprehensible pieces, making it easier to digest all of this 95
information. The case studies at the end are very helpful, and cover most of the continents;, however, a case study on Africa is nowhere to be found. The authors missed an opportunity here to make the book more representative of the World Heritage List, but part of this absence may be due to the date of publication. Lee, Ean. “World Heritage Site Status: Boon or Bane?” The Newsletter, Summer 2010. 54:6-‐9. Web. 9 April 2013. This article discusses the processes by which Dresden and the Oman Oryx Sanctuary came to be de-‐listed by the World Heritage Committee. The Oman scenario is particularly vile, having intentionally destroyed the animal sanctuary in order to drill for oil. The limitations of the World Heritage Committee are never more evident than here. Both the Dresden and Oman situations illuminate the powerlessness the World Heritage Committee has against governmental wants and needs. Licciardi, Guido and Rana Amirtahmasebi (eds.), “The Economics of Uniqueness: Investing in Historic City Cores and Cultural Heritage Assets for Sustainable Development.” Urban Development Series: The World Bank. Washington D.C.: The World Bank, 2012. The World Bank document covers an array of economic implications in World Heritage Sites for UNESCO and measures and well as analyzes that the economic metrics are for the Heritage Sites in case studies from around the globe as well as basic concepts of sustainable tourism management at these sites. This document is very useful in its economic statistical information and provides important and relevant case studies on historic cities and World Heritage Sites for UNESCO to improve upon in order for them to be and remain sustainable for tourism ventures to come. Liechti, Karina, Astrid Wallner, and Urs Wiesmann. “Linking a World Heritage Site to Sustainable Regional Development-‐ Contested Natures in a Local Negotiation Process.” Society and Natural Resources. 23 (2010): 726-‐741. Liechti et al. explore the various views of nature at World Heritage Sites. Through their examination, the authors highlight the various and sometimes conflicting roles and views of stakeholders throughout the development process. Additionally, they illustrate the varying ideologies and perceptions of nature stakeholders may have according to cultural background and geography. Their study was able to conclude that the majority of tourism communities, specifically those at World Heritage Sites, value authority and control over their region, expressed through their involvement in community development plans. 96
The article, though somewhat verbose, relatively dry and occasionally hard to follow, was however, filled with useful information regarding community development in UNESCO World Heritage Site tourism development. Long, Mary M., and Larry Chiagouris. “The Role of Credibility in Shaping Attitudes Toward Nonprofit Websites.” International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing. 11 (2006): 239-‐249. Long and Chiagouris’s papers examines whether online communications concepts in the for-‐profit sector are applicable to the non-‐profit sector. 262 adults in a major metropolitan area of the Northeast United States were surveyed to measure their reaction after visiting two major nonprofit websites: American Cancer Society and American Red Cross. Findings showed that even though both organizations were considered in a same level of “well respected,” American Red Cross has better ratings on credibility variables because of a better design in its website. Elements like “looks professionally design,” “easy to browse,” and “user friendly” were some of the elements were American Red Cross obtained higher ratings. The paper found a high correlation between these variables and credibility. This paper represents a good discussion on the relevance of for-‐profit concepts into the non-‐profit sector. Despite the reputation gained by non-‐profit organizations over the years, their website needs to convince their audience again to maintain or improve its credibility. Madden, Michelle and Robert Shipley. “An Analysis of the Literature at the Nexus of Heritage, Tourism, and Local Economic Development.” Journal of Heritage Tourism. 7 (2012): 103-‐112. Madden and Shipley take a critical eye to the current scholarship on heritage tourism and the impacts on the development of host communities. By looking at contemporary research, they are able to identify themes of study that link the above. They conclude that rural and developing communities have a harder time preparing for and adjusting to tourism development but proper research can help prevent communities to succumbing to the pitfalls of development. The article by Madden and Shipley was both enriching and brief. By exploring the current literature on the fields of heritage, tourism, and development they are able to highlight important development themes that are useful to the study of tourism at UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
97
Martin, Steven R., “Donations as an Alternative to Wilderness User Fees—The Case of the Desolation Wilderness.” United Sates Department of Agriculture. Forest Service Proceedings. Rocky Mountain Research Station. 15 (2000): 142-‐147. This research studied how voluntary donations behavior are affected for two main factors: characteristics, attitudes, and perceptions of the donors (with respect to the soliciting organization), and effectiveness of the solicitations techniques. 1264 questionnaires were made to day-‐user visitors of the Desolation Wilderness. Main findings showed that potential contributors’ perceptions of the role and image of the soliciting organization are critical. Additionally, organizations need to convince potential donors of the need of their donations, and that the money contributed will be used correctly. Additionally, Martin founds that in terms of solicitation techniques, promising matching funds will increase the individual donations. This paper represents an important source in the voluntary donation field. The study provides remarkable insights about donors’ behavior that need to be considered by organizations if they expect to increase donations. “Member States.” UNESCO.org. 24 February 2013. . This page explores the varying levels of UNESCO's membership, the highest level being a Member State. Understanding UNESCO's complex membership structure can be overwhelming, and this clutter of links to sub-‐division after sub-‐division does little to clarify. Meskell, Lynn. “The Rush to Inscribe Reflections on the 35th Session of the World Heritage Committee, UNESCO Paris, 2011.” Journal of Field Archeology. 37 (2012): 145-‐151. As an anthropology professor at Stanford University, Lynn Meskell wished delved deeper into the inner-‐workings of the WHC and how it operates, especially in designating World Heritage Site status to different sites and countries around the world. She complained of how she and others in her profession were not aware of the proceedings and what it really meant to be a World Heritage Site. She found that countries may have management and conservation plans in place as well as capacity building programs but there are discrepancies between the advisory bodies and the member states, as well as within the advisory bodies. There were complaints of “Eurocentrism” and this caused many of the under-‐developed regions to side with one another and the developed regions to side accordingly in debates. This caused
98
extreme bias and created a very long and complicated process for the state bodies to petition for World Heritage Site status. Meskell’s study demonstrated the complicated and bureaucratic nature of the policy system and how unfeasible it is to try to change it. These proceedings take place behind closed doors where members of the public, local communities of the sites, and other stakeholders in tourism for World Heritage Site cannot know what the political processes are. The exclusivity of the procedure as well as the poor communication and lack of education across the different entities that make up the World Heritage Site, as well as the poor distribution of funds makes conservation efforts in potential World Heritage Site impossible to achieve. Mihaita, Gigi and Sebe, Mihai. “How to Brand an International Organization. NATO Case Study”. 6th Edition of the International Conference European Integration, Realities and Perspectives. 563-‐567. In the last decade, NATO has developed their own public relations department in an attempt to communicate promptly and transmit the general audience their version of reality. In this article, the authors presented that the main reasons why they believe that the international organizations, NATO in particular, have started to see themselves as brand and to create a so called “commercial identity” by becoming a brand. By applying the conceptual and analytical framework used in analyzing the marketing strategies of the private companies authors examine that NATO is about to become a brand. As starting point for their study, authors use 2008 statement of deputy secretary general of NATO: “We have a green light to think about branding policy of NATO.” This is an exploratory study, however it provided very useful insights about international organizations new approach on branding their identity. This is one of the few studies available on this topic and opened opportunities for future research on this yet unexplored topic. “Milestones.” UNESCO.org. 24 February 2013. . A chronology of UNESCO's most important moments, from its founding in 1945 to 2011. Particular mention is the first major “heritage” preservation campaign – the Nubia Campaign – in 1960. This page provides useful background knowledge on the overall organization through the years, including basic facts on its World Heritage policies that are necessary for any examination.
99
Miller, Joseph C., and Patricia Pitaluga. “Cultural Marketing and Archeology: The Case of Brazil.” Journal of Nonprofit and Sector Marketing. 8 (2001): 63-‐74. This case study of an archaeological site in Brazil demonstrated that marketing is an effective technique for local businesses and non-‐profit organizations to become involved with the site, and also as a means of creating economic growth. Among the argument was the idea that as more archaeologists and site managers come to realize the benefit of marketing a site, the more that marketing can be used to create economic and social development. Over time, that development can turn into improved social benefits, community relationships, education, and environmental and cultural heritage. Though limited by scope (the researchers only provided one case study), this study presented its results clearly. Miller and Pitaluga's findings are a bit dated, but no less current. In fact, back in 2008, these findings were likely seen as innovative. The idea that integrated marketing can benefit the private and non-‐profit sectors near a heritage destination is crucial to arguing for more community involvement. Olins, Wally. On Brand. New York: Thames and Hudson Inc., 2004. Wally Olins On Brand is as the title suggests: about brands history, brand development, nation branding and guidelines for branding and an outlook into the future of brands. The author argues that brands are no longer just about corporations, products, and services. All the significant institutions in our lives the towns, cities, regions, or countries in which we live, our sports teams and museums, our consumer groups and charities are given strength, identity, a defining role, and a satisfying cohesion via branding, one of the most significant social as well as business developments of modern times. He sets out the ground rules for branding success in the 21st century, explaining why understanding the links between business, brand and consumer has never been more vital for commercial success, and reflecting the recent enormous changes in the branding world. The book is very well and comprehensibly written, it explains various concepts of different brands without using cryptic, scientific language and illustrates these concepts with real life examples and interesting little stories. It is very useful for everyone in marketing, advertising, design, and business, and for anyone who wants to understand how the branding world works in the twenty-‐first century. Opschoor, Hans, and Lina Tang. “Growth, World Heritage and Sustainable Development: the Case of Lijiang City, China.” International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology. 18 (2011): 469-‐473. In their article, Opschoor and Tang discuss the sustainability of World Heritage Sites through an examination of Lijiang City, China. A main concern of the authors focuses 100
on how urbanization as a result of World Heritage Site designation and subsequent tourism development has led to an alteration in the integrity of Lijiang City’s heritage. In the development stages of Lijiang City, Opschoor and Tang highlight how the community has been marginalized and how this management of method is dangerous to World Heritage Site management. The authors also make clear that sustainable management must extend into the hinterland-‐ where a majority of community residents must often reside post designation or tourism development. Through looking at Lijiang City, Opschoor and Tang illustrate the difficulties of World Heritage Site management in relation to cities and specifically in countries that adopt a fully top down approach. As China quickly attempts to capitalize the World Heritage list, this information will become critically relevant to the sustainability of new designations there and across the globe. The article is short but to the point, Lijiang City serves as an appropriate canvas to highlight the benefits of tourism to a heritage city and its surroundings while also making clear the pitfalls. Peake, Sheila, Peter Innes, and Pam Dyer. “Ecotourism and Conservation: Factors Influencing Effective Conservation Messages.” Journal of Sustainable Tourism. 17 (2009): 107-‐127. This study examined the role of on-‐site tour guides and how they are able to effectively communicate to tourists important messages about conservation. Based on the survey of 1500 travelers to Hervey Bay in Queensland, Australia, Peake et al. found that by using a tour guide, visitors were able to process and become empowered by the need for conservation. A tour guide provides a positive experience that is as educational as it is fun. If visitors are satisfied, they will have a greater personal investment in what they just visited. Despite a small sample size and a low response rate, the results of this survey add to the existing literature of how conservation messages are communicated and understood. The data analysis was dry and difficult to follow, but the discussion of the results compensated for the lack of readability. “Periodic Reporting.” whc.UNESCO.org. 24 February 2013. . This page describes the regular reporting process required for all World Heritage Sites, from the whys, to the hows, to the whos, to the whats. Also included is a chart, of a sort, that shows the stages of the reporting process from the schedule on down to the final report to the General Conference of UNESCO. This particularly page is both simple and thorough, providing just the right amount information for those seeking a cursory explanation, and also enough supplemental material for those who wish to dig a little deeper. 101
Pike, Steven. “Tourism Destination Branding Complexity.” Journal of Product & Brand Management. 14 (2005): 258-‐259. Pike’s article highlights the importance of marketing to the future of the tourism industry. As access to destinations world wide become easier each day, destinations will have to compete with each other on a global level. Effective marketing will thus become critical for destinations in the quest to attract tourists and will need to focus on brand positioning to secure success in the area over the long-‐term. Pike’s article conveys valuable information upon which future studies, including this one, can build. Though succinct, Pike manages to relay a surprising amount of useful information. Poria, Yaniv, Arie Reichel and Raviv Cohen. “Tourists Perceptions of World Heritage Site and Its Designation.” Tourism Management. 35 (2013): 272-‐274. Poria et al.'s study looked at World Heritage Site designation from the point of tourists in Israel. The study regarded sites from all around the world. The main findings suggest that on-‐site employees have great pride in gaining World Heritage Site designation, but that many tourists do not recognize the logo for WHS status and that the public’s perceptions should be taken into consideration during the designation process in order for the World Heritage Site brand to have more credibility. Examining World Heritage Site designation from the tourists point of view was helpful in rounding out research in where there are gaps in awareness and education for World Heritage Sites towards the public as well as how people, mainly locals and tourists, have an increased pride and interest in a site once it has the status, but that they wish to be more educated and involved in the World Heritage Site designation and its processes. Poria, Yaniv, Arie Reichel and Raviv Cohen. “World Heritage Site: An Effective Brand for an Archeological Site?” Journal of Heritage Tourism. 6 (2011): 197-‐208. In this study, Poria et al. examine tourist awareness of the WHS brand, logo and meaning in Caesarea, and archeological site in Israel. Their survey revealed low levels of awareness on all three of the metrics. These findings again disprove the assumed notion that the UNESCO WHS is a strong one. Rather, as illustrated through the study at Caesarea, the WHS is in need of increased brand awareness. A little technical in verbiage however, the article can sometimes be dry and uninteresting to read, though the subject is actually stimulating in content.
102
Poria, Yaniv, Arie Reichel and Raviv Cohen. “World Heritage Site -‐ Is it an Effective Brand Name?: A Case Study of a Religious Heritage Site.” Journal of Travel Research. 50 (2011): 482-‐495. Using the Basilica of the Annunciation in Nazareth, Israel as their base, Poria et al. examine the awareness of the brand, recognition, meaning of and effects on travel of the World Heritage Site brand. The findings of their study indicate, the as the organizations’ brand exists today, there is little public awareness on the whole, yet when aware the brand positively effects the willingness of visitors to revisit the particular destination and other World Heritage Sites. The findings of the study at the Basilica support the argument for the need for increased brand awareness of UNESCO World Heritage Site. However, the authors sometimes get caught up in the technicalities of the methodology, making the article on the whole sometimes difficult to read. Power, Colin. “East-‐West Partnerships: Lessons from UNESCO and Eidos.” Educational Research for Policy and Practice. 5 (2006): 255-‐264. The article draws lessons from experience at UNESCO and Eidos in regards to the issues of developing East-‐West Partnership in education. The author emphasizes the fact that to be successful, partnerships must focus on shared goals and mutual advantages and there is a need in effective monitoring of performance. According to the author, the Eidos experience confirms that maintaining partnerships is not easy in a highly competitive environment and it’s imperative to harness the collective expertise of all parties in developing innovative solutions to the complex problems. The article provides a good benchmark and an overview of the best practices that can be considered for alliances of World Heritage Partnerships for Conservation Initiative with similar organizations. However, at the same time since the focus here is on the educational organizations there are limitations in recommendations due to the nature of these partnerships. Prayag, Girish. “Images as Pull Factors of a Tourist Destination: A Factor Cluster Segmentation Analysis” Tourism Analysis. 15 (2010): 213-‐226. In his study, Prayag examines the effect images have on tourist consumption as destination pull factors. He found that destination image should be targeted to specific demographic segments as each user group reacts different to image based pull factors. Additionally, Prayag noted that projected images should reflect the desires of the preferred tourist group.
103
Overly wordy, this study was a difficult read. The data presented was informative but hard to decipher among the heavy verbiage. Prideaux, Bruce and Chris Cooper. “Marketing and Destination Growth: A Symbiotic Relationship or Simple Coincidence?” Journal of Vacation Marketing. 9 (2003): 35-‐ 51. Prideaux and Cooper examine the connections between destination marketing and growth. Using Queensland, Australia as the basis for their case, the two find that the involvement and education of local stakeholders in the marketing process is an important factor effecting overall destination success. The findings of this study highlight the need for local stakeholder awareness and engagement, an area currently lacking. The article got into the core of marketing, including effective forms and channels of communication local stakeholders should take when marketing destinations. It is a useful read for further implementation of the recommendation made in this paper. Pritchard, Anne; Morgan, Nigel and Roger Pride. “Chapter 25 – Epilogue: Tourism and Place Reputation in an Uncertain World.” Destination Brands. 2011. 23 April 2013. . Pritchard et al.’s Chapter 25 from their book Destination Brands, discusses the future of destination branding and how to manage place reputation and how site managers can approach this in a holistic way. The authors offer ways in which destinations can pursue activities, which can in turn boost the reputations and brands of their specific destinations. The authors explain that going forward, there needs to be less of a disconnect between scholars and practitioners in tourism in general, and specifically when it comes to marketing. While only this one chapter of this book was used, it is a very helpful chapter. It is rare that scholars actually come out and say that they need to work hand in hand with people working in the tourism industry. While this statement may seems obvious, it should not be taken for granted. The article has many strong points; the weak area is that it was written in 2011. Despite the fact that this is fairly recent, because it discusses Internet marketing, it is already a bit dated. Rakic, Tijana. “World Heritage: Issues and Debates.” Tourism Planning & Development. 55 (2007): 209-‐219. This study of 180 heritage professionals and their perspectives on World Heritage designations revealed that said professionals were most concerned with the balance between conservation and tourism at existing sites, a problem that rests at the management level. This paper filled a deficit in the existing research that, at the 104
time, had little knowledge of professional preservationists' opinions. The author suggests that a balance between conservation and development could be achieved through greater cooperation among academics, the tourism industry, and professionals in the heritage field. While the results of the study coincide with existing research on the issues surrounding World Heritage designations, the addition of field professionals' opinions is a valuable one. Without the cooperation and knowledge of those on the ground from day to day, it is difficult to see how policymakers and other industry professionals can succeed. All stakeholders must be involved in management and development if a site is to be sustainable and successful. Ramsar Secretariat. "Wetland Tourism: USA – The Everglades National Park." Ramsar.org. July 2012. Web. 28 April 2013. < http://www.ramsar.org/pdf/case_studies_tourism/USA/USA_EN-‐.pdf>. This article provided information on how tourism has impacted the Everglades in Florida both in positive and negative ways, especially concerning the environment and conservation. This article provided an illustrative example of how tourism impacts conservational efforts at a World Heritage Site in the USA and what education programs are in place, or have been implemented in order to increase conservation efforts through tourism. Rao, Kishore. “A New Paradigm for the Identification, Nomination and Inscription of Properties on the World Heritage List.” International Journal of Heritage Studies. 16 (2010): 161-‐172. This paper examines UNESCO’s 1972 World Heritage Convention and its policy in regards identifying and listing cultural and natural heritage properties. Article gives us good background about UNESCO’s 1972 World Heritage Convention and critically reviews its current policy. Especially, the author focuses on policy shortcomings and concludes that current policy is long departed from the original foundations of Convention of international cooperation and assistance for preserving heritage of outstanding universal value. This article demonstrates solid research into a multidimensional and complex policy of an international organization, such as UNESCO. The merit of this paper rests on the author developing a new approach to overcoming current policy shortcomings by suggesting enhanced international cooperation and assistance at the beginning stage of identification and nomination process. He concludes that a proactive role of World Heritage Committee, at an early stage of the process, will result in a representative, balanced and credible World Heritage List. This article is a useful source for analyzing the World Heritage Convention policy and provides an insider's 105
view consider the author served as deputy director of the UNESCO World Heritage Center. “Rapid Response Facility.” whc.UNESCO.org. 24 February 2013. . This page describes the organizational infrastructure that provides assistance when natural disasters occur at Natural World Heritage Sites. The strength of the information on this page comes not just from the very basic description of a Rapid Response Facility's deeds and intentions; it also provides actual examples – by way of news articles – to demonstrate its effectiveness. Reeves, Keir and Colin Long. “Unbearable Pressures on Paradise?” Critical Asian Studies. 43 (2011): 3-‐22. This article evaluated the strategies and management of Luang Prabang since its World Heritage designation in 1995. Due to the volume of tourists since that time, the city has been forced to grow and change to such an extent that some critics feel the site is inauthentic and therefore invalid as a heritage site. The conclusions drawn from the study reveal that external political and economic pressures in the region are the root causes of the drastic changes, and are not completely related to the world heritage designation. They argue, therefore, that management policies should be region or site-‐specific, and catered to the needs of the area instead of a mass-‐ produced set of guidelines. The case for site-‐specific management plans is a strong one, and is well presented here. The challenges facing Luang Prabang are indeed unique to the region, as is the kind of tourism with which they are currently dealing. But are the challenges unique to the region because of the region itself, or because it is a region that is developing? Could other developing regions utilize a similar management strategy or should each site have to adhere to a different set of guidelines? If the guidelines should be region or site-‐specific, as the authors recommend, that poses an interesting challenge for UNESCO. If UNESCO cannot continue to possess a uniform set of guidelines, it may need to reevaluate its relevance. “Reporting and Monitoring.” whc.UNESCO.org. 24 February 2013. . A lead-‐in to the aforementioned “Periodic Reporting” page, this page emphasizes the importance of the self-‐regulation of World Heritage Sites by on-‐site monitors and managers from the States Parties themselves.
106
As monitoring is an important component of the implementation of the World Heritage Convention, it would seem appropriate to carefully detail it here, which the site does not. Are the periodic reports – sent by the States Parties to the World Heritage Committee – considered monitoring, or are they a separate component? Ripp, Matthias, Uli Eidenschink and Christina Milz. “Strategies, Policies and Tools for an Integrated World Heritage Management Approach: Experiences from the City of Regensburg.” Facilities. 29 (2011): 286-‐302. Ripp, Eidenschink and Milz’s article outlines the strategies and policies used in a World Heritage City-‐ Regensburg, Germany. Along with being part of the World Heritage List comes inherent challenges. The study addresses how the inhabitants of this city addressed these challenges; one of the key elements of which was the establishment of a special administrative unit that coordinates all of the World Heritage related issues for the town. Despite the narrow scope, this article provides a real life example of the challenges of coordinating management efforts in a mixed urban World Heritage Site. Regensburg is a good example of how, even in a small city, the organizational structure, from the inhabitants all the way up to UNESCO, is extremely long and complicated. In Regensburg, the citizens are stakeholders in tourism; they know how important tourism is for their city, and they embrace it. Tourism has become a source of pride for the city, and as such, it is continually expanding and improving. Roach, John. “Machu Picchu Under Threat From Pressures of Tourism.” NationalGeographic.com, 15 April 2002. Web. 28 April 2013. This article discusses the capacity problem that Machu Picchu was facing back in 2002. It also discusses some of the solutions, based on government ideas, UNESCO ideas, and local ideas. Though over 10 years old, this article articulates the constant threat World Heritage Sites face at the whims of the local governments with little input from others. The specific mentions of cases where landslides occurred were particularly effective. “Robben Island.” whc.UNESCO.org. 28 April 2013. . This page is the World Heritage Program's full and thorough physical description of this site, the historical description, and other facts. The presentation is academic, the text not easily digestible, the layout (a giant wall of text) visually unstimulating. It does, however, feature external links to information about the site, as well as photo and video media links.
107
Roders, Ana Pereira and Ron van Oers. “Guidance on Heritage Impact Assessments: Learning from its Application on World Heritage Site Management.” Journal of Cultural Heritage Management and Sustainable Development. 2 (2012): 104-‐114. The article presents a review of the literature on the nature of heritage impact assessments, and also a recent report on new ICOMOS recommendations how said assessments can be applied to the management processes of World Heritage Sites. The authors posit that these assessments will improve management of heritage sites and allow them to develop more sustainably. The case studies presented in this article illuminate the need for accurate and effective assessment of the needs of heritage sites, and support the case for the ICOMOS recommendations. The one significant limitation to this article is the lack of data on the effectiveness of the ICOMOS recommendations, which the authors present as an opportunity for further research. Roders, Ana Pereira and Ron van Oers. “World Heritage Cities Management.” Facilities. 29 (2011): 276-‐285. This article serves as an introduction to the various issues connected to World Heritage cities management. The paper discusses the areas of management responsibility, inclusion of various stakeholders with a stress on the community and culture heritage as a driver for development as these issues specifically pertain to cities designated by UNESCO and in areas where a cluster of sites are closely entwined in a location. The authors continue to discuss the following journal issue, which would bring to light the problems associated with World Heritage city management through case study. This introductory piece was a focused and easy to understand introduction to the issues surrounding the management of World Heritage cities pre-‐ and post-‐ designation. Meant to lay the groundwork for the remainder of the special journal issue, the article by Roders and van Oers provides a basic overview of what will be explored and the importance of the field in the study of World Heritage sustainability. Rossler Chief, M. “World Heritage Cultural Landscapes: A UNESCO Flagship Programme 1992-‐2006.” Landscape Research. 31 (2006): 333-‐353. This paper reviews one of the most important evolutions in the history of UNESCO after adaption of 1972 world Heritage Convention. Namely, it focuses on the interaction between culture and nature and the development of the cultural landscape categories. Based on some case studies from different regions of the world the author highlights the innovations in the Convention’s Cultural landscape program, particularly focusing on the management of complex properties involving
108
local communities and indigenous people. The author also argues that inclusion of cultural landscapes and, particularly those associated with natural elements rather than material cultural monuments, serves as an evidence of broadening interpretation of heritage and leads to change a perception about World Heritage Convention. The author’s highly positive attitude toward World Heritage Convention is understandable considering her position in the World Heritage Center. However, this article would gain more value if the author explored whether inclusion of cultural landscapes helped making world heritage list representative credible and balanced. Overall, this article provides useful information about the development of cultural landscape program. The author successfully concludes that an inclusive approach is crucial for the designation and management of sites of outstanding universal value, especially for the benefit of local people living in and around cultural landscape sites. Ryan, Jason and Sari Silvanto. “A Brand for all the Nations: The Development of the World Heritage Brand in Emerging Markets” Marketing Intelligence & Planning. 29 (2011): 305-‐318. In A Brand for all the Nations, Ryan and Silvanto discuss the branding framework and its applicability to and important for the WHS brand. Specifically, the two look at how established brands such as WHS can help encourage economic development in emerging countries, a popular goal of tourism development to begin with. Their findings reiterate the important of branding for destinations and how already established brands can be used to strengthen destination image. The article by Ryan and Silvanto highlighting the role the WHS brand can play in development. An intriguing concept, the article was engaging and easy to comprehend. Ryan, Jason and Sari Silvanto. “The World Heritage List: The Making and Management of a Brand.” Place Branding and Public Diplomacy. 5 (2009): 290-‐300. Ryan and Silvanto’s article looks at brand creation and management within the context of the World Heritage List. By looking at management at the international, national, and site levels, the authors argue that a well-‐known brand has been created and one that drives tourism. The article explains that while these sites are not being branded in a traditional sense, their value is still being conveyed, and that in a sense is what branding is all about. The authors offer a fairly balanced view by offering up the challenges of managing such a widespread brand. It is also interesting to trace the history of designation, from preservation to tourism purposes, at least according to the authors. However, while their argument that this shift in focus has occurred, they are not as convincing 109
when it comes to showing that the World Heritage List is well-‐known enough outside the industry to be considered a well established brand. Ryan, Jason and Sari Silvanto. “World Heritage Sites: The Purposes and Politics of Destination Branding.” Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing. 27 (2010): 533-‐545. In their article, Ryan and Silvanto discuss the importance of branding specifically in relation to UNESCO and World Heritage Sites. As illustrated by the authors, branding is critical to effective tourism strategy but the field is continually challenged by “paucity and politics”. By focusing on the variables of democracy and political instability and the effect on the World Heritage brand in global locales, the authors discover that democracy is critical to successful World Heritage Site branding and subsequent tourism to these areas. The importance of branding is often disregarded when discussing sustainability, but this article makes the connection between a strong brand image and the ability of a site to manage and develop effectively. While tourists can often generate the negative impacts on World Heritage Sites, they are also needed to fund the management and drive local economies and without branding this would be nearly impossible. By examining the issue of democracy and its effect on successful World Heritage branding, Ryan and Silvanto point to an interesting area in need of attention when discussing sustainability. “Santuario Histórico Machu Picchu.” WorldMonumentsFund.org. 28 April 2013. . This page on the World Monuments Fund website provides a brief overview of Machu Picchu, the site, and Machu Picchu, the problem. This page is a strong example of how to convey clear and simple information about both the site's history and its problems. The content is clear, the photographs are engaging, and the remainder of the page provides easily navigable ways to explore the program. Sargeant, A., J. Ford and J. Hudson. “Charity Brand Personality: The Relationship With Giving Behavior.” Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly. 37 (2008): 468-‐491. The goal of this article is to present a set of personality traits associated with nonprofit brands and explores the relationship, if any, with facets of giving behavior. Study found that Charity brands have been enhancing donor understanding of an organization and what it stands for to assist income generation. Despite an increasing interest in this topic in academia this research was one of the few studies to address the dimensions of brands and sought to explore the link (if any) with donor behavior. Merit of this study is that it successfully identified that traits 110
associated with emotional engagement, service, voice, and tradition are capable of serving as the basis for differentiation and are also linked to facets of individual giving behavior. Findings of this study also have important implications for brand managers who wish to differentiate their brand from those of their competitors. Notwithstanding that study provides useful insights this work was an exploratory therefore limitations are present. The results are persuasive, they may not generalize to the sector as a whole and further quantitative research would be necessary to confirm the conclusions drawn in this study. Secondi, Lucs; Maria Leticia Meseguer-‐ Santamari; Jose Mondejar-‐Jimenezc and Manuel Vargas-‐Vargas. “Influence of Tourist Sector Structure on Motivations of Heritage Tourists.” The Service Industries Journal. 31 (2011): 1659-‐1668. This article is centered around research conducted in the town of Cuenca, Spain on visitor motivation. This research differs from some of the others in academia because it focuses more on the practical reasons for visiting sites and perceived positive associations. Some of these motivators include: value for money, mobility, and infrastructure. Secondi et al.’s research is does have some weaknesses, especially fact that the study was conducted in 1996, over fifteen years ago, and the article was not written until 2010 (published 2011), over ten years after the data was collected. The authors bring up some interesting into the reasons why visitors are more likely to choose one. Shackley, Myra. Visitor Management: Case Studies from World Heritage Sites. Oxford: Elsevier, 2003. Shackley’s book is solely based on case studies, many of which focus on cultural World Heritage Sites. The case studies cover a range of topics and places, including traffic and visitor flow, how to best manage and improve the visitor experience, and incorporating technology into World Heritage Sites. This book is very helpful for bringing academia to life by providing case studies. As a supplement, it is very beneficial. It covers most, but not all continents; however, it does not cover Asia, and that is an area that is covered in many other texts. The case studies cover some best practices and suggestions for how to improve the visitor experience. What is especially helpful is the fact that most of the suggestions are part of a holistic view and strategy and involve looking at the community around these heritage sites.
111
Shepard, Robert, Larry Yu and Huimin Gu. “Tourism, Heritage and Sacred Space: Wutai Shan, China,” Journal of Heritage Tourism. 7 (2012): 145-‐161. Shepard, Yu, and Gu used a case study in China to demonstrate the importance of heritage tourism as well as the conflicts and tensions that tend to arise between locals and tourists in terms of benefits, accessibility and misinterpretation of heritage. The locals were not behind heritage tourism to the site as a whole, but once the study was conducted with interviews and survey questionnaires, they realized that if the heritage is correctly portrayed in the heritage sites and the locals voices are heard in what they wish to gain from the tourism ventures in this region, then they would be alright with it. They also had concerns on what tourism traffic would do to negatively impact their way of life in the region. Their case study on this region is useful because it was a UNESCO Heritage Site that was being studied and the implications of the tourism management at this site on the locals’ livelihoods is of great concern to our current paper in accurately representing cultures of peoples and in making sure they get as many benefits and as few negative impacts on their lives when tourism is implemented at these sites. Somuncu, Mehmet and Turgut Yigit. “World Heritage Sites in Turkey: Current Status and Problems of Conservation Management” Cografi Bilimler Dergisi. 8 (2010): 1-‐ 26. In their research, Somuncu and Yigit look at the nine WH Sites in Turkey and examine the difficulties each is facing. The authors found that many of the problems WH Sites in Turkey experienced were due to poor management and policies regarding the local communities. Often, these issues were site specific though a few were constant throughout all nine WH Sites. Though dry and overly lengthy, the article by Somuncu and Yigit provided a clear and comprehensive analysis of the issues at WH Sites in Turkey. Standish, Dominic. “Mayor of Venice Reveals Possible New Solution to Cruise Ship ‘Problem'.” Dstandish.com 4 October 201. Web. 28 April 2013. In this blog entry, Dr. Standish discusses the Mayor of Venice's latest proposal to build a cruise ship terminal on the mainland in order to prevent further damage to the lagoon and canals from ships passing through the waters near the local islands. The entry further writes about the opposition to cruise traffic in general, and how those protests relate to the Mayor's current plan. Dr. Standish is an academic who has written extensively about Venice's environmental and conservation issues, and this opinion paper about the new initiative to “solve” the cruise ship issue in the city is well-‐argued and well-‐sourced. 112
Starin, Dawn. “World Heritage Designation: Blessing or Threat?” Critical Asian Studies. 40 (2008): 639-‐652. Through a series of critical observations, and evidenced by photographs, the author reveals the seedier side of Luang Prabang's World Heritage Designation: a city fraught with infrastructure problems, acculturation issues, and illegal activity. The intent was not to draw any definitive conclusions, rather let her observations and photos speak for themselves, but she does raise the question of whether the tourism boom in Luang Prabang is as serious a threat to the Laotian way of life as French colonization or United States bombing raids. While the author set out to merely question, her opinion is evident by the information she presents. Besides a few cursory remarks from shop-‐owners regarding how much money they have made from the influx of tourists, the remainder of the observations are critical. Despite her apparent bias, her observations should not be discounted. Luang Prabang is deeply troubled, and this firsthand account of the environment is a useful addition to the collective understanding of those troubles. “State of Conservation.” whc.UNESCO.org. 24 February 2013. . This page serves as an access point for an extensive online database of conservation status and monitoring reports prepared by both UNESCO and its Advisory Bodies. Reports are searchable by year, region, or State Party. The page is particularly useful in terms of data for specific World Heritage Sites. The database is cleanly presented and simple to use, and the explanation provided for why the State of Conservation reports are necessary. “State of Conservation (SOC) Chan Chan Archaeological Zone (2012).” whc.UNESCO.org. 1 May 2013. . This page on the World Heritage Program website presents the report, made on 2012 by the WHP, regarding the conservation issues affecting Chan Chan Archeological Zone in Peru. The page is a critical source to review technical specification of conservation issues on the site and it also included a conclusion on why this site may be part of the List in Danger. “State of Conservation (SOC) Coro and its Port (2012).” whc.UNESCO.org. 1 May 2013. . 113
This page on the World Heritage Program website presents the report, made on 2012 by the WHP, regarding the conservation issues affecting Coro and its Pot in Venezuela. The page is a critical source to review technical specification of conservation issues on the site and it also included a conclusion on why this site may be part of the List in Danger. “State of Conservation (SOC) Humberstone and Santa Laura Saltpeter Works (2012).” whc.UNESCO.org. 1 May 2013. < http://whc.unesco.org/en/soc/15>. This page on the World Heritage Program presents the report, made on 2012 by the WHP, regarding the conservation issues affecting Humberstone and Santa Laura Saltpeter Works in Chile. The page is a critical source to review technical specification of conservation issues on the site and it also included a conclusion on why this site may be part of the List in Danger. Stegemann, N. and B. Thompson. “Visual Arts Marketing: The Brand Equity Challenge Facing Galleries.” International Business and Economics Research Journal. 4 (2005): 1-‐12. This article addressed the challenges that art galleries in Sydney metropolitan area were facing with regards to maximizing their brand equity. Authors took case study approach and investigated art galleries' sources of brand equity and the implications for their marketing communications strategies. The research demonstrated that art galleries had a good understanding of their brand equity entities, however, there was of lack of knowledge on how to coordinate them successfully. Furthermore most of the galleries believe in a different mix of marketing communications efforts reflecting their objectives and resources. However, their strategies were not always customer oriented and lacked supporting research. As the arts industry was becoming more competitive in the beginning of the 21st century, the merit of this study was that it provided practical implications for art galleries to fully understand how the different brand equity entities contribute to their overall brand equity.
114
Steiner, Lasse and Bruno Frey. “Correcting the Imbalance of the World Heritage List: Did the UNESCO Strategy Work?” Journal of International Organizations Studies. 3 (2012): 25–40. In the wake of the 1994 Global Strategy to increase the balance of distribution of World Heritage Sites across both continents and countries, Steiner and Frey found that no data had been collected to prove or disprove the impact of the policy. Their examination, however, indicated that the strategy had had the opposite effect; that, instead of decreasing the imbalance, the disparity actually worsened, proving the strategy useless. The conclusions drawn by this study are compelling, yet the only recommendations Steiner and Frey are able to propose are more policy changes, with little means of implementation. If discussing policy changes, there should be a discussion of how the organization, in this case the World Heritage Program, can make those changes rather than simply saying that it should. Tapp, A. “Charity Brands: A Qualitative Study of Current Practice.” Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing. 1 (1996): 327-‐336. The purpose of this study was to understand to what extent branding was used in the sector of fundraising and charity. Particularly author examined, development possibilities for using commercial techniques in charities, and the constraints on such practices. The study found that many charities indeed use day-‐to-‐day brand techniques, without describing them as ‘branding’, however brand development work was scarce. The author suggests that one commercial practice that could be employed by charity organizations is the idea of using the personality of the charity itself as something with which donors could associate positively. This study was one of the earliest efforts to develop theory of nonprofit branding and link individual’s self-‐concept with symbolic value of nonprofit organization. Practical implication of this study was to help leaders and managers of charity organizations how to consider brand content while competing for fundraising. “Tentative Lists.” whc.UNESCO.org. 24 February 2013. . As the first stage of the designation process, the Tentative List is a vital part of the World Heritage Convention. This page explains the “whats,” “whos,” “hows,” and “whys” of creating a Tentative List, and provides links to both application documents and current Tentative Lists by country. Being able to look at the current Tentative Lists and see what is currently up for designation is extremely helpful in terms of examining for patterns both in terms of 115
region and site types. Listing the tentative sites by country is effective and simple to search. “The Constitution.” UNESCO.org. 24 February 2013. . This section of UNESCO's website establishes the goals and mission of the broader organization, of which the World Heritage Program is a part. This page is simple and its text is short, but the language is as clear as a policy can be. “The Criteria for Selection.” whc.UNESCO.org. 24 February 2013. . This page outlines the ten criteria used to designate UNESCO World Heritage Sites. A brief explanation of the breakdown between cultural and natural sites, as well as the progression of the criteria from a set for each category to one master list. The contents of this page are arguably the most important aspects of UNESCO's World Heritage policy. This information is critical for any examination of the World Heritage Program. The Galapagos Conservation Trust. "GCT: UNESCO's Decision to Remove Galapagos from World Heritage In Danger List is 'Premature'." SavetheGalapagos.org, 2010. Web. 28 April 2013. This website's article on the de-‐listing of the Galapagos discusses the effect the de-‐ listing had on the natural environment and how, even though the Ecuadorian government's intentions were pure, the funds and practices put in place may have happened too quickly and that the development that is occurring there now that it has been de-‐listed is destroying the environment even more, which; even though it has come a long way since it was put on the list in 1978, it still had a long way to go before it could be de-‐listed and now the islands conservation efforts are seeming futile in the continued disintegration of the habitat. The article helped articulate and provide examples of how de-‐listing and misunderstanding the designation of being listed and de-‐listed affects conservation efforts at this World Heritage Site.
116
“The List of World Heritage in Danger.” whc.UNESCO.org. 24 February 2013. . This page is a master list of the World Heritage Sites considered “in danger.” Each site is specifically named on the page, and is linked to a full report on the listing, its issues, and its state of conservation/restoration. As the list is so small – only 38 sites – there is no need to create a searchable database, and each site is listed by country in an accessible fashion. “The Organization's History.” UNESCO.org. 24 February 2013. . This page provides a rather in-‐depth chronology of UNESCO's history, from its predecessor organizations to the present, including details of political maneuverings and machinations of membership. In addition to being brief but thorough, the page presents two short but informative videos on both the history and priorities of UNESCO. Each clip was insightful, if a bit propagandist. “The World Heritage Committee.”whc.UNESCO.org. 24 February 2013. . This page provides an explanation into the role of the World Heritage Committee, its structure, and its purpose. True to its bureaucratic nature, the explanation of the Committee is somewhat difficult to follow, particularly where describing the term limits and which States Parties can be members. “UNESCO for dummies” this is not. “The World Heritage Convention.” whc.UNESCO.org. 24 February 2013. . The World Heritage Convention is fully summarized here and the page explains its role in the preservation of heritage over time. While the history, the benefits, and a summary of contents is useful, having the link to the full text of the document tucked away in a menu on the left hand side of the page does not lend itself to being easily spotted. The reader has to actively search for the link rather than having it within the main text.
117
“Tbilisi Historic District.” WorldMonumentsFund.org. 28 April 2013. . This page on the World Monuments Fund website provides information about the Tbilisi Historic District, including an overview of the city's history and importance of its cultural and architectural heritage. It also describes what the current conservation issues of the site are, how the World Monuments Fund helped through their restoration and conservation efforts, and why those efforts matter. This page is an exceptional example of how to present information about conservation efforts and how to educate the public on why preservation is important. Tucker, Abigail. “Endangered Site: Church of the Nativity” SmithsonianMag.com. March 2009. Web. 28 April 2013. This Smithsonian article from March 2009 discusses the issues that the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem is facing. These issues range from environmental damage such as water leakage that rots the roof and destroys the frescoes, to the feuding among the monks from three Christian denominations that share the space. This is a good example of some of the political and natural issues that many of the sites on the In Danger list face. Though a few years old, this brief article provides a deeper level of detail to supplement other information on Church of the Nativity. This article presents a relatively unbiased view of the problems that a particular World Heritage Site is facing. One problem with the article is simply that is a few years old. “Venice and Its Lagoon.” UNESCO.org. 28 April 2013. . This page on the UNESCO website is a report of the project the organization has undertaken to help Venice and its Lagoon from environmental change. It is important to note that this project, and report, is overseen, and written, by UNESCO and not the World Heritage Program. The presentation is academic, the text not easily digestible, the layout (a giant wall of text) visually unstimulating. "Visiting Taos Pueblo.” TaosPueblo.com. 28 April 2013. . The Taos Pueblo website provides the public with information on how to act and behave when at the WHS in order to keep the relationships between the local native peoples and tourists positive and promote healthy conservation and maintenance of culture at the site.
118
The outline of protocol for tourists demonstrates how awareness and education though media outlets like a website can increase and promote tourism in a healthy and conservational way that will help the locals and other stakeholders communicate with one another better as well as interact in a more positive way to preserve the site and its culture as well as the livelihoods of the people living there. Wang, Shu-‐Yi. “From a Living City to a World Heritage City: Authorized Heritage Conservation and Development and its Impact on the Local Community” International Development Planning Review. 34 (2012): 1-‐17. In this article, Wang discusses the difficulties and conflicts that occur when cities transform from living spaces to World Heritage sites. As Wang notes throughout the piece, World Heritage designation has great impact on the local community-‐ resulting in both benefits and negative repercussions. In terms of the socio-‐cultural scope, the negative implications of tourism development and World Heritage site designation may also be detrimental and non-‐reversible. To make her argument, Wang looks closely at China, where the desire for modernity and recognition has resulted in the rise of rapid economic and tourism development. Along with documenting the pitfalls associated with the top-‐down approach implemented in Chinese World Heritage site management, Wang provides the direction as to how community involved management practices could begin to take place. Wang’s article effectively and closely dissects the Ancient City of Pingyao and illustrates the multifarious impacts of rapid tourism development led by centralized government and lacking community involvement. This area of study is relevant as China and other emerging destinations are beginning to receive greater attention by UNESCO and the global tourism community at large. Wang, Tao and Luca Zan. “Management and Presentation of Chinese Sites for UNESCO World Heritage List (UWHL)” Facilities. 29 (2011): 313-‐325. Through case studies of Chinese World Heritage Sites, Wang and Zan present the issues China is facing in terms of site management and presentation, many of which center around the cultural differences between East and West and the lack of understanding on the part of the Chinese about sustainable management and development. Wang and Zan discuss the costs and benefits of World Heritage listing in terms of financing and human toll. The compelling and well-‐presented study, which the authors acknowledge is not yet complete due to a need for more data and analysis, demonstrates why World Heritage Site managers have different educational needs depending on the location and the understanding of the stakeholders. The Chinese show a lack of understanding of carrying capacity and other sustainability related issues, and
119
therefore do not describe how they will be managed; Wang and Zan argue that as a result, the sites could come under threat. Waters, Richard D. “Nonprofit Organizations’ Use of the Internet. A Content Analysis of Communication Trends on the Internet Sites of the Philanthropy 400.” Nonprofit Management and Leadership. 18 (2007): 59-‐76. This paper studied the current situation of communication and fundraising strategies on the Internet. The research method used was a stratified random sample of the Chronicle of Philanthropy’s Philanthropy 400 (the top four hundred charitable fundraising organizations in the United States). Main findings showed that most organizations were using internet as a way to provide information. However, the current websites are only one-‐way communication, giving little options to receive feedback from users. Not online chats were founded and only 3% used discussion forums. Waters stressed the fact that non-‐profit organizations needs to work in relationships with past and current donors and that Internet could become an important tool if it was used properly. This paper represents a comprehensive study of the status of non-‐profit organizations in the U.S. Even though the research method was implemented in 2005, the main concepts of relationship between donors and organizations are always going to be a critical factor for non-‐profit organizations. Weaver, David. Sustainable Tourism. Kidlington, Oxford. Elsevier: Butterworth-‐ Heinemann, 2006. David Weaver’s book on sustainable tourism was used as a textbook in the Sustainable Tourism course and covered a lot of material on case studies, principles, practices, theories and platforms for sustainable tourism management. This also covered issues in certification and defining sustainable tourism as well as issues in being completely sustainable in the tourism industry. Weaver’s book is very useful in providing information on tourism practices and principals that seek to maximize benefits and minimize negative impact on the economy, environment, societies, and cultures of regions where tourism is being implemented. This is what the UNESCO paper if seeking to provide information on as well as World Heritage Sites. Wehrli, Roger, Jürg Schwarz, and Jürg Stettler. “Are Tourists Willing to Pay More for Sustainable Tourism? A Choice Experiment in Switzerland.” Hochschule Luzern. 3 (2011): 1-‐17. This article used a choice experiment to find out if tourists are willing to pay more for a sustainable tourism product. The researchers found that there is a gap between thinking and acting in tourists. They found that the tourists are willing to 120
pay a premium on a product that is completely sustainable. They also found that the tourists are more likely to pay for sustainable tourism products if they are more educated and affluent. The researchers’ findings suggest that more education will lead to more Willingness to Pay and that there is a gap in the implementation and knowledge of sustainable products, which can be interpreted as conservation implementation at WHS in the support of this white paper. The researchers suggest that companies can and should offer sustainable products as a differentiation strategy that can put them ahead of their competitors as long as their prices for the products don’t exceed those of the unsustainable ones their competitors are marketing. “What Makes Just Give Different?” JustGive.org. 28 April 2013. . This page on JustGive.org's website provides information to potential donors on their mission – to make simple, educated, and private giving decisions. The information provided is almost “too good to be true.” Never has charitable giving been so user-‐friendly, and this page clearly demonstrates the innovation of the service. “World Heritage.” whc.UNESCO.org. 24 February 2013. . This page serves as an introduction to all of the background information on how UNESCO works, at least from UNESCO's perspective. The page also includes the full text of the World Heritage mission statement. The single most important component of this page is the mission statement. By providing the mission statement on this introductory page, UNESCO makes clear from the outset that it is something the reader should know and understand as they make their way through the rest of the site. “World Heritage Fund.” whc.UNESCO.org. 24 February 2013. . This page describes, in all of three sentences, the amount the World Heritage Fund distributes annually, how the fund is comprised, and how the funds are disbursed. Links to past contribution statements are provided. While the – very – basic summary of the World Heritage Fund efficiently gets the information across, it also demonstrates just how controlling UNESCO is of said information. Aside from the reports of compulsory and voluntary contributions, 121
which are exceptionally simple in their own right, the page does not offer any additional insight to indicate how much the fund has in total and how the $4million per year average is calculated. “World Heritage List.” whc.UNESCO.org. 24 February 2013. . The page, and accompanying map, list the World Heritage Sites by country. The map is color-‐coded to indicate if the site is cultural, natural, or of mixed heritage. The map is by far the most effective tool on the page, with interactive functions that take a visitor directly to a particular site's write-‐up. The use of the color-‐coding system is an effective way to graphically view the distribution of sites across the globe. “World Heritage List Nominations.” whc.UNESCO.org. 24 February 2013. . This page establishes the nomination process for any States Party that wishes to have a site designated on the World Heritage List. Each of the five steps are summarized and show the flow of one step to the next. While summaries can be effective, here they should be providing greater detail. Rather than relying on separate documents such as the Operational Guidelines (the link for which is outdated by six years), each step could be outlined more thoroughly.
World Tourism Organization. “Sustainable Tourism Management at World Heritage Sites: Enhancing Inter-‐agency and Stakeholder Coordination for Joint Action,” e-‐ unwto.org. (2009): 1-‐327. The WTO document covers the conference that occurred in China in 2008 whereby industry professionals as well as other stakeholders made cases and presented data on sustainable tourism practices for UNESCO World Heritage Sites. This document proves very useful not just for the scope and mission of our paper, but for providing statistics from the tourism industry and the impacts it can have on this region in China and especially on UNESCO World Heritage Sites. World Travel and Tourism Council. “ Economic Impact of Travel & Tourism 2013 Annual Update: Summary,” WTTC.org. Oxford Economics (2013): 1-‐4. The World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC), accurately and regularly update their tourism statistics on their website via reports and industry documents that they 122
tend to update every few months or so. This document helped provide the most recent tourism statistics and trends for the past year and a look to the future for 2013 and beyond. This report helped provide information on tourism statistics, but was not useful in providing them for UNESCO designated World Heritage Sites. It was very useful in providing recent and accurate tourism statistics and trends within and outside the United States of American that will help provide information on how UNESCO designated World Heritage Sites may be able to take advantage of these trends and demands in tourism for the future and what markets they could look towards in planning for marketing strategies in supplying tourism products that are site-‐specific as well as standard for UNESCO designated World Heritage Sites. Xiang, Zheng and Bing Pan. “Travel Queries on Cities in the United States: Implication for Search Engine Marketing for Tourist Destinations.” Tourism Management. 32 (2011): 88-‐97. This article outlines the importance of understanding the behavior behind how tourists plan their trips, specifically using search engines. The method used was text analysis of user queries from transaction logs of search engines. The authors recommend that destinations better position themselves in order to distinguish their sites from their competitors. This article has several limitations, namely the fact that the scholars used data from 1997, 1999, and 2001, and search engines such as Excite and Alta Vista. These search engines are now extinct, and have been replaced with newer platforms such as Google and Bing. Again, this area of research, Internet marketing, is very dynamic; it needs to be studied often because it is constantly changing. This is especially true for search engine marketing, where the rules and tactics are often in flux. Xiang, Zheng and Ulrike Gretzel. “Role of Social Media in Online Travel Information Search.” Tourism Management. 31 (2010): 179-‐188. Xiang and Gretzel discuss the highly important and relevant topic of the role of social media in travel in their 2010 article. The article focuses on search engines and what social media appear in search results using different cities in the United States as a basis. The article focuses specifically on virtual travel communities such as Lonely Planet, Trip Advisor, and Zagat. These authors were researching this topic when it was still fairly new. The research is still relevant, but follow up needs to be done since it is a few years old at this point. The research also focuses only on cities in the United States; while this makes the scope reasonable for this article, more research needs to be done using international cities, as well as specific destinations and sites. 123
Yan, Chang and Alastair M. Morrison. “The Influence of Visitors' Awareness of World Heritage Listings: A Case Study of Huangshan, Xidi and Hongcun in Southern Anhui, China.” Journal of Heritage Tourism. 2 (2008): 184-‐195. Yan and Morrison’s research and article is a case study on visitors’ level of awareness at two heritage sites in China. The results of the case study show that many people there, visiting the sites themselves, were unaware of their UNESCO World Heritage Site Designation. The authors found that of the visitors who were aware, they were more likely to want to delve into the cultural aspects of the site, whereas the other visitors were more interested in other activities, like walking around or hiking. It is very difficult to find studies on visitor motivation within the context of cultural tourism, especially when it comes to UNESCO World Heritage Sites. It is an area of research that should and hopefully will expand greatly within the coming years. In the meantime, this article is very useful for this type of research on brand awareness and UNESCO sites since it shows how unaware most visitors are, even when they are visiting this kind of site. This proves the point of the paper that the brand is not very strong or well-‐known. Yang, Chih-‐Hai; Hui-‐Lin Lin and Chia-‐Chun Han. “Analysis of International Tourist Arrivals in China: The Role of World Heritage Sites.” Tourism Management. 31 (2010): 827–837. Yang, Lin, and Han researched international tourists in China over a five year period and across twenty-‐six provinces. The result is a comprehensive study on why people came to these sites and the differences between travelers based on demographics. The results show that a majority of the visitors who come to China seeking designated heritage sites are more interested in cultural sites versus natural, which is not very surprising given China’s rich history. This article, while extremely detailed, is not as helpful to the research as other articles on visitor motivation and heritage sites, such as Yan and Morrison’s work. This article goes into depth about the differences between Asian tourists to China and American and Northern European tourists. While the points are interesting, many of the differences are due to concerns about crime, sanitation, etc. and are not as pertinent to the paper. However, there are some helpful morsels of information on bigger picture issues about the impact of World Heritage Sites on tourism and international arrivals.
124
“You and JustGive: A Partnership that Works.” JustGive.org. 28 April 2013. . This page on JustGive.org's website illustrates the benefits of a partnership from a fundraising standpoint. The sales pitch is well presented. It is clear, concise, specific. Yuksel, Atila and Olcay Akgul. “Postcards as Effective Image Makers: An Idle Agent in Destination Marketing” Tourism Management. 28 (2007): 714-‐725. Yuksel and Akgul examine images and the effect they have on traveler’s destination choice. The specifically look at the effect of Holiday postcards on consumption in this regard as they are one of the most widely disbursed forms of destination image. In their study, they found strong relationships between the emotions produced by destination images on postcards and tourist travel desire. Looking through the specific lens of the destination postcard, the authors were engaging and interesting in presenting their argument for the importance of image in destination choice. Zapata, Maria Jose, C. Michael Hall, Patricia Lindo and Mieke Vanderschaeghe. “Can Community-‐Based Tourism Contribute to Development and Poverty Alleviation? Lessons from Nicaragua.” Current Issues in Tourism. 14 (2011): 725-‐749. Zapata et al. use the model of community-‐based tourism and apply it to poverty alleviation. The team was able to determine that top-‐down approaches to development generally reflected the criticisms of the use of tourism as an economic tool, and the bottom-‐up approaches were received in a more positive light and perceived to better benefit host communities. Through their research, however, Zapata et al. reveal the argument for a combination of the two approaches to development. As both have their successes and weaknesses, a strategy implementing both top-‐down and bottom-‐up development would be the most beneficial to tourism host communities in the long term. Though Nicaragua is home to only two UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the poverty-‐ stricken communities in the country are similar to many that are home to designated properties. The lessons learned from the research in Nicaragua can be applied to UNESCO World Heritage Site communities and their efforts to development a tourist industry around inscription. The article by Zapata et. al was fascinating, resourceful, and easy to comprehend. 125
APPENDIX
PERMISSION LETTER Preston Robert Tisch Center for Hospitality, Tourism and Sports Management New York University 7 East 12th Street, New York, NY 10003 [DATE] Dear [Name], This letter is an invitation to participate in a capstone project we are conducting as part of our Master’s Degrees in Tourism Management at NYU's Preston Robert Tisch Center under the supervision of Dr. Frederic Mayo. The purpose of this capstone project is to explore UNESCO’s approach to the selection, preservation, and realization of cultural sites on the World Heritage List. Through this examination, the best practices for the success of World Heritage Sites, and the benefit to the local communities over the long term, will be identified in a white paper. Our focus will be on present day issues of economic, environmental, and socio-‐cultural impacts of tourism to UNESCO World Heritage sites. We would like to invite you for an interview since you are an expert in the field of [the process/industry/etc]. We believe that your insight would be an invaluable contribution to our white paper. We would appreciate your voluntary participation, and we propose that the interview last approximately forty-‐five minutes and occur either by phone, video conference, or at a location that is convenient for you. With your permission, we would like to either audio or video record our conversation to facilitate the transcription process. After the interview is complete, we will provide you with a transcript to give you the opportunity to review the conversation for accuracy and to clarify any points you desire. It is our goal to expand the conversation within our industry, and bring additional awareness to the significance of UNESCO World Heritage Sites. We believe that the “best practices” recommendations we make as a result of this investigation will be of benefit to the global tourism community. Should you have any questions regarding the research process, or about the capstone project in general, please contact us at [individual sender’s phone] or by email at [individual sender’s NYU email]. You may also contact Dr. Mayo, the faculty sponsor, at (212) 998-‐9107 or
[email protected].
126
We look forward to speaking with you and thank you in advance for your assistance with this research project. Sincerely,
[Name of Sender] On behalf of: Anna Abelson, Sarita Dan, Emily Desjardins, Gabrielle McGinnis, Cristian Pena Suarez, Koba Sebiskveradze, and Kristen Warden M.S. Candidates in Tourism Management Tisch Center for Hospitality, Tourism, and Sports Management New York University Email: [individual sender’s email] Phone: [individual sender’s phone] Frederic B. Mayo, PhD (Faculty Sponsor) Clinical Professor Preston Robert Tisch Center for Hospitality, Tourism and Sports Management New York University 7 East 12th Street, New York, N.Y. 10003 Email:
[email protected] Phone: (212) 998-‐9107 Fax: (212) 995-‐4676
127
INTERVIEW SCHEDULE 1 Interview Protocol: Opening Script (Draft) Hello [Insert interviewee name]. [Pause] My name is [Insert name] and I am here with my other group members [insert names]. Thank you for taking the time out of your busy schedule to be interviewed today. [Pause] We are graduate students at the NYU Tisch Center’s Tourism Management program, and we are working on a white paper for our capstone. Our topic is focused on UNESCO’s approach to the selection and preservation of cultural heritage attractions and implementation of viable management practices for sites on the World Heritage List. [Pause] We recognize that time is of the essence so I’ll quickly run through the process. The interview should take about 45 minutes. We will be recording the interview and taking notes to ensure that we obtain accurate information. The information gathered today will contribute to our overall body of knowledge and contribute to our recommendations. We would like the opportunity to quote you for our paper or presentation. If you would like to keep this information confidential, then we can include your quote and reference you as, “[Insert industry] expert.” Please indicate your preference. We will check any quotes we use with you prior to presenting the paper. [Pause] Do you have any questions before we begin? [Pause] Great. Let’s begin.
128
Interview Questions: INTRODUCTION/OVERVIEW 1. How would you describe your role in your organization? 2. What is your personal experience with WHS and UNESCO in general? DESIGNATION/APPLICATION PROCESS 1. What do you know about the designation and application process? What is it like? a. What is the voting process like? 2. What do you think of the designation process? a. What are the challenges? b. What are some possible solutions? 3. In your opinion, why did all of this start in the first place (WHS and designation)? 4. Why did UNESCO get involved in heritage designation in the first place? a. Do you think that UNESCO is carrying out its mission/original purpose? b. If no, do you think they have lost their way? POLICY 1. What do you think are the biggest challenges to implementing policy changes to UNESCO? TBL (People Planet Profit) 1. What are the advantages for countries to having WHS designation? What are the impacts? 2. What ideas might you have in terms of generating revenue streams? How can expenses be offset? 3. A number of sites are supported by corporate partnerships. In your experience have these been effective? a. If yes, how so?
129
b. If no, how could these relationships be better leveraged? 4. People say that sustainability is a problem with WHS-‐ what does this mean to you? 5. What are the main challenges facing UNESCO WH sites? a. In terms of economics b. In sociocultural terms c. In environmental terms CONCERNS & OPPORTUNITIES 1. What do you think the biggest threats are to UNESCO WHS? 2. What is the biggest challenge facing UNESCO WHS as an organization/as a whole? 3. What is the greatest strength of UNESCO as an organization re: WHS? 4. In your opinion, what are the differences between UNESCO sites in developing countries versus developed countries? a. Management plans, environmental standards, how much the community is involved...’ SUCCESS & THE FUTURE 1. How do you measure success in terms of heritage sites? How do you think it should be measured? CLOSING Thank you for your time. Is there anything you feel we did not cover? Is there anyone else that you recommend we speak with?
130
