Universidad Austral de Chile Royal Botanic Garden

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Universidad Austral de Chile Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh

Threatened Plants of Central and South Chile Distribution, Conservation and Propagation

Martin F. Gardner Paulina Hechenleitner V. Philip I. Thomas Cristian Echeverría Bernardo Escobar Peter Brownless Camila Martínez A.

This publication is supported by the Botanical Society of Chile

The correct citation of this document is: Gardner, M. F., P. Hechenleitner V., P. I. Thomas, C. Echeverría, B. Escobar, P. Brownless & C. Martínez A. 2006. Threatened Plants of Central and South Chile. Distribution, Conservation and Propagation. First English edition. Universidad Austral de Chile and Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh. 188 pp.

Design: Verónica Ramírez Interior photographs: Credits by each image Printer: Printer Trento, Italy Front cover: Berberidopsis corallina (Debbie White/RBGE) Back cover: Carica chilensis (Patricio Novoa), Myrcianthes coquimbensis (Peter Baxter), Jubaea chilensis (Carlos Zamorano E.), Puya venusta (Martin F. Gardner) and Passiflora pinnatistipula (Martin F. Gardner) ISBN: 1 872291 25 2 First English edition 2006 500 copies were printed. Printed in Italy This edition translated from Chilean edition, first published in 2005. Copyright Universidad Austral de Chile (UACh) English edition copy-edited and typeset by Erica Schwarz (www.schwarz-editorial.co.uk) To obtain a copy or a PDF file of this document please contact: Publications Department Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh 20A Inverleith Row Edinburgh EH3 5LR, UK Tel: (+44) (0)131 552 7171 E-mail: [email protected] Funded by the Darwin Initiative, and generous financial assistance given by Universidad Austral de Chile, Núcleo Científico FORECOS and Forestal Mininco S.A.

Contents Dedication

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Preface 1 (Dr Oscar Balocchi L., UACh)

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Preface 2 (Professor Stephen Blackmore, RBGE)

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Foreword 1 (Dr Antonio Lara, UACh)

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Foreword 2 (Dr David Rae, RBGE)

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Contributors

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Acknowledgements

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Introduction

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Introducción

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Conservation

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Threatened species

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Propagation

135

Bibliography

150

Glossary

167

Abbreviations and acronyms

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Appendices 1. Vegetation Zones of Chile 2. Forest Types of Chile 3. Pre-1994 IUCN Red List Categories 4. Summary of IUCN 2001 (Version 3.1) Categories 5. Targets from the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation 6. Essential information to be included in collecting notes 7. Review of conservation categories and distributions

173 174 175 176 177 178 180

List of scientific and common names

182

Index of scientific names

186 

Dedicated to Carlos Muñoz Pizarro, the father of Chilean plant conservation, and to Ian McDowall for supporting our interests in Chilean plant conservation.



Preface 1 The publication of this book will give great support to those who are increasingly concerned about the preservation of the environment, and especially for the conservation of native Chilean plant species. Certainly the State is becoming ever more eager to establish measures which aim to reverse the degradation which is causing such loss of biodiversity. In order to support these measures, institutions such as the Universidad Austral de Chile (UACh), through collaboration with other interested parties, provide fundamental support for the government by carrying out the necessary research that results in a better understanding and care for the biodiversity of Chile. The results of this research must be easily accessible to those who require the information and these must be widely disseminated. It is in this way that this publication represents a significant contribution to educating people in the value of the native Chilean flora. It is a source of great pride and satisfaction that UACh is promoting this important mission by helping to produce this book. We are very grateful to the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh for its continuous support for the researchers who work within the Institute of Silviculture at the Faculty of Forestry Sciences.

Dr Oscar Balocchi L. Director of Research and Development Universidad Austral de Chile



Preface 2 It is a great pleasure to add a few words of welcome and introduction to this new, English language edition of an important publication on Chilean plants. The book was quite rightly first published in the Spanish language, making available to audiences who most need the information an important body of knowledge concerning the rich plant resources of southcentral Chile and how they can be protected for the future. Everywhere in the world plant diversity is threatened by the demands we humans make on the natural environment. As this beautifully illustrated publication shows, Chile is home to many remarkable and distinctive plant species, a globally important component of the earth’s botanical riches. Fortunately, efforts to protect and conserve Chile’s rich flora are gaining momentum and this publication is itself testament to the progress that is being made. Through a collaboration between the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh and the leading institutions in Chile information has been gathered on the status of the most important threatened plants and the actions needed to conserve them. The format in which that information is synthesised and presented, I believe, stands as a model for future projects around the world. This new English language edition is therefore particularly appropriate and welcome because it will bring the work and the methodology it employs to a wider international audience. Key elements within the format, which urgently need to be replicated in other countries and regions, include the provision of information on how to cultivate the different plant species. Such knowledge, though of enormous practical value, is scarce and rarely recorded, even in publications on plant conservation. Knowing how to grow plants, with their infinitely varying requirements and biology, is the core knowledge that botanic garden horticulturists bring to the world at a time of unprecedented environmental change. Assembling such knowledge and sharing it with others who need it in order to achieve the goal of sustainable development and the vision of their national biodiversity action plan is something that only botanic garden people can do. For the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh it is a privilege and a pleasure to be able to work with our partners in Chile and to be able to contribute to the prospect of a better future for the country’s plants and its people. Under the auspices of the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity, we now have a Global Strategy for Plant Conservation. That strategy itself sets targets for establishing the status of threatened plants in the wild, for actions to conserve them in situ and ex situ and for the development of protocols for doing so. I commend the Threatened Plants of Central and South Chile as a model of how the vital information needed for plant conservation in support of the Global Strategy can be brought together and made readily accessible. I hope that it will inspire others to undertake similar works in countries around the world. We need such knowledge for a wiser future.

Professor Stephen Blackmore Regius Keeper Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh Scotland 10

Foreword 1 This excellent and much awaited book will make an important contribution in helping to combat the terrible fate that faces the native forests of Chile today. The authors and collaborators (24 in total) have undertaken a difficult, but thorough, task including updating descriptions regarding the characteristics, geographic range, habitat and conservation status of 46 species of threatened Chilean plants. There is no doubt that this book is one of the most important results of collaboration between the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh and the Institute of Silviculture at the Forestry Faculty, Universidad Austral de Chile during the last 10 years. This cooperation has included a growing group of researchers, professors, young forest engineers and students who have discovered the opportunities and challenges of studying the conservation of Chilean native forests. This book also represents an important milestone for the Institute of Silviculture, because during the last three decades the institute has become the main centre for national and international researchers. The inspiration for this was the pioneering work of Professor Claudio Donoso Z. It is hoped that the information in this book will greatly assist professionals and high school and college students. However, it will also empower the ever-increasing group of people who love our flora and seek to know it better, propagate it, conserve it and prevent it from vanishing for ever. An important part of our field research has been to collaborate with a diverse group of people including landowners, entrepreneurs, teachers, students from rural schools, park rangers, campesinos and members of ethnic groups and urban and rural communities. This book should also serve to increase the awareness of government authorities, congressmen and other decision-makers about the great value of our flora, so that they establish policies for effective conservation before it is too late. In doing so, this would also be the most effective way to encourage the natural development of our country together with its people.

Dr Antonio Lara Professor, Institute of Silviculture Principal Investigator Núcleo Científico FORECOS

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Foreword 2 From the very beginning of my horticultural career I became aware that so many of the trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants growing in private and public gardens in the UK were in fact native to Chile. A lot of these plants started to arrive in the UK and Ireland in the mid 19th century during the great era of plant collecting. Today it is estimated that in the UK and Ireland as many as 800 Chilean plant species and their cultivars are being cultivated. Sadly, and perhaps surprisingly to many horticulturists, some of these familiar plants, including Araucaria araucana, Berberidopsis corallina, Fitzroya cupressoides and Lobelia bridgesii, are now threatened with extinction in the wild. It is clear that if present trends of land use continue, then many more species will be added to the ever-increasing list of threatened plants. The publication of this book represents a great step forward in our knowledge about some of the important species from southern and central Chile. The accumulation of this knowledge is the result of three years of intensive fieldwork by researchers with disciplines in botany, forestry, horticulture and conservation. It is also the result of wide consultation with government agencies, universities, botanic gardens, forestry companies, local landowners and non-governmental organisations, and therefore represents a classic example of integrated conservation. This perfect combination of partners is exactly what the UK-funded Darwin Initiative programme strives to encourage. In so doing it will help recipient countries such as Chile meet important requirements under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Equally, it will also help them to meet many of the targets set out in the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC). I am one of the lucky people from the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh to have visited Chile on several occasions in order to experience the richness of its astonishing plant biodiversity. I passionately hope that the contents of this volume and the future research it stimulates fulfils its aim of helping to highlight the importance of conserving one of the world’s most remarkable floras. I look forward to seeing evidence of this in future editions.

Dr David Rae Director of Horticulture Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh Scotland

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Contributors Diego Alarcón Bioforest S.A. Concepción, Chile. Email: [email protected] Berberidopsis corallina, Gomortega keule, Legrandia concinna, Orites myrtoidea, Ribes integrifolium, Valdivia gayana Ramiro Bustamante Departamento de Ciencias Ecológicas, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile. Email: [email protected] Jubaea chilensis Claudio Donoso Instituto de Silvicultura, Facultad de Ciencias Forestales, Universidad Austral de Chile. Email: [email protected] Citronella mucronata, Eucryphia glutinosa, Gomortega keule, Legrandia concinna, Nothofagus glauca, Podocarpus nubigenus, Podocarpus salignus, Prumnopitys andina, Saxegothaea conspicua Leslie Landrum Department of Botany, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona. Email: les.landrum@ asu.edu Berberis negeriana, Legrandia concinna, Myrceugenia colchaguensis, M. correifolia, M. leptospermoides, M. pinifolia, M. rufa, Myrcianthes coquimbensis Antonio Lara Instituto de Silvicultura, Facultad de Ciencias Forestales, Universidad Austral de Chile. Email: [email protected] Araucaria araucana, Fitzroya cupressoides, Pilgerodendron uviferum Carlos LeQuesne Instituto de Silvicultura, Facultad de Ciencias Forestales, Universidad Austral de Chile. Email: [email protected] Austrocedrus chilensis, Beilschmiedia berteroana, Gomortega keule, Pitavia punctata, Podocarpus nubigenus, Podocarpus salignus, Prumnopitys andina, Saxegothaea conspicua Clodomiro Maticorena Departamento de Botánica, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Oceanográficas, Universidad de Concepción, Casilla 160-C, Concepción, Chile. Email: [email protected] For providing access to herbarium specimens of threatened plants of central and south Chile. Mélica Muñoz Sección Botánica, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural, Santiago. Email: [email protected] Gaultheria renjifoana, Puya venusta

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Patricio Novoa Jardín Botánico Nacional, Viña del Mar. Email: [email protected] Adesmia balsamica, Beilschmiedia miersii, Carica chilensis, Dasyphyllum excelsum, Passiflora pinnatistipula, Pouteria splendens Carlos Ramírez Instituto de Botánica, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile. Email: [email protected] Corynabutilon ochsenii, Hebe salicifolia, Lepidothamnus fonkii, Lobelia bridgesii, Satureja multiflora, Valdivia gayana Roberto Rodríguez Departamento de Botánica, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Oceanográficas, Universidad de Concepción, Casilla 160-C, Concepción, Chile. Email: [email protected] Berberis negeriana Alex Rudlof Departamento de Manejo y Desarrollo Forestal. Conaf, Valdivia. Email: [email protected] Lobelia bridgesii, Valdivia gayana Rómulo Santelices Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias y Forestales, Universidad Católica del Maule. Email: rsanteli@ hualo.ucm.cl Nothofagus alessandrii, Nothofagus glauca Maria Teresa Serra Departamento de Silvicultura, Facultad de Ciencias Forestales, Universidad de Chile. Email: [email protected] Avellanita bustillosii, Maytenus chubutensis Anita Smulders Forestal Mininco S.A. Los Canelos 79, San Pedro de la Paz, Concepción. Email: asmulders@ formin.cmpc.cl Pitavia punctata Francisco A. Squeo Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de La Serena, Casilla 599, La Serena, Chile. Email: [email protected] Carica chilensis, Myrcianthes coquimbensis, Passiflora pinnatistipula, Porlieria chilensis, Pouteria splendens, Puya venusta Darian Stark Facultad de Ciencias Forestales, Universidad Austral de Chile. Email: [email protected] Pitavia punctata

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Acknowledgements CONAF. We would like to thank CONAF for granting permission to allow us to undertake research in government protected (SNASPE) areas. We are particularly grateful to the following CONAF staff for their valuable support: José Miguel Torres (Region IV), Danila Lazo and Mario Gálvez (Region V), Iván Benoit (Region M), Patricio González, Pablo Lobos, Marcia Ricci and Rubén Bravo (Region VI), Jorge Gándara and Alexis Villa (Region VII), Raúl Verdugo (Region VIII), Alejandro Blamey, Guillermo Aguirre and Marcelo Saavedra (Region IX), Pedro Bahamondez (Region X). Park Rangers. We would like to recognise the following for their valuable support in helping us locate threatened Chilean plants: Roberto Cisternas, Héctor Daho and Claudio Rojas (P.N. Fray Jorge), Alforino Mora (P.N. La Campana), Clemente Jauffret (R.N. Altos de Lircay), Jorge Porras and Germán Adasme (R.N. Radal Siete Tazas), Cristian Alegría (R.N. Los Bellotos del Melado), Francisco Bilbao (R.N. Federico Albert), Fernando Campos (R.N. Los Queules), Pedro Jara (R.N. Los Ruiles), Yuri Cid (P.N. Laguna del Laja), Roberto Cerda (R.N. Roblería del Cobre de Loncha), Vicente Sotomayor (R.N. Ralco), Segundo Oliva (P.N. Nahuelbuta), Rolando Mathus (P.N. Conguillío), Abelardo Baldebenito and Marcelo Delgado (P.N. Alerce Costero), Luis Fuentealba and Mario Oliva (Bosques Arauco S.A.). Landowners. We would like to thank the following landowners and forestry companies for granting permission to work on their land: Domingo Cifuentes (Cordillera de Nahuelbuta), Hugo Brevis (Bulnes), José Miguel Hernández (Victoria), Ernesto Stück (Tomé), Forestal Bio-Bio S.A. and Forestal Mininco S.A. Fieldwork assistance. We are grateful to the following people for supporting our fieldwork activities: Rafael Henríquez (U. Católica del Maule), Patricio López (U. Concepción), Alejandro Espinoza (U. de la Frontera), Luis de Ferari, Sergio Freire, Leonardo Bossmann and Andrés Lagazzi (Forestal Mininco S.A.), Germán Schaub, Ricardo Novoa and Damazo Saavedra (Forestal Bio-Bio S.A.), Jorge Baldini, Marcela Guajardo and Eduardo Soto (Bosques Arauco S.A.), Jaime Rodríguez (Forestal Monteaguila), Rena Muxica (Procer S.A.), Deovaldo Faúndez (Predio San José Sur, Tomé), Felix Soza (Mina El Soldado), Antonia Echenique (Jardín Botánico Chagual), Helen Urra and Fernando Bustos (Parque Pedro del Río Zañartu), Peter Baxter, Michelle Hollingsworth and Peter Hollingsworth (RBGE), Adrian Lovat (Eden Project). Carlos LeQuesne also gave much information concerning the localities of many threatened species and Carlos Zamorano E. gave valuable assistance and coordination in the work with the landowners. Plant cultivation. The work of the Arboretum, which is supporting the ex situ conservation of threatened plant species, has been dependent on valuable help from many people. We would therefore like to acknowledge the tremendous support of the Arboretum permanent staff: Luis Soto, Bernardo Araneda, Claudio Muñoz and Oscar Salazar, and also for the parttime assistance of Gonzalo Medel, Fernando Bustos, Hugo Mancilla, Jose Luis Palma and Daniela Weber with the nursery installation and subsequent propagation activities. Valuable information has also been given by Pablo Donoso, Fernando Utreras and Alberto Zúñiga from the FONDEF project Desarrollo de tecnologías para la generación de una oferta diversificada de especies leñosas para el manejo sustentable de los bosques nativos de Chile. We also appreciate the collaborative help of Peter Gosling and his staff Vicky Cunningham and Lorelie M. Ives, from the Forestry Commission’s Alice Holt Research Station, UK.

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Photographs. We would like to thank the following people for the their photographs: Gustavo Aldunate, Peter Baxter, Greg Kenicer, Carlos LeQuesne, Lynsey Muir, Patricio Novoa, István Rácz, Paulina Riedemann, Debbie White and Carlos Zamorano E. Many people have also given information and valuable advice and these include: Mario Gallardo and Ximena Contreras (SAG, Region M), Marco Cortéz (U. Católica de Temuco), Rosy Montero (Herbario Concepción), René Reyes (AIFBN), Patricio Olivares (CONAMA, VII), Sebastián Teillier (Botánico), Susana Favela L. and Mariana Gaborrot (México), Francisco Morey (UACh), Crinan Alexander, Suzanne Cubey, Mary Gibby, David Mann, Toby Pennington, Vanessa Plana, David Rae and Kerry Walter (RBGE), Christine Ehrhart (Institut für Systematische Botanik (MSB), München). Special thanks also go to Peter Seemann and Alberto Díaz (UACh), and Sabina Knees (RBGE) for proof reading various parts of the book, and to Miguel Cárcamo for preparing the distribution maps. We wish to acknowledge financial support from the Department of Environment, Fisheries and Agriculture (DEFRA), UK under the Darwin Initiative programme. Generous financial assistance has also been given by Universidad Austral de Chile, Núcleo Científico FORECOS and Forestal Mininco S.A. to support the production of this publication. Finally, this volume would not have been possible without the institutional support of the Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia and the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, UK. English edition acknowledgements We are extremely grateful to the Horticultural, Science and Publications Divisions of the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh for their financial support towards the publication cost of the English edition. We would also like to acknowledge the valuable help of Hamish Adamson in coordinating all the activities for this edition, and our thanks go to Erica Schwarz for meticulously editing the text. Finally, we are grateful to Kate Hughes for help with translating parts of the Spanish text. The authors

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Introduction This book represents a very important output of a UK government funded project supported under the Darwin Initiative for the Survival of Species programme. The three year project (2002–2005), An integrated conservation programme for threatened endemic forest species in Chile (DR 11-012), has been collaborative between the Institute of Silviculture of the Forestry Faculty of the Universidad Austral de Chile (UACh) and the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (RBGE), Scotland, UK. The principal objective of the project has been to develop effective strategies aimed at safeguarding the long-term future of some of the most threatened plant species from central and southern Chile. These strategies include working with landowners in order to help develop long-term in situ conservation measures for the threatened plant species that grow on their properties. These conservation measures have also been supported by ex situ conservation strategies whereby living collections of key threatened plant species are being maintained in the Arboretum of UACh and actively distributed to other conservation collection holders in Chile. This distribution network has been formed through collaborative agreements. In carrying out all aspects of our work we have strived to fulfil important requirements under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and to meet many of the relevant targets specified in the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC). For the modern-day conservationist to be effective in his or her work there are many skills that are required. These skills are wide-ranging and include an ability to communicate with landowners who have threatened plants on their properties. Further skills are required in the accurate identification of plants and making field collections of propagation and herbarium material. Having gathered all the field data, which has hopefully led to a better understanding of a plant species’ full distribution, there needs to be an ability to accurately assess its conservation status using national or internationally recognised criteria. An understanding of ecological processes is also necessary to help design long-lasting restoration programmes. In order to produce the plant material for such programmes there need to be the relevant skills in propagation, keeping accurate plant records and in the general cultivation of plants. For this project training in conservation genetics has also been beneficial in order to help guide conservation policies. Much of the information relating to the distribution, identification and conservation of the threatened species detailed in this book has been gathered as a result of the project’s extensive fieldwork. These activities have been greatly supported by generous help from a wide range of organisations and private individuals. The propagation studies have been carried out in the rustic nursery at the Arboretum of UACh. This facility has been developed to support simple propagation techniques for threatened Chilean plant species and has been used as a teaching-model for other horticulturists who cultivate threatened plant species. Some of the propagation methods detailed in this book have been developed at this nursery in close collaboration with researchers from the Institute of Silviculture (UACh) and staff from the nursery department at RBGE. The results of our research are presented in the main accounts for 46 species that were considered to be threatened at the outset of this project. All species are native to areas that range from the province of Coquimbo (Region IV) to Tierra del Fuego (Region XII); part of this range is recognised as one of the world’s 34 biodiversity hotspots. This designated area, which is known as the ‘Chilean Winter Rainfall – Valdivian Forests Biodiversity Hotspot’, contains nearly 4000 species of which over 50% are endemic. In selecting our

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46 species priority has been given to those which are significant components of threatened ecosystems and/or are narrow endemics for which little is known about their full distribution and conservation status. Some of these species are still poorly known and for these much more research is required in order to ascertain their full distribution and to assess their conservation requirements. For these species an IUCN category of Data Deficient (DD) has been given. All conservation assessments have been made using the IUCN Version 3.1 Categories (see Table 1 for the definition of these Categories and Appendix 4 for a full explanation of the Categories and Criteria). The task of gathering the type of information contained in this book is never complete, therefore it is crucial that further information continues to be gathered. However, we believe that even though our knowledge is incomplete the results of this type of research should be published and widely disseminated in accessible publications. It is our hope that we have succeeded in producing a publication which will be useful to a wide range of users including governments and their agencies, conservation organisations, school and university students, and landowners both large and small. We believe that one of the great strengths of this publication is its emphasis on plant identification. We hope that accurate identification of threatened plant species will be greatly assisted by the colour illustrations of not only each threatened species but also some of those plants with which they can be confused. Already, the use of these photographs in lectures and training seminars has helped field researchers discover new locations for some of the Critically Endangered species. Even though there will be a continuing decline of some habitats which will have a detrimental effect on many threatened species, it is our hope that the known distributions of some of the plants featured here will increase as a result of this publication.

Scientific names All scientific names have been taken from the most up-to-date and widely accepted sources, and author abbreviations follow the standard of Brummitt & Powell (1992). 18

Introducción Este libro representa uno de los resultados más importantes del proyecto Programa de Conservación Integrado para las Especies Forestales Endémicas Amenazadas de Chile (DR 11-012), de tres años de duración, financiado por el programa de Iniciativa Darwin para la Sobrevivencia de las Especies del Reino Unido. Este ha sido realizado en forma conjunta por el Instituto de Silvicultura de la Universidad Austral de Chile (UACh) y el Real Jardín Botánico de Edimburgo (RBGE), Escocia, Reino Unido. El objetivo principal del proyecto ha sido desarrollar estrategias efectivas destinadas a salvaguardar el futuro a largo plazo de algunas de las especies de plantas amenazadas del centro y sur de Chile. Estas estrategias incluyen el trabajo con propietarios en el diseño, planificación e implementación de medidas de conservación in situ efectivas y duraderas para las especies amenazadas que crecen en sus propiedades. Estas medidas de conservación han sido también apoyadas por estrategias de conservación ex situ, a través de colecciones vivas de especies de plantas amenazadas establecidas en el Arboretum de la UACh y distribuidas activamente a otras entidades que poseen colecciones de conservación en Chile, con las cuales se ha constituido una estrecha red de colaboración a través de convenios. Durante el transcurso y desarrollo de todos los aspectos de nuestro trabajo, nos hemos esforzado en cumplir importantes requerimientos especificados por la Convención de Diversidad Biológica (CDB) y lograr muchos de los objetivos relevantes especificados en la Estrategia Global para la Conservación de Plantas (GSPC). Actualmente son muchas las habilidades requeridas por los conservacionistas para realizar un trabajo efectivo en conservación. Estas son de diversa índole e incluyen la destreza de comunicación para lograr un vínculo directo y confiable con los propietarios de predios con plantas amenazadas. Habilidades adicionales son necesarias para la identificación correcta de plantas y para la realización de colectas en terreno de material para propagación y herbario. Una vez reunidos todos los antecedentes de terreno, los cuales debieran proveer un mejor entendimiento de la distribución completa de las especies, es necesario tener la capacidad de evaluar en forma precisa su estado de conservación utilizando criterios reconocidos nacional o internacionalmente. La comprensión de los procesos ecológicos es también necesaria para diseñar programas duraderos de restauración. Con el fin de producir el material necesario para estos programas, se requieren habilidades relevantes en propagación, en mantención de registros de plantas y en el cultivo de plantas en general. Para este proyecto, el entrenamiento en genética de conservación también ha sido beneficioso con el fin de ayudar a guiar políticas de conservación. Gran parte de la información relacionada con la distribución, identificación y conservación de las especies amenazadas detalladas en este libro ha sido obtenida como resultado del trabajo de terreno extensivo realizado por el proyecto. Estas actividades se han visto apoyadas enormemente por la ayuda generosa proveniente de un amplio rango de organizaciones e individuos. Los estudios de propagación han sido realizados en el vivero rústico del Arboretum de la UACh. Este ha sido desarrollado para apoyar técnicas de propagación simples para especies de plantas chilenas amenazadas y ha sido utilizado como modelo de entrenamiento para otros viveristas que cultivan plantas amenazadas. Algunos de los métodos de propagación detallados en este libro han sido desarrollados en este vivero en cercana colaboración con investigadores del Instituto de Silvicultura (UACh) y personal del Departamento de Producción de Plantas del RBGE. Los resultados de nuestra investigación dan cuenta sobre 46 especies consideradas como amenazadas al comienzo de este proyecto. Todas las especies son nativas del área geográfica comprendida entre la provincia de Coquimbo (IV Región) y Tierra del Fuego (XII Región).

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Parte de este rango es reconocido como uno de los 34 hotspots de biodiversidad a nivel mundial. Esta área, conocida como “Area Prioritaria de biodiversidad de los Bosques Valdivianos lluviosos de Chile”, contiene alrededor de 4.000 especies de las cuales más del 50% son endémicas de esta zona. Para la selección de las 46 especies, se priorizaron aquellas que fueran componentes significativas de ecosistemas amenazados y/o fueran endémicas de distribución restringida. Para estas últimas es muy poco el conocimiento existente sobre su distribución completa y estado de conservación. Algunas de estas especies son aún muy poco conocidas, lo cual hace necesario investigarlas mucho más para poder determinar su distribución completa y establecer sus requerimientos de conservación. Estas especies fueron clasificadas dentro de la categoría de la UICN de Datos Insuficientes (DD). Todas las determinaciones de estados de conservación se realizaron usando la Versión 3.1 de las Categorías de la UICN (en la tabla 1 se encuentra la definición de estas Categorías y el anexo 4 una explicación completa de las Categorías y Criterios). Es crucial que el tipo de información contenida en este libro continúe siendo recolectada y actualizada, ya que esta tarea representa un camino que nunca termina. Sin embargo, aún cuando nuestros conocimientos sean parciales, los resultados de este tipo de investigaciones debieran ser publicados y difundidos ampliamente en publicaciones accesibles. Esperamos haber sido exitosos al producir esta publicación, la cual será útil a un amplio rango de usuarios, incluyendo agencias gubernamentales, organizaciones conservacionistas, escolares y estudiantes universitarios, y pequeños, medianos y grandes propietarios. Creemos que una de las mayores fortalezas de esta publicación es su énfasis en identificación de plantas. Esperamos que la correcta identificación de especies de plantas amenazadas sea apoyada enormemente por las fotografías entregadas, no sólo de cada especie amenazada, sino que también de algunas plantas con las cuales éstas puedan verse confundidas. El uso de estas fotografías, tanto en charlas y seminarios de entrenamiento, ya han ayudado a investigadores de terreno a descubrir nuevas localidades de algunas de las especies en Peligro Crítico. Esperamos que las distribuciones conocidas de algunas de las plantas tratadas aquí aumenten como resultado de esta publicación, aún cuando siga existiendo una disminución continua de algunos hábitats, la cual tendrá un efecto perjudicial en muchas de las especies amenazadas.

Nombres científicos Todos los nombres científicos han sido tomados de fuentes ampliamente aceptadas y actualizadas, y las abreviaturas de los autores siguen el estándar de Brummitt & Powell (1992). 20

Conservation

21

Introduction Compared with other South American countries, Chile is more than a political entity – it is a biogeographic island, bounded to the west by the Pacific Ocean, to the east by the high Andean Cordillera and to the north by the Atacama Desert. Its length of 4329 kilometres extends through 36° of latitude – more than any other country in the world. This, combined with an altitudinal range from sea-level to over 5000 m, has produced an extraordinary diversity in climates, ecosystems and habitats. Continental Chile’s Central Valley separates the Andean Cordillera from the Coastal Cordillera, and a series of deep river valleys further diversify and fragment the landscape. In the north the Atacama Desert merges into the Mediterranean-type sclerophyllous forests and the open shrubland of Central Chile. In turn, these merge in the south of the country into some of the world’s largest remaining temperate rainforests, which in the extreme south become much reduced in size and are mixed with open magellanic bog-lands so typical of Tierra del Fuego. Together, these diverse and unique habitats represent some of the driest and the wettest places on earth.

The Chilean Flora – a biodiversity hotspot Although the 5105 species native to Chile (Marticorena 1990) are relatively few compared with the richness of some neighbouring countries – for example, Argentina and Peru have a flora of 8409 and 18,143 species respectively – Chile has the highest percentage of endemic species. This percentage, of just over 51% (2630 species), compares with 21.3% for Argentina and 30.8% for Peru. Within Chile more than 60% of the total flora and the endemic species are concentrated in Central Chile, which stretches from Coquimbo in Region IV (c. 30°S) south to Chiloé Island and the adjacent mainland in Region X (c. 43°30′S). To the north and the south of this area there is a decline in the number of plant species as the climate becomes much drier, wetter or colder. In the northern part of this 22

area (29°S to c. 35°S) shrubs, herbs and bulbs are particularly diverse, while tree species reach their maximum diversity in the sclerophyllous and temperate forests found between Río Maule (35°S) and Chiloé Island (c. 43°30′S). The Coastal Cordillera, especially the area south of Concepción, is also noted for its diversity and endemism (Smith-Ramírez 2004). Central Chile has been identified as one of the world’s key 25 biodiversity hotspots – areas that contain at least 1500 endemic species of vascular plants (> 0.5% of the world’s total) and have lost at least 70% of the original habitat (Gil et al. 1999). In a recent review of the world’s hotspots, the Central Chile area was expanded and re-designated as the ‘Chilean Winter Rainfall – Valdivian Forests Biodiversity Hotspot’. This hotspot now covers almost 40% of Chile’s land area, stretching southwards from the Atacama beyond Chiloé Island and including the offshore islands of Juan Fernández, San Félix and San Ambrosio. It is estimated to contain 3892 vascular plant species of which 1957 (c. 50%) are endemic. The vegetation cover of this area is estimated to have declined from almost 400,000 km2 to less than 120,000 km2 (Conservation International 2005). The forest and vegetation types of this area also reflect the unique floristic diversity. Seven of the eight generally recognised vegetation types and 11 of the 12 generally recognised forest types occur in this region (Appendices 1 and 2). Six of the forest types are restricted to the area north of 43°30′S. In Central Chile, the Jubaea chilensis forests are among the southernmost palm forests in the world, while the Roble-Hualo forests of the Andean and Coastal Cordilleras between 36°30′S and 40°30′S contain important endemic families and endemic tree and shrub species, such as Aextoxicon punctatum (Aextoxicaceae), Gomortega keule (Gomortegaceae), Nothofagus alessandrii and N. glauca (Fagaceae), Legrandia concinna (Myrtaceae) and Pitavia punctata (Rutaceae). The temperate rainforests of southern Chile and the adjacent Argentinian

Andes are unique to South America and represent almost one-third of the world’s few remaining large tracts of relatively undisturbed temperate forests (Wilcox 1996, WRI 2002). These rainforests contain notable species such as Araucaria araucana, which can live as long as 1500 years, and Fitzroya cupressoides, one of the largest trees found in the Southern hemisphere. This latter species has the second longest lifespan in the world, with some trees living more than 3620 years (Lara & Villalba 1993).

Current vegetation coverage and decline in forest cover

(a)

ARGENT

ARGENT

I NA

I NA

Pacific

Pacific

Ocean

Ocean

The native forests of Chile, including those of the ‘Chilean Winter Rainfall – Valdivian Forests Biodiversity Hotspot’, expanded and developed from refugia in the Andes and the Coastal Cordillera that were created during the last glaciation, over

10,000 years ago. Until the arrival of the Spanish more than 450 years ago, human influence on the extent of this forest cover is thought to have been minimal. Since the arrival of the Spanish the situation has changed drastically (Figure 1). Originally, the historical temperate forest cover in Regions VII to XI is estimated to have been up to 18.4 million hectares (Lara et al. 1999). Recent research on the current forest area for central and southern Chile (Regions IV to XII) estimates that native forests now cover a total of 13.4 million hectares, a decline of more than 40%. It is also estimated that more than 84% of the remaining forests are concentrated from Regions X to XII (CONAF et al. 1999). In Regions VII and VIII, the decline of key areas for floristic diversity has been particularly severe and there are no longer any areas of intact forest greater than 5000 ha. The decline has been particularly serious in the Coastal Cordillera (WRI 2002).

(b)

Figure 1. Vegetational cover of Chile between Regions VII and X. (a) Historical forest cover (1550). (b) Present-day forest cover.

23

Reasons for decline Before the 1970s the primary causes of decline in native forest were related to the overexploitation of specific species such as Fitzroya cupressoides and Jubaea chilensis, combined with the expansion of agricultural practices. During the 16th and 17th centuries the early colonists burnt extensive areas of native forest in order to prevent indigenous people hiding during battles. In the 19th century, vast areas of Fitzroya forests in the Central Valley of Region X were destroyed by deliberate fires to make way for agricultural development. In Central Chile, trees of Jubaea chilensis were extensively exploited for their sap and it is estimated that this caused a decline from an estimated 5 million individuals in 1550 to only 124,000 trees today. In the middle of the 20th century a boom in the cultivation of wheat crops resulted in the elimination of extensive forest areas in the Coastal Cordillera of Regions VII and VIII (Olivares 2000). In the 1970s an expansion of the forestry sector in Region VII southwards became the main driving force of deforestation, although agricultural expansion continued to play a significant role. Forestry expansion was directly related to the introduction of subsidies for afforestation as part of the Forest Development Law 701 in 1974. This made plantation forestry much more economical and resulted in major investments in that sector. Since then, annual rates of decline of up to 4.5% have been reported in areas such as the Coastal Cordillera of Regions VII and VIII (Echeverría et al., in press). Afforestation was also accompanied by an expansion of the woodchip and pulp industry – by 1994 almost 4 million cubic metres of wood products derived from native forests were being exported (Lara et al. 2002).

24

The native forests south of Region VII have also suffered significantly from the increasing demand for firewood. It is estimated that in 2000, 8.1 million cubic metres were being extracted, an increase of 40% from 1985. Only about 10% of this is thought to come from sustainable sources (Reyes 2005, pers. comm.). Recent interests have focused on developing sustainable management practices in order to meet the demand for firewood without degrading native forest. An example of one such project is the ‘Certification system for the sustainable use of firewood in Valdivia’. In the northern part of the biodiversity hotspot, Region IV, native forests are estimated to have declined by more than 80% between 1976 and 1997 (Jaramillo 2001), although these forests were much less extensive than those in the south of Chile and their decline is probably more related to the effects of agriculture, overgrazing and fire. An increase in the frequency of fires has been a major consequence of the exploitation and decline of the native forests. In the last two decades, an average of 13,660 ha of native forests has been destroyed annually by fires. Most of these were caused deliberately and there is little doubt that fires have had a direct effect on threatened species. For example, in 2000, fires that spread from Eucalyptus plantations severely damaged one of the few remaining localities of the threatened endemic tree Pitavia punctata in the south-eastern Coastal Cordillera (Stark et al. 2005, in press). In the summer of 2001 and 2002, thousands of hectares of Araucaria araucana forest were burnt in areas protected by the State (Echeverría 2002). Other activities that have the recent decline of native the development and spread flooding associated with the

contributed to forests include of urban areas, development of

dams and hydroelectric schemes, mining and road-building. These secondary activities often have significant effects on species with localised distributions. Urban expansion and tourist development in the Valparaíso and Coquimbo coastal areas is threatening several local endemics, including Adesmia balsamica and Myrcianthes coquimbensis. A locality of Orites myrtoidea in the Maule Valley was damaged by the recent upgrading of the road to the border with Argentina. In the Central Valley, widening of Ruta 5 and an increase in urban development have severely affected the water balance of swamp communities that contain restricted endemics such as Myrceugenia colchaguensis near to Victoria. Large-scale changes in land use may also have long-term, less apparent effects through changes in the hydrology and local climate. In the Nahuelbuta area, local landowners have reported changes in the water-flow of rivers that run through their properties after clearance of native forests in upstream areas. Clear-felling, either of original native forest cover or as part of the harvesting of exotic plantations, is also associated with increases in the rate of soil erosion and the build-up of silt in river systems. Evidence of the latter can clearly be seen in satellite photos (Lara et al. 2003). The overall result of land-use change that has come about since the 16th century has been to produce a highly fragmented landscape in which many native forests and native habitats have been reduced and have become more isolated, and consequently more vulnerable to destruction (Echeverría 2003). Fragmentation has a range of effects, including an increased susceptibility to fire and invasion by exotic species, reduced pollination and restricted seed dispersal (Forman & Gordon 1986). These can lead to an increased risk of chance extinction either at the population or the species level (Bustamante & Castor 1998, Bennett 2003, Bustamante et al. 2003). Fragmentation is also one of the greatest

threats to Chile’s native fauna, particularly for the mammals and birds that need large areas of intact forest to survive (Cornelius et al. 2000, Vergara & Simonetti 2004). Fragmentation, whether as a result of exotic forestry, conversion of forest to agriculture or any other reason, will also affect the ability of native forests and native species to respond to changes associated with global warming and climate change. In Chile it is predicted that climate change would have its greatest impact on the forests of central and southern Chile, especially at their northern boundaries with other ecosystem types (IPCC 1997). The distribution of the different types of native forest is strongly related to temperature, rainfall and evapo-transpiration rates as well as other factors such as soil types and hydrology. Increases or decreases in these factors could make some parts of the areas currently occupied by native species unsuitable. If some species are already limited to small areas that are physically isolated by urban expanses, plantations or agricultural lands, it is unlikely that many of them will be able to spread naturally to more suitable areas. The effects of climate change are likely to be particularly serious for species that occupy specialised habitats and in areas where they are at the edge of their natural distribution (IPCC 1997). Areas that are particularly at risk include the unusual remnant temperate forests restricted to the tops of the Coastal Cordillera in places such as Parque Nacional Fray Jorge that are dependent on coastal fogs (Camanchaca). These forests contain the most northern representatives of many species such as Aextoxicon punctatum, Citronella mucronata, Drimys winteri and Mitraria coccinea, all of which are normally found in the wetter areas of the south of Chile. Other areas at risk could include many of the wet quebradas that provide a suitable habitat for moisture-dependent species with restricted distribution such as Beilschmiedia berteroana,

25

B. miersii, Citronella mucronata and Pitavia punctata. A regional decrease in rainfall could result in the drying of these quebradas, making the plants that are restricted to them more susceptible to drought and fire. Changes in land use in the surrounding areas would then make it difficult or impossible for the reestablishment of plants in another area. Fragmentation, in conjunction with the effects of climate change, has the potential to become the most serious threat to plant species in the near future (Baillie et al. 2004).

Threatened Species The exploitation, conversion and decline of native forests, along with other factors such as climate change, increase the risk of extinction for many plant species. Those with a high commercial value such as Araucaria araucana, Fitzroya cupressoides and Jubaea chilensis have a long history of over-exploitation which has led to an overall decline in their distribution and numbers. Although exploitation has either been made illegal through national and international legislation, such as the Natural Monument Law or CITES (e.g. Araucaria and Fitzroya), or become severely restricted as in the case of

Jubaea chilensis, the remaining sub-populations of these species are fragmented and have become threatened by other factors such as an increased risk of fire. Tecophilaea cyanocrocus, a small bulb with high ornamental value, was thought to be extinct due to over-collection but was re-discovered in 2001 (Eyzaguirre & Huerta 2002). The limited distribution and small subpopulation sizes of endemic species such as Gomortega keule, Nothofagus alessandrii and N. glauca make them particularly susceptible to afforestation and forest degradation. Valdivia gayana has a specific habitat and a very restricted distribution, and as these habitats decrease in number the species becomes more isolated as a direct result of fragmentation. The total number of threatened plants in Chile is uncertain. The Red Data Book on the Chilean terrestrial flora (Benoit 1989) includes 333 species (almost 6% of the flora) as Extinct, Endangered, Vulnerable or Rare. The first IUCN global list of threatened plants (Walter & Gillett 1998) included 323 Chilean species (Table 2). Both lists used the same criteria and categories and are based on pre1994 IUCN categories (see Table 1).

Table 1. Pre-1994 IUCN categories used in Benoit (1989) and IUCN Version 3.1 categories used in this publication*.

Ex Ex/E E V R K Nt I Q

Pre-1994 IUCN categories as used in Benoit (1989) Extinct Likely to be Extinct Endangered Vulnerable Rare Insufficiently Known Not threatened Indeterminate No information

Ex EW CR EN VU NT LC DD NE

IUCN Version 3.1 categories as used in this publication Extinct Extinct in the Wild Critically Endangered Endangered Vulnerable Near Threatened Least Concern Data Deficient Not evaluated

* A full explanation of these categories can be found in Appendix 3.

Table 2. Numbers of threatened Chilean plants listed in Benoit (1989) and Walter & Gillett (1998).

Reference Benoit (1989) Walter & Gillett (1998) 26

Ex/E 2 7

E 50 102

V 176 107

R 105 107

Total 333 323

Although Walter & Gillett (1998) and Benoit (1989) used the same criteria, there are significant differences. The larger number of threatened species in Walter & Gillett (1998) is the result of the inclusion of assessments from other sources apart from Benoit (1989); for example, Lepidothamnus fonkii, Podocarpus nubigenus and P. salignus were included on the basis of assessments made by the IUCN’s Conifer Specialist Group (Farjon et al. 1993). The main reason for the difference between the numbers of species listed as Endangered or Vulnerable is that the criteria used were subjective and could be interpreted in different ways, depending on the views of the assessor, and lacked any quantitative measures or thresholds that could be used consistently to assess the scale or rate of threatening processes. This led to an international review of the old categories (Appendix 3) and criteria by the IUCN between 1994 and 2001. The result was the development of a new system based on quantitative criteria such as estimates of the extent of distribution, the number and size of sub-populations and the extent or rate of decline. It is intended to provide a consistent method for assessing any organism at an international level in the same way. During the seven years of developing the

new system several different versions were produced, reviewed and revised. Each version was given a sequential number until, in 2001, Version 3.1 was adopted by the IUCN (IUCN 2001). This version has been widely recognised and is used by many countries and organisations. A summary of these categories and criteria is given in Appendix 4. Very few Chilean species have been officially re-assessed since 1994 – the most recent listings available from the IUCN include only 57 Chilean species; 30 of these are from the Juan Fernández Archipelago (IUCN 2004). None of these has been assessed using Version 3.1 categories and criteria. In this work we have assessed 46 woody species from south and central Chile using Version 3.1 categories and criteria (Table 3). Of these species, 37 had been assessed under the pre1994 categories and were included in Benoit (1989). The total number of species in each of the pre-1994 categories is detailed in Table 4. The Version 3.1 assessments for the 37 species included in Benoit (1989) are detailed in Table 5. Finally, the Version 3.1 assessments for the nine additional species and reasons for their inclusion are discussed in Table 6. For a review of the conservation categories see Appendix 7.

Table 3. Numbers of species in this work assessed using Version 3.1 categories.

IUCN Version 3.1 This publication

EX 0

CR 10

EN 11

VU 11

NT 3

DD 10

LC 1

Total 46

Nt 0

Total 37

LC 1

Total 37

Table 4. Numbers of species assessed using pre-1994 categories in Benoit (1989).

Pre-1994 IUCN categories Benoit (1989)

EX 0

EX/E 1

E 6

V 13

R 17

K 0

Table 5. Numbers of species assessed in this work that were also listed in Benoit (1989)*.

IUCN Version 3.1 This publication

EX 0

CR 7

EN 11

VU 9

NT 1

DD 8

* Assessments are based on Version 3.1 categories and criteria (IUCN 2001).

27

The pre-1994 categories (Table 4), Version 3.1 categories (Tables 3 and 5) and the numbers of species listed under each individual category of the different versions are not directly comparable. Despite this, there is a substantial increase in the number of species in the highest categories of threat. Under Version 3.1, 21 species are listed as either Critically Endangered or Endangered compared with the seven listed as likely to be Extinct (EX/E) or Endangered (EN). In some cases, this is a reflection of continued decline in their distribution or in the size or number of sub-populations; for example, Fitzroya cupressoides was listed as Vulnerable in 1989 and is now listed as Endangered. Several other species that were listed as Rare by Benoit (1989) are now listed as Critically Endangered

(e.g. Legrandia concinna) or Endangered (e.g. Adesmia balsamica). Nine of the species in this work were not previously listed, although two had been noted to be of conservation concern in at least one region and a third was Insufficiently Known. Berberis negeriana and Gaultheria renjifoana were described after Benoit’s Red Book (1989) was published, as previously each was thought to be conspecific with more widespread species. Both have now been assessed as Critically Endangered. Table 6 details the nine species and gives a brief explanation of the rationale for the assessment. Further details of the assessments can be found in the individual accounts for the species.

Table 6. Species included in this publication but not previously listed by Benoit (1989).

28

Name

Reason for absence from Benoit (1989)

New Rationale for assessment assessment

Berberis negeriana

Change in taxonomy – formerly included in Berberis serratodentata.

CR

Known from two localities, both subject to degradation.

Gaultheria nubigena

Not assessed by Benoit (1989). It contains very few plants from the high Andean areas.

DD

Only known from two localities in Chile. Distribution likely to be more extensive.

Gaultheria renjifoana

Change in taxonomy – formerly included in Gaultheria insana.

CR

Known from very few localities, all subject to degradation.

Lepidothamnus fonkii

Not considered to be Rare.

DD

Uncertainty about extent of decline.

Passiflora pinnatistipula

Treated as Insufficiently Known in Benoit (1989). Listed as Indeterminate for Regions IV and V.

CR

Known from very few localities, all subject to degradation.

Pilgerodendron uviferum Not considered to be Rare.

VU

Continued decline from fire, changes in land use.

Podocarpus nubigenus

Only thought to be Rare in Region IX.

NT

Continued decline from changes in land use, logging and fire.

Podocarpus salignus

Not considered to be Rare.

VU

Continued decline from changes in land use, logging and fire.

Saxegothaea conspicua

Only thought to be Endangered in Region VII.

NT

Continued decline from changes in land use, logging and fire.

The 46 species treated in this publication have been assessed as follows: 10 as Critically Endangered, 11 Endangered, 11 Vulnerable, 10 Data Deficient, 3 Near Threatened and 1 of Least Concern. Twenty-one of these, including 9 of the 10 Critically Endangered species, are restricted to

the coastal areas from Regions IV to X. Within this area, the greatest concentrations of threatened species are in Regions VII and VIII, which are areas that have suffered the greatest deforestation and where the degree of protection under SNASPE is lowest (Table 7 and Figures 1 and 2).

Table 7. Species included in this work and assessed under Version 3.1 criteria as Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable. Species

Benoit (1989)

New assessment (this publication)

Distribution summary

Critically Endangered Avellanita bustillosii Berberis negeriana Gaultheria renjifoana Legrandia concinna Myrceugenia colchaguensis Myrceugenia pinifolia Nothofagus alessandrii Passiflora pinnatistipula Pitavia punctata Pouteria splendens

E/Ex N/L** N/L** V R R E N/L** E V

CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii); B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(i-iii,v); B2ab(i-iii,v); C1; D1 CR B2ab(i-iii,v) CR B2ab(i-iii,v) CR C2a(i) CR B2ab(i-iii,v) CR B1ab(iii) CR A2ce; B2ab(i-v) CR B1ab(iii)

Region Metropoli‑ tana and Region VI Region VIII Region VIII

Endangered Adesmia balsamica Beilschmiedia berteroana Berberidopsis corallina Fitzroya cupressoides Gomortega keule Myrceugenia correifolia Myrceugenia leptospermoides Myrceugenia rufa Myrcianthes coquimbensis* Orites myrtoidea Ribes integrifolium

R E E V E R R R E R R

EN B1ab(iii); B2ab(i-iii) EN B1ab(i-v); C2a(i) EN A2ce; B2ab(i-v); C2a(i) EN A2cd EN B1ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii); B2ab(iii); C1 EN B1ab(iii); B2ab(iii); C1 EN B2ab(i,iii,v) EN B1ab(i-iii)

Region V Regions VI– VIII Regions VII–X Region X Regions VII–VIII Regions IV–VII Regions VIII–IX Regions IV–V Region IV Regions VII–IX Regions VIII–IX

Vulnerable Araucaria araucana Austrocedrus chilensis Beilschmiedia miersii Carica chilensis Jubaea chilensis Lobelia bridgesii Nothofagus glauca Pilgerodendron uviferum Podocarpus salignus Prumnopitys andina Puya venusta

V V V V V R V N/L** N/L** R V

VU A2c; B1ab(ii,iii,v) VU A2c; B2ab(iii) VU A4c VU A2c; B1ab(iii); B2ab(iii) VU A4c; B1ab(iii) VU D1,2 VU A4cd; B1ab(iii) VU A2cd VU A2cd VU B2ab(ii-v) VU B1ab(iii)

Regions VIII–X Regions V–X Region IV to Region Metropolitana Regions III–V Regions IV–VII Region X Regions VI–VIII Regions X–XII Regions VII–X Regions VII–IX Regions IV–V

Regions VII–VIII Regions V–IX Regions VII–VIII Region VII Regions IV–V Regions VII–IX Regions IV–V

* Myrcianthes coquimbensis was listed under the name Reichea coquimbensis in Benoit (1989). ** Not listed.

29

The species that have been assessed as Critically Endangered, Endangered and Vulnerable represent the most threatened woody plant species from central and southern Chile. Within this group, deciding which species have the highest priority is complicated. For example, Gaultheria renjifoana, a minor component of the understorey of Nothofagus forests near Concepción, may be the most Critically Endangered of all due to its small population size ( 300. Female flowers less numerous than male flowers; solitary, sepals 5, almost free to the base; September to January. Fruit a dry, dehiscent capsule, tricarpellar, globose. Seeds c. 0.8 × 0.6 cm, globose to elliptic, testa coffee to yellowish in colour; maturing from November to February.

IDENTIFICATION The leaves of Avellanita could be confused with those of Cestrum parqui but the latter has leaves 48

that have a foetid odour. Avellanita has male flowers with numerous stamens and the capsule is tricarpellar.

CONSERVATION STATUS First described in the mid 19th century from Laguna de Aculeo and in 1921 discovered from Los Perales in Region V (province Valparaíso, 33°08′S). However, no plants have been reported from the latter location since this date and only in 1985 was it rediscovered on the margins of Laguna de Aculeo. At the end of 2004 a new sub-population was discovered in the province of Cachapoal. The main threats to Avellanita include summer forest fires, grazing by domestic animals and the over-collection of propagation material. A further serious threat has been the removal of soil from its habitat. These pressures have greatly restricted its ability to regenerate successfully. The species has no protection within National Parks or Reserves.

CONSERVATION ACTION An initiative started in 1990 by CONAF (Region Metropolitana) has resulted in an ex situ conservation programme whereby plants have been propagated and grown on in the Jardín Botánico Nacional of Viña del Mar and in the nursery at Reserva Nacional Río Clarillo. In 2002 SAG (Region Metropolitana), in collaboration with the Universidad de Chile and CONAMA, initiated a conservation programme for the species. This has included fencing some of its habitats to protect it from grazing animals, and investigating its propagation and cultivation which has led to an active programme of restoration. There is an urgent need to survey the original site, where it was collected in 1921, and other suitable habitats in order to better understand its full natural range.

PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION Seeds: Collect from November to February and soak in water for 24 hours and in spring sow in a sandy compost under glasshouse conditions in a humid environment. Germination should take 3 months with a 90% success rate. Germination is variable and depends on the provenance and time of collection. Cuttings: Take soft-tip cuttings in October and apply a rooting hormone powder, use an organic compost and place under intermittent mist or under a closed plastic cover. With this method 11% success rate should be expected.

Peter Baxter

Martin F. Gardner

Argenti na

Pacific

Ocean

Avellanita bustillosii, tricarpellar fruit Paulina Hechenleitner V.

Avellanita bustillosii, male flower

Visited for Darwin Initiative

Cestrum parqui, flowering stem

Other studies

Distribution map 49

Beilschmiedia berteroana (Gay) Kosterm. Family: Lauraceae Common names: belloto del sur, belloto del centro, avellano Category: Endangered EN B1ab(i-v); C2a(i) DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT An extremely threatened endemic tree restricted to only eight sub-populations distributed from Region VI (province Melipilla, 34°10′S) to Region VIII (province Ñuble, 36°43′S). It grows at an altitude ranging from 60 to 1800 m in the Andes, Central Valley and Coastal Cordillera. In the Andes it occurs on rocky slopes close to watercourses in vegetation which consists of a mixture of species from two forest types: sclerophyllous forest type (subtype bosques higrófilos de quebradas) and Roble-Hualo forest type. The only known Coastal Cordillera subpopulation occurs at Reserva Nacional Robleria del Cobre de Loncha with Citronella mucronata and Nothofagus macrocarpa.

DESCRIPTION Tree to 15 m tall, trunk 40–60 cm in diameter; bark greyish. Leaves 3–7.5 × 2.4 cm, elliptic or sometimes ovate-elliptic, simple, opposite or subopposite, glabrous, slightly cuneate at base, obtuse or retuse at apex, upper surface very shiny, lower surface glaucous. Inflorescence 5–6 cm long. Flowers greenish yellow; tepals glabrous; September to November. Fruits 2 × 2 cm, globose, pruinose, greenish yellow; maturing from March to April.

IDENTIFICATION Beilschmiedia berteroana and B. miersii are very similar looking species and there are no reliable and consistent vegetative characters that can separate them. The most consistent character is the size, shape and colour of the fruits. In 50

B. miersii these are up to 2.5 × 5 cm, ellipsoid and streaked red, but in B. berteroana they are up to 2 × 2 cm, globose, pruinose and greenish yellow. Citronella mucronata can also sometimes be confused with both species (see Citronella mucronata).

CONSERVATION STATUS A highly threatened tree that was once thought to have had a much bigger range, but has now been much reduced due to fire, cattle grazing and the conversion of native forests to commercial forestry plantations. It is protected in R.N. Los Bellotos del Melado and R.N. Robleria del Cobre de Loncha; the latter is the biggest known subpopulation. It is thought that the total population of this species consists of no more than 2000 individuals. Almost all of the forests surrounding the most northern sub-population at La Rufina in the Andes were affected by a fire which destroyed 26,000 ha of forest in 1999.

CONSERVATION ACTION The whole population requires a long-term conservation initiative which should include prioritising those sub-populations which can be supported by ecological restoration programmes. One of the most threatened sub-populations with fewer than 30 individuals near to Bulnes is already being protected by the landowner who has entered into a conservation agreement with UACh. The area has been fenced in order to protect regeneration from cattle grazing pressures and plants are being propagated in order to support a small restoration programme.

PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION Seeds: Collect seeds from February to March. Remove the seed pulp with clean water and sow under glass immediately in plastic bags, leaving part of the seed exposed. Sow in native or pine bark compost. Germination should take 4 months with 80% success. In one year plants can reach a height of 20 cm. Young plants require protection from the sun and from winter and spring frosts. Cuttings: Propagation from cuttings is unknown.

Carlos LeQuesne

Paulina Hechenleitner V.

Argenti na

Pacific

Ocean

Globose fruits Paulina Hechenleitner V.

Inflorescence

Visited for Darwin Initiative

Fissured bark

Other studies

Distribution map 51

Beilschmiedia miersii (Gay) Kosterm. Family: Lauraceae Common name: belloto del norte Category: Vulnerable VU A4(c)

high amounts of water. Some sub-populations have already deteriorated or disappeared due to urbanisation, mining activities, the conversion of forests to farmland and related problems such as over-grazing. The effect of such processes is ongoing, especially in coastal areas near Zapallar and further north. The species was listed as a Natural Monument in 1995, but has no protection within National Parks or Reserves.

CONSERVATION ACTION

Tree endemic to the Coastal Cordillera of central Chile from Region IV (province Petorca, 32°13′S) to Region Metropolitana (province Melipilla, 34°02′S), where it has an altitudinal range of 15–1200 m. It is often associated with Citronella mucronata in the forest subtype bosques higrófilos de quebradas, which belongs to the sclerophyllous forest type. In the northern part of its range it grows with Aextoxicon punctatum, Cryptocarya alba, Peumus boldus and Schinus latifolius.

One of the biggest sub-populations of Beilschmiedia miersii occurs in División El Soldado (Cordillera El Melón) owned by the mining company Anglo American Chile. This location has more than 10,000 individuals which represents about 30% of the extant population. The mining company has initiated a project to protect this sub-population through a comprehensive programme of propagation and cultivation. This initiative is being carried out in collaboration with the local school Líceo Agrícola Christa Mock-Nogales and FURPACH. This is an excellent conservation example and more initiatives like this need to be developed throughout the distribution range of the species.

DESCRIPTION

PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION

DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT

Tree up to 25 m tall, trunk 70–80 cm in diameter; bark greyish. Leaves 4–10 × 1.5–5 cm, simple, opposite or subopposite, ovate to ovate-elliptic, glabrous, obtuse at base, obtuse or emarginated or sometimes pointed at apex, margin undulate, upper surface very shiny, lower surface glaucous. Inflorescence 2–10 cm long. Flowers greenish yellow; tepals ferrugineous tomentose on reverse; October to November. Fruits up to 2.5 × 5 cm, ellipsoid, streaked red; maturing from March to April.

IDENTIFICATION Beilschmiedia miersii can be confused with Cryptocarya alba; see discussion under Beilschmiedia berteroana and Citronella mucronata.

CONSERVATION STATUS Most of what remains of this species are remnant sub-populations mostly occurring in ravine bottoms where they require relatively

52

See Beilschmiedia berteroana (p. 50).

Martin F. Gardner

Peter Baxter

Argenti na

Pacific

Ocean

Mature ellipsoid fruit Peter Baxter

Flowers and a maturing fruit

Visited for Darwin Initiative

Bark

Other studies

Distribution map 53

Berberidopsis corallina Hook.f.

CONSERVATION STATUS

Endangered EN A2ce; B2ab(i-v); C2 a(i)

Although there are numerous locations for this species only one sub-population occurs in a protected area and most grow in remnant vegetation which is subject to encroachment from plantations of Eucalyptus and Pinus radiata. Although its vigorous habit makes it difficult to ascertain how many individuals are present in a given location, careful observations often conclude that a single population consists of fewer than 10 individuals. Grazing by cattle has also caused considerable damage.

DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT

CONSERVATION ACTION

Family: Berberidopsidaceae Common names: coralillo, michay rojo, voqui fuco, voqui pilfuco Category:

Climber endemic to the Coastal Cordillera where it has a relatively long, discontinuous, north– south distribution from Region VII (province Cauquenes, 35°50′S) to Region X (province Llanquihue, 41°10′S) and an altitudinal range from sea-level to 700 m. In the northern part of its range there are numerous locations on the eastern side of Cordillera de Nahuelbuta. In the south of its range many sub-populations occur in coastal forests west of Osorno in the San Juan de la Costa area. Most habitats are close to watercourses or on poorly drained soils, although some sub-populations occur on dry forested slopes. Commonly associated trees include Caldcluvia paniculata, Drimys winteri, Eucryphia cordifolia, Lomatia hirsuta, Luma apiculata, Nothofagus dombeyi, Persea lingue, Rhaphithamnus spinosus, Saxegothaea conspicua and Weinmannia trichosperma.

DESCRIPTION Vigorous evergreen climber to 15 m or more tall; branches pendulous. Leaves 4–12 × 3– 5 cm, alternate, petiolate, oblong, tapering to a point at the apex, truncate at the base, margin sharply toothed, veins prominent beneath, dark glossy green. Flowers pendulous; petals coralred or scarlet, pedicles red, borne in a terminal inflorescence; December to April. Fruits berrylike, dark purple, each with 12–24 seeds; maturing from January to March.

IDENTIFICATION It can be confused with the scandent shrub Proustia pyrifolia, which also has similar leaves, but these have dense whitish hairs beneath. 54

Only the small sub-population in Reserva Nacional Los Queules has any sort of protection, therefore conservation action is urgently needed to safeguard the remaining sub-populations. Population genetics research suggests that there is a high degree of genetic differentiation between sub-populations and that there is a significant difference between the northern and the southern sub-populations. Such research should be used to help guide conservation initiatives involving both the northern and southern sub-populations. For effective conservation local people have to be included. The Asociación Artesanos Rayen Fuco, together with Corporación Vertientes and Fondo Bosque Templado, are studying the sustainable use of B. corallina in the San Juan de la Costa (province Osorno) for the local basket making industry. A small ex situ conservation programme of Berberidopsis wild genotypes has been developed in Britain and Ireland by the International Conifer Conservation Programme, based at the RBGE, Scotland, UK.

PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION Seeds: Abundant fruit production in the wild is rare, but when seed is available it should be sown as soon as possible after collection in February and March. Seed should be soaked in water for 24 hours before being sown in a loam-based compost and placed under glasshouse conditions with bottom heat of 15–20°C. Germination takes between 20 and 75 days. Cuttings: Take soft to semi-ripe basal, nodal or heel cuttings 4–8 cm long. Treat with rooting hormone and insert into compost with a bottom heat of 18°C. Use intermittent mist or a closed plastic cover. Rooting takes place in 3–6 weeks, often with a 100% success rate.

Martin F. Gardner

Debbie White-RBGE Paulina Hechenleitner V.

Berberidopsis corallina, pendulous scarlet flowers

Pacific

Ocean

Berberidopsis corallina, mature fruit

Argenti na

Paulina Hechenleitner V.

Berberidopsis corallina, underside of leaf

Visited for Darwin Initiative

Proustia pyrifolia, underside of leaves

Other studies

Distribution map 55

Berberis negeriana Tischler Family: Berberidaceae Common name: NOT KNOWN Category: Critically Endangered CR B1ab(iii); B2ab(iii) DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Endemic shrub with a very restricted coastal distribution in Region VIII (province Concepción, 36°50′S to province Arauco, 37°20′S) where it is known from only two locations. It grows at an altitudinal range of between 140 and 400 m. The largest sub-population occurs south-east of Concepción on the upper slopes of hills with mainly commercial plantations with small remnant native forests. Here it grows as an understorey shrub in remnant coastal Nothofagus obliqua forest with Azara integrifolia, Drimys winteri, Laurelia sempervirens, Lomatia dentata, Luma apiculata and Persea lingue. The second sub-population occurs near Caleta Yani, also as a understorey shrub, where the most common associated species are Aextoxicon punctatum, Myrceugenia planipes and Rhaphithamnus spinosus.

DESCRIPTION Shrub to c. 1 m tall, young twigs light brown to grey, spines absent; bracts to c. 9 mm long, triangular. Leaves 4.8–10 × 1.3–4.2 cm, oblongelliptic, coriaceous, lustrous on both sides; margin coarsely serrate (rarely entire) with 6–16 spine-tipped teeth; midvein prominent below, the secondary veins 7–13 pairs, distinct, raised above and below. Inflorescence a raceme; peduncle and rachis 2–8 cm long, with few to c. 12 flowers, pedicels 10–16 mm long; flowers c. 5–8 mm long, orange-yellow; stamens c. 5 mm long, without lateral appendages; September to November. Fruits c. 7 × 4 mm, oblong; maturing from January to March.

IDENTIFICATION This species was once treated as a synonym of Berberis serratodentata but it is now considered

56

to be a distinct species. Berberis negeriana differs from B. serratodentata by having the marginal and secondary veins slightly raised above, margin coarsely serrate (rarely entire) with 6–16 spinetipped teeth each side and peduncle plus rachis 2–8 cm long. In B. serratodentata the leaves are dull below, veins impressed above, margins usually serrate with 10–32 spine-tipped teeth each side and peduncle plus rachis 0.5–1.5 cm long. Berberis negeriana can also be confused with Berberis valdiviana but usually only as a young plant.

CONSERVATION STATUS This species has a very restricted distribution with only two known sub-populations; neither have any type of protection. The major habitat threats are the cutting of trees for firewood and encroachment of commercial plantations.

CONSERVATION ACTION Extensive fieldwork needs to be carried out in order to establish the full distribution and the population size of this species. The known population size does not exceed 100 individuals, but it is thought that this number could be much greater when a full survey is undertaken.

PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION Seeds: Fruits should be collected in March. After removing the fruit pulp, soak seeds in water for 24 hours and sow them in fine compost with a temperature of 20°C. Germination takes place after 20 days. Cuttings: There is no information available concerning the propagation of B. negeriana. The normal method used for evergreen Berberis species is semi-ripe, mallet cuttings with a rooting hormone powder (see propagation chapter for a full description of this method).

Paulina Hechenleitner V.

Paulina Hechenleitner V.

Argenti na

Pacific

Ocean

Berberis negeriana, mature fruit Lynsey Muir-RBGE

Berberis negeriana, orange-yellow flowers

Visited for Darwin Initiative

Berberis serratodentata (1) and B. negeriana (2), leaf underside

Other studies

Distribution map 57

Carica chilensis (Planch. ex A.DC.) Solms

Oxalis gigantea, both of which are also summer deciduous, these two species could not be confused with Carica.

Family: Caricaceae

CONSERVATION STATUS

Common names: palo gordo, monte gordo Category: Vulnerable VU A2c; B1ab(iii); B2ab(iii) DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Shrub endemic to Chile’s Coastal Cordillera from Region III (province Vallenar, 28°38′S) to Region V (province Valparaíso, 33°09′S). It is restricted to areas which are influenced by coastal fogs, where it grows in scattered subpopulations amongst rocks on low hills. Here it is a component of the mattoral vegetation often associated with the shrubs Bahia ambrosioides, Berberis glomerata, Bridgesia incisifolia, Fuchsia lycioides, Oxalis gigantea, Pouteria splendens and Puya chilensis.

DESCRIPTION Monoecious or dioecious summer deciduous shrub 1–3 m tall; trunk thick and succulent, bark exfoliating at the base in older trees. Leaves 7–8 × 5–5.5 cm, very variable in shape, ovate, deltoid, some heart-shaped at the base and parted in 5-angled lobes, membranous, shiny; petiole 3–4 cm. Flowers 5–6 mm long, red on the outside, green within, male flowers borne in small racemes, calyx with 5 short teeth; petals 5, united to the base, stamens arranged in 2 whorls attached to the corolla-tube; female flowers solitary, calyx much reduced, corolla-tube very short, petals 5, free to the base; ovary 4-locular, style short, stigma 4-branched; November to December. Fruit 2–4, 1.2–1.7 cm, ovoid, greenish brown. Seed surrounded with a mucilage, oval; maturing from spring to summer.

IDENTIFICATION There are no other species that can be confused with this extraordinary species. Even though it sometimes grows with Fuchsia lycioides and

58

The reduction of the sub-populations is due mainly to habitat destruction as a result of agricultural activities such as burning of the mattoral in order to promote the growth of grass for grazing domesticated animals. Because the roots contain a valuable source of water they are often fed to donkeys. The harvesting of the trunk for feeding farm animals has certainly accelerated the decline of this species. Other detrimental causes have been the recent expansion in the cultivation of avocado pear and small-scale mining. The only State protection is in Parque Nacional Fray Jorge.

CONSERVATION ACTION Important sub-populations need to be identified so that programmes can be developed that encourage good agricultural practices to help safeguard the future of this species. All sub-populations need to be constantly monitored. There also needs to be further propagation research and the establishment of ex situ collections that are fully representative of the population.

PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION There is no information concerning seed or vegetative propagation.

Carlos Zamorano E.

Paulina Hechenleitner V. Patricio Novoa

Male flowers

Pacific

Ocean

Source: Squeo et al. 2001

Mature papaya-like fruit

Argenti na

Carlos Zamorano E.

Leaves

Visited for Darwin Initiative

Adult tree with exfoliating bark

Other studies

Distribution map 59

Citronella mucronata (Ruiz & Pav.) D.Don Family: Icacinaceae Common names: guillipatagua, huillipatagua, naranjillo, patagua, pataguilla Category: Data Deficient (DD) DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Endemic tree with a very long north–south, discontinuous, distribution from Region IV (province Limarí, 30°40′S) to Region X (province Osorno, 40°30′S). It occurs in the Andes and in the Coastal Cordillera and has an altitudinal range of between 15 and 1400 m. It usually grows in the sclerophyllous forest type as isolated individuals or in small stands on shaded hillsides and in humid valleys. It is particularly frequent in the Roble-Hualo forest type, where it can grow with Nothofagus dombeyi and N. nervosa depending on the latitude. In Reserva Nacional Los Bellotos del Melado, in the Andes, it is associated with Beilschmiedia berteroana, Cryptocarya alba, Nothofagus glauca and Quillaja saponaria. In more northern coastal habitats it is often associated with Aextoxicon punctatum, Beilschmiedia miersii, Cryptocarya alba and Schinus latifolius. In the south of its range it is very scarce.

DESCRIPTION Evergreen tree to over 10 m tall. Trunk to 1 m in diameter. Bark rough, dark grey. Leaves 4.5– 6 × 2.5–4 cm, ovate or ovate-oblong, simple, alternate, coriaceous, domatia in axils of veins, apex sharply pointed; margin entire or dentatespinose, revolute. Inflorescence a terminal panicle 4–8 cm long. Flowers hermaphrodite, yellowish white. Petals 5, free. Stamens 5, united at the base with the petals; September to November. Fruit 10–12 mm across, drupe-like, mucronate at apex, green maturing dark-violet when mature; maturing from February to May.

60

IDENTIFICATION This species can be confused with Beilschmiedia berteroana especially when the leaves only have entire margins. The easiest way of identifying Citronella is by its very rough dark grey bark and the occurrence of domatia in the axils of the veins on the undersides of the leaves.

CONSERVATION STATUS Although this tree has the most extensive north– south distribution (c. 1100 km) of any threatened woody plant species in Chile, it is still under threat because much of its habitat has been severely disturbed. This is especially the case where it occurs in the Coastal Cordillera which has suffered from massive deforestation and fragmentation. Clearing of forest for commercial forestry plantations, woodcutting and especially logging for firewood have all contributed to severe fragmentation. This has significantly reduced the coastal sub-populations and today they exist only in very small number, sometimes as badly formed trees which have been cut for firewood. Throughout its range large stands are rarely seen. Some important large subpopulations can be found in Reserva Nacional Roblería del Cobre de Loncha, R.N. Los Bellotos del Melado and in Parque Pedro del Río Zañartu. It has protection in the following protected areas: Parque Nacional Fray Jorge, P.N. La Campana, Reserva Nacional Río Clarillo, R.N. Roblería del Cobre de Loncha, R.N. Radal Siete Tazas, R.N. Altos de Lircay, R.N. Los Ruiles y Monumento Natural Cerro Ñielol.

CONSERVATION ACTION Conservation genetics should be used to identify the most genetically unique sub-populations in order to guide conservation policy for the protection of this important forest tree species. Long-term protection will inevitably require the cooperation of local landowners entering into conservation agreements which can effectively conserve the habitat of Citronella.

PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION Seeds: Collect whole fruits when they mature in late summer (February to May). Macerate

Peter Baxter

Martin F. Gardner

to remove the pulp and sow immediately in autumn (April to May). Sow in plastic bags to a depth of at least 10 cm in a mix of organic compost, leaf-mould and sand (1:1:1). At least 50% germination can be expected in spring (September). The seedlings grow slowly and can reach 15 cm after the first year. They are susceptible to scale insect and sooty mould. Cuttings: Take 10 cm long cuttings from new shoots at the end of summer. Dip in rooting hormone powder and insert into an unheated propagation bench with sand. Irrigate with intermittent mist. Rooting should take about 3 months.

Pacific

Ocean

Fruit with an apical mucron

Argenti na

Paulina Hechenleitner V.

Underside of leaf showing the domatia

Visited for Darwin Initiative

Adult tree with rugose bark

Other studies

Distribution map 61

Corynabutilon ochsenii (Phil.) Kearney Family: Malvaceae Common names: huella chica, abutilon, abutilon de valdivia Category: Data Deficient (DD) DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Endemic shrub that occurs from Region IX (province Malleco, 37°54′S) to Region X (province Osorno, 40°14′S). It grows in the Roble-Raulí-Coigüe forest type, specifically in the subtype remanentes originales del bosque de Roble-Laurel-Lingue. It can occur from sealevel up to 600 m in the Coastal Cordillera in the southern part of its range. It grows in specific habitats in the lowlands of the Central Valley over deep volcanic soils which are known locally as trumao.

DESCRIPTION Evergreen shrub 1.5–2 m tall. Leaves 3.5–7 × 5 cm long, alternate, heart-shaped, 5-lobed, margin dentate, lamina with star-like hairs below and covered with simple hairs above or only with star-like hairs on the veins; petioles to 6 cm long. Stipules with star-like hairs only. Flowers solitary or in 2s, violet; October to February. Petals 2–3 cm long, 5, united at the base. Calyx with 5 sepals, totally covered with star-like and simple hairs. Peduncles with a mixture of starlike and simple hairs. Fruit a capsule, oval and flattened with 12–14 kidney-shaped seeds, 2 mm in diameter; maturing from January to February.

IDENTIFICATION It may be confused with Corynabutilon vitifolium but the latter has leaves that are 10–14 cm long, petals 4–4.5 cm long and the upper surface of the leaf has stellate hairs.

CONSERVATION STATUS This species is at risk because its habitat within the Central Valley and in the Coastal Cordillera 62

is constantly being modified by human activities. What is left of its habitat after many years of deforestation, and the conversion of forests to agricultural land, is being further destroyed by uncontrolled grazing by domestic animals such as cattle. Corynabutilon ochsenii is often associated with non-native species such as Rubus fruticosus. No sub-populations occur in protected areas.

CONSERVATION ACTION This poorly known species needs immediate conservation measures to be taken in order to prevent further decline. It is essential to undertake a complete survey of its total distribution in order to develop both in situ and ex situ conservation programmes. Currently there are no known in situ conservation programmes for this species. Because it is highly ornamental and relatively easy to propagate, the cultivation of wild origin material in botanic gardens and arboreta should be encouraged.

PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION Seeds: Sow on a loam-based compost and cover with 5 mm of fine compost and then with 10 mm of coarse grit. At a temperature of 18–20°C germination will take place from 10 to 65 days. Cuttings: Take basal or nodal cuttings 6–8 cm long from semi-ripe wood in mid to late summer. Treat with a rooting hormone. Use a bottom heat of 18°C, and intermittent mist or a closed plastic cover. Rooting takes place between 3 and 6 weeks, often with a 100% success rate. The plant needs to be cultivated in shaded areas.

Martin F. Gardner

Peter Baxter Martin F. Gardner

Corynabutilon ochsenii, flowers

Pacific

Ocean

Corynabutilon vitifolium, leaves and flowers

Argenti na

Martin F. Gardner

Corynabutilon ochsenii, underside of leaf surface showing simple hairs

Corynabutilon vitifolium, underside of leaf surface showing dense stellate hairs

Visited for Darwin Initiative

Other studies

Distribution map 63

Dasyphyllum excelsum (D.Don) Cabrera Family: Compositae Common names: bulli, huilii, palo santo, puyoso, tayú, tayú del norte, tunilla Category: Data Deficient (DD) DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT An endemic tree restricted to the littoral areas of central Chile between Region V (province Quillota, 32°50′S) and Region VII (province Cauquenes, 35°48′S). Here it occurs in the sclerophyllous forest type between 190 and 800 m altitude. In Parque Nacional La Campana, which is one of its classic and largest locations, it is associated with Beilschmiedia miersii, Crinodendron patagua, Cryptocarya alba and Persea lingue. It is usually found growing on western aspects of the Coastal Cordillera which are influenced by oceanic conditions, but it also grows in small ravines or on south-facing sheltered slopes. At the southern limit of its distribution it is infrequent.

DESCRIPTION Evergreen, dioecious tree to 10 m tall, trunk up to 80 cm in diameter; bark greyish with longitudinal fissures. Branches with prominent spines, young branches hirsute with white hairs; spines present or absent, 6–12 mm long, caducous with age. Leaves simple, alternate, coriaceous, 3–6.5 × 1–3.5 cm, elliptic to obovate, mucronate at the apex, attenuate, cuneate or rounded at the base, glabrous on both surfaces when mature, densely pubescent when young, margin entire; petiole 1–5 mm long, densely pubescent. Inflorescence a spike of many capitula, rachis and capitula densely hairy. Flowers hermaphrodite, creamywhite. Achenes cylindrical with dense star-like hairs 1.5–2 mm long. Pappus yellowish-white, 6–6.5 mm long; November to December. Fruits maturing from January to February.

64

IDENTIFICATION Dasyphyllum diacanthoides could be confused with D. excelsum but in the former the flowers occur in solitary capitula while in the latter they occur in obvious spikes. Dasyphyllum diacanthoides grows in both the Coastal and Andean Cordillera from Region VIII to Region X.

CONSERVATION STATUS It is protected only in Parque Nacional La Campana. Throughout its range its population has become highly fragmented due to land-use changes for agricultural purposes. At present, fire, commercial forestry and road construction are the principal causes of habitat destruction. In some parts of its range, for instance those areas close to Valparaíso, Dasyphyllum is suffering from habitat degradation due to a combination of all of these detrimental factors. Although it produces suckers after cutting and fire damage, regeneration from seed is poor because of the lack of good viability.

CONSERVATION ACTION Presently Dasyphyllum is protected only in one State area, but CONAF VI Region is planning to develop a new protected area at Predio Forestal Tanumé. There needs to be a better understanding of the full distribution of the species and its taxonomic affinities with D. diacanthoides. A fuller knowledge of its seed biology and propagation methods is also required.

PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION Seeds: Seed should be collected between January and February, but little is known about their propagation. However, it is thought that the viability rate is as low as 5% and germination takes c. 3 weeks. Seedlings can reach a height of c. 10 cm after one year. Cuttings: Very little is known about vegetative propagation. The best material to choose is the epicormic growths from the main trunk and treat as softwood cuttings. Placed in equal parts of sand and peat these should root readily.

Gustavo Alduna

Paulina Hechenleitner V. Peter Baxter

Dasyphyllum excelsum, inflorescence (in bud)

Pacific

Ocean

Dasyphyllum diacanthoides, remains of solitary flower

Argenti na

Paulina Hechenleitner V.

Dasyphyllum excelsum, flowers

Visited for Darwin Initiative

Dasyphyllum excelsum, bark of adult tree

Other studies

Distribution map 65

Eucryphia glutinosa (Poepp. & Endl.) Baill. Family: Eucryphiaceae Common names: guindo santo, guindo, ñirre, ñire Category: Data Deficient (DD) DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Endemic tree or large shrub of the pre-Andean Cordillera from Region VII (province Linares, 36°05′S) to Region IX (province Malleco, 38°14′S). It has an altitudinal range of between 200 and 1400 m but it is particularly abundant at about 700 m above sea-level. It occurs in the forest types Ciprés de la Cordillera, Roble-Hualo and Roble-Raulí-Coigüe. It also grows in two contrasting habitat types: close to watercourses in humid ravines where it forms a small tree in low density, well-dispersed sub-populations, and at higher altitudes in xerophytic, exposed rocky places where it forms dense sub-populations.

DESCRIPTION Small, deciduous tree to c. 5 m tall. Trunk to 25 cm in diameter; bark smooth, shiny, reddish brown. Leaves 2–4 × 1–2 cm, opposite, pinnate, composed of 3–5 leaflets, each ovate to oval, margin toothed, dark shiny green. Flowers c. 6 cm across, hermaphrodite, solitary; petals 4, white; stamens 2.5 cm long, many; December to February. Fruit 1.5–2 × 1 cm, hard, woody, pearshaped capsule, with 12 valves. Seeds 5–6 × 2– 3 mm, coffee-coloured; maturing from February to April.

IDENTIFICATION Eucryphia glutinosa could be confused with E. cordifolia. However, E. cordifolia has evergreen, simple leaves; on the lower part of the tree the leaves have dentate margins and on the upper part of the tree the leaf margins are entire. Its flowers are characterised by the numerous stamens which are shorter than the petals (10–12 mm in length). In contrast, E. glutinosa has deciduous, compound pinnate leaves with serrated margins. 66

Its flowers also have numerous stamens but to 25 mm in length.

CONSERVATION STATUS A frequent forest species which is thought to be relatively widespread throughout its range, but there is insufficient information concerning the status of the population. It has protection within Parque Nacional Laguna del Laja, P.N. Tolhuaca and Reserva Nacional Malleco. Outside of these protected areas it is subject to habitat change through hydroelectric schemes such as those in the Alto Biobío, deforestation and the clearing of native forests for plantations and agricultural purposes. The low density sub-populations that occur close to water systems have some protection under Chilean Forest Law, D.S. No 4363 of 1931 (Article 5o) which gives protection to native trees and shrubs located less than 200 m from the banks of watercourses.

CONSERVATION ACTION There is a need to better understand the entire population of the species and to make sure that critical sub-populations are identified for protection so that these are representative of the whole range of the species. Priority conservation sites have been identified for Bullileo and Laguna Suárez and Nevados de Chillán. Chilean Forest Law needs to be strictly enforced in order to protect habitats close to watercourses.

PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION Seeds: Collect seeds from February to April, store in cold conditions (4–5°C) and sow in the spring under glasshouse conditions. Soak the seeds in gibberellic acid (250 ppm) for 24 hours and sow in a small container in a pine bark compost. Germination starts after 2–3 weeks with an 80% success rate. After one year plants can reach up to 30 cm tall. Cuttings: Collect semi-ripe wood at the end of autumn and prepare them with or without a heel. Place in a sandy compost under glasshouse conditions. Propagation from cuttings is not usually very successful.

Debbie White-RBGE

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Pacific

Martin F. Gardner

Eucryphia glutinosa, leaves and flowers

Visited for Darwin Initiative

Eucryphia cordifolia, leaves and flowers

Other studies

Distribution map 67

Fitzroya cupressoides (Molina) I.M.Johnst. Family: Cupressaceae Common names: alerce, lahuén Category: Endangered EN A2cd DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Endemic to southern Chile and Argentina. In Chile Fitzroya is found only in Region X (province Valdivia, 39°50′S to province Palena, 43°30′S) where it has a discontinuous distribution in the Coastal Cordillera, the Central Valley and the Andes with an altitudinal range from sea-level to 1500 m. In the Coastal Cordillera (39°50′S to 42°35′S) it occurs at elevations from 550 to 1000 m and in the Central Valley (41°30′S to 41°50′S) it occurs from 35 to 175 m. In the Andes (40°50′S to 43°30′S) it grows mainly from 500 to 1500 m with some sub-populations or individuals growing as low as 100 m above sea-level. It normally grows on shallow soils that are acidic, often poorly drained and nutrient-poor in different types of forest. For instance, at elevations greater than 800 m it is often associated with Nothofagus betuloides, while at mid elevations of from 500 to 800 m it grows with Nothofagus nitida, Pilgerodendron uviferum, Podocarpus nubigenus and Tepualia stipularis. At low elevations of between 40 and 500 m Fitzroya is uncommon and typically it grows as a large tree in the Valdivian rainforest with Amomyrtus luma, Drimys winteri, Laureliopsis philippiana, Saxegothaea conspicua and Weinmannia trichosperma. Fitzroya can live for more than 3000 years, making it the world’s second longest-lived tree.

DESCRIPTION Large evergreen to 50 m, dioecious or rarely monoecious; pyramidal or sometimes stunted into low shrubs at high elevations. Trunk 2.5–5 m in diameter; bark brownish red, deeply furrowed, fibrous. Leaves arranged in alternating whorls of 3, rarely in 2s or 4s, deep green or glaucous, of two types: on mature branches they are 2.5– 3 mm long, scale-like, ovate, tightly imbricate,

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keeled and with a narrow decurrent base, and on immature branches they are spathulate, 5–8 mm long, falcate and flattened. Stomata arranged in bands near the margin and keel, on both surfaces of the leaf. Pollen-cones terminal, solitary on short axillary branches, 6–8 mm long, yellowish white. Seed-cones globose, 6–8 mm, solitary, terminal on short lateral shoots, green at first, maturing brown with 6–8 woody scales in alternating whorls of 3, each scale with a prominent umbo. Seeds 2–3 mm in diameter, each with 2–3 wings; maturing from February to March.

IDENTIFICATION Fitzroya can be confused with Pilgerodendron uviferum. In Fitzroya the leaves are usually arranged in alternating whorls and the leaves are of two types: scale-like and strongly keeled on mature branches, falcate and flattened on immature branches. All leaves have two obvious white stomatal bands on the underside. In Pilgerodendron the leaves are regularly arranged in decussate pairs, incurved, triangular and keeled on the back.

CONSERVATION STATUS For more than three centuries Fitzroya has suffered from over-exploitation due to its highly prized wood. Human-set fires and conversion to pastureland in the Central Valley have significantly reduced its range and left extensive deforested or degraded areas. Destruction in the Central Valley has been extensive, and before 1987 the tree was believed to have been completely eliminated from this area. In 1973 Fitzroya was included under Appendix I of CITES which strictly regulates the trade in its timber and seeds. In 1976, alerce was declared a Natural Monument, prohibiting its exploitation. Nevertheless, cutting of ‘dead alerce’ (killed by fire or cut prior to 1976 as well as logging of buried logs in the forests) is permitted. In 1979 Fitzroya was included as a threatened species under the Endangered Species Act in the United States, forbidding its import to that country. Despite national and international legal protection, its timber has continued to be exploited. This is reflected in the fact that between 1977 and 1996 the exports of this timber reached an average of US$865,000. During the summer of 1997–98, human-set fires destroyed 9777 ha in the Coastal Cordillera. Fires in Fitzroya forests represented 34% of all forest fires in the provinces of Valdivia and Llanquihue in the

Martin F. Gardner

1997–98 summer. In Chile, 47,400 ha (17%) out of a total of 264,993 ha of Fitzroya forests are protected in Parques Nacionales Alerce Andino, Chiloé and Monumento Natural Alerce Costero. The remaining 83% of Fitzroya forests are mainly within private properties.

CONSERVATION ACTION

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Female cones

Pacific

The Pumalín Park is a private reserve of 250,000 ha that protects Fitzroya forests in the Andean area. The Lahuén Ñadi Provincial Park protects important stands of Fitzroya in the Central Valley. Studies in genetic variability using DNA markers suggest that there are three distinctive groupings of sub-populations within Chile, the sub-populations in the Central Valley, Andes and Coastal Cordillera. The sub-population in the northern part of the Coastal Cordillera is particularly distinctive genetically. This research has helped to guide current efforts by researchers from the Forestry Faculty of UACh in carrying out important ecological restoration of Fitzroya in the Central Valley, using nursery-grown seedlings of local provenance. Such work has been possible only with the commitment of a small landowner and support from the regional office of CONAF. Future efforts should concentrate on establishing new protected areas in the Coastal Cordillera and the Central Valley, the continuation of ecological research and the enforcement of current national and international protection initiatives. Future conservation activities should also support the development of alternative uses for Fitzroya forests and these should include protection in public and private areas, and ecotourism. Seeds: The optimum time for collecting seed is between February and March. Sow in spring under glasshouse conditions after cold stratification for 60 days. A germination rate of 50% can be expected. Sow in polystyrene or plastic containers of 24 cm3 in a depth of 3 mm using native or pine bark. Germination should start after 3 weeks. In one year plants can be expected to be 15 cm tall. Cuttings: Take 5 cm long, semi-ripe, heel cuttings in autumn. Put them under glasshouse conditions in a propagation unit with a bottom heat of 18°C under intermittent mist or a closed plastic cover. Use a sand and peat mixture compost (1:1) and treat cuttings with rooting hormone (IBA) at 2000 ppm. Rooting takes 2–3 months with a 96% success rate.

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PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION

Visited for Darwin Initiative

Other studies

Distribution map 69

Gaultheria nubigena (Phil.) Burtt & Sleumer Family: Ericaceae Common name: NOT KNOWN Category: Data Deficient (DD) DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT A poorly known alpine shrub which is thought to have a very restricted distribution in the Andes of Argentina (Neuquen and Río Negro) and Chile. In Chile it is known to occur only in two locations which are estimated to be about 350 km apart. One of these is in Region IX (province Cautín, 38°06′S) within Parque Nacional Conguillío. Here it grows above the tree-line of Araucaria araucana (1760 m) on wet, shaded, north-facing rocks. Its only other known location is in Region X (province Llanquihue, 41°40′S) on the sides of Volcán Yate at Ensenada de Reloncaví.

DESCRIPTION A dwarf shrub with delicate creeping stems. Leaves 10–16 × 8–12 mm, ovate to rounded or weakly cordiform at the base, hairless above, finely hairy beneath, margin with 2 mm long chestnut-coloured ciliate hairs. Peduncles to 2 cm long, pedicles 3–4 mm long. Corolla to 5 mm, urn-shaped to cylindrical, rose in colour; January to February. Fruits globose, dry; maturing from March to April.

IDENTIFICATION There are no other species of Gaultheria in Chile which have leaves with ciliate hairs on the margins.

CONSERVATION STATUS Until 2004 the only known Chilean location for this species was on Volcán Yate in the province of Llanquihue. The full extent of the small subpopulation seen at the new location in Sierra Nevada in Parque Nacional Conguillio has not

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yet been investigated. It is possible that new populations will be discovered within the range of the species in Chile. In Argentina, it is known from only a very few locations in Andean regions (1000–1500 m).

CONSERVATION ACTION In order to assist any conservation initiative the full extent of the potential range of this species needs to be investigated. Documented living collections need to be made in order that more can be understood about its biology and cultivation requirements.

PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION Seeds: Most members of the family Ericaceae require acid soils (below pH 7). The seeds are also extremely small, therefore they need to be sown on the surface of a compost such as finely sieved, well-rotted leaf-mould. Leave the seed uncovered. The compost needs to be kept moist and shaded at all times. Germination should take place within 2–12 weeks. Cuttings: Soft to semiripe basal or nodal cuttings should be taken in late summer. Treat with rooting hormone. Insert cuttings into compost of 50% peat and sand, and place in a humid shaded place using a bottom heat of 18°C. After rooting, which takes 3–6 weeks, pot into compost which contains well-rotted leafmould and loam. Keep moist at all times and lightly shaded. It is thought that the plants being grown in the Arboretum of UACh are the first to be cultivated in Chile.

Martin F. Gardner

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Lynsey Muir-RBGE

Leaves with marginal ciliate hairs

Visited for Darwin Initiative

Herbarium specimen showing flowers

Other studies

Distribution map 71

Gaultheria renjifoana Phil. Family: Ericaceae Common name: NOT KNOWN Category: Critically Endangered CR B1ab(i-iii,v); B2ab(i-iii,v); C1; D1 DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT An endemic shrub with very few known locations in a small coastal area in Region VIII (province Concepción, 37°07′S). It grows at altitudes of between 6 and 240 m on steep rocky outcrops 2–3 m above watercourses in ravines with small remnant native forest of what once used to be extensive bosque caducifolio de Concepción. All habitats are now surrounded by plantations of Eucalyptus globulus and Pinus radiata.

DESCRIPTION Evergreen shrub with arching branches between 1.5 and 3 m long; foliage decumbent. Leaves 6.5–11 × 2–4.5 cm, ovate-lanceolate to elliptic, coriaceous, glabrous with 17–28 prominent teeth on each side, petiole 6–10 mm long. Flowers in 7–12 terminal racemes, each raceme 3–5.5 cm long with 10–20 flowers; bracts broadly triangular, acuminate, margin narrowly membranous; November to December. Calyx 2–3 × c. 2 mm, 5-parted, teeth ovoid-lanceolate. Corolla 4–5.5 mm long, urceolate, white, 5lobed, reflexed; anthers long-biaristated. Fruits a capsule, 8–10 mm in diameter, globose, white; maturing from February to March.

IDENTIFICATION This species can be confused with Gaultheria insana under which it was once treated as a synonym. The main differences between these two species are that G. renjifoana has decumbent branches, glabrous leaves with 17–28 obvious marginal teeth on each side, petioles 6–10 mm long and anthers long-biaristated. Gaultheria insana has erect branches, leaves with ferrugineous hairs beneath, few obvious marginal teeth, petioles 2–5 mm long and anthers muticous or very shortly biaristated. 72

CONSERVATION STATUS In 1985 Sleumer treated G. renjifoana as a synonym of the relatively common G. insana, but in 1987 Muñoz reinstated it as an accepted species due to its clear differences that are discussed here under identification. Gaultheria renjifoana is highly threatened due to the conversion of native forests to commercial plantations, and this has led to severe encroachment of its habitat by exotic species. Recent site visits have established that there are probably fewer than 50 individuals of this species left. The species has no protection within National Parks or Reserves.

CONSERVATION ACTION There needs to be a complete survey of potential sites for G. renjifoana in order to establish the full distribution. Priority conservation sites need to be identified and long-term conservation agreements need to be developed with the landowners. An ex situ conservation programme also needs to be developed, which will also help to improve understanding of important aspects of its biology which will assist in situ conservation strategies.

PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION See under Gaultheria nubigena (p. 70). No plants are thought to be in cultivation.

Lynsey Muir-RBGE

Peter Baxter

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Pacific

Ocean

Gaultheria renjifoana (1) and G. insana (2), leaves Martin F. Gardner

Gaultheria renjifoana, racemes of white flowers

Visited for Darwin Initiative

Gaultheria insana, leaves and fruits

Other studies

Distribution map 73

Gomortega keule (Molina) Baill. Family: Gomortegaceae

3.5–7 × 3.5–5 cm, obovoid to globose, yellow when ripe, endosperm woody, containing usually one seed; maturing from April to May.

IDENTIFICATION

Common names: queule, keule

Gomortega can be confused with several other Chilean native trees including Drimys winteri, and Persea lingue.

Category:

CONSERVATION STATUS

Endangered EN B1ab(iii) DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT An endemic, monospecific family with only one genus and a single species which is restricted to the Coastal Cordillera between Region VII (province Cauquenes, 35°47′S) and Region VIII (province Arauco, 37°41′S) from 10 to 690 m altitude. Most sub-populations occur in the Maulino forests and prefer south, southwest or south-east aspects, and grow close to watercourses or in valleys that are influenced by their proximity to the ocean. In the province of Arauco, it can also be found growing on north and north-east slopes. In the more mesic sites Gomortega grows with Drimys winteri, Gevuina avellana, Persea lingue, Pitavia punctata and Luma apiculata. In the drier sites it is associated with Cryptocarya alba, Lithrea caustica and Peumus boldus. It is most commonly associated with Aextoxicon punctatum, but more frequently it is associated with Nothofagus dombeyi, N. glauca and N. obliqua throughout its distribution range. At the southern limit of its distribution, old-growth forest sub-populations grow on steep slopes and metamorphic soils with many species of the siempreverde forest type.

DESCRIPTION Aromatic evergreen tree to 30 m tall with a pyramidal crown when young. Trunk up to 100 cm in diameter, sometimes multi-stemmed as a result of suckering, bark grey with shallow longitudinal fissures. New branches quadrangular. Leaves coriaceous, dark green above, lighter green below, 5–10 × 2–4.5 cm, oblong-lanceolate, ovoid-elliptic to lanceolate, attenuate at the base, margin entire and slightly revolute; pedicels 8–15 mm, midvein prominent. Flower racemes terminal or axillary, flowers 5–7 mm across, creamy-green; tepals 2.5 × 2–2.3 mm, ovoid to oblong, obtuse or pointed; March to April. Fruit 74

This unique species was declared a Natural Monument in 1995 which gives it legal protection against logging. Like so many of the narrow endemic plant species of the Coastal Cordillera of south-central Chile, the population of Gomortega has suffered seriously from uncontrolled deforestation. Such habitat destruction has reduced the distribution of this endemic family to about 22 fragmented sub-populations. Most of these consist of small areas with fewer than 100 individuals. The fragmented forests are affected by encroachment from surrounding plantations of Eucalyptus globulus and Pinus radiata and have a poor ability to extend their natural range as a result of low germination rates. However, in one sub-population, south of Caramávida (province Arauco) there is relatively good regeneration from seed, particularly in those areas which have an open forest canopy. Only two of the 22 subpopulations have State protection and these are in Reserva Nacional Los Ruiles and R.N. Los Queules. Encouraged by schemes such as FSC and CERTFOR, several private initiatives have been developed for protecting Gomortega.

CONSERVATION ACTION Clearly the aim should be to protect all subpopulations of Gomortega and in many of these sites restoration programmes need to be initiated. Forest restoration will need support from active research on demography, ecology and aspects of the biology of the species. Local conservation initiatives will require the support of local communities and this is made easier by the fact that the species is well known by local people due to the edible fruits being used in jams, desserts and alcohol.

PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION Seeds: Fruits can be collected from February until as late as August. Clean fruits by removing the fleshy outer cover and store at a temperature of 4°C until time of sowing. In spring soak in clean

Martin F. Gardner

Pacific

Ocean

Leaves and mature fruits

Argenti na

Carlos LeQuesne

water for 3 weeks and place the wet fruits in an oven at 30°C for 6 hours until the fruits begin to break apart. Very carefully open the fruits using a hammer and chisel to remove the seeds and soak for 24 hours in gibberellic acid (100 ppm). Sow under glasshouse conditions in deep plastic bags using a mixture of pine bark with sand and cover with a thin layer of compost. The seeds will start to germinate from 4 weeks. In one year plants can reach a height of 8–10 cm. It is essential not to over water the plants and keep them shaded. In high rainfall areas keep them under cover so that the water regime can be controlled. Another method involves cleaning the fruits as before, sowing in a box of sand during the winter and placing in a vermin-proof area outside. In spring remove the germinated seeds making sure that the cotyledons are free from the hard seed cases (remove with the aid of water to avoid fungal infection) and sow in pure sand. Forestal Celco S.A. clean and break the fruits immediately after collection (April to May); this is achieved by mechanical scarification using a combination of a vice and then a hammer and chisel. Sow the broken fruits in a suitable container with a pine bark compost and overhead shade of 60%. Germination will start after 5 months, with 42% germination success in the first year. Cuttings: Research by Bioforest-Forestal Arauco has shown that apical shoots will root with a success rate of 10% by using rooting hormone powder and placing the cuttings in a compost of Sphagnum moss and perlite. Cuttings should be placed in a glasshouse under intermittent mist. There can be a problem with maintaining apical dominance of the rooted shoots.

Visited for Darwin Initiative

Flowers

Other studies

Distribution map 75

Hebe salicifolia (G.Forst.) Pennell Family: Scrophulariaceae Common name: hebe

become much reduced through human activities. Only one sub-population has any State protection and that is in Parque Nacional Laguna San Rafael.

CONSERVATION ACTION

Data Deficient (DD)

In order to develop any sort of conservation programme for this species, a full study needs to be undertaken of its total distribution to establish its conservation status. A full evaluation of its taxonomic status is also required.

DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT

PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION

Category:

One of several Chilean native plants that also have a natural distribution in New Zealand. In Chile it occurs from Region X (province Chiloé, 43°S) to Region XII (province Ultima Esperanza, 50°21′S) where it has an altitude ranging from 100 to 300 m. It can occur in coastal areas, especially around islands and on coastal mountain slopes where it forms part of the gallery vegetation near to watercourses or even close to glaciers. In most habitats it forms patches on mountain slopes where it grows with Drimys winteri and Nothofagus.

DESCRIPTION Evergreen shrub to 5 m tall. Branchlets pale green, glabrous. Leaves 5–15 × 1–2.5 cm, longlanceolate, narrowed towards the apex and long-acuminate, glabrous, margin entire or minutely denticulate. Inflorescence lateral, simple. Calyx-lobes c. 2 mm long, narrow, acute, ciliate. Corolla white or very pale lilac. Capsule pendent, 3.5 × 2.5 mm, rounded, glabrous.

IDENTIFICATION Hebe elliptica is the only other Hebe native to Chile but the leaves are significantly different. It differs from H. salicifolia in having smaller leaves (1.5–2.5 cm long), that are narrowed towards the apex and crowded along the branchlets. Hebe elliptica also has a smaller inflorescence of c. 3 mm long which is less rounded.

CONSERVATION STATUS There have been very few studies carried out concerning the habitat of Hebe, but it is thought that the suitable habitats for this species have 76

Seeds: Sow the fine seed on the surface of the compost in early spring and lightly cover with fine compost, coarse sand or grit. Once germinated treat the seedlings with a fungicide. Cuttings: This is a very easy species to root. Take 6–8 cm long, semi-ripe, basal or nodal cuttings, and reduce the length of leaf by half to cut down water loss. Take cuttings in mid to late summer and use a bottom heat of 18°C under intermittent mist or a closed plastic cover. Rooting takes between 3 and 6 weeks, often with 100% success rate. Treat the cuttings with a fungicide and do not over water.

Martin F. Gardner

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Martin F. Gardner

Shrubby habit

Other studies

Inflorescence

Distribution map 77

Jubaea chilensis (Molina) Baill. Family: Palmae Common names: PALMA CHILENA, PALMERA CHILENA, PALMA DE COQUITOS, PALMA DE MIEL, PALMA DE VINO DE CHILE Category: Vulnerable VU A4c; B1ab(iii) DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT A monospecific genus with a narrow, discontinuous distribution in seasonally dry river valleys of the Coastal Cordillera of central Chile from Region IV (province Choapa, 29°55′S) to Region VII (province Curicó, 35°22′S). It has an altitude ranging from sea-level to 1400 m and is typically associated with sclerophyllous forest type and/or spiny mattoral vegetation. Associated species include Colliguaja odorifera, Cryptocarya alba, Echinopsis chiloensis, Lithrea caustica, Peumus boldus, Podanthus mitiqui, Puya berteroana, Retanilla trinerva, Quillaja saponaria and Schinus polygamus.

DESCRIPTION Monoecious tree to 30 m tall. Trunk 0.8–1.1 m in diameter, columniform, abruptly narrowing in the upper part. Bark ash-coloured, covered with rhomboid leaf scars. Leaves 2–4 m × 50– 60 cm, pinnate, grouped at the top of the trunk; pinnae alternate, 110–120 per side, sessile; rachis arching, triangular. Inflorescence to c. 1.5 m long, racemose, axillary, once branched; surrounded by 2 bracts, one fibrous and the other woody and shaped like a canoe; rachis spirally arranged, maroon, basally swollen, bearing purple flowers in 3s (1 female and 2 male); male flowers with 3 narrow external sepals and 3 longer internal tepals, stamens 30; female flowers with 3 sepals and 3 overlapping petals; November. Fruit to 5 cm long, 1-seeded, ovoid, with apical stigmatic remains, yellow; maturing from February to May.

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IDENTIFICATION The massive swollen trunk distinguishes this palm from any other species. There are no other palms native to continental Chile.

CONSERVATION STATUS There has been a dramatic decrease in the numbers of this palm over the last 500 years. It is estimated that the population has been reduced by about 98% from 5 million to only 124,000 trees. The extant trees occur in 11 sub-populations the biggest of which are in Parque Nacional La Campana (Region V) with c. 80,000 individuals, Palmeras de Cocalán (Region VI) with c. 35,000 and El Salto (Region V) with c. 6500. The dramatic reduction of the population is due to commercial exploitation for its sap (syrup) and fruits. During the 20th century changes in land use for agriculture, forestry plantations and livestock have also further reduced the population. Jubaea is very sensitive to human disturbance and trees can take between 80 and 120 years to become reproductively mature. Such disturbance, and particularly livestock grazing, has had a significant impact on its regeneration. Currently CONAF and SAG allow the annual cutting of up to 36 trees of Jubaea but stipulate that for each tree cut 10 have to be replanted. It is thought that most seed is dispersed by livestock (cattle and horses) and to a lesser extent by the native rat Octodon degus. The exotic rats Rattus rattus and Rattus norvegicus also feed on the seeds.

CONSERVATION ACTION It is important that the extraction of the sap is carried out in a sustainable way. There are good examples in other parts of the world where this has been achieved. For example, in the Canary Islands the indigenous palm Phoenix canariensis is fully utilised without no detriment to the native population. The aim should be to prohibit all cutting of Jubaea as soon as possible. Genetic population studies should be carried out in order to establish the genetic variation between and within sub-populations. This research will help to guide restoration efforts. Research should also be undertaken to gain a better understanding of gene-flow between sub-populations.

Carlos Zamorano E

PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION Seeds: Seeds should be freshly sown and not allowed to dry out at any time. Seeds can be prepared for sowing in several ways: (i) scarifying the seeds by rubbing them on coarse sandpaper which will allow water to enter the seed and promote faster germination, (ii) soaking the seeds in water for one or two days, or (iii) cracking the seeds and removing the endosperm. Care must be taken when using the last method in carefully treating the endosperm with a fungicide and placing it in a sterile well-drained soil. Whatever method is used a temperature of 25–30°C is required and germination will take between 2 and 12 months. Seeds should be sown in deep containers in order to give the roots sufficient depth to develop.

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Peter Baxter

Alternate pinnae (leaves)

Visited for Darwin Initiative

Adult tree

Other studies

Distribution map 79

Legrandia concinna (Phil.) Kausel Family: Myrtaceae Common names: luma del norte, luma blanca, luma Category: Critically Endangered CR B2ab(i-iii,v) DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Monospecific endemic tree, with a narrow discontinuous distribution in the Andean and preAndean Cordilleras from Region VII (province Talca, 35°16′S) to Region VIII (province Ñuble, 36°41′S). It has an altitudinal range of between 400 and 1000 m and usually grows in dense forests on poorly drained soils or close to watercourses. It often occurs in forests dominated by Nothofagus glauca and N. obliqua. It can also grow in association with Aextoxicon punctatum, Cryptocarya alba, Laurelia sempervirens, Lomatia hirsuta, Luma apiculata, Nothofagus dombeyi, N. nervosa, Persea lingue and Quillaja saponaria in the bosque de galeria in the forest subtype bosques higrófitos de quebradas (RobleHualo forest type).

DESCRIPTION Tree to about 8 m tall, young growth with simple, whitish hairs to c. 1 mm long; young twigs 4angled, reddish-brown but becoming grey with age. Bark exfoliating with orange-red thin layers revealing whitish patches. Leaves 2–5.5 × 0.8– 3 cm, elliptic-oblong, ovate-elliptic, obovate, glabrous to sparsely hairy along the midvein and margins, often with domatia in the axils of the veins beneath, apex obtuse to rounded, base obtuse, cuneate or acuminate; midvein prominent beneath; petiole 1–3 mm, shallowly channelled. Peduncles 1–3.5 × 0.7–2 cm, uniflorous, solitary in the axils of the leaves. Bracteoles foliaceous. Petals 4, margins ciliate, white; stamens 7–12 mm, c. 200–400; November to December. Fruit 1.5–5 cm, subglobose, yellowish; seeds usually solitary, sometimes 2–5 per fruit; maturing from March to April. 80

IDENTIFICATION Easily recognised by its 4-angled young stems, peduncles with a single large flower and leaf-like bracteoles.

CONSERVATION STATUS This is one of the rarest species of Chilean myrtles, having an estimated area of occupancy of less than 75 ha in only five known sub-populations. The estimated number of mature individuals is less than 1000, with no more than 300 occurring in any location. Most sub-populations have between 40 and 200 individuals. It is thought that this species has, in recent history, had a relatively restricted distribution. Present-day threats include encroachment from nearby commercial plantations and reduction of its area of occupancy by fire and grazing. None of the sub-populations occur in protected areas. Seeds are dispersed by water or gravity (large fruits rolling down forested slopes), therefore effective long-distance seed dispersal is limited.

CONSERVATION ACTION Molecular research suggests high levels of genetic diversity between sub-populations and that northerly sub-populations close to Reserva Nacional Radal Siete Tazas are significantly different. Sub-populations at the highest altitudes (La Balsa, province San Carlos and Minas del Prado, province Ñuble) have the lowest levels of genetic diversity. There is an urgent need to give some sort of long-term protection for all Legrandia sub-populations by establishing agreements with landowners in properties where the species occurs.

PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION Seeds: Collect fruits from February to April, remove the pulp in order to remove the seeds. Sow immediately in a compost of shredded pine bark, 1.2–2 cm deep under glasshouse conditions. Germination will take about 8 weeks. Cuttings: Take softwood cuttings in mid summer or from semi-ripe wood in autumn using a rooting hormone powder under intermittent mist or a closed plastic cover. Plants from seeds and cuttings should reach about 20 cm height in the first year.

Carlos LeQuesne

Carlos LeQuesne Paulina Hechenleitner V.

Flowers

Pacific

Ocean

Immature fruit

Argenti na

Carlos LeQuesne

Underside of leaf showing axillary domatia

Visited for Darwin Initiative

Adult tree showing exfoliating bark

Other studies

Distribution map 81

Lepidothamnus fonkii Phil. Family: Podocarpaceae Common name: ciprés enano Category: Data Deficient (DD) DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Dwarf conifer distributed in coastal regions of Chile and Argentina. In Chile it has a discontinuous distribution from Region X (province Valdivia, 40°10′S) to Region XII (province Magallanes, 55°00′S) at altitudes of between 500 and 900 m. It is most abundant between 47°00′S and 52°00′S where typically it grows in magellanic moorlands associated with Sphagnum bogs. Its northern limit and higher altitudinal range (900 m) occurs in Monumento Natural Alerce Costero, where it is associated with Fitzroya cupressoides, Nothofagus antarctica and Pilgerodendron uviferum. The last species is commonly associated with Lepidothamnus throughout its range.

DESCRIPTION Dioecious or occasionally monoecious dwarf evergreen shrub 10–50 cm tall, erect or creeping. Leaves 1.5–3 mm, strongly keeled, subulate, decurrent adpressed scales, margin membranous, strongly imbricate, totally surrounding the stem, stomata prominent and distributed irregularly. Male cones solitary, 5–6 × 1.5–2 mm, sessile, with basal bracts; stamens c. 15, triangular, imbricate, with 2 sacs; female cones solitary and terminal, consisting of 3–5 bracts with a very elongate base, of which 1 or 2 are fertile; November to December. Seeds dark-brown to black, surrounded by a membranous basal sheath; maturing from January to February.

IDENTIFICATION There are no other conifer species native to Chile with which this species could be confused.

CONSERVATION STATUS Many of the areas where Lepidothamnus is associated with Fitzroya cupressoides and/or 82

Pilgerodendron uviferum have been modified or degraded as a result of the exploitation of those species. Previous assessments of Lepidothamnus have been based on this association. However, there is little or no accurate information about the distribution and status of Lepidothamnus in areas that have suitable habitat and where Fitzroya cupressoides and Pilgerodendron uviferum are absent. It is uncertain whether the reduction and exploitation of Fitzroya and Pilgerodendron has caused sufficient decline of Lepidothamnus to allow a comprehensive assessment to be made.

CONSERVATION ACTION Although sub-populations are protected in Parque Nacional Chiloé and Monumento Natural Alerce Costero, there need to be more protected locations for this species in the south of its range, particularly in Region XI. A complete survey of its distribution needs to be undertaken in order that priority conservation sites can be chosen.

PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION Seeds: There is no information available concerning seed propagation. Cuttings: Collect 10 cm long, softwood cuttings in November and place in a propagation bed with a bottom heat of 18°C and intermittent mist. Use a compost of sand and Sphagnum (1:1). Rooting hormones are not necessary. Cuttings will take 4 months to root with a 40–53% success rate of rooting.

István Rácz

Ocean

Argenti na

Pacific

István Rácz

Sphagnum bog habitat

Other studies

Female cones

Distribution map 83

Lobelia bridgesii Hook. & Arn. Family: Campanulaceae Common names: tupa rosada, tupa, trupa, tabaco del diablo Category: Vulnerable VU D1,2 DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT A narrow endemic herbaceous perennial restricted to Region X (province Valdivia, 39°44′S to 39°53′S) where it grows in an area of about 50 km radius of Bahía de Corral, from sea-level to 450 m. It frequently occurs on newly disturbed roadside verges and along watercourses in secondary ‘bosque siempreverde’ forest where it is often associated with Aextoxicon punctatum, Amomyrtus meli, Drimys winteri, Embothrium coccineum, Fuchsia magellanica, Jovellana punctata, Laureliopsis philippiana, Leptocarpha rivularis, Myrceugenia parvifolia and M. planipes.

DESCRIPTION An erect, many-branched herb to 1.5 m tall with winged hollow stems and white latex. Leaves 9–24 cm × 1.8–4.5 cm, sessile, lance-shaped, clasping down the sides of the stem, apex with a long point, margin finely toothed, both surfaces without hairs and bright green. Flowers borne in a many-flowered, terminal raceme; petals soft pink; anthers grey-blue; November to March. Seeds maturing from January to March.

IDENTIFICATION In some locations L. bridgesii grows with Lobelia tupa although the two species have not been known to hybridise. When sterile the species can sometimes be confused. However, L. bridgesii has lance-shaped and light green leaves which are quite different to the glaucous, ovate leaves of L. tupa which are covered with short stiff hairs. The upper parts of the flowering stems of L. tupa are usually reddish but in L. bridgesii they are green. 84

CONSERVATION STATUS Although this species has a very restricted distribution of less than 10 km2, it is believed that its extent of occurrence has increased in recent years. For instance, it is now found at a higher elevation of 450 m within Parque Oncol; likewise its distribution has increased along the road from Corral towards Hueicolla, where many plants are colonising newly constructed roadside banks. The species has no protection within National Parks or Reserves.

CONSERVATION ACTION Although there are no known in situ conservation programmes for Lobelia, it is clear that its extent of occurrence has great potential for increasing due to its ability to colonise disturbed ground. In Chile it is cultivated at the Arboretum of UACh and during the last 10 years it has been more widely cultivated in Britain and Ireland.

PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION Seeds: The seeds, which are very small and black, can be collected as soon as the fruits start to turn brown from January to March. They should be sown on top of a moist organic leaf-based compost and covered with 2 mm of fine compost and then 5 mm of coarse grit. Germination takes between 10 and 75 days. At low temperatures of 5°C seeds have been stored for up to 3 years. If potted regularly then it will take only 1–2 years to obtain a flowering plant. Cuttings: Take 6–8 cm long softwood cuttings from the base of non-flowering stems in late summer. Treated with a rooting hormone and using a bottom heat of 18°C. Cuttings will take only between 1 and 3 weeks to root with a 100% success rate. Lobelia bridgesii is easy to cultivate in a well-drained soil in full sun or light shade.

Debbie White-RBGE

Paulina Hechenleitner V. Martin F. Gardner

Lobelia bridgesii, inflorescence

Pacific

Ocean

Lobelia tupa, inflorescence

Argenti na

Paulina Hechenleitner V.

Lobelia bridgesii, inflorescence

Visited for Darwin Initiative

Lobelia bridgesii (left) and Lobelia tupa (right)

Other studies

Distribution map 85

Maytenus chubutensis

(Speg.) Lourteig, O’Don. & Sleumer Family: Celastraceae Common names: maitén del chubut, chaurilla Category: Least Concern (LC) DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Native to Chile and Argentina. In Chile it occurs in the Andes and in the Coastal Cordillera from Region Metropolitana (province Melipilla, 34°08′S) to Region X (province Osorno, 40°47′S) where it has an altitudinal range of between 800 and 2000 m. It is always associated with Nothofagus forest and can occur with Araucaria araucana and Austrocedrus chilensis. In all these forests it grows as an understorey shrub where it forms dense thickets.

DESCRIPTION Evergreen shrub to 1 m tall, with a densely bushy habit; branchlets crowded towards the ends, terete, 1.5–9 mm in diameter; young stems yellowish green or golden-brown with a dense indumentum of short, stiff hairs. Leaves spirally arranged; petiole short, thick, 0.5–1.5 mm long, minutely tomentose with stiff erect hairs; lamina broad-ovate to broad-elliptic, apex obtuse, or sometimes rounded, or acute or with a blackened caducous mucro, rounded to subcordate at base, 4–18 × 2–13 mm, margin entire or often with a few small teeth. Inflorescence a dense, sessile, few-flowered axillary cluster; petals deep winered; September to November. Capsule obovoid, 5–6 × 4.5–6 mm. Seeds 2, 4–5 × 2–2.5 mm, enclosed by a red aril; maturing from February to March.

IDENTIFICATION This species can very easily be confused with Maytenus disticha. The two species have an overlapping distribution and similar habitats. The main distinguishing character is that the leaf of M. chubutensis is broad-ovate to broadelliptic, 4–18 × 2–13 mm, margin entire or with 86

a few small teeth, petiole short, thick, minutely tomentose, while in M. disticha the leaf is narrow-elliptic to obovate-oblong, 3–15 × 2– 6 mm, petiole glabrous, margin often with a few small teeth.

CONSERVATION STATUS First described as a new species in 1955, before which it was treated as part of the variation of M. disticha. This is an example of a threatened species which can be difficult to identify and because of this its full range may not be completely understood. However, it has been recorded from numerous locations within the Andes where it is locally abundant. It occurs in many protected areas including: Reserva Nacional Roblería del Cobre de Loncha (northern limit), R.N. Radal Siete Tazas, R.N. Los Bellotos del Melado, Parque Nacional Laguna del Laja, P.N. Conguillío and P.N. Puyehue (southern limit).

CONSERVATION ACTION Field researchers need to be fully familiar with the diagnostic characteristics which distinguish this species from M. disticha in order to assist fieldwork to better understand its full distribution.

PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION Seeds: Collect seeds in the summer and remove from surrounding aril by rubbing with a coarse sand; cold stratify for 45 days. Sow in autumn in a loam-based compost and cover with 5 mm of fine compost and a 10 mm layer of coarse grit. A gentle bottom heat will aid germination which will take up to 9 months. Cuttings: Take semiripe cuttings from young plants in late summer using a rooting hormone and gentle bottom heat of 18°C.

Martin F. Gardner

Peter Baxter

Argenti na

Pacific

Ocean

Maytenus chubutensis, petioles with dense hairs Martin F. Gardner

Maytenus chubutensis, leaves and flowers

Visited for Darwin Initiative

Maytenus disticha, petioles glabrous

Other studies

Distribution map 87

Myrceugenia colchaguensis (Phil.) L.E.Navas Family: Myrtaceae Common names: colchaguillo, arrayán de colchagua, lumilla Category: Critically Endangered CR B2ab(i-iii,v) DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Endemic tree or shrub native to Chile with an extremely fragmented distribution from Region V (province Valparaíso, 33°04′S) to Region IX (province Cautín, 38°47′S). It occurs mainly in small sub-populations in coastal areas with one or two locations in the Central Valley and possibly one in the Andes. It has an altitudinal range of between 50 and 400 m. Its habitat is always seasonally wet and often includes other myrtle species including Blepharocalyx cruckshanksii, Luma apiculata, L. chequen and Myrceugenia spp.

DESCRIPTION Evergreen shrub 2–4 m tall, hairs golden-brown to yellowish-brown; twigs densely lanate when young, glabrous with age, strongly flattened at the nodes. Leaves 0.7–2 × 0.4–1.2 cm, opposite or verticillate, elliptic to obovate, densely lanate below when young, less dense to glabrous above when young, apex obtuse to rounded, base rounded to acute, light yellow-green to greygreen; petiole 1–2 mm long, densely lanate when young. Peduncles uniflorous, flattened, densely lanate, solitary or in pairs in the leaf axils; calyxlobes covered with dense yellow hairs on the outer surface; bracteoles lanceolate, densely lanate; petals cream; January to February. Fruit c. 7 mm in diameter, yellow-orange; maturing from October to November.

IDENTIFICATION This species can be identified on the basis of its calyx-lobes being covered with dense yellow hairs on the outer surface and peduncles consisting of a single flower. 88

CONSERVATION STATUS This is perhaps the rarest myrtle in Chile, with fewer than 10 recorded locations and possibly only five of these being extant today. All subpopulations consist of relatively few individuals in highly degraded habitats. Coastal habitats are particularly threatened due to deforestation, urbanisation, the tourist industry and heavy agricultural use. The species has no protection within National Parks or Reserves.

CONSERVATION ACTION A very poorly known species that has no State protection. One remnant site, close to Victoria (province Malleco), which has fewer than 50 trees, is being protected by the landowner who has entered into a conservation agreement with UACh. In the Arboretum of UACh a reference collection of myrtles has been established in order to train students in how to identify threatened plant species. There needs to be a comprehensive survey of potential habitats to ascertain the full extent of its distribution.

PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION Seeds: Should be kept moist after collection by placing in Sphagnum moss. Sow as soon as possible. Carefully remove the outer fruit to expose the seeds. These will often be green and possibly be showing signs of root formation. Sow 5 mm below the surface of seed compost. Germination will take 4–6 weeks at 16–18°C. Cuttings: Can be taken from semi-ripe wood in late summer, 10 cm in length, as basal or nodal cuttings; use rooting hormone. Remove any very soft shoot tips. Rooting takes 1–3 months.

Paulina Hechenleitner V.

Ocean

Argenti na

Pacific

Carlos LeQuesne

Leaves and flowers

Visited for Darwin Initiative

Young tree with rugose bark

Other studies

Distribution map 89

Myrceugenia correifolia (Hook. & Arn.) O.Berg Family: Myrtaceae Common names: petrillo, petrilla Category: Endangered EN B1ab(iii) DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Tree or shrub endemic mainly to coastal habitats in central Chile from Region IV (province Limari, 30°40′S) to Region VII (province Curicó, 35°05′S) where it has an altitudinal range of between 20 and 680 m. It occurs in coastal areas where sea fogs produce sufficient humidity and warm temperatures to provide optimum growing conditions. It grows in sclerophyllous vegetation and can be associated with Aextoxicon punctatum, Berberis actinacantha, Citronella mucronata, Myrceugenia obtusa, Peumus boldus and Schinus latifolius.

DESCRIPTION Evergreen shrub or tree to 4 m tall; hairs reddishbrown to whitish-grey; twigs densely pubescent when young. Leaves 2–7.5 × 1–4.5 cm, oval to elliptic, sparsely to densely pubescent below, glabrous to densely pubescent above, margins revolute, apex broadly rounded or obtuse, less often acute, base rounded to broadly cuneate. Peduncles 1–3.5 cm long, uniflorous, flattened, densely pubescent, solitary or in pairs in the leaf axils; bracteoles 3–7 mm long, lanceolate; August to February. Hypanthium densely pubescent. Fruit dark amber-brown to black, glandular, 0.7–1 cm long; maturing from June to September.

IDENTIFICATION This species can easily be identified because of its large leaves, which have revolute margins, and large flowers. It often grows with Myrceugenia exsucca with which it can be confused, but the latter has a single-flowered inflorescence, young 90

stems which are a distinctive wine-red in colour and young leaves which are suffused with paleorange. In M. correifolia the young stems and leaves are pale green.

CONSERVATION STATUS It occurs in coastal habitats many of which have been dramatically changed due to agriculture practices, the planting of forestry plantations and building development for the tourist industry. Although it occurs in fog belt areas, these habitats are now subject to long periods of dry weather due to deforestation. In some locations such conditions have led to extensive fire damage. It is protected only in Parque Nacional Fray Jorge but again this unique remnant forest is subject to unnatural weather patterns as a result of climate change.

CONSERVATION ACTION More sub-populations need long-term protection. Some locations of this species include extremely important, isolated plant habitats that currently have no State or private long-term protection. One such site is the extremely vulnerable forests behind Zapallar which includes the well-known Quebrada del Tigre.

PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION See under Myrceugenia colchaguensis (p. 88).

Paulina Hechenleitner V.

Roberto Gajardo Patricio Novoa

Myrceugenia correifolia, flowers

Pacific

Ocean

Myrceugenia correifolia, pale green new growth

Argenti na

Paulina Hechenleitner V.

Fruit

Visited for Darwin Initiative

Myrceugenia exsucca, wine-red young stems

Other studies

Distribution map 91

Myrceugenia leptospermoides (DC.) Kausel Family: Myrtaceae Common names: macolla, murtilla del malo, chequen Category: Endangered EN B1ab(iii) DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Shrub endemic to a small coastal area from Region VIII (province Ñuble, 36°28′S) to Region IX (province Cautin, 38°44′S) where it is confined to humid or foggy habitats. It often grows as an understorey shrub close to rivers and lakes or on wet forested slopes, from sea-level to 300 m.

DESCRIPTION Evergreen shrub, 0.5–2 m tall, hairs reddish brown; twigs densely pubescent when young. Leaves 4–15 × 1.5–3 mm, oblong to linear, apex obtuse, base obtuse or acute, dull grey green or brownish green above, lighter and often yellow-green below. Peduncles 2–8 mm long, uniflorous, solitary in the axils of the leaves, densely pubescent; bracteoles ovate to oblonglanceolate; hypanthium densely pubescent; February to March. Fruit reddish, 4–5 mm in diameter, globose, purple; maturing from July to August.

IDENTIFICATION This species can be distinguished by its oblonglanceolate leaves which are obtuse at the apex and its pubescent peduncles. Compared with the older foliage, the young spring growth is a striking bright pale green. Although it can reach up to 2 m tall, it tends to form a small delicate shrub. It can be confused with Myrceugenia pinifolia, but this species has leaves that are narrowly elliptic to linear, the apex is normally pointed and the new growth is bronze in colour.

92

CONSERVATION STATUS A poorly known species with very few locations. Most sub-populations are small and occur in heavily disturbed habitats that have been radically changed for agricultural purposes or for planting commercial forestry. It has State protection in Monumento Natural Contulmo and M.N. Cerro Ñielol.

CONSERVATION ACTION Because this species has only two protected subpopulations there is a need to develop initiatives to safeguard its long-term conservation. Before this can happen it is necessary to establish the full distribution, ecological requirements and propagation methods. Such studies will support both in situ and ex situ conservation initiatives. Like many of the threatened Chilean myrtles, this is another species that is difficult to identify. It is hoped that the reference collection of Chilean myrtles being established at the Arboretum of UACh will assist many aspects of its conservation.

PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION See under Myrceugenia colchaguensis (p. 88).

Peter Baxter

Martin F. Gardner

Argenti na

Pacific

Ocean

Immature fruits Martin F. Gardner

Mature fruits and flowers

Visited for Darwin Initiative

Pale green new leaves

Other studies

Distribution map 93

Myrceugenia pinifolia (Phil.) Kausel Family: Myrtaceae Common names: chequén de hoja fina, arrayán de hoja chica Category: Critically Endangered CR C2a(i) DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Endemic shrub confined to the Coastal Cordillera from Region VII (province Talca, 35°15′S) to Region VIII (province Arauco, 37°33′S). Typically it grows on the margins of rivers where it is often subject to seasonal flooding, within remnant native forest. It usually occurs below 200 m, but it can also be found at an elevation of 400 m.

DESCRIPTION Shrub to c. 2 m tall, hairs reddish brown to whitish; twigs densely pubescent when young, glabrous with age. Leaves 1–3 × 0.2–0.8 cm, narrowly elliptic to linear, apex and base acute or obtuse, grey-green and often dark above, light grey-green to light yellow-green below; petiole densely pubescent. Peduncles 5–10 mm long, uniflorous, densely pubescent, solitary in the axils of the leaves; bracteoles ovate to lanceolate; hypanthium densely pubescent; January to February. Fruit orange and can take up to one year to become mature; maturing from December to February.

IDENTIFICATION This species can be confused with Myrceugenia leptospermoides but the latter rarely grows on the very margins of rivers (see M. leptospermoides for morphological differences). Myrceugenia pinifolia can also be confused with Myrceugenia lanceolata which has an overlapping distribution and also grows on the margins of rivers. However, morphologically M. lanceolata usually has much larger leaves – up to 5 cm long – and a 94

dichasial inflorescence. Myrceugenia pinifolia is sometimes similar to Tepualia stipularis, but this is the only Chilean myrtle with a dry capsular fruit and the leaves also have distinctive glandular dots.

CONSERVATION STATUS None of the sub-populations of this narrow endemic have any sort of State protection. It has suffered from extreme modification to its habitat where most of the natural vegetation has been destroyed. Because it is dependent on moist habitats, any long-term change to the water-table will have a detrimental effect on sub-populations. Some river margin sites are being affected by invasive exotic species such as Acacia dealbata and Rubus fruticosus, and from forestry operations such as road widening.

CONSERVATION ACTION Conservation agreements with local landowners are essential if this species is going to have any viable long-term future. Surveys of the river systems within its distribution need to be undertaken to establish the full extent of the population. It is another threatened Chilean myrtle that is very difficult to identify and this can have a serious impact on its conservation. It is hoped that the reference collection of Chilean myrtles being established at the Arboretum of UACh will assist its conservation.

PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION See under Myrceugenia colchaguensis (p. 88).

Peter Baxter

Ocean

Argenti na

Pacific

Martin F. Gardner

Stem with immature fruits

Visited for Darwin Initiative

Bronze-coloured young growth

Other studies

Distribution map 95

Myrceugenia rufa (Colla) Skottsb. ex Kausel Family: Myrtaceae Common name: arrayán de hoja roja Category: Endangered EN B1ab(iii); B2ab(iii); C1 DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Endemic shrub restricted to coastal areas from Region IV (province Coquimbo, 30°50′S) to Region V (province San Antonio, 33°32′S). It has an altitudinal range of between 10 and 700 m growing on coastal cliffs or inland up to 15 km, where oceanic winds prevail.

DESCRIPTION Evergreen shrub 1–2 m tall, hairs reddish brown to whitish; twigs densely pubescent when young. Leaves 0.5–1.8 × 0.2–0.5 cm, broadly to narrowly elliptic, ovate or oblong, densely strigose-pubescent beneath, puberulent above, margin revolute; petiole densely pubescent. Peduncles 1–4 mm long, uniflorous, slightly flattened, densely pubescent, solitary or 2–3 in a row in the axils of leaves; bracteoles densely pubescent; August to October. Fruit 4–8 mm in diameter, yellow to orange, usually infested by insects; maturing from February to March.

IDENTIFICATION This species is easily distinguished from other Chilean myrtle species because of its small leaves that are covered with reddish brown hairs beneath.

CONSERVATION STATUS The coastal habitats are at risk due to urbanisation and the tourist industry. In some locations humanset fires are also a significant problem. In most years regeneration is severely restricted or nonexistent due to the fruits being heavily infested by insects. The species has no protection within National Parks or Reserves.

96

CONSERVATION ACTION In the Arboretum of UACh a reference collection of the Chilean myrtles has been established in order to train students how to identify threatened plant species.

PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION See under Myrceugenia colchaguensis (p. 88).

Paulina Hechenleitner V.

Patricio Novoa

Argenti na

Pacific

Ocean

Fruits Paulina Hechenleitner V.

Flowering stem

Visited for Darwin Initiative

Underside of leaves covered with reddish brown hairs

Other studies

Distribution map 97

Myrcianthes coquimbensis (Barnéoud) Landrum Family: Myrtaceae

(Syn. Reichea coquimbensis (Barnéoud) Kausel) Common names: arrayán, lucumillo, lucumilla, reichea Category: Endangered EN B1ab(iii); B2ab(iii); C1 DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Endemic shrub with a narrow coastal distribution in Region IV (province La Higuera, 29°28′S to province Coquimbo, 30°12′S). It grows only among large granite boulders on coastal slopes that receive almost constant cool moist breezes from the Pacific Ocean. It is often associated with Bridgesia incisifolia, Centaurea chilensis, Fuchsia lycioides, Llagunoa glandulosa, Ophryosporus triangularis, Oxalis gigantea and Proustia ilicifolia.

DESCRIPTION A low, dense, rounded evergreen shrub to 1.5 m tall, glandular, glabrous or sometimes densely pubescent especially on young growth; bark dark to light reddish brown and smooth. Leaves 1– 3.4 × 0.6–3 cm, ovate, obovate or suborbicular, coriaceous, glabrous to densely hairy when young; apex acute, rounded or emarginate; base acute, rounded or subtruncate; petioles 1–4 mm long, densely pubescent to glabrous; midvein flat or nearly so above, moderately prominent below; margin somewhat revolute. Peduncles 0.5–3 cm long, solitary, uniflorous or triflorous; bracteoles 1–2 mm long, linear, calyx-lobes 5, unequal; petals 5–6 mm long, 5, oblong to suborbicular; style 7–10 mm long; stamens 6–10 mm long, 140–150 in number; November to December. Fruits 1–2 cm in diameter, reddish pink; maturing from May to September.

98

IDENTIFICATION Easily distinguished from all other Chilean myrtles by a combination of flowers with 5 petals, 5 sepals and strongly coriaceous leaves which have revolute margins.

CONSERVATION STATUS This species has a very narrow distribution of about 66 km north–south and no more than 2 km inland. None of the sub-populations have State protection. Most sub-populations have been much reduced due to its habitat being destroyed by the ever-expanding tourist industry and urbanisation. Relatively large sub-populations still survive; one of the biggest is at Punta Teatinos, where there are several hundred individuals.

CONSERVATION ACTION In the Arboretum of UACh a reference collection of the myrtles has been established in order to train students how to identify threatened plant species. Seeds of Myrcianthes collected from two different locations are being propagated. Sites where this species occurs need to be prioritised for conservation.

PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION Seeds: Collect fruits from November and store in Sphagnum moss until time of sowing. Sow seeds in a compost of equal parts of pine bark, leafbased compost and sand. Germination should start by the 3rd week with over 50% germination success. Cuttings: There are no studies concerning propagation by cuttings.

Carlos Zamorano E.

Carlos Zamorano E.

Argenti na

Pacific

Ocean

Source: Squeo et al. 2001

Leaves and mature fruits Carlos Zamorano E.

Flower with long exserted stamens

Visited for Darwin Initiative

Typical rocky habitat

Other studies

Distribution map 99

Nothofagus alessandrii Espinosa Family: Fagaceae Common name: ruil Category: Critically Endangered CR B2ab(i-iii,v) DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Endemic tree with a very restricted and fragmented distribution along a 100 km stretch of the Coastal Cordillera of Region VII (province Talca, 35°05′S to province Cauquenes, 35°50′S). Here it has an altitudinal range of between 100 and 450 m and occurs in the Roble-Hualo forest type (also known as Bosque Maulino Costero) in small second-growth forests on coastal marine terraces on south, southwest and south-east aspects. In more humid valleys it can grow with the trees Drimys winteri, Gevuina avellana, Laurelia sempervirens, Nothofagus dombeyi, Pitavia punctata and Podocarpus salignus. At higher altitudes it can be associated with Citronella mucronata, Cryptocarya alba, Lithrea caustica, Peumus boldus and Quillaja saponaria.

DESCRIPTION Deciduous tree to 30 m tall, trunk straight, up to 1 m in diameter, bark clear grey with irregular cracks. Branches erect. Leaves 7–13 × 4–9 cm, alternate or subopposite, ovate to ovate-cordiform, sometimes lanceolate, covered with glands beneath, pubescent, margin dentate-spinulose, primary veins prominent, 11–13 pairs that terminate in terminal teeth, pilose. Male flowers in groups of 3–4, stamens 10–14 mm long, 10–20. Female flowers 3–7, sessile, forming a tetragonal inflorescence, pale green; September to October. Cupule, 4-parted, slightly twisted. Fruit 6–7 mm long, sessile, winged, laterals trigonous, compressed in the centre; maturing from January to February.

IDENTIFICATION The leaves are very distinctive in that the margin has spinose-dentate teeth.

CONSERVATION STATUS Nothofagus alessandrii may have the unfortunate reputation of being the most threatened extant tree 100

in Chile. Historically the N. alessandrii forests have suffered unprecedented deforestation and fragmentation. Clearing of forest for commercial forestry plantations and woodcutting for charcoal and firewood have all contributed to its demise. In 1981, the estimated area of occupancy for N. alessandrii was just over 8 km2, but by 1991 this area had been reduced dramatically to 3.5 km2 which amounts to a reduction of 8.15% per year. In 1998, it was estimated that remnant forest of N. alessandrii was composed of 185 fragments in nine localities with 80% of these fragments being between 1 and 2 ha. Most fragments are small stands in secondgrowth forests in which the trees have regenerated by vigorous sprouting from stumps. Only 42 ha of N. alessandrii forest (12% of the total population) are under protection, in the area of El Fin of Reserva Nacional Los Ruiles. All forests are surrounded by plantations of Pinus radiata, and encroachment by this conifer is a continuous problem that is impeding the ability of N. alessandrii to increase its natural range.

CONSERVATION ACTION In 1998, Bustamante and Castor recommended that the following conservation measures should be taken: (a) Some restoration must be undertaken, even in protected areas because this protection will not be sufficient to maintain the plant’s diversity; (b) Deforestation must be stopped as soon as possible; (c) Isolated effects must be minimised by creating corridors of native vegetation; (d) The invasion of Pinus radiata within N. alessandrii fragments must be prevented by constructing buffer zones of native vegetation; (e) Seedlings and saplings of Pinus radiata must be totally eradicated from inside N. alessandrii forests; (f) Fire prevention must be more effective. The same authors suggest that conservation priority should be given to the sub-populations of La Montaña, El Corte and Macal, because these have the greatest number of fragments and the largest areas with N. alessandrii. They also recommend that because some of the most important remnants of forest are in private hands, this is a unique opportunity to initiate integrated conservation efforts inside and outside protected areas between landowners and public agencies. In recent years, restoration efforts have been made. For instance, in Reserva Nacional Los Ruiles plants have been raised in order to start restoring the two fragments within that protected area. However, because seed is rarely produced by trees within the Reserve, seed has had to be collected from outside the local area. This strategy should be avoided and only local provenance plants

Paulina Hechenleitner V.

should be used until the genetic integrity of the N. alessandrii population is fully understood. In collaboration with university researchers and local NGOs, CONAMA (Region VII) have been carrying out research on the conservation of N. alessandrii and as a result of these studies they are developing a series of conservation actions.

PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION Seeds: Collect in February and sow in spring after the seed has been soaked in a solution of gibberellic acid (250 ppm) for 24 hours. With this treatment expect 60–65% germination rate under glasshouse conditions. Sow in polystyrene or plastic. Insert seed to 1 cm depth and cover with a thin layer of bark. Germination will take 2–3 weeks and in one year plants will grow to 20–30 cm tall. Cuttings: Take 20 cm long cuttings using the apical growth of basal suckers in the middle of November. Prepare the cuttings by making a basal 45° cut and a small wound. Use a compost of pine bark with or without bottom heat under glasshouse conditions with intermittent mist. With this method it is possible to obtain a 20% success rate with rooting taking about 3 months but the root system will be poor.

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Paulina Hechenleitner V.

Leaves with dentate-spinulose margin

Visited for Darwin Initiative

Typical trunk of a mature tree

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Distribution map 101

Nothofagus glauca (Phil.) Krasser Family: Fagaceae Common names: hualo, roble maulino, roble colorado, roble blanco Category: Vulnerable VU A4cd; B1ab(iii) DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Tree endemic to central Chile where it has discontinuous distribution in both the Coastal and Andean Cordilleras from Region VI (province Cachapoal, 33°52′S) to Region VIII (province Biobío, 37°27′S). In the Coastal Cordillera (33°52′S to 36°45′S) it has an altitudinal range of between 100 and 800 m where it grows on slopes with variable gradients, and sometimes preferring steep sunny slopes. In the lower slopes of the Andes or in the Coastal Cordillera it forms an ecotone with sclerophyllous vegetation. In wetter valleys it is associated with Nothofagus obliqua, the hybrid N. leonii and on the tops of hills with Quillaja saponaria and Lithrea caustica. In the Andes (34°50′S to 37°27′S) it occurs between 400 and 1100 m on variable gradients but sometimes on very steep, rocky, generally north, west and east slopes where it is well adapted to prolonged periods of drought typical of the Mediterranean climate. In the Andes it frequently grows with N. obliqua at high altitudes and in more shaded sites and occasionally with N. dombeyi and N. nervosa in valleys, while on the drier hills it grows in purer stands and occasionally with Azara petiolaris, Gaultheria phillyreifolia, Quillaja saponaria and Sophora cassiodes (syn. S. macrocarpa).

DESCRIPTION Deciduous tree up to 30 m tall. Trunk to 2 m in diameter; bark thick, rough and soft, with a papery structure, greyish-red, inner bark reddish. Leaves alternate or subopposite, 4.5–9 cm long, coriaceous, ovate to almost rounded, covered with short hard papilla, subcordate to truncate at base, pale green above, glaucous beneath, undulate, margin slightly dentate. Flowers November to December. Cupules 20–25 mm long, nuts winged, 15–16 × 10 mm; maturing from February to March. 102

IDENTIFICATION Easily distinguished from other Nothofagus taxa due to its papery, exfoliating bark, which is rough and red-grey in older trees. Leaves are rough to the touch because of the presence of short hard tubercles.

CONSERVATION STATUS In the Andes this species is protected in Region VII within Reserva Nacional Radal Siete Tazas and in R.N. Altos de Lircay. In the Coastal Cordillera, where it has suffered greatly from deforestation and the planting of commercial plantations, it is protected within Reserva Nacional Los Ruiles and R.N. Los Queules.

CONSERVATION ACTION In order to devise conservation strategies to help preserve this species it is necessary to have a better understanding of its full distribution, especially in Region Metropolitana and Region VI where it occurs infrequently. There are also important sites in the Andes, such as Bullileo and Laguna de la Plata, where it is associated with other threatened species which also require urgent protection. Nothofagus glauca forests should be managed in a more sustainable way in order to encourage regeneration, retain old-growth trees and preserve the associated biodiversity.

PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION Seeds: Collect in March and soak in a solution of gibberellic acid (250 ppm) for 24 hours. Sow in August only the sunken seeds under glasshouse conditions, and expect 60–75% germination success. Another method is to stratify seeds in moist sand for 45 days; expect 80% germination rate. Sow in polystyrene or plastic containers at 3 cm depth and cover with a thin layer of bark. Germination takes 2–3 weeks and plants will reach up to 50 cm tall in one year. Cuttings: Take 20 cm long cuttings using the apical growth of basal suckers in the middle of November. Prepare the cuttings by making a basal 45° cut and a small wound. Use a compost of pine bark with or without bottom heat under glasshouse conditions with intermittent mist. Treat with rooting hormone (IBA) at 10,000 ppm. With this method it is possible to obtain a 70% success rate, with rooting taking about 3 months.

Paulina Hechenleitner V.

NOTE The taxonomic status of the following taxa needs further clarification before any sort of conservation assessment can be made.

Nothofagus leonii Espinosa Common names: huala, hualo The hybrid, Nothofagus leonii, occurs in areas where the habitat of N. glauca overlaps with N. obliqua in both the Coastal and Andean Cordilleras from Region VII to Region VIII. It occurs as scattered trees and its physical characters are a mixture between the two parents.

Nothofagus macrocarpa (DC.) F.M.Vásquez & A.Rodr. Common names: roble, roble blanco, roble de santiago

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Nothofagus glauca, papery, exfoliating bark

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Paulina Hechenleitner V.

This species has recently been raised from N. obliqua var. macrocarpa to a specific level based on its more northerly distribution and minor morphological differences compared with N. obliqua.

Visited for Darwin Initiative

Nothofagus glauca, leaves covered with coarse hairs

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Distribution map 103

Orites myrtoidea (Poepp. & Endl.) Benth. & Hook.f. ex B.D.Jacks. Family: Proteaceae Common name: radal enano Category: Endangered EN B2ab(i,iii,v) DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Species native to Chile and Argentina; in Argentina there is only one location known, in Neuquen. In Chile it is restricted to fewer than 15 locations in the Andes from Region VIII (province Linares, 35°57′S) to Region IX (province Malleco, 38°00′S) where it has an altitudinal range of between 760 and 2100 m. There is one historical report from 1933 of it occurring in the Cordillera de Nahuelbuta. Typically it inhabits alpine zones on volcanic substrate. In Termas de Chillán and the Alto Biobío it occurs below the tree-line on rock outcrops in Nothofagus forest and in Parque Nacional Tolhuaca it is associated with Araucaria araucana.

DESCRIPTION An evergreen shrub 0.6–2 m tall, often low and spreading and forming relatively large thickets. Leaves coriaceous, 1.8–3.5 × 0.6–1 cm, petioles 2–4 mm long, oblong to elliptical or oblong lanceshaped, margin entire, apex obtuse or with a short point. Flowers in dense racemes of 1.5–2.5 cm long, arising from leaf axils; winter and spring. Fruits 1.6–2 × 0.6–0.8 cm, ellipsoid, woody, hairless and cinnamon-coloured; maturing from February to March.

IDENTIFICATION There are no other Chilean native plants with which this species can be confused.

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CONSERVATION STATUS Although this species covers a north–south distance of about 268.6 km, in each of its localities it forms relatively small populations, some being less than 500 m2. The largest subpopulation occurs in Parque Nacional Laguna del Laja. Two other sub-populations are protected in Parque Nacional Tolhuaca and Reserva Nacional Los Bellotos del Melado. During the last 5 years it is thought that the sub-population in the Alto Biobío has been destroyed by flooding due to a hydroelectric scheme, and the sub-population in the upper Maule Valley (the most northerly known population) has been significantly reduced due to an international road development.

CONSERVATION ACTION Further Orites sub-populations need careful monitoring and some form of protection afforded. Before ex situ collections can be established there needs to be a better understanding of its cultivation requirements.

PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION Seeds: Collect in March and soak in a solution of gibberellic acid (250 ppm) for 24 hours. Sow in a well-drained compost with a bottom heat of about 18°C. Under this regime seed collected in late February and sown in March germinated between 5 and 15 weeks with a high germination percentage. Because the seeds are dry, longterm storage should be effective. Although seed germination and the initial establishment of seedlings is good, maintaining older plants under glasshouse conditions has proved to be particularly difficult. Cuttings: Propagation from cuttings is not known.

Martin F. Gardner

Paulina Riedemann

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Mature fruits Paulina Hechenleitner V.

Flowers

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Leaves

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Distribution map 105

Passiflora pinnatistipula Cav.

CONSERVATION STATUS

Critically Endangered CR B1ab(iii)

It occurs in small sub-populations in coastal forests which are sometimes close to urban areas, or areas which are subject to agricultural development. For instance, those subpopulations in the Zapallar area are continuously being threatened by urbanisation. Passiflora is occasionally cultivated because of its edible fruits. It is not found in any protected area. OTARIA and CONAMA are both making efforts to protect the Cerro Santa Inés, and the municipality of Zapallar is working towards the creation of a protected area in the forests of Zapallar above 280 m.

DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT

CONSERVATION ACTION

A vigorous climber native to Chile and Peru. In Chile it has an extremely restricted distribution in forested coastal ravines of Region IV (province Choapa, 31°58′S) to Region V (province Valparaíso, 32°30′S) from Cerro Santa Inés to Zapallar. Here it has an altitudinal range from 200 to 700 m. A classic location is in Quebrada del Tigre adjacent to Zapallar where it grows in the sclerophyllous forest type which consists of Aextoxicon punctatum, Beilschmiedia miersii, Cryptocarya alba and Schinus latifolius.

The habitats where this climber occurs often represent the remaining forest of the sclerophyllous forest type which includes a number of other threatened species such as Beilschmiedia miersii, Citronella mucronata and Myrceugenia correifolia. These fragmented habitats need urgent, long-term protection which has to involve working closely with the people of the local communities. Another way to help conserve this plant is to promote its cultivation as an ornamental plant.

Family: Passifloraceae Common names: flor de la pasión, pasionaria, granadilla, flor de la corona de cristo Category:

DESCRIPTION Climber to 15 m tall. Stems white-tomentose or white-lanate; stipules 5–7 × 4–5 mm, pinnatisect or palmately cleft into filiform divisions, purplish. Leaves 5–10 × 6–13 cm, coriaceous, rugose and glabrous above, densely white or greyish-lanate beneath; 3-lobed, lobes lanceolate or oblonglanceolate, acuminate, sharply serrate; peduncles to 7 cm long; bracts 1–1.5 cm long, free, ovate, remotely serrate, reddish on outside. Calyx-tube 4.5–5 cm long, cylindric, bright pink, white within, blue-tinged towards the throat; sepals 3– 4 cm long, oblong, greenish or pinkish outside, white within; petals white, faintly blue-tinged; corona 2-ranked, the outer rank filamentous, blue and white, the inner ring of minute deep purple tubercles; July to November. Fruit 5 cm in diameter, subglobose; seeds reticulate; maturing from February to June.

IDENTIFICATION There is no other climber in Chile that resembles this very distinctive species. 106

PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION Seeds: Collect the fruits in late summer (February to June) and macerate to extract the seeds. Soak the seeds for 24 hours in cold water and sow immediately in a mix of leaf-mould with sand. Germination will occur in about 4 months with a success rate of approximately 70%. After about 6 months the seedlings can reach a height of 1 m. Passiflora must be planted and grown in damp places. They will flower after about 5 years. Another method is to sow the seeds preferably as soon as they have been collected; if they have been allowed to dry out soak them in warm water (21–27°C) for 24 hours. Mixing the seed with the juice and pulp of the fresh fruit improves germination; the acid from the juice helps to break down the hard seed covering and stimulates germination. This mixture needs to be left in a warm place for 24 hours before sowing. Sow to a depth of 5 mm in a well-drained compost. Cuttings: Take tip cuttings during the summer and treat with a rooting hormone. Root in a soil temperature of 18–21°C; they will still root at lower temperatures but this will take longer. Keep watered but be careful not to apply too much.

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Source: Squeo et al. 2001

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Flower Leaves

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Distribution map

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Martin F. Gardner

Pilgerodendron uviferum (D.Don) Florin Family: Cupressaceae Common names: ciprés de las guaitecas, ciprés de las islas, lahuán, ten Category: Vulnerable VU A2cd DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Conifer endemic to both Chile and Argentina. In Chile it has a discontinuous distribution in both the Andes and the Coastal Cordillera from Region X (province Valdivia, 39°36′S) to Region XII (province Magallanes, 54°20′S), making it the most southerly occurring conifer in the world. It has an altitudinal range from sea-level to 1000 m. Typically it is associated with Fitzroya in the coastal range on poorly drained, thin gley soils. In most of its southern distribution it is associated with many species of the evergreen and Coigüe de Magallanes forest type, especially with Nothofagus betuloides, N. nitida, Tepualia stipularis and other species that are adapted to high humidity soils. There are large subpopulations in the Andes of Palena, Aysén and Magallanes where wetland mallines prevail.

DESCRIPTION Monoecious evergreen tree to 20 m, trunk to 1 m in diameter, bark grey. Branches open, ascending. Leaves regularly arranged in decussate pairs, incurved, triangular and keeled on the back, stomata on inner face, without stomatal bands on reverse. Male pollen-cones solitary, terminal; female seed-cones valvate, ovoid, with 2 pairs of opposite scales; October to December. Seeds 3 × 1.5 mm; maturing from December to March.

IDENTIFICATION See under Fitzroya cupressoides (p. 68).

CONSERVATION STATUS This long-lived conifer is a widespread species occurring in small and disjunct sub-populations 108

covering a total area of occupancy of 9703.26 km2 (9,703,260 ha). In the northern part of its range most habitats have been dramatically altered as a result of land-use changes. Such changes have been brought about by recurrent human-set fires, cattle grazing and the clearing of native forest for commercial forestry plantations. Fire has been indiscriminately used by local people to open up areas in order to gain access to Pilgerodendron stands. Many important sub-populations have a high percentage of standing dead trees as a result of fire but still show levels of regeneration.

CONSERVATION ACTION High priority should be given to developing restoration programmes in degraded sites, therefore techniques must be improved to ensure the establishment of plants and especially to protect them from the effects of cattle grazing. The rehabilitation of burnt forests should include specific measures to prevent illegal logging of dead wood. Such rehabilitation programmes need the commitment of private landowners and in the case of nationally protected areas they need the total commitment of the State. It is also necessary to control the illegal cutting of Pilgerodendron forests and to monitor the changes in subpopulation size. An assessment of the viability of Pilgerodendron sub-populations should be undertaken, particularly in the northern part of the species’ range in Region X and in some destroyed habitats in the south of its range. Isolated subpopulations should also be considered in these monitoring programmes.

PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION Seeds: Collect in March and April. Sow in spring after stratifying in moist sand for 60 days. Sow in polystyrene or plastic containers, use native or pine bark and cover with the same compost. Under glasshouse conditions expect 70% germination success. Germination takes 6–8 weeks and plants will reach up to 3–5 cm tall in one year. Cuttings: Take 5 cm long, semiripe, heel cuttings in autumn, and put them under glasshouse conditions in a propagation bed with a bottom heat of 18°C under intermittent mist or a closed plastic cover. Use a sand and peat mixture compost (1:1) and treat with rooting hormone.

Carlos LeQuesne

Peter Baxter

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Group of mature trees in San Pablo de Tregua, UACh Carlos LeQuesne

Female cones and leaves

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Bark

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Pitavia punctata Molina Family: Rutaceae Common names: pitao, canelillo Category: Critically Endangered CR A2ce; B2ab(i-v) DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT An endemic, monospecific genus restricted to the Coastal Cordillera from Region VII (province Linares, 35°21′S) to Region IX (province Malleco, 37°45′S) with an altitudinal range of between 30 and 850 m. Most sub-populations occur in the Maulino forests which are dominated by Nothofagus glauca and typically include other threatened species such as Nothofagus alessandrii and Gomortega keule. The majority of Pitavia trees occur in small sub-populations and grow in remnant forests confined to ravines or in poorly drained low-lying areas surrounded by commercial forestry. Drimys winteri is a very common associate, together with Aextoxicon punctatum and Persea lingue.

DESCRIPTION Evergreen tree to 15 m tall. Trunk to 50 cm in diameter, often multi-stemmed due to extensive suckering from the base; bark ash-coloured; foliage dense, branches ascending. Leaves 1.3–3.5 × 1.4–4.2 cm, simple, opposite or verticillate in 3s, coriaceous, glabrous, oblong and attenuate, pointed, obtuse or emarginated at apex, bright green and shiny with yellow blotches above, yellowish-green below, margin shallowly dentate, very aromatic (acrid citrus smell). Inflorescence an axillary raceme, 3.5– 7 cm long. Flowers hermaphrodite or unisexual; October to November. Calyx 1.5–2 mm long, of 4 sepals. Petals 4.5–5.2 mm long, 4, white. Fruit 1.8–2.5 cm in diameter, a drupe, ovoid, green at first maturing yellowish-green, single-seeded, maturing from February to May.

IDENTIFICATION It is possible to confuse the foliage of Pitavia with other species such as Drimys winteri, Laurelia 110

sempervirens and Persea lingue. However, the acrid smell of citrus to its leaves is unlike any other tree species from southern central Chile.

CONSERVATION STATUS This species is under severe threat due to extensive disturbance of native forests during the last 30 years. Its estimated area of occupancy is less than 10 km2 and consists of less than 1000 mature individuals. Severe fragmentation has occurred due to fire and the conversion of native forest to commercial forestry plantations. Its wood has also been used for firewood: the demand for this, especially so close to the city of Concepción, has been considerable. An extensive fire in commercial forestry plantations near to Maitenrehue (province Malleco) on the east of the Cordillera de Nahuelbuta in 2001 severely damaged important fragments of Pitavia forests. Even more recently a subpopulation of fewer than 30 mature individuals along the Río Lías has been severely damaged due to the widening of a forestry road, and in the locality of Quebrada Honda a stand has been completely felled. Like many endemic species in central Chile, Pitavia has the ability to regenerate from the base of damaged trees, thus allowing some disturbed sub-populations to recover. There are only two sub-populations in protected areas – in Reserva Nacional Los Ruiles and R.N. Los Queules. In each case the number of mature trees is less than 70.

CONSERVATION ACTION Recent molecular research suggests that the sub-populations in Reserva Nacional Los Ruiles and R.N. Los Queules are genetically similar. The same research suggests that the sub-populations on the east of the Cordillera de Nahuelbuta are significantly different to any other. It has been possible to initiate some sort of protection programme for the sub-population at Maitenrehue even though part of it has been fire damaged. This protection has been developed through a conservation agreement between UACh and Forestal Mininco S.A. supported by the Darwin Initiative. This area has been fenced and a long-term monitoring programme is now in place. Clearly other sub-populations throughout its range need some sort of long-term protection.

Martin F. Gardner

Like so many of Chile’s endangered plant species, a knowledge of propagating plants is seen as an important activity to help restore and extend key sub-populations.

PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION Seeds: Collect fruits between February and May and store up to 1 month in a plastic bag at 15°C. Sow once the seeds have started to germinate in the bag; place in a container or wooden box under glasshouse conditions. Expect 80% germination. Use bark and sand compost (1:1). Another method is to sow the seed immediately after collection in plastic bags and insert fruit so that surface is exposed. In this case germination will take about 8 weeks. In one year plants may reach 30–50 cm tall. Cuttings: Take 10 cm long cuttings, soft-tip in spring or semi-ripe in summer. Put them under glasshouse conditions in a propagation bed with a bottom heat of 18°C and use intermittent mist or a closed plastic cover. Use a sand- or peat-based compost and treat the cuttings with a rooting hormone.

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Paulina Hechenleitner V.

Fruits and leaves

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Flowers

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Distribution map 111

Podocarpus nubigenus Lindl. Family: Podocarpaceae Common names: mañío, mañio macho, mañío hembra, mañio de hojas punzantes, pino amarillo Category: Near Threatened (NT) DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Conifer native to both Argentina and Chile. In Chile it is distributed between Region X (province Valdivia, 39°50′S) and Region XII (province Magallanes, 50°23′S), from sea-level to 1000 m. This species is a component of humid forests, often on poorly drained soils in Valdivian and North Patagonian rainforests. It is abundant in the area of the archipelagos of southern Chile forming a mixed forest with Nothofagus nitida. It is often associated with Drimys winteri, Fitzroya cupressoides, Laureliopsis philippiana, Nothofagus betuloides, N. nitida, Pilgerodendron uviferum, Saxegothaea conspicua and myrtle species.

DESCRIPTION Dioecious tree up to 25 m tall or more, crown pyramidal. Branches ascending or vertical. Trunk cylindrical, 1–2 m in diameter; bark with thin longitudinal fissures, grey. Leaves 1.5–3 × 0.2–0.4 cm, simple, alternate, very coriaceous, linear-lanceolate, apex rigid and sharply pointed, with 2 notable whitish stomatal bands below. Pollen-cones 1.5–2.5 cm, borne on the ends of vegetative shoots, sessile, yellowish brown. Female seed-cones axillary, solitary or rarely in pairs; December to January. Seeds 8–9 × 6–7 mm, ovoid, purple; subtended by a fleshy, red aril 5 × 3 mm; maturing from December to April.

IDENTIFICATION There are no other conifers in Chile which can be confused with this species.

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CONSERVATION STATUS Although this conifer has a relatively continuous distribution throughout its geographic range and occurs in large sub-populations, it is still at risk due to the constant threat of logging for firewood and its quality timber. Another threat is the cutting of young trees for Christmas trees. Landuse change which includes the conversion of its native habitat into commercial plantations and clearance for agricultural use is a further serious threat. Such deforestation of old-growth forests is leading to a decline and degradation of important wildlife habitats.

CONSERVATION ACTION It is vital to conserve the primary forests in which this species plays an important role in the late successional stages. These habitats have to be managed in a sustainable manner. Some conservation initiatives for Fitzroya cupressoides have also involved the restoration of Podocarpus nubigenus.

PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION Seeds: Collect seed from December to June. Sow in the spring after storing for two years in a plastic bag with Sphagnum moss at 4°C. Germination is up to 60% under glasshouse conditions. Sow in polystyrene containers with native or pine bark. In one year the plants may reach 20 cm tall. Another method is to carefully remove the embryo from the seed, and place each embryo carefully on a bed of fine Sphagnum moss mixed at a ratio of 50:50 with peat, with a bottom heat of 20°C under glasshouse and mist conditions. After only 15 days germination will take place with a success rate of about 75%. Cuttings: Take 5 cm long, semi-ripe, heel cuttings in autumn, and use glasshouse conditions in a propagation bed with a bottom heat of 18°C under a closed plastic cover. Use a sand and peat mixture compost (1:1) without rooting hormone. Rooting takes 2–3 months with an 88% success rate.

Carlos LeQuesne

Martin F. Gardner

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Male cones Carlos LeQuesne

Mature female cones

Other studies

Bark with shallow longitudinal fissures

Distribution map 113

Podocarpus salignus D.Don Family: Podocarpaceae Common names: mañio, mañio de hojas largas Category: Vulnerable VU A2cd DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Conifer endemic to Chile in both the Andes and the Coastal Cordillera between Region VII (province Linares, 35°50′S) and Region X (province Osorno, 40°35′S) where it has an altitudinal range of between 10 and 1100 m. In the Mediterranean region it grows in the RobleHualo forest type (Bosque Maulino Costero) and often close to watercourses. In the same region in the Andean Cordillera it can form pure stands which grow above 1100 m in wet areas not necessarily associated with watercourses; this type of specific habitat is known as mañihuales. It can also be found in the same region but at lower elevations where it is associated with other species in ravines on south-facing aspects.

DESCRIPTION Dioecious tree up to 20 m tall. Canopy pyramidal and more or less rounded. Trunk up to 1 m in diameter. Bark with thin plates in older specimens, greyish. Leaves 5–10 × 0.6–0.7 cm, linear-lanceolate, slightly falcate, simple, alternate, pendulous, pointed at the apex. Male pollen-cones 2.2–5 cm, solitary or grouped, sessile. Female seed-cones, solitary, axillary, peduncle 1–1.5 cm long; December to January. Seeds 1–2, 7–8 × 4 mm, red and subtended by a fleshy, violet-red aril; maturing from January to May.

IDENTIFICATION There is no other conifer in Chile which can be confused with this species.

CONSERVATION STATUS At one time this species was relatively abundant with a broad distribution, but now its habitat in 114

the northern part of its range has been severely altered due to conversion to commercial forestry plantations of Eucalyptus and Pinus radiata, and the devastating effects of fire. It survives only in inaccessible areas, and in the lower and more accessible locations it has been totally eliminated. In the south of its distribution it still survives, but in the coastal areas close to Concepción most of the mature trees have been cut for firewood and the craft industry. Even though it has good quality wood it has not really been fully utilised as a timber tree. It is likely that there will be a progressive decline in the range of this species due to the continuing degradation of its habitat.

CONSERVATION ACTION Molecular analyses have suggested that although genetic differences between remaining wild subpopulations are relatively slight, these differences are still significant and should therefore be taken into account when developing future conservation strategies. These data can be useful for informing the movement of germplasm between areas during ecological restoration activities. The lack of old-growth trees should be of some concern and efforts should be made to conserve forest with this important conifer. The extent of its distribution in the south of its range needs to be better understood.

PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION Seeds: Seeds must be collected from the tree when the aril which surrounds them is still red. Soak in water for 24 hours and discard any seeds which float. In autumn (April) sow in a seed tray with leaf-mould and keep in cold stratification until early spring (August). In spring, move the seed tray to a light place with semi-shade and protection against frost. Up to 30% germination can be expected. Cuttings: In autumn (March to April), take semi-ripe cuttings 5 cm long with a heel. Insert into a substrate of sand and peat (1:1) and treat with IBA rooting hormone at 2000– 4000 ppm. Place on a propagation bench with a closed cover and a lowest temperature of 18°C. Rooting should occur within 2–3 months with 80–90% success.

Carlos LeQuesne

Carlos LeQuesne

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Male cones Carlos LeQuesne

Female cones

Other studies

Exfoliating bark

Distribution map 115

Porlieria chilensis I.M.Johnst. Family: Zygophyllaceae Common names: guayacán, palo santo Category: Data Deficient (DD) DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Species endemic to Chile where it occurs from Region IV (province Elqui, 29°27′S) to Region VI (province Colchagua, 34°15′S), from sea-level to 1300 m. It occurs in rocky places on coastal hills in the mattoral region and the sclerophyllous forest. It is especially representative of the Prosopis chilensis–Schinus polygamus vegetation where it also grows with other xerophytic shrubs including Gutierrezia resinosa, Proustia cuneifolia and P. ilicifolia and the cacti Echinopsis coquimbana and Maihueniopsis ovata. In other locations it can also be seen growing with the shrubs Acacia caven, Bridgesia incisifolia, Carica chilensis, Cordia decandra, Kageneckia oblonga and Lithrea caustica.

DESCRIPTION Evergreen shrub or small tree up to 5 m, globose in shape, trunk to 20 cm in diameter. Branches thick, tortuous, ash-grey. Leaves opposite, paripinnate, almost sessile, glabrous, composed of 6–10 pairs of linear-oblong leaflets which are obtuse or mucronate at the apex. Flowers hermaphrodite, solitary, axillary, violet; September to October. Fruit a capsule, dehiscent, strongly 4–5-lobed, dark violet-purple; maturing from December to February.

IDENTIFICATION This species could be confused with Bulnesia chilensis, but the fruits of Bulnesia are winged and in Porlieria they are almost smooth.

CONSERVATION STATUS Although this species is frequently seen, very few sub-populations contain large numbers of 116

individuals. Much of its habitat has been highly modified or totally destroyed due to fire, grazing by goats and conversion to agricultural land, particularly in recent years for avocado production. Other threats include the over-exploitation of its valuable wood for the wood craft industry and for fuel. It does have a very good capacity for regeneration from suckers. Several subpopulations are protected in Parque Nacional Fray Jorge, P.N. La Campana and Reserva Nacional Las Chinchillas.

CONSERVATION ACTION A better understanding of its full distribution is needed before an accurate conservation assessment can be made.

PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION Seeds: Collect seed from December to February, and scarify or soak in water for half an hour. Sow in a sand-based compost, and water sparingly. Expect over 50% germination. Cuttings: There is no information about vegetative propagation.

Paulina Hechenleitner V.

Patricio Novoa Paulina Hechenleitner V.

Porlieria chilensis, flower

Pacific

Ocean

Source: Squeo et al. 2001

Porlieria chilensis, foliage

Argenti na

Carlos Zamorano E.

Porlieria chilensis, fruit

Visited for Darwin Initiative

Bulnesia chilensis, winged fruits

Other studies

Distribution map 117

Pouteria splendens (DC.) Kuntze Family: Sapotaceae Common names: lucumo, lucumo silvestre, palo colorado Category: Critically Endangered CR B1ab(iii) DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT An endemic tree or shrub which has a very restricted distribution from the south of Region IV (province Choapa, 31°05′S) to Region V (province San Antonio, 33°22′S). Typically it grows in littoral habitats on dry hills and ravines which are subject to coastal cloud. Pouteria occurs from sea-level to 400 m in two sub-populations which are 100 km apart. The northern sub-population occurs from Los Molles to north of Los Vilos where it grows on marine terraces and is principally associated with Bahia ambrosioides and Haplopappus spp. The southern sub-population occurs on cliffs near the sea from Quebrada Los Lucumos in Acantilados de Playa Ancha to Punta del Gallo south of the river mouth of Estero Casablanca. It is associated with Adesmia arborea, Fuchsia lycioides, Lithrea caustica, Puya venusta and Haplopappus spp.

DESCRIPTION Evergreen shrub or small tree up to 5 m tall. Trunk to 20 cm in diameter, sympodial; bark ash-grey. Leaves 4–9 × 2.5–6 cm, simple, alternate, opposite or verticillate, elliptic, obtuse or emarginated at apex, dark green above, yellowish green below, margin entire. Flowers hermaphrodite, whitish; July to November. Fruit 2.5–3 cm in diameter, a drupe, globose, reddish orange; maturing from November to March. (Fruits can take up to one year to mature and can sometimes be seen at all stages on the same individual.)

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IDENTIFICATION There are no other shrubs from this part of Chile that can be confused with this very distinctive species.

CONSERVATION STATUS Like so many endemic Chilean species which have a restricted coastal distribution close to urban areas, its habitat is being destroyed by rapid housing and road-building development, exploitation for fuel and clearing for agriculture and livestock. None of the habitats have any State protection. In a number of locations its habitat is being seriously degraded and in some cases completely lost due to frequent fires. Although seed production is abundant, they are eaten by rats. Seedling establishment is generally poor due to drought conditions as a result of habitat disturbance. Pouteria also has an ability to regenerate from suckering basal growths after cutting and burning.

CONSERVATION ACTION There are several initiatives that are supporting the conservation of Pouteria. For example, the nongovernmental organisation OTARIA is working with local landowners to help conserve the subpopulation north of Los Molles. For the southern sub-population CONAMA is hoping to create a nature sanctuary along the coastal cliffs from Faro Punta Angeles to Laguna Verde. There are also other private initiatives by the community of Tunquen to protect the southern limit of Pouteria from Laguna Verde to Punta del Gallo.

PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION Seeds: Collect the fruits when they are reddish yellow and remove the fleshy pulp in order to extract the seeds. Soak the seeds in water for 24 hours and immediately sow seeds individually in a well-drained compost in deep pots, and cover with c. 5 mm of compost. Sow in a rodent-free environment and do not over water. At a temperature of 22°C germination will take 3–5 weeks, at a rate of over 50%. After one year plants can reach up to 10 cm tall and produce 2–3 true leaves. Cuttings: There is no information available.

Martin F. Gardner

Peter Baxter

Argenti na

Pacific

Ocean

Source: Squeo et al. 2001

Reddish orange mature fruit Peter Baxter

Flowers

Visited for Darwin Initiative

Underside of leaves tinged orange

Other studies

Distribution map 119

Prumnopitys andina (Poepp. ex Endl.) de Laub. Common names: lleuque, lleuqui, uva de cordillera

bark which forms irregular brown-reddish patches, young shoots purple, and the foliage of young extension growths in whorls of up to 7 shoots arranged all around the stem. In Prumnopitys the bark is smooth but bright grey slightly bluish in colour and the shoots are never in whorls – instead they are spread upwards either side of the upper part of the main shoot.

Category:

CONSERVATION STATUS

Family: Podocarpaceae

Vulnerable VU B2ab(ii-v) DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Conifer native to Chile and the Andes of Argentina (province Neuquén). In Chile its main distribution is in the Andes from Region VII (province Linares, 35°52′S) to Region IX (province Cautín, 39°30′S), from 200 to 1380 m. It has only a single known subpopulation in the Coastal Cordillera in Region IX on the eastern slopes of the Cordillera de Nahuelbuta close to Angol. In the Andes it mostly grows in the bottom of valleys close to large rivers where it is often associated with Austrocedrus chilensis, Cryptocarya alba, Quillaja saponaria and other species which form part of the sclerophyllous vegetation. In the Andean Cordillera of Region Biobío it is associated with Nothofagus dombeyi, N. nervosa and N. obliqua, and not with sclerophyllous species. In the Coastal Cordillera it is associated with a remnant forest which is now dominated by Nothofagus dombeyi and N. obliqua.

DESCRIPTION Evergreen tree to 15 m tall, crown broadly pyramidal or rounded; trunk smooth, 0.5–1 m in diameter, bark grey. Branches verticillate or almost so, densely covered by leaves. Leaves 1–2.5 × 0.15–0.2 cm, simple, alternate, almost sessile, linear, slightly falcate, usually dull bluish green, 2 whitish stomatal bands below, with a short mucro at the apex. Male cones in spikes, each subtended by a linear-lanceolate bract; female cones a plum-like fruit, 2–3 cm long, yellow when ripe, sweet-tasting; November. Seed ovoid; maturing from January to March.

IDENTIFICATION When sterile this species has been confused with Saxegothaea conspicua which has a smooth purple 120

The total number of sub-populations is probably less than 10 with a total area of occupancy of about 50 km2. The two largest sub-populations are thought to be those that occur along the Río Trapatrapa and the Río Polcura, each with at least 2000 individuals. The remaining sub-populations vary in size from 100 to 1000 individuals, although most are at the lower end of this range. In some locations this species has been much reduced; for example, part of the sub-population in the Alto Biobío has been flooded due to the damming of the valley for a hydroelectric scheme. The sub-population in the Cordillera de Nahuelbuta has been reduced by about 50% and now covers less than 500 m2. This forest was destroyed during the last 10 years when native forest containing old-growth trees of Prumnopitys was converted to commercial forestry. Although its wood is prized for making fine furniture, there is little evidence that trees are cut for such purposes today. Some sub-populations have high levels of regeneration, particularly those in the more mesic parts of its range. However, other sub-populations show no sign of regeneration, perhaps as a result of pigs, goats and other domesticated animals feeding on the fallen fleshy cones. The species is protected in Reserva Nacional Ñuble, Parque Nacional Conguillío and P.N. Tolhuaca.

CONSERVATION ACTION As part of a Darwin Initiative funded project, a conservation agreement between UACh and a local landowner has developed a small restoration programme in the only coastal sub-population at El Rosario. The site has been fenced to exclude grazing animals and a number of local young plants have been planted.

PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION Seeds: Can be collected from January to March. Remove the seed from the fleshy pulp and sow in a loam-based compost mixed with leaf-mould, keeping moist at all times. Little is known about

Martin F. Gardner

Martin F. Gardner

the optimum conditions for germination and this can take from 20 days to 3 years. There is some evidence that if the seed is mixed with rotting fruit the ethylene from the fruit can enhance germination. Recent research conducted at Alice Holt Research Station in the UK has found that if seeds which are about 10 months old are carefully cracked open using a vice, a germination rate of c. 60% can be achieved. Further research is being carried out by this institution in order to ascertain more precise details using this method. Cuttings: Take 5 cm long, semi-ripe cuttings with a heel from the current year’s growth in autumn. Treat with 2000 ppm of rooting hormone (IBA) and place under intermittent mist or a plastic cover with a bottom heat of 18°C. Rooting takes 2–3 months and 100% success can be obtained.

Pacific

Ocean

Male cones

Argenti na

Carlos LeQuesne

Immature fruits

Visited for Darwin Initiative

Bark of young tree

Other studies

Distribution map 121

Puya venusta Phil. Family: Bromeliaceae Common names: chagual chico, chagualillo, chagual Category: Vulnerable VU B1ab(iii) DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT An endemic perennial with a restricted coastal distribution from Region IV (province Coquimbo, 29°57′S) to Region V (province Valparaíso, 32°32′S) between sea-level and 100 m. It nearly always grows in coastal rocky areas where it forms pure stands. It never occurs more than about 1 km inland. In some locations, it can be the dominant species.

DESCRIPTION Caulescent perennial to 2 m tall. Leaves 30 cm or longer, blades 3 cm wide, marginal spines uncinate, 5–7 mm long. Flowering stem erect, 1 m tall, 15 mm in diameter, bracts triangularovate, acuminate, lacinate-serrate, deep redviolet. Inflorescence simple or compound with many spiciform lateral racemes. Floral bracts densely imbricate, elliptic, broadly rounded and apiculate, 35 mm long, equalling or exceeding the sepals, thin, deep red-violet, entire or the lowest with a few small teeth; pedicels 7 mm long, tomentose. Sepals 15–20 mm long, tomentoselepidote; petals narrowly elliptic, obtuse, 15– 20 mm long, deep violet, with 2 appendages near the base; stamens and pistil slightly shorter than the petals; September to December. Capsule globose; maturing from January to February.

IDENTIFICATION In some locations this species can grow in association with Puya chilensis but that species has yellow flowers.

CONSERVATION STATUS Puya venusta is restricted to a specific habitat of rock outcrops with little competition from other 122

plant species. In recent years there has been a dramatic effect on its restricted population due to urban development which in many areas has totally eliminated some sub-populations. Some habitats have been heavily disturbed due to road widening activities, urbanisation and fire. The plant has no State protection.

CONSERVATION ACTION Safe coastal sub-populations need to be prioritised for restoration work. Because this species is very easily propagated from seed and its cultivation requirements are relatively straightforward, restoration activities will be relatively easy.

PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION Seeds: Collect seed from February to August. Sow on a peat compost and cover with 5 mm of the same compost and 10 mm of coarse grit. Germination takes between 20 and 75 days at a temperature of 18–20°C. Cuttings: Individual rosettes can be removed with basal stem. Remove the lowermost leaves, allow to dry for 36 hours and treat with rooting hormone. Insert into freedraining compost or even pure sand and keep dry. Rooting will occur in about 1 month.

Peter Baxter Source: Squeo et al. 2001

Ocean

Argenti na

Pacific

Carlos Zamorano E.

Typical rocky coastal habitat

Visited for Darwin Initiative

Inflorescence

Other studies

Distribution map 123

Ribes integrifolium Phil. Family: Grossulariaceae Common name: parrilla falsa Category: Endangered EN B1ab(i-iii) DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT A very poorly known endemic shrub which has an extremely narrow distribution restricted to Region VIII (province Concepción, 37°47′S) to Region IX (province Malleco, 38°27′S) ranging from 600 to 1400 m. There is one historic record cited by Reiche (1902) from the area of Colico in province Arauco. Its most notable location is in Parque Nacional Nahuelbuta. Here, at its highest altitude, it grows amongst rocks in Araucaria araucana forest associated with Nothofagus antarctica, Maytenus magellanica and the threatened narrow endemic Libertia tricocca. At a lower altitude of 1100 m it grows with Ribes magellanicum in Nothofagus obliqua forest and again on rocky exposed slopes in conditions of high precipitation which often falls as snow. At the lowest and most recently discovered location, in the area of Maitenrehue at 625 m, it grows on dry slopes which border poorly drained areas associated with Drimys winteri, Luma apiculata and Pitavia punctata. The shrub layer includes Desfontainia spinosa and Escallonia virgata.

DESCRIPTION Evergreen shrub 0.5–1 m tall. Leaves up to 4 × 1.5 cm, coriaceous, lanceolate or oblong-linear, margin toothed in upper two-thirds, glandularpunctate below. Racemes pendent, shorter than length of leaves; corolla-tube cylindric, with short, straight teeth; lemon-yellow, pink in bud, older flowers suffused pink; September to October. Fruit purple-black, rounded, 6 × 4 mm; maturing from February to March.

IDENTIFICATION No other Chilean Ribes species has leaves which are evergreen, lanceolate and sessile. All other Chilean species are deciduous and have leaves that are strongly 3- or 5-lobed. 124

CONSERVATION STATUS This species has very few recorded locations. The largest known sub-population lies within Parque Nacional Nahuelbuta but the other three known sub-populations occur in habitats that are unprotected. One of these, which is close to Maitenrehue north of Angol, occurs in a ravine growing with Pitavia punctata in a vast area of commercial forest plantation that was destroyed by fire in 2002. This indicates that this species has the ability to recover after fire. This location has protection in the form of a conservation agreement between UACh and Forestal Mininco S.A.

CONSERVATION ACTION There is an urgent need to survey potential new locations and assess them for protection. All locations should be given some form of protection.

PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION Seeds: Should be collected in late summer to early autumn when the fruits are reddish black. Remove the seed from the pulp and sow in a loambased compost. Cover with 5 mm of compost and then 10 mm of coarse grit. With a temperature of 10–20°C germination takes between 30 and 75 days. Cuttings: Take 4–8 cm long, basal or nodal soft to semi-ripe cuttings with a heel and place in a suitable organic compost with a bottom heat of 18°C. Rooting takes about 3–6 weeks, often with a 100% success rate.

Martin F. Gardner

Paulina Hechenleitner V. Martin F. Gardner

Ribes integrifolium, pendulous racemes of flowers

Pacific

Ocean

Ribes integrifolium, mature fruits

Argenti na

Martin F. Gardner

Ribes magellanicum, inflorescence

Visited for Darwin Initiative

Ribes integrifolium (1), R. gayana (2) and R. magellanicum (3)

Other studies

Distribution map 125

Satureja multiflora (Ruiz & Pav.) Briq. Family: Labiatae Common names: menta de árbol, menta de agua, alcanfor del campo, poleo en flor Category: Near Threatened (NT) DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT An endemic shrub with a relatively wide distribution in both the Coastal and Andean Cordilleras from Region VII (province Linares, 35°45′S) to Region X (province Chiloé, 42°30′S). It grows in many different soil types within an altitudinal range from sea-level up to 1200 m. Most of its habitats consist of Araucaria, RobleLaurel-Lingue, Roble-Hualo and Roble-RaulíCoigüe forest types.

DESCRIPTION Evergreen shrub with creeping stems to 1.8 m tall. Stems to c. 2 cm across, quadrangular, violet, rough and flaking in older plants. Leaves 2.5–5 cm long, ovate, simple, opposite, aromatic; pedicles 3–5 mm long, puberulent, glandular and pale green on the lower surface, puberulent and deep green on the upper surface; without stipules. Inflorescence with 3–15 flowers; sepals 5, fused lobes forming a bilabiate tube; petals deep purple; November to May. Fruit 1 × 0.5 mm, composed of 4 nutlets, free; maturing from April to May.

IDENTIFICATION Its deep purple flowers and strong mint-scented aromatic leaves distinguish this from other Chilean woody plant species.

CONSERVATION STATUS This species is probably not in many protected areas but it does occur in Monumento Natural Cerro Ñielol. Even though it has a relatively wide distribution in many different habitat

126

types, it is vulnerable to human disturbance and is commonly seen growing in secondary scrub vegetation. Its habitat has been much reduced due to land-use change for agricultural purposes and forestry plantations.

CONSERVATION ACTION This species should be monitored in order to observe any fluctuation of wild populations. It is of high ornamental value and its cultivation should be encouraged.

PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION Seeds: Make collections from February to May. In a laboratory growth cabinet, with a temperature of 20°C, seeds start to germinate 3– 6 months after sowing with a 70% germination success rate. Cuttings: Select softwood cuttings at the beginning of summer. Place in a cold or hot propagation bed in a substrate of equal parts of peat and sand, without rooting hormones. Roots take 2 months to develop, with 80–90% success rate.

Paulina Hechenleitner V.

Ocean

Argenti na

Pacific

Paulina Hechenleitner V.

Flowers

Visited for Darwin Initiative

Fruits

Other studies

Distribution map 127

Saxegothaea conspicua Lindl. Family: Podocarpaceae Common names: mañio, mañio de hojas cortas, mañiú, mañío macho, mañío hembra Category: Near Threatened (NT) DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT A monospecific genus endemic to Chile and Argentina. In Chile this coniferous tree has an Andean and a coastal distribution from Region VII (province Cauquenes, 36°00′S) to Region XI (province Aisén, 45°45′S) where it has an altitudinal range from sea-level to 1000 m. North of 38°S it is very scarce due to the drier Mediterranean climate. This very shade tolerant species is most abundant in its southern range where the wetter Valdivian rainforests prevail. In the south-central Andes, at mid elevations, it is associated with Laureliopsis philippiana, Nothofagus dombeyi and N. nervosa. Where ranges overlap it is commonly associated with Podocarpus nubigenus. In the Andes and the Coastal Cordillera, up to the southernmost part of its distribution, it is associated with the siempreverde forest type.

DESCRIPTION Monoecious tree to 20 m tall. Trunk 1–2 m in diameter. Bark with purple-brown, flaking plates. Leaves 1–2.5 × 2.5–3 mm, borne in 2 divergent planes, simple, sometimes falcate, pointed mucro at apex, with 2 whitish bands below; pedicels short, decurrent. Male pollen-cones 5–6 mm long, axillary. Female seed-cones 8–12 mm across, globose, composed of about 15 overlapping triangular pointed scales, glaucous green and becoming fleshy when ripe, upper scales with 2 inverted ovules. Flowers November to December. Seeds 3–4 mm long, yellow-orange; maturing from February to April.

IDENTIFICATION See under Prumnopitys andina (p. 120). 128

CONSERVATION STATUS Although this conifer has a relatively continuous distribution throughout its range and occurs in moderately large scattered sub-populations, it is still at risk due to the constant threat of logging for firewood and for its quality timber. Logging is often selective for the relatively young straight trees before they become contorted and multistemmed later in life. Land-use change which includes the conversion of its native habitat into commercial plantations and clearance for agricultural use are further serious threats. Such deforestation of old forests is leading to decline and degradation of important wildlife habitats. Saxegothaea is a well-protected conifer species in many National Parks and Reserves in central and southern regions of Chile.

CONSERVATION ACTION Important forest habitats have to be managed in a sustainable manner.

PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION Seeds: Very little is known about the seed propagation of this species. There was some germination success at RBGE with seeds collected between March and April, sown outside after being given a cold period. Cuttings: Take 5 cm long, semi-ripe, heel cuttings in autumn, cut back foliage by half to reduce water loss, and place under glasshouse conditions in a propagation bed with a bottom heat of 18°C and intermittent mist. Use a sand and peat mixture compost (1:1) and treat with IBA rooting hormone at 2000 ppm. Rooting takes 2–3 months with a 96% success rate.

Martin F. Gardner

Paulina Hechenleitner V.

Argenti na

Pacific

Ocean

Verticillate leaves Carlos LeQuesne

Immature female cones

Other studies

Typical mature trunk

Distribution map 129

Scutellaria valdiviana (Clos) Epling Family: Labiatae Common name: teresa Category: Data Deficient (DD) DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Scandent shrub endemic to a restricted range in the Coastal Cordillera of Region VII (province Talca, 35°05′S to 35°20′S). In 1937 and 1939 it was collected by Gunckel in coastal parts of Region X (province Valdivia, 39°55′S), but it has not been seen here since this date. It occurs in an altitudinal range of between 50 and 300 m, where it grows on the margins or in openings in wet and shaded forests. In the Huelón area it grows in association with small remnant native forests with Aextoxicon punctatum, Luma apiculata, Nothofagus alessandrii and N. glauca.

DESCRIPTION Evergreen sub-shrub, scandent or spreading to 1.5 m tall. Branches slender, flexible with short spreading hairs. Leaves 2–4 × 2–3 cm, opposite, cordate, leathery, margin entire to coarsely denticulate, upper surface glabrous, shiny and dark green, lower surface white-tomentose, veins densely tomentose; petioles 2–3 mm, densely hairy. Inflorescence a terminal raceme, 3–10 cm, pedicles 2.5–4 mm, calyces 4–4.5 mm, lower lip to c. 5 mm; scutellum 5–6 mm, corolla-tube c. 15 mm, glabrous, reddish-purple; September to October. Fruits smooth nutlets, without wings; blackish, maturing from December to January.

IDENTIFICATION This is the only Chilean Scutellaria species that is woody and has a climbing habit. It can be distinguished from other members of the Labiatae by the short appendage on the upper part of the calyx which is known as a scutellum.

130

CONSERVATION STATUS This species is not recorded from any National Park or Reserve. Present studies have revealed that it is known from only two locations, at Huelón (Curepto) and Fundo Costa Azul (Constitución). The latter belongs to the Universidad Católica del Maule. Its principal threat is from encroachment of commercial forestry plantations, mainly Pinus radiata, into its native habitat. Once the identity of this species is more widely known, further sites are likely to be discovered.

CONSERVATION ACTION There is a clear need to investigate its full distribution before establishing a conservation policy for the species. Its propagation also needs to be fully investigated.

PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION Seeds: Propagation from seed is unknown for this species but other species of Scutellaria germinate between 3 and 4 weeks at a temperature of 18°C. Cuttings: Softwood cuttings collected in spring, put in a hot propagation bed at 18°C, using a well-drained sandy compost under glasshouse conditions and intermittent mist. Use a rooting hormone powder. Cuttings from different individuals from the same location were taken, but it was found that the rooting percentage was very low.

Paulina Hechenleitner V.

Paulina Hechenleitner V.

Argenti na

Pacific

Ocean

Leaves Greg Kanicer

Inflorescence

Visited for Darwin Initiative

Detail of scutellum

Other studies

Distribution map 131

Valdivia gayana J.Rémy

IDENTIFICATION

Common names: valdivia, planta del león

Although Valdivia gayana is a distinctive plant with a very specific habitat its leaves are superficially similar to young plants of Digitalis purpurea and could be confused with this naturalised European species.

Category:

CONSERVATION STATUS

Family: Escalloniaceae

Data Deficient (DD) DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Endemic monospecific genus with a very restricted distribution within Region X (province Valdivia, 39°53′S to 40°15′S) where it grows from sea-level to 600 m. This species has a very specific habitat in deeply shaded humid places, often on vertical slopes under large metamorphic rock outcrops. However, in some highly disturbed locations it has been found in more open positions on steep soil slopes partly shaded by Ulex europaeus. Some sub-populations are limited to littoral habitats but many occur inland in forested areas and most of these habitats are associated with plantation forests of exotic forestry species. Perhaps the most natural habitat is in Reserva Nacional Valdivia where it grows in deep shade in the siempreverde forest type associated with Amomyrtus luma, A. meli, Drimys winteri, Eucryphia cordifolia, Laureliopsis philippiana and Saxegothaea conspicua, and at lower elevations within the Reserve it is associated with Aextoxicon punctatum. The herb and fern associates include Pilea elegans, Blechnum corralense, Hymenophyllum spp. and Pteris semiadnata.

DESCRIPTION Herb or when mature forming a small subshrub, with a few long, woody, sinuous hanging stems to 2 cm in diameter. Mostly grows as a leafy perennial 20–30 cm high. Leaves 10–30 × 4–10 cm, alternate and subopposite, obovatelanceolate, acutely glandular-erose or dentate. Flowers in short, axillary, few-flowered racemes, flowers lilac-pink, calyx 5-lobed; triangularovate; petals 5–7, linear, stamens 5–7; August to November. Fruit a membranous capsule, glandular; maturing from February to March. 132

The full distribution range of this species is still poorly known. The only known locations are those close to Corral, in forested areas south of Valdivia and in Reserva Nacional Valdivia. It is uncertain how many locations there are, and if the range or the populations are increasing.

CONSERVATION ACTION More detailed fieldwork is required in order to discover new locations and to monitor any fluctuation of wild populations as a result of intensive commercial forestry. A full understanding of light requirements and seed dispersal is also required.

PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION Seeds: Should be collected from February to March. Sow on an organic rich compost and keep moist in a humid environment (cover with clear polythene), and shade to avoid strong sunlight. Germination at 18–22°C takes 15–30 days with a germination success rate of 50–75%. Cuttings: Leaf-cuttings should be taken in mid to late summer. Keep moist and very humid in a propagation bed with a bottom heat of 18°C. Rooting takes between 20 and 45 days.

Martin F. Gardner

Ocean

Argenti na

Pacific

Martin F. Gardner

Wet and shaded habitat of a cave

Visited for Darwin Initiative

Lilac-rose flowers

Other studies

Distribution map 133

Propagation

135

The ability to propagate plants is playing a role of ever-increasing importance in plant conservation today. Propagating and growing plants helps us to understand more about the biology and growing environments of threatened plant species, and the accumulation of such information is vital when it comes to propagating and cultivating plants for restoring depleted wild populations. This chapter details the basic propagation techniques necessary for Chilean horticulturists to propagate the 46 threatened plant species detailed in this book. Table 11 (p. 147) provides a propagation summary for each of these species. The minimum requirements for successful propagation are a clean and tidy work area, good quality tools, such as a sharp knife and secateurs, and a range of composts and different sizes of containers and pots. The essential part of plant propagation is to ensure the survival of the propagated material until it has become established as a plant with roots, therefore it is advisable to have access to a controlled covered environment such as glass, polythene or netting. An ideal environment is one that allows the control of water loss, cool air temperatures, sufficient lighting and a well-drained, warm soil. All of these elements are not essential for the propagation of all the species but they are for those that are more difficult to propagate.

PROPAGATION FACILITIES AND MATERIALS In order to achieve good results in plant propagation it is important to utilise many of the modern-day facilities and materials that are now available. These are detailed below. 1. Greenhouses. They are normally built with metal or wood, and covered with anti-UV plastic. The dimensions vary according to their use and the available budget. It is important that greenhouses have sufficient height of at least

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3 m in the lateral sectors, and at least 4–4.5 m in the ridge. Greenhouses must be installed from north to south to facilitate good aeration and for maximum light during the winter months. They must also be adequately ventilated in order to regulate the extreme temperatures, especially during summer. Unless a long-term budget is available, it is advisable to build a low-cost structure with local materials that can easily and cheaply be replaced (Figure 3). If propagation is being carried out on a small scale then the cheapest and easiest method of providing an effective closed environment is the use of a clear polythene bag over the top of a pot or tray. The plastic will need to be supported by bamboo canes or wire so that the cuttings are not in contact with the polythene. Make sure that the polythene is sealed by using an elastic band. Paulina Hechenleitner V.

INTRODUCTION

Figure 3. Rustic wood greenhouse.

2. Shading. This system is used mainly for the protection of plants against strong radiation from the sun, but it is also used to protect plants against frost. RaschelTM netting of 50% or 80% shade is used, depending on the sun’s intensity. The netting is used above the greenhouse structure, at a distance of about 70 cm above the plastic cover, which the netting covers completely.

3. Intermittent mist. The presence of leaves on rooting cuttings is an important stimulus to root initiation; however, the water loss from these may cause excess water loss before the roots are formed. In order to reduce transpiration of the leaves to a minimum, it is necessary to maintain the atmospheric water vapour. The installation of an intermittent misting system maintains a film of water on the leaves which results in high relative humidity and lowers the air and leaf temperatures, both of which lower the transpiration rate. However, this is a relatively expensive system to install (Figure 4).

Making a rustic hot bed

Paulina Hechenleitner V.

Fork over the soil in a greenhouse border or alternatively use a wooden, c. 30 cm high box without a bottom. First cover with a 10 cm layer of soil, then 10 cm of fresh cattle manure mixed with dry straw, and finally top this with a 10 cm layer of sand which will act as a good rooting substrate. Dust with lime to neutralise the acid manure and firm well. Leave for a day or so for the bed to start heating up before use. This can be used as a rustic hot bed for the rooting of cuttings or for the germination of seed. 5. Germination chambers. This specialist equipment has a controlled environment for light, temperature and moisture. The equipment is expensive, and this facility is used mainly in research institutions and universities.

CONTAINERS There are many types of containers available for germinating seeds, rooting cuttings and potting up plants. It is important to choose the correct container for each stage in the propagation of plants.

Figure 4. Intermittent mist system.

4. Hot-bed propagation. The use of bottom heat, beneath the compost, can promote germination or the rooting of cuttings, by helping to raise the temperature of the compost. The heat supply for the hot propagation beds can be electrical, hot water (pipes), gas or produced by decomposing straw.

1. Pots. These come in a range of sizes and materials (Figure 6). It is important that they are light, easily stored and easily cleaned but the most important consideration when choosing a pot is its capacity for drainage. Square pots make better use of glasshouse space compared with round ones and they generally hold a greater volume of compost. Rigid pots are better than plastic bags because they support the compost and plant more effectively. Rigid, polypropylene pots are long-lasting but may be relatively expensive. If the production is small scale, then recycled containers can be used, for example cardboard boxes, aluminium drink cans, and yogurt and ice-cream cartons. All containers have to be clean, deep enough to support a good root system and have holes at the bottom for good drainage (Figure 5).

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Paulina Hechenleitner V.

4. Modules. These are containers (often used in commercial nurseries) made from plastic or polystyrene and have individual growing compartments. They can be permanently fixed in the propagation bench or mobile units. Those that are fixed are available in the following sizes: 45, 70, 80 and 136 cm3. Be careful not to leave plants in these containers for too long otherwise they will become pot-bound.

COMPOSTS Figure 5. Pot with a good number of drainage holes (left) and one with insufficient holes (right).

2. Seed boxes. When producing a large number of plants, boxes or trays are more practical than individual pots. More often they are made of wood, but they can also be made from expanded polystyrene. Unfortunately, wooden boxes have a short life because they decay quickly, but plastic materials have a longer durability and are more easily cleaned. It is important to choose thick, deep boxes (which can vary from 10 cm to 30 cm deep), which are stronger and keep their shape when lifted.

Paulina Hechenleitner V.

3. Plastic bags. These are relatively cheap but are difficult to pot into because they lack rigidity. They are useful for direct-sowing larger seeds such as those of Araucaria araucana and Beilschmiedia spp. (sown one seed per bag). This avoids having to transplant seedlings and minimises root disturbance.

Figure 6. Different types of containers.

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Compost should have the following four properties: good aeration, adequate water, nutrient retention, and the ability to conduct heat. In order to prevent pests, diseases and the growth of weeds, the compost should be sterilised or fumigated using chemicals or heat. For example, in order to sterilize 0.5 m3 of compost use 2 cm3 of KarateTM plus 4 cm3 of PrevicurTM diluted in 2.5 litres of water. The most commonly used compost in the larger nurseries is pine bark of 5 mm or 8 mm particle size, but vegetable or animal compost mixed with peat or sand can also be used. The different types of compost are discussed under seed and vegetative propagation.

Making a household waste compost The structure to contain a heap of decaying vegetation can be built of brick or wood, as long as it is built in such a way as to allow plenty of aeration. The structure should also have a removable section so that after the 3rd week the compost can be mixed every 7 days to assist aeration, and so that compost can be removed when it is ready. A combination of thick and thin textured materials needs to be alternated in layers of 15–20 cm. Remember not to allow the compost to become too dry; however, during very wet weather cover the heap to prevent it getting too water-logged. The bottom layer of the heap should be made up of thick woody material such as small branches, stems, straw or other bulky organic material. Thick and woody stems must be broken up into small pieces to allow more rapid decay. The second layer that is added to the heap must consist of thin materials such as grass cuttings,

into polythene bags containing shredded Sphagnum moss or humid bark, kept cool and sown as soon as possible. All field collections need to be labelled with the plant name and a field collecting number (Figure 9). Carlos LeQuesne

leaves, weeds and kitchen vegetal waste. Materials rich in nitrogen, such as manure, should also be added. Alternate these layers with garden soil until you eventually reach a height of 1 m. A well-built heap made up of the appropriate material should be ready to be used as well-rotted compost within 3 months.

PROPAGATION METHODS Plants can be propagated by asexual (cuttings, layers, etc.) or sexual (seed) means. Whatever method is used, the following points are fundamental for successful propagation. • Select the most suitable plant material • Prepare it in such a way that it has the highest capacity to regenerate • Provide the most suitable environment for it to regenerate

Figure 7. Ripe fruits of Gomortega keule. Paulina Hechenleitner V.

• Maintain its environment until it becomes a self-supporting plant. The quality of information noted at the time of collecting propagation material from the wild is very important, especially if plants are being used for conservation work as well as horticultural and scientific research. See Appendix 6 for the essential information to be included in the collecting notes.

Seed Propagation Sexual propagation by seed has the advantage of producing many different genetic types, therefore this method has the potential for broadening the genetic base of threatened plant species. This is an important consideration when propagating plants for restoring depleted wild populations. 1. Collecting seeds. The ideal time of the year for making seed collections is when the seeds become mature (Figures 7 and 8). The season for collecting seed can range from the beginning of summer to the end of autumn according to the species, latitude, elevation and exposure (Table 11 on p. 147). Fleshy fruits, such as those which belong to the Myrtaceae, should be collected

Figure 8. Unripe fruits of Gomortega keule.

2. Cleaning seeds. Seeds should be carefully extracted from the fruits, cleaned and dried before being sown or stored, and this process should be carried out as soon as possible in order to avoid insect damage or fungal infection. For fleshy fruits the seed is extracted by means of soaking it in water, after which the fruits are squeezed to obtain the seeds. For small seeds, the fruits should be collected completely mature and stored in paper bags, so that they can be dried at room temperature in a well-ventilated place until the fruits open and shed their seeds. 139

Paulina Hechenleitner V.

Figure 9. Label with the species name and a collecting number.

3. Seed longevity. The longevity of seed varies greatly from species to species and depending on the storage facilities available. Generally, large seeds must be sown immediately after their collection, before 8 weeks, because they soon lose their moisture content and with this their potential for germination. Species that come into this category include Araucaria araucana, Beilschmiedia spp. and Legrandia concinna. These seeds are known as recalcitrant. Small seeds, such as those of Lobelia bridgesii and Valdivia gayana, can be stored at a temperature of 3–5°C for several years without a reduction in their viability. The seeds of these species are known as orthodox. 4. Seed storage. The two main requirements for successful storage of seed are moisture content and the temperature of storage. The surface of the seeds should be dried to avoid fungal infection. For short-term storage of a few days, the seeds can be stored at room temperature and placed inside a polythene bag to maintain their moisture content. The longer seed is stored the lower the temperature needs to be. Long-term storage needs to be in paper bags or aluminium containers, with low humidity, no light and temperatures of 3–5°C.

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5. Breaking dormancy. Many seeds, even though they may be under ideal conditions for germination, have a delayed germination sometimes lasting many years. This phenomenon, which is known as dormancy, allows seed to survive adverse conditions such as prolonged cold and dry conditions. Dormancy can be broken with pre-germination treatments such as scarification, stratification, soaking in water or hormones. • Mechanical scarification. The objective is to cut or break the hard coat of large seeds such as Gomortega keule and Prumnopitys andina by means of a knife or vice in order to allow the entrance of water and air, which will promote germination. Small seeds can be scarified by placing them in a sealable metal can or glass jar which has been lined with abrasive paper and then shaking the container until the seed-coat has been sufficiently worn away to allow water uptake. • Cold stratification. This method is used to simulate the cold temperatures of winter. With this method the seeds are soaked from 24 to 48 hours in cold water and then placed in a plastic bag between layers of moist sand or peat. The seeds are maintained at a temperature of 4°C for 4–12 weeks (depending on the requirements of different species), after which they are sown in the normal way. This method can be used for Fitzroya cupressoides and Pilgerodendron uviferum. • Hot or cold water treatment. Prior to sowing, most seeds benefit from being soaked overnight in cold or warm water. For those species with hard seed-coats, germination is encouraged by soaking them in warm or even hot water. For example, the seeds of Corynabutilon ochsenii respond well if soaked in warm water, and the germination of Porlieria chilensis seeds will be facilitated if hot water (recently boiled) is used. If the water is too hot this could damage the seed. Leave the seeds to soak for approximately 24 hours.

• Hormone treatment. This technique is used to activate the germination mechanism. Gibberellic acid (GA3) should be used at a strength of 250 ppm for a period of 24 hours. Seeds of Eucryphia glutinosa, Nothofagus alessandrii, N. glauca and Orites myrtoidea respond to this treatment. 6. Seed composts. The two ingredients required are a mixture of peat/bark or sand with household waste compost (garden soil, leaf compost, etc.). Make sure that the latter is without very wellrotted animal waste as this will be too strong for germinating seedlings, and that the mixture is sterilised before use. If the seedlings are going to be potted-on soon after they germinate there is no need for any fertiliser to be added to the compost; however, in the case of direct-sowing of larger seeds such as Araucaria araucana and Pitavia punctata a slow-release fertiliser, such as OsmocoteTM or BasmocoteTM, needs to be added.

Paulina Hechenleitner V.

7. Sowing. Completely fill your container with compost and using a flat piece of wood gently firm it so that the surface becomes level. Sow the seed evenly over the surface of the compost. With very fine seeds it is easier to distribute them evenly if they are mixed with dry, fine sand. After sowing, the compost should be gently firmed and covered with a layer of finely sieved

Figure 10. Label showing the accession and collecting numbers, plant name and date of sowing.

compost, sand or grit to assist surface drainage. As a general guide, seeds should not be covered deeper than their own thickness. Very fine seeds, such as those of Gaultheria, should not be covered. Label each container with the name of the plant, accession number, field collecting number and date of sowing (Figure 10). Irrigate the containers by standing them in a shallow bath of water so that the water is capillary-fed up through the base of the pot. Do not stand the container in too much water such that the water overflows the top of the container. With small seeds, the compost should be watered before sowing. Large seeds of Araucaria araucana, Pitavia punctata and Myrcianthes coquimbensis can be individually sown into deep pots or plastic bags. 8. Care during germination. The most important requirement for seed germination is water because the chemical reaction which promotes the growth process is initiated by water. After sowing, the containers should be placed in a greenhouse or a germination chamber. If neither of these facilities is available then cover the seeds with glass or plastic in order to retain the humidity, and cover with black polythene to exclude the light and prevent the compost drying out. If this method is used it is important to inspect for germination every few days. Water as required, but do not over water and where possible water by capillary action. Plants from temperate cold zones require temperatures of 12–15°C to germinate and those from warm temperate zones prefer a temperature of 21°C. As the seeds germinate remove any covering (black-out or glass) and spray seedlings regularly with water. Make sure that they have adequate light but protect them from strong direct sunlight. After germination, spray the seedlings with a fungicide to prevent damping-off diseases, which are caused by a range of fungal pathogens (Table 12). 9. Potting-on. When the seedlings are large enough to be handled, they must be transplanted into clean containers that contain compost with a 141

Table 12. Products used for the control of pests and diseases.

Name of pest or disease

Product*

Dose

Damping-off

Captan 80% WP

Insects in general

Karate

Spiders

Arañitas Anasac

12 g/4 L water

Mildew

Antracol 70% WP

20 g/5 L water

Scale insect

Dimetoato

100 cm3 in 10 L water

Slugs and snails

MesuroTM, ClartexTM

Apply as bait as required

TM

+ Pomarsol Forte TM

25 g + 10 g in 10 L water 2 g/4 L water

TM

TM

TM

TM

* Products listed here may not always be commercially available outside Chile.

slow-release fertiliser, to sustain the developing plant. Remove the seedlings very carefully and hold them by the seed leaf, and with the aid of a small piece of wood gently lift the seedling from under the roots, making sure that none of the root hairs are damaged. Fill a new container with compost and firm lightly, make a hole in the compost and insert the seedling, and firm in the seedling very carefully. Finally, label and water the container. The potted-on seedlings must be placed under shade protection away from direct sunlight and in a similar temperature to that required for germination. The same procedure should be used for transplanting plants to larger containers, making sure that the new containers are 2–6 cm larger than the original ones, the size depending on the vigour of the plant. Never allow plants to become pot-bound as this will affect their ability to establish in their final planting-out site.

Vegetative Propagation by Cuttings Using this method you can maintain the exact genetic information of the mother-tree, and because the cuttings are often taken from mature growth the new plant will produce flowers in a shorter period of time compared with propagation from seeds. Vegetative propagation has the advantage of cloning desirable characteristics that are required from the mother-plant, for example retaining a particular flower colour, leaf shape or quality of fruit. This is why plant production by cuttings is one of the most commonly used methods for propagating ornamental plants. Unless you are propagating from many different genotypes, it 142

is not the most desirable method for broadening the genetic base of threatened species with a very narrow natural distribution. However, asexual propagation is sometimes the only method of propagation available due to the lack of available seed. The capacity of plants to produce roots is often dependent on the time of year, but with some species, such as Berberidopsis corallina and Hebe salicifolia, this is not so important. 1. Collecting material. Ideally plant material should be collected early in the day before the air temperature has risen too high, which may cause excessive water loss. Remember that the cutting will have limited opportunity to absorb more water until it produces roots. Place the cut material in a polythene bag with a little water in the bottom and keep the bag shaded. From the moment that the material has been collected attach a label to it detailing its name, accession number and any other relevant details that will keep its full identity. If absolutely necessary, cuttings can be stored overnight in a sealed bag in a fridge (no colder than 4°C), but if this can be avoided then do so. 2. Types of cuttings. Cuttings can be taken from stems, leaves or roots. 3. Stem cuttings. Most cuttings are taken from the plant stem, and the choice of correct material is very important. The cutting should be taken from vigorous, healthy, growing stems from the present year’s growth at the most appropriate time according to the type of stem cutting that is required. The cutting can be prepared in several ways: (i) internodal cuttings involve making a

Martin F. Gardner

cut between the nodes (bud junctions) of the leaves and (ii) nodal or basal cuttings involve making the cut about 3 mm below the node. In order to stimulate root development a wound is often made along the stem and an application of a rooting hormone made. Types of stem cuttings

• Semi-ripe wood cuttings. These are made from late summer to the beginning of winter using stem growth that has hardened but is still in the process of growing. This type of cutting requires less specialised environmental conditions to root than softwood cuttings. With this type of cutting material is often prepared with a ‘heel’ by removing a short side shoot from the parent plant so that it has a heel attached to it. The heel consists of a thin layer of bark and wood which gives the cutting a higher capacity for producing roots. This method is used for cuttings that are inserted in cold propagation beds or in partially controlled environments. It is often used for the conifers Austrocedrus chilensis, Fitzroya cupressoides and Pilgerodendron uviferum, and is also used for evergreens such as Berberis negeriana and Gaultheria renjifoana. • Mallet cuttings. These are a type of semiripe wood cutting whereby a horizontal cut is made with secateurs across the stem immediately above and below a side shoot. The upper cut should be as close to the side shoot as possible and the lower cut 2 cm from the upper cut so that the resulting cutting has a ‘mallet’ (Figure 11). Dip the ‘mallet’ in rooting hormone and insert the cutting in the compost. This type of cutting is commonly used for evergreen species such as Berberis.

Figure 11. Mallet cutting.

• Hardwood cuttings. Prepare in the autumn or winter from deciduous wood which includes at least two nodes. 4. Leaf cuttings. Remove a fully expanded, healthy leaf from the parent plant, place it face down on a clean pane of glass and cut it into 2 cm squares. With the basal cut downwards, insert the leaf square vertically into a welldrained compost. Roots will develop in 2–6 weeks. Valdivia gayana is a very rare example of a woody plant that will root from leaf cuttings (Figure 12); this method of propagation is usually restricted to herbaceous plant species. Peter Brownless

• Softwood cuttings. These are taken from the present year’s growth, usually during the spring and summer. The stems are very soft because they have grown very rapidly, and need a special controlled environment to minimise excessive water loss. Softwood cuttings have the greatest potential for rooting, but the survival rate is somewhat reduced.

Figure 12. Leaf cuttings of Valdivia gayana.

5. Preparation of cuttings. To prepare cuttings use a sharp knife and a clean hard surface to cut onto in order to avoid tears or bruising of the 143

cuttings. Remove dead or infected leaves and reduce the number of leaves to between 4 and 6. Reduce the leaf surface area if needed by cutting away a proportion of the leaf and remove the very soft tip growth if needed. Using a dibber insert the cuttings into the compost and firm in the cutting with pressure towards the base. Water-in thoroughly with a fine spray of water. If large amounts of material are being used keep it protected in plastic bags. Make detailed records of how the cuttings have been prepared for future reference. 6. Rooting hormones. Rooting hormones are chemicals that stimulate the formation of roots and they are used only on leaf and stem cuttings. Although indolbutyric acid (IBA) is the most widely used rooting hormone, KerirootTM powder is also available for use. The former needs to be prepared diluted at any desired concentration and the latter has a standard concentration. In order that the powder adheres to the cutting, it is necessary to dip the cutting in water before immersing it into the powder. Make sure that the powder comes in contact with the base of the cutting, shake off the excess, and insert the cutting into the compost. In order to get maximum contact with the cut surface, wound the side of the cutting to expose the wood tissue. 7. Wounding. In some plants if the tissue between the bark and wood tissues is damaged then roots will be produced. This damage is achieved by wounding, which involves removing a slice of bark from the bottom 2.5 cm of the cutting using a sharp knife. This technique is normally used on older wood, such as hardwood cuttings. 8. Cutting compost. Cutting composts must be: (i) sufficiently moist to prevent desiccation of the cutting; (ii) open to allow air circulation; (iii) firm enough to hold the cuttings erect and (iv) sterile. The two ingredients most commonly used are sand, which provides good aeration, and peat, which retains sufficient moisture.

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These are used in equal parts by volume. If peat is not available then it can be substituted with bark (5 mm). In order that the sand aerates the compost adequately, a particle size of between 0.3 and 0.6 mm should be used. Perlite can also be used to improve the aeration, but it is more expensive. 9. Maintaining the cuttings until rooted. Compost and the environment should always be kept moist by applying manual or intermittent mist several times each day. A daily visual check of the rooting environment is recommended. Remove dead leaves as necessary and apply a fungicide if needed. If basal heat is available, use a thermometer to maintain a basal temperature of 18–20°C. Monitor until rooted. In strong sun apply shade material to reduce heat. 10. Potting up a cutting. The same procedure should be followed as for potting-on seedlings. Make sure that as little damage as possible is caused to the developing root system. 11. Hardening-off. This is a very important procedure which entails gradually transferring the plants from the highly protected environment of a greenhouse to being planted out in their permanent planting position. Transfer the plants from the greenhouse to an intermediate area covered with RaschelTM netting of 50% grade for about 4 weeks. After this the plants are ready to be planted out. 12. Fertilisers. Large-scale nurseries use Osmocote 18-6-12TM at a proportion of 5 kg/ m3 of substrate or 5 g/L of substrate, but it is expensive. During spring, the leaf fertiliser BayfolanTM (2 cm3/L) can be used. Another alternative is the application of a natural fertiliser, which can be produced in the same nursery. 13. Field collecting number. When collections of seed or cuttings are made from the wild a unique field collecting number is assigned to

the collection. For example, PHV161 refers to a collection made by Paulina Hechenleitner Vega of cuttings from Myrceugenia leptospermoides. This number accompanies the collection for the rest of its existence. 14. Accession number. All collections when they enter the nursery should be assigned a unique accession number, and as with the field collecting number the accession number stays

with the plant for ever. The accession number usually consists of eight digits, the first four representing the year in which the plant material entered the nursery, and the remaining four representing a sequential counter within the year. For example Myrceugenia leptospermoides PHV161 has been assigned the accession number 20040151, which tells us that it was received by the nursery or botanic garden in 2004 and was the 151st batch of material received.

Table 13. Some common problems associated with rooting cuttings.

Problem

Symptoms

Causes

Solutions

Base of cutting dies but there is no sign of rotting

Stem gradually becomes grey starting from the bottom. Base of cutting appears to be dry

Compost too dry

Use a less open compost by reducing the amount of drainage material

Rotting at base of cutting

Foliage looks grey/ black and becomes infected with fungus

Compost too wet

Use a more open compost

Leaf rotting

Leaf rots before the base of the cutting

Atmosphere is too hot or the misting frequency is too high

Reduce the amount of light entering the propagation facility or reduce the misting frequency

Leaf yellowing and falling off

Leaf becomes yellow and drops off

Insufficient light reaching the leaf and/or the cutting is water-stressed

Reduce amount of shading and/or reduce water-stress

Leaf falls off while still green

Leaf falls off soon after the cutting is taken

Cutting suffered from water-stress while being prepared as a cutting

Spraying with water may help

Division Herbaceous plants such as Lobelia bridgesii can be propagated by division. Unearth the plant after it has flowered as this is when the new vegetative shoots are being produced and the new root system is starting to develop. Shake

off any excess soil and shorten the stems to minimise water loss. Using a knife, a spade or a fork, divide the new vigorous growth from the outer edge of the clump and discard the older growth from the centre. Replant or transfer the new plants to a container.

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RECOMMENDED READING ESCOBAR, B., R. VERGARA & L. PEZOA. 2000. Técnicas de Propagación de Especies nativas y Restauración ecológica. Fundación Senda Darwin-Universidad Austral de Chile. Documento de Trabajo. GOLD, K., P. LEON-LOBOS & M. WAY. 2004. Manual de Recolección de Semillas de Plantas silvestres para la Conservación a largo plazo y Restauración ecológica. Instituto de Investigaciones Agropecuarias, Centro Regional de Investigaciones Intihuasi, La Serena, Chile. Boletín INIA Nº110. 62 pp. Online: www.inia.cl/ recursosgeneticos/bancobase/semillasnativas/pdf/manualsemillas.pdf HARTMANN, H. & D. E. KESTER. 1985. Propagación de Plantas. Principios y Prácticas. Editorial Continental, México. 814 pp. VAN DER HEEDE, A. & M. LECOURT. 1981. El Estaquillado. Guía práctica de Multiplicación de las Plantas. Mundi-Prensa, Madrid. 197 pp.

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Table 11. Propagation overview. Fruits Seeds Cuttings Species Fruit Fruit Germination Potential for Type of Success maturing characteristics rate storage cutting rate Poor Dry Fleshy Good Poor Good Poor Semi-ripe Good >50% 50% 90% > 70% > 50% A2, A3 & A4 > 80% > 50% > 30% A1. Population reduction observed, estimated, inferred, or suspected in the past where the causes of the reduction are clearly reversible AND understood AND ceased based on and specifying any of the following: (a) direct observation (b) an index of abundance appropriate to the taxon (c) a decline in area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO) and/or habitat quality (d) actual or potential levels of exploitation (e) effects of introduced taxa, hybridisation, pathogens, pollutants, competitors or parasites. A2. Population reduction observed, estimated, inferred, or suspected in the past where the causes of reduction may not have ceased OR may not be understood OR may not be reversible, based on any of (a) to (e) under A1. A3. Population reduction projected or suspected to be met in the future (up to a maximum of 100 years) based on any of (b) to (e) under A1. A4. An observed, estimated, inferred, projected or suspected population reduction (up to a maximum of 100 years) where the time period must include both the past and the future, and where the causes of reduction may not have ceased OR may not be understood OR may not be reversible, based on any of (a) to (e) under A1. B. Geographic range in the form of either B1 (extent of occurrence) OR B2 (area of occupancy) B1. Either extent of occurrence