universite libanaise seawater intrusion at the ...

UNIVERSITE LIBANAISE ECOLE DOCTORALE DES SCIENCES ET DE TECHNOLOGIE

Rapport du stage Master 2 Recherche Pour l’obtention du diplôme du Master 2 Recherche en HYDROSCIENCES

Présenté par

Rouya HDEIB

SEAWATER INTRUSION AT THE LEBANESE COASTAL AQUIFERS KHALDE-JIYEH CASE STUDY

Soutenu le 18 Juillet 2012 devant le jury : Dr. Chadi ABDALLAH

Responsable du stage

Dr. Ghassan CHEBBO

Rapporteur

Dr. Ahmad EL HAJJ

Examinateur

Travail effectué au Laboratoire de CNRS sous la direction de : Dr. Chadi ABDALLAH

Acknowledgement First of all, and above all, praise be to God for his guidance and mercifulness throughout my life and through my academic career. Without his grace I couldn’t have accomplished this work. This dissertation would not have been possible without the guidance and the help of several individuals who in one way or another extended their valuable assistance in this study. It is with immense gratitude that I acknowledge the support and help of my supervisor Dr. Chadi Abdallah, whose patient guidance, excellent advice and encouragement I will never forget, gratitude goes for Dr. Ghassan Chebbo for his great potential and effort to ensure the success of this work. To the emblem of wisdom and fairness, the member of the judgment committee, Dr. Ahmad Al Hajj. I would also thank my colleague Samar Hijazi for her help during field investigations and for sharing experience and knowledge. My deepest gratitude goes to my family, friends and teachers, for their valuable help and support. Last but not the least, I dedicate this work for my beloved parents for their unflagging love and support throughout my life.

Abstract Water is the most precious and valuable natural resource in the Middle East in general and in Lebanon in particular. It is vital for socio-economic growth and sustainability of the environment. The development of groundwater resources in coastal areas is a sensitive issue, and careful management is required if water quality degradation, due to the encroachment of seawater, is to be avoided. This study was carried out aiming to investigate the current status of seawater intrusion along the Lebanese coastal aquifers having Khalde-Jiyeh stretch a case study. It was done to define the hydrodynamics and hydrochemical behavior of the intrusion in the region and to assess its evolution, by applying geostatistical surface interpolations and building a groundwater flow model. This study was able to clarify when and where most of seawater intrusion occurred, indicate critical zones and predict its behavior in response to several pumping scenarios. Geostatistical surface interpolations by kriging revealed that horizontal Seawater encroachment is much developed in Khalde, Bchamoun El Maderes, Dawha, Jiyeh, and Saadiyet. Groundwater in Der Kobel, Qoubeh, Baasir, Marj Barja, Dahr el Mghara, Baaouerta, and Haret Naame still serves fresh water. However, upconing is developed behind the Damour plain in Mar Mkhayel area. Field investigations and chemical results revealed that 95% of the investigated wells tap the Sannine aquifer out of which 22% exceeded 5% mixing with seawater. A steady natural and a steady development groundwater flow models were well developed and simulated with several pumping scenarios to study the effect of abstractions. Excessive pumping in Mar Mkhayel area by the Damour and Mechref public wells induced drawdowns in groundwater heads exceeding 30m. Detailed pumping scenarios for Saadiyet area went out with the conclusion that pumping should be prohibited in the first 400m whereas it should be limited to a maximum of 3 l/s in regions up to 1300m away from the coastline and an artificial recharge well is a successful countermeasure.

Table of Contents 1. Introduction......................................................................................................................................1 2. Bibliographic Review.......................................................................................................................3 2.1 Causes and Impacts of Seawater Intrusion..................................................................................3 2.2 Controlling Factors of Seawater Intrusion..................................................................................3 2.3 Effects of Natural Changes.........................................................................................................5 2.4 Anthropogenic Intervention........................................................................................................6 2.5 Detecting Seawater Intrusion......................................................................................................6 a. Chlorides................................................................................................................................6 b. Salinity...................................................................................................................................7 c. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)................................................................................................7 d. Electrical Conductivity (EC)..................................................................................................8 e. pH...........................................................................................................................................8 2.6 Geostatistical Spatial Analysis Methods.....................................................................................9 2.7 Modelling Groundwater..............................................................................................................9 3. Study Area Description.................................................................................................................11 3.1 Geographical Characteristics....................................................................................................11 3.2 Administrative Situation, Population and Socio-Economic Charecteristics.............................12 3.3 Climatic Characteristics............................................................................................................13 3.4 Geomorphologic and Geologic Characteristics........................................................................14 a. Geomorphology....................................................................................................................14 b. Geology................................................................................................................................14 3.5 Hydrogeology............................................................................................................................17 a. Sannine Aquifer....................................................................................................................17

b. Kesrouane Aquifer...............................................................................................................17 c. Quaternary Aquifer..............................................................................................................18 3.6 Land Cover/Use........................................................................................................................19 3.7 Seawater Intrusion Researches..................................................................................................20 4. Methodology...................................................................................................................................21 4.1 Data Preparation........................................................................................................................21 a. Scanning, Georeferencing and Digitizing............................................................................21 b. Data Management and Preparation......................................................................................21 4.2 Well Survey...............................................................................................................................21 a. Water Quality Investigation.................................................................................................22 b. Heads Investigation..............................................................................................................22 4.3 Generation of Prediction Surfaces............................................................................................24 The kriging Formula................................................................................................................24 4.4 Model Building.........................................................................................................................24 a. Construction of a Steady Natural Model..............................................................................24 b. Construction of a Steady Development Model....................................................................25 5. Results and Discussion...................................................................................................................26 5.1 Prediction Surfaces and Seawater Intrusion State.....................................................................26 5.2 Chemical Tests Results.............................................................................................................28 5.3 Model Results............................................................................................................................31 a. Steady Natural Model...........................................................................................................31 b. Steady Development Model.................................................................................................33 6. Conclusion and Recommendations..............................................................................................37 6.1 Conclusion.................................................................................................................................37

6.2 Recommendations.....................................................................................................................38 References...........................................................................................................................................40 ANNEX I................................................................................................................................................. UNDP Seawater Intrusion Limit Map…………………………………………………………………. Geological Cross Sections……………………………………………………………………………... ANNEX II............................................................................................................................................... Investigated Wells Map………………………………………………………………………………... Field Questionnaire…………………………………………………………………………………….. List of Investigated Wells and their Physical Properties………………………………………………. Chemical Results for Well Survey……………………………………………………………………... Images for Site Investigation…………………………………………………………………………... ANNEX III.............................................................................................................................................. Geostatistical Surface Interpolation for TDS in ppm………………………………………………….. Geostatistical Surface Interpolation for EC in μS/cm………………………………………………….. Geostatistical Surface Interpolation for pH……………………………………………………………. ANNEX IV…………………………………………………………………………………………….. Map for Drawdowns in Groundwater levels due to Damour-Mechref Public Abstraction Wells……... Some Cross Sections for Pumping Scenarios in Saadiyet Area………………………………………..

List of Figures Figure 2.1: Features affecting the coastal aquifers (Oude Essink, 2001).............................................3 Figure 2.2: The Badon Ghyben-Herzberg principle: a fresh-salt interface in an unconfined coastal aquifer (Oude Essink, 2001)..................................................................................................................4 Figure 2.3: The freshwater-Saltwater interface is a transition zone of brackish water.........................5 Figure 2.4: Steps in the protocol for model application [Adapted from Anderson&Woessner, 1992].......................................................................................10 Figure 3.1: Administrative map for Lebanon showing clearly the Study area...................................12 Figure 3.2: Geological map for the study area....................................................................................16 Figure 3.3: Satellite images for the study area. On the left: old image taken by Corona Satellite between 1959 and 1972. On the right: satellite image taken in 2009..................................................20 Figure 4.1: Excavated wells map........................................................................................................23 Figure 4.2: Cross section for model showing the different layers and the boundary conditions. Grey cells are inactive cells, whereas white cells denote active cells..........................................................25 Figure 5.1: Surface interpolations of salinity values (in ppm) for the study area...............................27 Figure 5.2: Contour map of groundwater levels.................................................................................32 Figure 5.3: Map for the drawdowns in groundwater levels induced by over-abstraction..................34 Figure 5.4: Capture zone and cross sections of the well fields in the second model layer for a travel time of 365 days...................................................................................................................................34 Figure 5.5: Scenario H, cross sections showing the permanent flow path of seawater induced by abstraction well at 3000 m away from the coastline............................................................................36 Figure 5.6: Scenario I, cross sections showing that the injection well (in blue) would delay seawater intrusion during summer period...........................................................................................................36

List of Tables Table 2.1: Composition of ocean water................................................................................................7 Table 2.2: Water classification according to TDS values (Barlow, 2003, Saadeh, 2008)....................8 Table 2.3: Physical and chemical parameter analysis of water according to EPA, WHO, and MOH guidelines...............................................................................................................................................8 Table 3.1: Hydraulic characteristics of the different geological layers in the study area...................18 Table 3.2: Land Cover/Use classes of the coastal study area.............................................................19 Table 5.1: Major results of investigated wells....................................................................................29 Table 5.2: Wells exceeding 5% mixing with seawater by salinity and TDS values...........................30 Table 5.3: Variation of wells’ average chemical properties and percentage of saline wells with the variation of altitude..............................................................................................................................31 Table 5.4: Daily water budget of the steady natural model................................................................31 Table 5.5: Principal public wells operating in Mar Mkhayel having high abstraction rates..............33 Table 5.6: Major built scenarios and their corresponding results.......................................................35

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Chapter I Introduction Water is the most precious and valuable natural resource in the Middle East in general and in Lebanon in particular. It is vital for socio-economic growth and sustainability of the environment. Only some 2.5% of all water on the earth is fresh. From this amount 30% is potentially available (approximately 10.5 x 106 km3) mainly as groundwater (Oude Essink, 2001). The management of freshwater reserves is an increasingly important imperative for the custodians of natural resources (Werner AD et al., 2012). Nevertheless, compared to surface water, groundwater is of higher quality, has hard seasonal effects (constant temperature), low storage costs (no spatial limitations) and is available in huge quantities (Oude Essink, 2001). At present, one third of fresh water use is groundwater. This fraction is growing as the demand of fresh groundwater increases due to the deterioration of surface water quality (contamination) and rapid rise of population and economic growth. Meanwhile, several difficulties have arisen upon groundwater extraction including high extraction costs, high mineral content, the potential of land subsidence, and finally the threat of seawater intrusion. (Oude Essink, 2001) Contamination of groundwater caused by seawater intrusion is a major concern in many coastal aquifers (Bear et al., 1999; IHP/OHP, 2002; Llamas and Custodio, 2003). Seawater intrusion is the landward incursion of seawater (Werner AD et al., 2012) into the fresh water aquifers developing along the coast. The latter presently poses the greatest threat to the municipal supply and continuous urban and industrial growth is expected to further impact the water quality. The development of groundwater resources in coastal areas is a sensitive issue, and careful management is required if water quality degradation, due to the encroachment of seawater, is to be avoided. The primary detrimental effects of seawater intrusion are reduction in the available fresh water storage volume and contamination of production wells (Werner AD et al., 2012). Therefore, use of coastal aquifers as operational reservoirs in water resources systems requires development of tools that facilitate the prediction of the behavior of coastal aquifers under different conditions. Although technical methods for desalinisation of saline water are available and applied, it is still an expensive method. As such, the conservation and protection of fresh groundwater should be promoted. (Oude Essink, 2001) The intrusion of seawater into coastal aquifers has been studied for well over a century, treating the problem in a variety of ways that range greatly in complexity (Koussis et al., 2011). The considerable threat of seawater intrusion on the global scale is well documented (Kinzelbach et al., 2003). Many researches are widely conducted to describe the state of seawater intrusion on a global scale; others are concerned in specific regions (e.g. seawater intrusion in Netherlands). What is most important is to understand well the hydrogeological aspect of the zone to be studied, defining major hydrologic and hydrogeologic parameters concerning the geology of the region, types of formed aquifers, number of superposed aquifers and their water

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exchange, current state and fluctuations of the water table, recharges and discharges occurring in the region. Long ago these researches were conducted using traditional procedures, such as drilling boreholes to relatively high depths and monitoring the variation of salt concentration with depth. Nowadays, widely spread technological development has overcome the traditional methods. Improved methods of statistics and interpolation through various softwares facilitate the conduction of such researches as they are much time and labor consuming. Also, many computer codes were developed capable of building one dimensional, two or three dimensional conceptual models, which are models simulating the reality, all hydrogeological and hydrological parameters are embedded in these models. These multicomponent models can perform several scenarios to give appropriate solutions for several described problems. For instance, these models have become important tools for improving the understanding of governing processes in groundwater systems. Many commercial and non commercial softwares are now found in the market, one can name: MIN3P (Mayer, 1999), GIMRT/CRUNCH (Steefel, 2001), PHREEQC-II (Parkhurst et al., 1990; Parkhurst, 1995; Parkhurst and Appelo, 1999), PHAST (Parkhurst et al., 1995), HydroBioGeoChem (Yeh et al., 1998) and some MODFLOW/MT3DMS-based models such as RT3D (Clement et al., 1998) and PHT3D (Prommer et al., 2003), SUTRA (Voss, 1984), FEFLOW (Kolditz et al., 1998), MOCDENS3D (Oude Essink, 2001), in addition to Contouring and 3D surface mapping programs such as Surfer. Weaknesses encountered upon the usage of these codes is regularly being enhanced, several versions are developed to overcome previous problems and to incorporate wider cases. An example is the MODFLOW model, since its original release in 1980‟s several versions were developed such as MODFLOW-88 (McDonald and Harbaugh, 1988), MODFLOW-96 (Harbaugh and McDonald, 1996a, 1996b), MODFLOW-2000(Chunmiao Zheng, Hill, and Hsieh, 2000) and MODFLOW-2005(Harbaugh, 2005) This study aims to illustrate the state of seawater intrusion at the Lebanese coastal aquifers having Khalde-Jiyeh stretch as a case study. Our approach will use different software procedures with ArcGIS and Processing Modflow (PMWIN, version 5.3) for gathering data, build a groundwater flow model, and study the effect of excessive pumping respectively.

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Chapter II Bibliographic Review II.1 Causes and Impacts of Seawater Intrusion Since groundwater systems in coastal areas are in contact with saline water, they are very vulnerable to any external changes, whether natural or anthropogenic, that may alter the naturally occurring equilibrium between fresh and saline water. Many coastal aquifers in the world, especially shallow ones, experience severe seawater intrusion caused by natural as well as man-induced processes (Oude Essink, 2000a). Features affecting the coastal aquifers are summarized in figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1: Features affecting the coastal aquifers (Oude Essink, 2001)

II.2 Controlling Factors of Seawater Intrusion In coastal aquifers, a natural gradient exists towards the coast and groundwater discharges from areas of higher groundwater levels into the sea (British Geological Survey, NERC.) This natural movement of fresh water prevents salt water from entering freshwater coastal aquifers (Barlow, 2003). The flow of saltwater inland, or horizontal seawater encroachment, is limited to coastal areas. As we go further inland, the freshwater head is higher and thus it is able to equalize the pressure from the salt water, preventing saltwater intrusion. A saline wedge below the fresh water is formed and the density difference is

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large enough to prevent substantial mixing and thus a natural hydrostatic equilibrium is developed. The processes and factors associated with seawater intrusion are described qualitatively by Custodio (Custodio, 1987). These include dispersive mixing, tidal effects, density effects including unstable convection, surface hydrology (e.g., recharge variability and surfacesubsurface interactions), paleo-hydrogeological conditions(i.e., leading to trapped ancient seawater), anthropogenic influences, and geological characteristics that influence the degree of confinement as well as aquifer hydraulic and transport properties (Werner et al., 2012). Natural recharge and transport processes are the two main natural processes affecting the distribution of saline and fresh groundwater, i.e. freshwater-saltwater interface (Oude Essink, 2001). The depth of this abrupt interface was first empirically determined independently by Baden-Ghyben (1889) and Herzberg (1901) .The Ghyben-Herzberg Relation assumes that the mixing zone between freshwater and salt water tends to be rather thin, and that under hydrostatic conditions, the weight of a unit column of freshwater extending from the water table to the salt-water interface is balanced by a unit column of salt water extending from sea level to that same point on the interface. See Figure 2.2

Figure 2.2: The Badon Ghyben-Herzberg principle: a fresh-salt interface in an unconfined coastal aquifer (Oude Essink, 2001) The weight of the freshwater column, ρf (h + H) g, is balanced by the weight of a saltwater column, ρs Hg. Set equal to each other and rearranged, the resulting equation is

Where ρf and ρs are the density of freshwater and salt water respectively, h is the thickness of the freshwater zone above sea level and H is the thickness of the freshwater zone below sea level. For ρs =1025 kg/m3 and ρf =1000 kg/m3 at 20 ⁰C, substituting these values in equation the relative density difference will be α = 40. And the equation becomes:

This means that for every unit of groundwater above sea level there are 40 units of fresh water below sea level.

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Practically the theoretical interface of BGH principle is considered to be a steady, linear non permeable boundary where no mixing occurs between fresh water and salt water. But in reality diffusion and dispersion processes take place along this interface and an intermediate transition zone of mixed salinity is formed (Figure 2.3). This boundary, interface, is in a state of dynamic equilibrium, moving with the seasonal variations of the water table, daily tidal fluctuations or any anthropogenic intervention (British Geological Survey, NERC).

Figure 2.3: the freshwater-saltwater interface is a transition zone of brackish water The freshwater-saltwater interface is a mixing zone where liquid exchanging takes place. The mixing zone between freshwater and intruding seawater is an important feature of coastal aquifers (e.g., Michael HA et al., 2005). Advection (flow of water due to gravity), molecular diffusion (spreading of ions due to differences in concentration) and dispersion (mixing due to difference in magnitude and orientation of the velocity vector of groundwater in the pores) are the transport mechanisms supporting liquid exchanging (Oude Essink, 2001). However, the width of such mixing zones varies considerably, ranging from a few meters to kilometers (Paster et al., 2006). Volker and Rushton simulated wide mixing zones in systems characterized by high dispersion coefficients, low freshwater discharge, and high density contrast (Werner et al., 2012)

II.3 Effects of Natural Changes The mixing zone seldom remains stationary due to seasonal variations in groundwater utilization and surface recharge (e.g., Dausman A et al., 2005).Any change in the recharge values due to climatic changes affects the naturally occurring equilibrium; greater recharge shifts the interface towards the sea whereas any deficit in this recharge causes seawater encroachment into coastal fresh water aquifers (Oude Essink, 2001). Fluctuations in both inland freshwater heads and seawater levels can play an important role in modifying mixing zone thickness (Eeman et al., 2011). High recorded annual temperatures, global warming, excessive evapotranspiration would provoke higher salinisation especially in dry seasons.

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II.4 Anthropogenic Intervention Wide variety of human activities along the coasts has primarily affected the distribution of fresh and saline water provoking high rates of seawater intrusion. Reclamation of coastal areas, irrigation and drainage, lowering of piezometric heads by excessive pumping, artificial recharge of groundwater, etc. have all led to changes in the hydrogeological regime. Groundwater system will try to reach a new state of equilibrium, and thus a new distribution of fresh and saline groundwater is induced. This process may take tenth of years or even centuries, thus once an unwanted effect is observed, it will also take a long time before countermeasures become effective. (Oude Essink, 2001a) Several coastal megacities are facing severe intrusions such as Shanghai, Tokyo and Netherlands. Another specific type of seawater intrusion is the vertical seawater intrusion practically upconing which refers to the movement of seawater from a deeper seawater zone upward into a freshwater zone in response to pumping wells (Kumar, 2003). When a partially penetrating well is located in an aquifer where freshwater and saltwater are stratified, pumping fresh groundwater can cause the movement of saltwater from the deeper saltwater zone upward into the fresh groundwater influencing the mixing zone thickness (Werner et al., 2012)

II.5 Detecting Seawater Intrusion The major obstacle faced in this research is data collection to investigate seawater intrusion, this procedure was done through investigating groundwater wells drilled in the region to monitor the variation of water parameters and build out an assumption about the movement of salt water into fresh water aquifers. A direct method for measuring seawater concentrations in coastal aquifers includes measuring water parameters such as Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) or Electrical Conductivity (EC), and chloride or salinity (Bear, 1999). Recording the variation mainly the increase in the salinity of coastal wells can be an indicator to such phenomenon where no other surrounding source of salinity would render water saline. Indirect methods such as geophysical investigations can be done to locate the saltwater-freshwater interface. (Saadeh, 2008) a. Chlorides Since in coastal groundwater chloride is the predominant ion (19,000 mg/L), less than a 2% contribution of seawater mixed with fresh ground water would render the water unsuitable for public supply using the USEPA guideline (Barlow, 2003). A mixing of only 1% of seawater (~ 250mg/l chloride WHO)would triple the groundwater salinity, while a 5% mixing would increase salinity to over 1000 mg/L in chloride (Bear, 1999). For drinking water, most standards recommend a maximum chloride content of 250 mg/L. Transition zones of mixing have typical chloride concentrations ranging from 250 to 20,000 mg/L, and TDS from 1,000 to 35,000 mg/L.

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b. Salinity Salinity is a measure of the total amount of salt cations and anions in water including halides and all bicarbonates being converted to carbonate, expressed in (mg/l), or in p.p.m. (parts per million). Sea water has a salinity of approximately 35,000 mg/L. There is a direct relation between salinity and chlorinity, measuring one parameter will allow the prediction of the other (University, 2006, Saadeh, 2008): Salinity = (1.805 x chlorinity) + 0.03 (Salinity and chlorinity being measured in ppt)

c. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) TDS is a measure of all dissolved substances in water, including organic and suspended particles that can pass through a 0.45 micrometer sieve size. It is considered as a characteristic of drinking water. TDS is measured in situ or in a laboratory and reported as ppm or mg/l (Division of Water Quality, 2010). Concentrations of TDS in water vary considerably in different geological regions owing to differences in the solubility of minerals. However, the presence of high levels of TDS in drinking-water may be objectionable to consumers (WHO). Groundwater may have greatly varying TDS values whereas fresh water lakes range from 10 to 200 mg/l. The composition of seawater is relatively constant around the world (Millero et al., 2008). As defined by the USGS, salt water has a TDS of 35,000 mg/l (Barlow, 2003). The concentration of dissolved solids in ocean water is shown in table 2.1. Components with low concentrations are Strontium (± 8 mg/l), Borium (± 5 mg/l) and Fluoride (± 1 mg/l). (Oude Essink, 2000) Ions

mg/l 19000 2700 140 65 10600 1270 400 380 34550

clSO42Anions(-) HCO3BrNa+ Mg2+ Cations(+) Ca2+ K+ Total Dissolved Solids Table 2.1: Composition of ocean water.

The recommended secondary limits for potable water are usually set at 500 mg/l. Table 2.2 classifies groundwater according to TDS values following the definition set by the USGS.

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TDS in mg/l Designation Uses 0-1000 Fresh Most purposes 1000-3000 Slightly saline Drinking if fresh water unavailable 3000-10000 Moderately saline For livestock and limited irrigation >10000 Very saline to brine Oil and gas production Table 2.2: water classification according to TDS values (Barlow, 2003, Saadeh, 2008) d. Electrical Conductivity (EC) The ability of an electric current to pass through water is proportional to the amount of dissolved salts in the water; the amount of charged (ionic) particles. EC is a measure of the concentration of dissolved ions in water, reported in μΩ/cm or μS/cm. EC can be measured in laboratory or with an inexpensive field meter. (Division of Water Quality, 2010) e. pH The term pH (or negative logarithm of the proton activity; -log H+) is an index of the amount of hydrogen ions present in water. Most natural waters have pH values between 5 and 8.5. Seawater has a pH of 8 thus changes in this value indicate that water from an inland source is entering the body of sea water (Saadeh, 2008). Table 2.3 summarizes the recommended limits for major water quality parameters. Analysis Acidity as CaCO3 Alkalinity as CaCO3 Ammonia as NH3-N Bicarbonates Chlorides Color Conductivity Hardness, Calcium as CaCO3 Hardness, magnesium as CaCO3 Hardness, Total as CaCO3

Nitrites as NO2-N pH Phosphates, Ortho Solids, Total Dissolved Sulfates

EPA/WHO NA NA 0.05mg/L NA 250mg/L 15 TCU NA NA NA 500 mg/L 10mg/L as nitrate-nitrogen 45mg/L as nitrate 1mg/L 6.5-8.5 NA 1000 mg/L 250 mg/L

Turbidity

5 NTU in drinking water

Nitrates as NO3-N

MOH NA NA 0 mg/L NA 200 mg/L NA 1500 μΩ/cm or 1.5 mS/cm 200 mg/L NA 250 mg/L 45 mg/L as nitrate 0.05 mg/L 6.5-8.5 1 mg/L 500 mg/L 250 mg/L 10 NTU in drinking water 5 NTU in bottled water

Table 2.3: Physical and chemical parameter analysis of water according to EPA, WHO, and MOH* guidelines. *Lebanese Ministry of Health – Decision # 8/1 (Official News Paper, issue # 10 dated 01/03/2001) Guidelines.

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II.6. Geostatistical Spatial Analysis Methods It is unrealistic to investigate all wells and water in aquifers and obtain direct observations in points covering the whole study area to predict seawater intrusion. Nowadays several statistical methods have been developed to monitor environmental issues. Geostatistical interpolation methods developed by ESRI included in spatial analyst tool in ArcGIS can generate a continuous prediction surface for seawater intrusion using available field measurements. Deterministic interpolation methods such as the Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW) and Spline methods are directly based on the surrounding measured values or on specified mathematical formulas, whereas geostatistical interpolation methods, such as kriging, are based on mathematical formulas and statistical models that include autocorrelation representing statistical relationships among the measured points. geostatistical techniques not only have the capability of producing a prediction surface, they also provide some measure of the certainty or accuracy of the predictions (ESRI). Kriging is suitable in our case since the distance or direction between investigated well points reflects a spatial correlation that can be used to explain variation in the surface. Kriging fits a mathematical function to a specified number of points within a specified radius, to determine the output value for each location. It is a multistep process; it includes exploratory statistical analysis of the data, variogram modeling, creating the surface, and exploring a variance surface. Variography relies on spatial correlation estimated using the empirical semivariogram which is a plot of ½ the square of difference between pairs of data points vs. the distance between pairs of data points (ESRI, 2002).

II.7 Modeling Groundwater Theoretical approximation of BGH principle is not applicable in case of complex hyrogeological systems where the prediction of the system‟s reaction to any external effect is very difficult, laborious, and time consuming. Here comes the importance of building a groundwater flow model that produces confidential results. Figure 2.4 shows the main steps in the protocol for model application (Anderson & Woessner, 1992). The protocol includes defining well the purpose of modeling and the proper selection of code. Processing Modflow PMWIN version 5.3 that incorporates MODFLOW code is the suitable software to build this model. However, model design requires great attention since model input will affect greatly the accuracy of the results. The continuous space domain of the hydrological problem is replaced by a discretised domain; grid. Grid design includes defining model extents, cell size, number of rows and columns, and number of layers. Moreover, defining Boundary Conditions and Initial Conditions in addition to preliminary selection of parameters and hydrologic stresses are the basic steps in model design. Nevertheless, the built model must be validated with available field data to verify its predictive ability, accuracy, and reliability when it is applied to simulate hydrologic processes. To avoid errors obtained in some field data and to test the validity of the model and improve the confidence in calibration, the model should be tested to run using different field data. The applied procedure is to split field data into two; half for calibration and half for verification. After being validated the model can be now simulated by several scenarios 9

to predict the response of the hydrologic system to any proposed event and produce results. For the modeling procedure to be beneficial a clear presentation of results together with efficient analysis is very important. Countermeasures and control procedures can then be formulated.

Figure 2.4: steps in the protocol for model application [adapted from Anderson & Woessner, 1992].

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Chapter III Study Area Description The Lebanese coastal zone expands over 210 km in length. It is characterized by a narrow coastal plain except to the north and the south. The coastal area, which constitutes around 8% of the total area of the country, comprises 33% of the total built-up area in the country and hosts 55% of the total population (Dar Al-Handasah & IAURIF, 2003, CAMP final report 2003). The coastal zone is the richest and most sensitive zone in the country (Dar al HandasahIAURIF, CDR, 2002). In this area the industrial, commercial and financial activities along with major Lebanese cities are mostly concentrated. Within a stretch of 500 m all along the coast, the urbanization occupies 40% of the total coastal area, the agriculture 41% and the natural areas (beaches, dunes, etc.) constitute 19% (Idem.-CAMP final report, 2003). The Lebanese coastal stretch extending from Khalde to Jiyeh was chosen as our study area because of its particularity being one of the coastal portions with the most critical geological, hydrogeological, urban, and mismanagement situation. Regardless that Akkar plan and Region of Chekka also face seawater intrusion, but this phenomenon produced in the north is very probably similar to that in our study area in the South.

III.1 Geographical Characteristics The study area extends southwards from Khalde to Jiyeh about 4 to 5 Km eastwards from the coast line (Figure 3.1) having an area about 88.3Km2. It should be noted that our area is not separated from the entire hydrological and hydrogeological basin that also contribute to water recharge, but it is wide enough so that the fresh-saline water interface is probably located within the extents of this area. The coastal line is comprised between the Mount Lebanon chain and the Mediterranean Sea; it is characterized by a narrow 500 m-wide corridor of approximate length 23 Km. A major river passes through the study area; the Damour River. This river is one of the 17 perennial rivers in Lebanon. It originates at an altitude of 948 m well beyond the study area to the east. Safa and Barouk springs, along with other smaller springs, supply the river with water throughout the year. The total length of this river is 40 Km (IWRM final report, ARD, October 2003) with the last 5-6 Km crossing the area, of average width 6 meters and an average discharge of 250 Mm3/year into the Mediterranean Sea. The river is fed by a 333 km2 catchment area with a drainage density about 0.95 km/km2 and a relief gradient about 51 m/km. (Abdallah C., 2009). Along its stretch in the area, the Damour River flows gently till it reaches the base level. At a short distance from the mouth, the river develops meanders, which indicate a mature stage of evolution of the valley (IWRM final report, ARD, October 2003)

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Figure 3.1: Administrative map for Lebanon showing clearly the study area.

III.2 Administrative Characteristics

Situation,

Population

and

Socio-Economic

The study area follows administratively the Shuf and Aley district in the province of Mount Lebanon, over 25 villages spread in the area; Principle villages are Khalde, Naameh, Haret Al Naame. Baaouerta, Damour, Mechref, Saadiyet, Dahr El Mghara, Saadiyet, Jiyeh, Barja, Baasir, Haret Baasir, Nabi Youniss, etc... The coastal zone has a very high population density it decreases as we go inside towards the mountain; it was estimated at around 594 inhabitants per km2 in 2000 which is relatively high compared to the overall population density of Lebanon of 307 inhabitants 12

per km2 ( Abu-Jawdeh et al., CDR 2005). The total population is estimated about 53000 inhabitants distributed unequally among these villages; Damour (16000 inhabitants), Barja (15600 inhabitants), Jiyeh (5100 inhabitants), Haret el Naame (3700 inhabitants), Naame (3500 inhabitants) record the highest population. This zone is agricultural in tradition; people still survive from agriculture, and maintain preserving the agricultural lands as long as these lands allow them to earn perceptible earnings (CAMP Final report, 2003), such populations could be largely identified in Damour area. Villages are rural in character and are mainly consisting of residential housing units, whereas beaches spread widely all along the shore line representing important touristic features. Moreover, after a long period of instability this region was effected by wide urban growth prompting great demographic growth all along with rapid economic development mostly not following clear planning (Mutasem, 2002). Urban expansion spreads out beyond the villages boundaries and develops into a continuous stretch all along the main transportation roads. One of the main consequences of this urban expansion is the infrastructural mismanagement due to the uncontrolled spreading out of unrestrained populated zones (CAMP final report, 2003). Agricultural zones were mainly affected by the spread of industrial zones and unplanned urbanization during the war, which lead to poor water management in agriculture due to the absence of collective irrigation. As a consequence, farmers were forced to use their own water source mainly based on the exploitation of groundwater through drilling wells without any restrictions (Saliby, 2001). Over 821 public and private wells are officially registered and widely spread in the area (MoEW). This number is expected to be much more because many have drilled and are still drilling wells illegally. Uncontrolled drilling and excessive pumping relatively to high rates caused the deterioration of groundwater quality by inducing seawater into fresh water aquifer elevating water and soil salinity.

III.3 Climatic Characteristics This coastal region has a Mediterranean climate; it is characterized by a wet winter and a hot and dry summer. The precipitation occurs during only 7 month of the year, in the period between October and April. In winter the atmospheric pressure perturbations originating from south Europe cause abundant rainfall at the coast. Summer period extends from May to September during this period no rain is recorded and a state of high pressure dominates (Abdallah C., 2009). Total yearly precipitation is estimated to be 850 mm/year out of which 53% are lost by evapotranspiration, 40% by infiltration of groundwater, and 7% as runoff (UNDP, 1970). Data reported by AbouKhaled et al. (1972) show high evapotranspiration values for summer period, where maximum values are observed in July thus inducing a negative water balance. (Abdallah C., 2009) Mean annual temperature varies on the coast between 19.5 ⁰C and 21 ⁰C. It decreases approximately 3 ⁰C for each 500 m elevation. (Abdallah C., 2009)

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III.4 Geomorphologic and Geologic Characteristics a. Geomorphology The study area is located in the occidental segment of Lebanon. Referring to Bou kheir (2002) and Abdallah (2007), geomorphologically area lies within the coastal plain and partially extends into the lower slopes of the uplifted faulted and folded Mount Lebanon; it is characterised by a low relief with a sharp increasing altitude as the western mountain range in the east is rapidly approached (Saadeh, 2008). -The Coastal plain: it is narrow, less than 5 Km in width and less than 100 m in altitude, and covered by dense clusters of urban congregations. It is dominated by carbonate rocks of the Middle Cretaceous and overlain by alluvial and beach Quaternary deposits. Sand beaches constitute 20% of the entire shoreline. Sand accumulation on the dunes is currently declining, causing the alluvial shores to retreat. This process has been furthered over the past 30 years by the removal of large amounts of sand for construction purposes, exposing a serious threat on the stability of coastal building and increasing groundwater salinity. (Abdallah C., 2009) -The lower slopes of the uplifted faulted and folded Mount Lebanon: that cover almost all the existing rock units, they lie parallel to the coastline with an elevation between 100-500 m. The width averages 10 Km (Abdallah C., 2009) and extends as we go towards the South where maximum a 300 m elevation is recorded.

b. Geology The outcrop stratigraphical sequence exposes cenomanian Limestone C4 largely extending over the Mediterranean province. They extend over 475 square kilometers on the western slopes of Southern Lebanon between Damour and Naqoura. The Jurassic It appears in the flexure at the bottom of the valley of North Damour, and folds horizontally 8 Km upstream. The cretaceous Cenomanian –Turonian (C4-C5): (800-1000m) Highly faulted, jointed and fractured limestone in direct contact with the sea covers most of the area; it is a monotone sequence of compact limestone, gray, finely bedded, starts from the flexure zone and reaches down to the coast. Adjusted to 45 degrees in flexure, it folds in Daraya, and then merges down with a general dip lower than 15 to 25 degrees in slope (M.DUBERTRET). Cenomanian limestone can reach depths up to 600m, in regions of direct contact with the sea the groundwater flow is diffuse and brine water deeply invades the coastal zone (UNDP-1970). The Cenomanian blends with the Turonian to form a thicker Limestone series.

14

Special attention should be paid to the Turonian because at that time appeared the first reliefs of the eastern edge of the Mediterranean. G. Zumoffen said the Turonian was not represented in South Lebanon. But at Naame, near Damour some limestone recall much Turonian limestones of the N coast of Lebanon; only Rudists that are so crushed in a way it is not possible to recognize the Hippurites. (M.DUBERTRET) Senonian (C6): (200m) The Senonian is represented only by fragments: bright Globigerina marl, contrasting with the gray limestone freshly underlying. However, these flaps are interesting because they show the lower layers of Senonian, the only ones that contain some macrofossils. The primary senonian banks are formed by lumpy compact limestone recognized by the presence of grains of glauconite. Immediately above follows strongly glauconitic marls of phosphatic nodules (M.DUBERTRET) finally some white marls spread on top not containing any macrofossils. A region of singularity; the Damour plain where two parallel faults preserve little permeable tight formations of chalky marls (figure 2.4), these formations merge to depth reaching 400 m to form a screen barrier that limits the exchange between freshwaters and brines thus charging the groundwater contained in Limestones so that it can be exploited to high rates. (UNDP-1970) The Quaternary Terraces, raised beaches and levels of erosion (few meters) Little fluvial terraces are developed in the area whereas raised beaches are very developed and clear. (M.DUBERTRET) Beaches 65-70m thick At Mar Mkhayel, 1 Km to the south of Damour, a fluvial conglomerate, sloping in its upper parts, spreads out and loads sand that score up to 70m; traces of very poor fauna (M.DUBERTRET). Along the Damour valley where the tributaries in the upper parts of the Damour River provided alluvial deposits forming a wide alluvial plain near the mouth of the river. This is in conjunction with the fluvio-marine deposits along the coast. The fine alluvial and fluvio-marine deposits provided the material for the soil of the cultivated coastal plains of Damour (Arkadan, 1999). Beaches 15m thick It plays an important role in the configuration of the coastal plains, but it is often buried under gravel and land. Very fine exposures of which many are open are present at the Ras Saadiyet turning and below the Damour highway (M.DUBERTRET). Sandy beaches represent 20 percent of the shoreline (MoE/UNDP, by ELARD), these sand and gravel beaches are extremely vulnerable to shoreline erosion and permanent loss of sand and gravel by severe dredging practices (MoE/UNDP, by ELARD). In a study on shore erosion between 1963 and 2003, it was noted that sandy beaches were the most 15

eroded with a 45.2 percent of coastal erosion while gravel beaches are less eroded with 24 percent of coastal erosion (Abi Rizk, 2005). Faults and Folds To south of Beirut a local progress into the sea is caused by a series of secondary NE-SW faults parallel to each other tracing a series of large panels. They are mainly developed in the C4 formations. Two parallel faults bound the Damour plain preserving the Chekka formations. Figure 3.2

Figure 3.2: Geological map for the study area.

III.5 Hydrogeology The aquifers of Lebanon are mainly composed of dolomitic limestones to limestone while the aquicludes vary in composition from sandstone to marlstone. The primary porosity and permeability are low to moderate since subsequent fractures and fissures make up the secondary porosity and permeability. Due to large openings in karstic aquifers, the response 16

to natural recharge and human activities such as groundwater abstraction is generally very rapid (Saadeh, 2008).

a. Sannine Aquifer The Sannine Aquifer, of Middle Cretaceous age, is the major groundwater source in the region it extends over an area approximately 843 Km2 thus its hydrogeological boundaries are beyond the limits of the study area. It is a thick sequence of limestone, marly limestone and dolomites that is slightly inclined to the sea. The Chekka Formations overly the Sannine aquifer in Damour area. It is about 700m thick having secondary porosity causing groundwater to flow mainly through fractures, joints and channels, which is a characteristic of karstic aquifers. Along the coast the aquifer can be found either under water table conditions or under confined conditions, while inland the aquifer is mainly under water table conditions. It is mainly recharged by direct infiltration from rainfall, moreover surface water infiltration from rivers and groundwater leakage from overlying aquifers can contribute to recharge the aquifer (IWRM final report, ARD 2003, adapted from UNDP 1970). In the areas extending from Khalde to Naame and from Saadiyat to Nabi Younis, the Sannine aquifer is in direct contact with the sea. The underground fresh water mixes with the seawater. The thin freshwater lens is being heavily exploited in this area, where a large number of wells exist. In the Damour area, the Sannine aquifer is protected from direct contact with the sea by the Chekka Formation, hence providing an important quantity of water which is being overexploited. (IWRM final report, ARD 2003)

b. Kesrouane Aquifer The Kesrouane aquifer, of Jurassic age, is considered one of the major aquifers in Lebanon although it doesn‟t have large surface area. It is a monotonous sequence of limestone and dolomite characterized by secondary porosity and by the presence of preferential karstified channels. It outcrops as an elongate stretch in the Valley of Damour River east of Damour village. The aquifer is under confined conditions and the piezometric level is near the surface (ARD, 1999). It recharges through sinkholes and fractures from the Jurassic massif of the Barouk-Niha range well outside our area (ARD, 1999).The presence of the coastal flexure in front of the Kesrouane aquifer acts as a hydrogeological barrier causing water to accumulate behind it, hence increasing the potential of this aquifer to be exploited.

c. Quaternary Aquifer This aquifer is present as a coastal stretch in the Damour coast. It is composed mainly of reddish brown sands and clays as well as conglomerates. The Quaternary Aquifer is not considered as a major aquifer due to its proximity to the sea and its limited thickness (not exceeding 20 m). Generally it is recharged from direct precipitation, return flow from irrigation and seepage from rivers. (IWRM final report, ARD 2003)

The Hydraulic characteristics of the different geological layers found in the study area are shown in Table 3.1. Hydraulic conductivities can be directly deduced from the trasmissivity according to the formula T = Kh x H where T is the transmissivity

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in m2/s and Kh is the hydraulic conductivity in m/s and H is the depth of the aquifer in m. Some parameters are estimated and then calibrated in the model.

Period

Epoch

H (m)

Lithology

Hydrogeology

Transmissivity (m2/s)

Porosity %

Kh (m/d)

Quaternary

Pleistocene/ Recent

Var.

Eolian sands and alluvium

-

10-5

30

1.5

Senonian (Chekka Marl C6)

100 to 500

Marl

Aquiclude

Weak (~10-8)

30

0.001

Cenomanian (Sannine Limestone C4)

Up to 700

Dolomitic Limestone and Marly Limestone

Excellent aquifer

~ 3.8 x 10-2

10 Limest. to 28 Dolomite

20

Albian C3

100 to 400

Marl and Limestone

Aquiclude

Weak (~10-8)

25

0.01

Portlandian (Salima Limestone J7)

Up to 180

Oolitic limestone and clay

Aquiclude

Weak (~10-8)

15

0.01

Kimmeridgian (Bikfaya Limestone J6)

Up to 80

Dolomitic Limestone

Excellent aquifer

0.35

10 Limest. to 28 Dolomite

25

Oxfordian (Bhannes volcanic, J5)

Up to 150

Marly limestone, volcanic complex

Aquiclude

Weak (~10-8)

15

0.01

Callovian (Kesrouane Limestone J4)

Over 1000

Dolimitic Limestone

Excellent aquifer

0.45

~ 28

30

Cretaceous

Jurassic

Table 3.1: Hydraulic characteristics of the different geological layers in the study area. (UNDP, 1970)

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III.6 Land Cover/Use Based on the land cover/use map established according to CORINE land cover/use classification for 1999 (Moss 1999).we were able to distinguish different land cover/use classes as shown in table 3.2 Area (km2)

Land Use Class

Urban Area 9.98 Activity Area 5.51 Artificial Area Non built-up 3.97 artificial area Field Crops 0.21 Permanent Crops 14.74 Agricultural Area Intensive 4.49 Agriculture Agricultural Units 0.08 Dense Wooded 8.98 Land Wooded Land Clear Wooded Land 9.98 Scrubland 14.68 Dense Grassland 12.19 Grassland Clear Grassland 1.70 Bare Rocks 0.12 Bare soils 0.25 Unproductive Area Beaches 0.46 Dunes 0.03 Others 0.94 Table 3.2: Land cover/use classes of the coastal study area

Percentage of the total area 11.30 6.24 4.50 0.24 16.69 5.08 0.09 10.17 11.30 16.63 13.80 1.93 0.14 0.28 0.52 0.03 1.06

Observing old satellite images taken for the study area and comparing them with recently taken images (figure 3.3), a great urban expansion is well noticed either on both sides of the highway or from the old villages towards the inside. Newly constructed areas are obvious such as Mechref, Baaourta, and Marj Barja.New transportation networks were constructed to link villages together some villages almost merge together and it is no more possible to differentiate the borders. Urban sprawl and privatization of the coastline represented by the high demand for coastal lands as a result of their economic attractiveness coupled with poor enforcement of legislation, especially during the civil war period, has led to uncontrolled and illegal development along the coastline. Moreover, the coast is littered with illegal occupation of recreational projects, breakwaters and marinas (land reclamation projects) that prevent public access to the seafront, Thus provoking coastal hydrodynamic modifications, coast degradation, soil erosion and loss of biodiversity (CDR, 2005, MoE, 2005).

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Figure 3.3: Satellite images for the study area. On the left: old image taken by Corona satellite between 1962. On the right: recent satellite image taken in 2009.

III.7 Seawater Intrusion Researches Several seawater intrusion researches were performed in the study area. The most detailed research is the study performed by the United Nations Development Program UNDP. The study was done to assess the groundwater state in Lebanon. A geophysical study included drilling over 20 boreholes and performing about 12 pumping experiments along the coastal zone extending from Khalde to Naqoura. The arbitrary limit between fresh and brine water was chosen to be 1000 mg/L chloride concentration. The aim was to find in each region, at what distance from the coast this concentration limit appears in a borehole at 150 m depth. A map showing this limit is presented in ANNEX I.

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July-2012

Chapter IV Methodology IV.1 Data Preparation Well preparation of data is obligatory in this research. ArcGIS geostatistical spatial analysis in ArcMap requires that data shall be prepared and saved in a well-developed database. Moreover, processing Modflow software can only read data files in ASCII format for this reason ASCII files should be previously prepared in ArcMap

a. Scanning, Georeferencing and Digitizing Work included Scanning geological sheet maps of DUBERTRET at a scale 1/50000 for both Saida and Beiruth to enclose the whole study area, georeferencing maps according to universal UTM geographic coordinate system to zone 36N, and digitizing them in shapefile formats for further applications. Updating land cover/use maps from recent satellite images based on CORINE classification and digitizing them. In addition to drawing and digitizing the previous study map performed by the UNDP 1970 showing the previously extrapolated seawater intrusion line, together with the faults map, Damour river map. Also model building on PMWIN required building a Digital Elevated Model (DEM) for the study area from available contour lines at a 10 meter interval.

b. Data Management and Preparation To account the large amount of data concerning the excavated wells in the study area, excavated wells‟ information were organized in a geographic information system database containing files composed of fields designating well coordinates, elevations, and dimensions, water level and results for the chemical tests. Moreover, data concerning model building were prepared using ArcAEM Geodatabase in ArcMap and ArcCatalog. Such database depends on the Analytical Element Method (AEM) that represents real hydrologic objects as vectors linking them together by a HydroID. For example, points are used to model pumping wells, lines can be applied to river, cracks, or drains, and polygons can represent study area boundaries, lakes and aquifer inhomogeneities (Silavisesrith and Matott, 2005). Thus ASCII input files for PMWIN where generated by converting feature files to raster format and in turn to ASCII format. All data was incorporated in a GIS environment to insure well projection and form of data, facilitate input and update of data files covering the whole site investigation period, link data together by specific fields and enable integrated methods of data analysis to model seawater intrusion.

IV.2 Well Survey Several site investigations were conducted to the study area to investigate wells. Over 821 registered wells are present in the study area, this number is supposed to be much bigger because many have drilled wells illegally and many other wells are not registered. Investigations revealed that people drill wells to relatively high depths and pump water at high rates without any restriction. For example well B01 in Khalde which is just at the shoreline was drilled to a depth exceeding 11 m below ground level and is being pumped to

21

a high rate. The chemical tests revealed a high conductivity exceeding 19100 microseimen per centimeter which is out of the maximum range of the device. Well survey is the most tiring and time consuming step since in Lebanon there is no monitoring network responsible to manage groundwater investigations, many people don‟t know much information concerning their wells or aren‟t sure about data accuracy and some others are very skeptic and cautious in releasing any information concerning their wells because they thought this would affect them negatively in a way or another and probably because they have illegally drilled wells and they were afraid we are for governmental entity. Five field investigations were conducted to the study area between April 2012 and June 2012. 75 wells where first investigated of which 29 are public wells drilled by the Government designated by G standing for Government, and the rest are private wells designated by A and B. The main strategy in choosing wells is to cover the whole study area if “possible”, include all geological structures, ensure that all aquifers were investigated and wells have sufficient depth to test water at or below mean sea level. Additional site investigations were performed and 30 more wells were sampled, designated by C and D, to get newer measurement points in order to improve and validate the results of salinity values interpolated by the generated spatial prediction surface and cover regions that were not covered in the previous well survey to get well developed ArcGIS prediction figures. These wells are presented in figure 4.1

a. Water Quality Investigation In situ tests were performed using a Waterproof MultiParameter PCSTestr 35 from OAKTON. This portable tester is capable of performing the following tests: Electrical Conductivity (EC) measured in microsiemens per centimeter (μS/cm), Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) measured in ppm, Salinity (ppm), Temperature (⁰C) and pH. The multi-parameter tester was calibrated at the beginning of every sampling day using standard calibration solutions for pH and conductivity to ensure reliability of the test results. The tester was well rinsed by distilled water after each testing operation. The measuring cup was rinsed few times with the water to be examined. Prior to each sampling operation sufficient volume of water was removed first by pumping to ensure that standing water either in the well or in pipes was discarded. A GPS was used to indicate the position and elevation of each investigated well and a field questionnaire (ANNEX II) was filled upon each sampling operation to include corresponding well data such as: ID, locality, well depth, water level, casing diameter, pumping rate or pipe diameter (inch), pumping hours, and chemical test results.

b. Heads Investigation Another purpose was to investigate wells and get corresponding water heads even though chemical tests weren‟t possible. Out of all investigated wells 40 measurement points were recorded as an attempt to estimate water table variation in the study area, gather enough number of point measurements to ensure well calibration of the built flow model and predict heads on boundaries.

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Figure 4.1: Excavated wells map

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IV.3 Generation of Prediction Surfaces Prediction surfaces were generated progressively after every additional site investigation using the kriging method of the spatial analyst tool in ArcMap to get continuous assumption about critical zones regarding high recorded salinity values and mark regions to be investigated in the upcoming trips. Thus any loss or error in data output was corrected in the upcoming investigation.

The Kriging Formula Kriging weights the surrounding measured values to derive a prediction for an unmeasured location. The general formula is formed as a weighted sum of the data: (ESRI)

where Z(si ) = the measured value at the ith location λi = an unknown weight for the measured value at the ith location s0 = the prediction location N = the number of measured values

IV.4 Model Building a. Construction of a Steady Natural Model Groundwater level distribution and water budget of the steady natural groundwater flow model provide references for assessing the impact of abstraction on seawater intrusion. In natural conditions groundwater is in steady state and long-term average recharge and discharge are equal. A uniform model grid can be used. The model area of 19.55 km by 11.25 km is divided into 391 rows and 225 columns with a constant cell size of 50m. The Sannine aquifer is the major aquifer being exploited in the area, 4 model layers are constructed to account the variation in geological properties and monitor the depth of seawater intrusion. The left boundary represents the coastal line as the constant head boundary and the right boundary which represents the inland boundary is approximated by a recharge boundary. The top elevation of the first model layer is the built DEM of the land surface elevation at 50m interval (details are shown in figure 4.2). The time unit is day and simulation time can be specified as one day. Geology was developed regarding the cross sections and available boreholes for the study area (ANNEX I). Horizontal and vertical hydraulic conductivities together with the recharge, evapotranspiration and river packages are defined

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Figure 4.2: Cross section for model showing the different layers and boundary conditions. Grey cells are inactive cells whereas white cells denote active cells.

b. Construction of a Steady Development Model Seawater intrusion is not only dependent on the well position and altitude but also depends on well depth and in most cases it is a direct consequence of high abstraction rates in groundwater wells. The water demand in this area is met by groundwater abstraction and several excavated wells were abstracted to high rates mainly public distribution wells. How does groundwater system response to the abstraction? Will groundwater abstraction induce seawater intrusion? Several pumping scenarios were performed through a steady state groundwater development model to answer these questions. These pumping scenarios are chosen regarding the most critical zones taking into consideration the wells with the highest depths and abstraction rates.

25

July-2012

Chapter V Results and Discussion V.1 Prediction Surfaces and Seawater Intrusion State Prediction surfaces for salinity, TDS, EC, and pH were generated (ANNEX III); they presented a great aid to assess seawater intrusion state in the study area. Figure 5.1 shows the prediction surface for groundwater salinity in the study area. It reveals that the mixing salinity zone or the fresh-salt water interface continues to ingress inland W-E direction and in some regions it has exceeded the UNDP limit by more than 1200 m as in Saadiyet zone. Overall, values of measured salinity concentrations in Saadiyet, Dawha and KhaldeBchamoun EL Maderes were among the highest of all the monitored wells. Saadiyet zone exhibited staggering 4170 ppm salinity in case of well A17 which is nearly twofold the average concentrations of the monitored wells from other zones. We can build an assumption that Saadiyet, Dawha, and Aramoon zones are the most critical zones, wells investigated in these zones record salinities varying from 1000 ppm to more than 4000 ppm, similarly for TDS values varying from 1160 ppm to more than 4900 ppm. Damour plain is not much affected by horizontal seawater intrusion as shown in figure 3.2 which proofs our hypothesis about the geological property of the Damour plain where the chalky marls play a screen preventing seawater from penetrating inland. Unfortunately we notice a saline zone towards Mar Mkhayel- Mechref area. Investigations revealed that the Beirut water authority has drilled more than 14 public wells feeding Beirut in Mar Mkhayel. These wells are being pumped to high rates in summer period and upconing of seawater is well visible during this period. These wells are clearly represented in the well map. Interpolation surface reveals that in Barja and Baasir region salinity values are much lower, though these two villages are much crowded but in their lower parts water is distributed by the municipality and there is a big restriction on well drilling. To the upper parts as for Marj Barja interpolation surface reveals no salinity regions; people there requested that there are several springs that can cover people‟s needs for freshwater and compensate the need for drilling wells. Similarly in Dibiyyeh, Dahr EL Mghara, Baaouerta and Yinnar-Der Kobel signs for seawater intrusion are not much clear since these villages are relatively high in altitude and some are newly constructed. Baaouerta is an example of the newly constructed villages no dense urbanization is reported and most people live in compounds and usually one well feeds the whole compound so no need to drill big number of wells, all these aspects together reduced the probability of having seawater encroachment in this area. Another example is Der Kobel area though this village is an old village, but well drilling is prohibited by the municipality, and the municipality declared that well C05 feeds the whole village preventing overexploitation of the groundwater.

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Figure 5.1 Surface interpolations of Salinity values (in ppm) for the study area during summer period.

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In Haret Naameh and few other small areas it was very difficult to perform chemical tests to deduce the groundwater quality because few wells exist and most are no more exploited since people have compensated their needs from the government, our information relied only on what people declared through field investigations. For example, in Haret Naameh people declared that no marks of salinity exist in their groundwater wells. But future investigations are still obligatory. A region which requires more attention is the Damour river valley where no wells exist since the river represents the main source of freshwater and information about groundwater is quite difficult and further investigations should be conducted in this area. Though we are not 100% sure about the results of the prediction surfaces, but we can insure that this is the most accurate method of interpolating points into continuous surfaces as declared by Dr. Mark Saadeh in his thesis "Influence of Overexploitation and Seawater Intrusion on the Quality of Groundwater in Greater Beirut", February 2008.

V.2 Chemical Tests Results Since the chloride ion is the predominant constituent in seawater most seawater intrusion researches all over the world consider the chloride concentration as the major indicator for any possible intrusion. When seawater intrudes into coastal aquifers a transition zone of mixed salinity is formed the width of this zone depends on the aquifer properties. Chloride concentrations exceeding 500 mg/L are generally considered to be an evidence of contamination with seawater (Saadeh, 2008). In this study it was possible to measure salinity values and thus the chloride concentration that can be approximated using the direct relation if any comparison was needed. A transition zone of salinity concentration of 900 mg/L was considered to be an indicator for any possible seawater intrusion. Other measured parameter such as TDS corroborates the presence of an advanced mixing front between salt water and fresh water. TDS values ranging from 1000 ppm to 3000 ppm render slightly saline wells. In our study salinity and TDS values were studied in parallel to account any error in measurement and to ensure that seawater intrusion is the only source of well salinity and exclude wells having a great difference between salinity and TDS values. Among all the investigated wells 78 were beyond the previous UNDP intrusion limit, among these 78 wells: 34% recorded salinity values greater than 900 ppm and 37% recorded TDS values greater than 1000 ppm. Moreover, 52 wells out of 105 recorded salinity values greater than 900 ppm, these wells have repeatedly exhibited advanced signs of seawater intrusion as attested by very elevated concentrations of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) and salinities exceeding 1500 ppm. Major results of well survey are presented in table 5.1. All other recorded values are shown in ANNEX II. The thin Quaternary layer fed by the infiltration water located top of Damour plain is not subject to any seawater intrusion; very few wells exist in this plain and people declare that there is a hard silt layer that prevents them from drilling wells; if one was lucky to find water he will probably get fresh water.

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% of total area

Nb. of wells

Nb. of wells with available chemical results

Max. salinity ppm

Min. salinity ppm

Average salinity ppm

Average TDS ppm

Average EC μS/cm

Average pH

Average temp. ⁰C

Sannine Quaternary Kesrouane

93.5 5.36 1.14

99 6 -

83 4 -

8480 1080 -

140 490 -

1297 781 -

1613 1018 -

2460 1428 -

7.68 7.29 -

23 22.08 -

Sum

100

105

87

8480

140

1273

1586

2413

7.66

22.96

Aquifer tapped

Table 5.1: Major results of investigated wells

From Khlade to Naame and from Saadiyet to Nabi Younes Sannine aquifer is in direct contact with the sea and its geological property mainly formed of highly fractured limestone with high dissolution rate favors the formation of wide transition zones. Such zones can be clearly noticed in Dawha and Saadiyet area the freshwater lens is being heavily exploited in this area, where a large number of wells exist. In Dawha region most investigated wells recorded high salinity values exceeding 900 ppm. The highest salinity of 2220 ppm was recorded for well B07, 329 m away from the coastline. High values continue to be recorded until reaching an elevation exceeding 203m above mean sea level for well B20, 1687 m away from the coastline, where a salinity value of 930 ppm was recorded. Concerning the previous UNDP intrusion line we can build an assumption that in Dawha area seawater intrusion is much more progressing inland since well B20 is 1020m away from the previous intrusion limit. Similarly for Saadiyet area a salinity value of 2900 ppm was recorded in well A16, 448 m away from coast line and a value of 2130 ppm for well A10, 498 m away from the coastline. Such recorded salinity values continue to be high until reaching well A22, 1940 m away from the coastline and 166 m above sea level, of 1840 ppm salinity. Well A21 investigated just 197 m after well A22 records a salinity value of 457 ppm and an elevation 186 m. In comparison with the previous study performed under the Coastal Area Management Project by the Arab Resources Development in 2003 TDS values and salinity concentrations in a water sample from a well in Saadiyet were 1850 ppm and 1240 ppm respectively which are much lower than the newly recorded values. In Damour area Sannine aquifer is protected from the sea by the Chekka formations this resulted in important quantity of water. On one hand, the Beirut Water Authority is currently operating 14 wells in Mar Mkhayel region that pump water to outside Damour because of the increasing demand in water of the Beirut area. Nevertheless, the aquifer appears to be overexploited as noted by the increase in salt content. An example is well D07 having TDS and Salinity values of 1090 ppm and 834 ppm respectively 22% of investigated wells exhibited salinities exceeding 1800mg/l corresponding to 1000mg/l in chloride concentration. This would imply that in dry season seawater intrusion may very well have exceeded 5% mixing in the aquifers tapped by these wells. (Table 5.2)

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Well G20 B10 A22 B08 A11 G17 G25 G15 G16 A10 B13 A18 G18 B07 B09 A15 B23 C09 A05 A16 A17 A23 B01

Locality Mar Mkhayel Dawha Misiar-Dahr El Mghara Dawha Saadiyet Mar Mkhayel Mar Mkhayel Mar Mkhayel Mar Mkhayel Saadiyet Dawha Sahel El Jiyeh Mar Mkhayel Dawha Dawha Saadiyet Dawha Khalde Saadiyet Saadiyet Saadiyet Misiar-Dahr El Mghara Khalde

Salinity ppm 1800 1820 1840 1920 1950 1950 1950 2000 2100 2130 2150 2180 2200 2220 2310 2330 2450 2500 2900 2900 4170 8480 Out of range

TDS ppm 2410 2280 2290 2370 2460 2420 2600 2410 2660 2670 2650 2610 2510 2720 2820 2910 3010 3080 3650 3560 4990 9380 Out of range

Table 5.2: Wells exceeding 5% mixing with seawater by salinity and TDS values. Table 5.2 shows that horizontal seawater encroachment is clearly visible in wells located in Saadiyet and Dawha area as measured by high values of salt content, these wells are private mainly used for domestic purposes, whereas Damour faces the problem of water withdrawal from within its boundaries to serve other regions. Such overpumping is inducing upconing of seawater in groundwater abstraction wells in dry season. These results are in parallel with the results of the prediction surfaces. Fractures may contribute to seawater intrusion, sometimes they would present a path for the seawater to penetrate into freshwater aquifers. This is obvious in the wells A22 and A23 located in Misiar-Dahr El Mghara being 135 m apart. A22 exhibited a salinity and TDS concentration 1840 ppm and 2290 ppm respectively whereas A23 exhibited 8480 ppm and 9380 ppm respectively. The extremely high concentrations recorded by A23 could be due to a structural element or due to rock bedding. Both hypotheses should be further justified. Regarding the geomorphology of our study area; the higher the elevation of wells the further are the wells from the coastline and the lower the percentage of saline wells. Table 5.3 shows the variation of chemical characteristics of the possible investigated wells and the percentage of saline wells with the variation of altitude. Exceeding 160 m more than 60% of investigated wells are fresh of average salinity 816 ppm.

30

Average altitude m

Number of wells

Average salinity ppm

Average TDS ppm

Average EC μS/cm

Average pH

Average temperature ⁰C

[0,40] [41,80]

27 13

1468 1572

1840 1955

3298 2750

6.6 7.7

25.17 21.97

% wells with salinity > 900 ppm 88.90 80.00

[81,120]

19

1100

1413

1964

7.7

21.08

53.80

69.20

[121,160]

10

1714

2097

2870

7.7

20.49

87.50

87.50

[161,200]

14

816

1040

1449

7.8

23.25

38.46

38.46

[201,250]

9

630

812

1131

7.7

21.55

37.50

37.50

[251,510]

13

325

431

606

7.9

22.8

0.00

0.00

% wells with TDS > 1000 ppm 92.60 80.00

Table 5.3: Variation of well’s average chemical properties and percentages of saline wells with the variation of altitude.

V.3 Model Results a. Steady Natural Model Once the model was built and all inputs were made the MODFLOW model was run to calculate groundwater levels and the daily water balance can be calculated by the model, results are presented in table 5.4. 50% of measured heads where used to define the initial heads for the model, to be then verified and calibrated with the remaining 50%. Model results were visualized and contour maps of groundwater levels were constructed with the 2D-visaulization tool (figure 5.2). Map shows clearly that groundwater flows in general from the inside higher slopes towards the sea coast.

Component Boundary inflow River leakage Recharge Outflow to sea Evapotranspiration Discharge to river Sum Discrepancy [%]

Inflow m3/day 2738000 10553 193432 2941986

Outflow Inflow- Outflow m3/day 2.738000 10553 193432 2924037 -2924037 6007 -6007 11912 -11912 2941956 30 0.00 %

Table 5.4: Daily water budget of the steady natural model

31

Figure 5.2: Contour map of groundwater levels. (meters)

32

b. Steady Development Model Whenever any abstraction operation can induce a decrease in groundwater levels an inflow of seawater is induced into fresh aquifers to retain the previous equilibrium state. In this model we have tracked the induced flow of seawater to detect any possible intrusion. The greatest abstraction operations are taking place in Mar Mkhayel area through Damour and Mechref public abstraction wells (see table 5.5). In order to assess the changes of the groundwater levels caused by abstraction, the calculated natural groundwater levels are used as initial heads in the development model. Well ID

Well Name

Locality

G09 G10 G11 G12 G13 G14 G15 G16 G17 G18 G19 G20 G21 G22 G23 G24 G25 G26 G28 G29

Mechref M4 Mechref M5 Mechref M2 Mechref M3 Mechref M1 Mechref M6 Mechref 5 Mechref 4 Mechref 6 Mechref 3 Damour D5 Mechref 2 Damour 2 Damour 1 Damour D4 Damour D3 Mechref 1 Damour D2 Naame N1 Naame N1

Mechref Mechref Mechref Mechref Mechref Mechref Mechref Mechref Mechref Mechref Damour Damour Damour Damour Damour Damour Mechref Damour Naame Naame

Abstraction rate m3/day 1080 450 780 1080 720 480 2400 2400 2400 3600 420 2592 2880 5040 960 420 2592 336 360 420

Well depth m 240 275 145 175 120 267 170 181 165 182 135 156 135 140 60 130 152 130 80 105

Model layers 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1 1-2 1-2 1-2 1 1-2

Table 5.5: Principal public wells operating in Mar Mkhayel having high abstraction rates The differences in the natural groundwater levels and groundwater levels under abstraction, i.e. drawdowns are calculated. Figure 5.3 shows the contour map of drawdowns in the first model layer that reached more than 30 m; white cells are those that newly went dry upon abstraction. Results of other layers are shown in ANNEX IV. Backward particle tracking method in PMPATH is used to delineate the capture zones of well fields to identify where pumped groundwater comes from. Figure 5.4 shows a large capture zones in second model layer, it is clear that abstraction is inducing a seawater flow deep in the third model layer under the Damour plain much deeper than wells‟ drilling depths, whereas no horizontal seawater encroachment is observed in the first or second layer; this proves our hypothesis about upconing of saltwater behind the Damour plain. Nevertheless the capture zone of well fields in the first model layer is much smaller.

33

Figure 5.3: Map for the drawdowns in groundwater levels induced by over-abstraction (meters)

Figure 5.4: Capture zone and cross sections of the well fields in the second model layer for a travel time of 365 days. Contour lines in red represent the capture zones of wells.

34

Another critical zone is the Saadiyet area. Groundwater in Saadiyet area is being overexploited through large number of private wells, though extraction rates in these wells are lower than those of Damour area but these wells are being largely drilled without any restriction inducing more horizontal seawater encroachment. Tens of pumping scenarios where performed regarding well position, depth and abstraction rate. This is an approach to calculate the admissible pumping rates for each built scenario. The results of the most important scenarios are presented in table 5.6

Up to 30 l/s

Intrusion depth (layers) 2-3-4 NONE 4 3-4 Slightly in 3-4 3-4 NONE Slightly in 3-4 NONE

Up to 10 l/s

NONE

3 l/s

3-4

Up to 3 l/s

NONE

Scenario

Type

Locality

Distance from the coastline (m)

A B C D

Abstraction well Abstraction well Abstraction well Abstraction well

Saadiyet Saadiyet Saadiyet Saadiyet

400 1300 1300 1300

2 l/s Up to 3 l/s 3.1 to 10 l/s 10.1 to 25 l/s

E

Abstraction well

Saadiyet

2000

10 l/s

F G

Abstraction well F+injection well 30 l/s

Saadiyet Saadiyet

2000 2000

10.1 to 30 l/s Up to 30 l/s

H

Abstraction well

Saadiyet

3000

30 l/s

I

H+injection well 30 l/s Saadiyet 3000 C+E+H + injection J Saadiyet 1300+2000+3000 well 30 l/s Over 20 private L Saadiyet [1000-3000] abstraction wells Over 20 private K abstraction Saadiyet [1000-3000] wells+injection well Table 5.6: Major built scenarios and their corresponding results.

Pumping rate (l/s)

Groundwater abstraction from private wells within the study area is estimated to be 2 l/s (IWRM final report, ARD, 2003). Scenario A reveals that any abstraction operation within 400 m from the coast line can induce seawater intrusion and thus well drilling or even groundwater abstraction from wells existing in this range should be prohibited, whereas in the range of 1300m away from the coast line pumping operation of 3 l/s are still safe as clear in scenario B. In scenarios E, F and H an assumption was built about the most critical situations of overabstraction, wells in the range of 2000 and 3000 meters away from the coast of pumping rates greater than or equal to 10 l/s and 30 l/s respectively can induce seawater intrusion in relatively deep model layers. A counter measure to avoid such intrusions is an injection well that can be drilled in the most critical regions where a permanent flow of seawater is developed. Scenarios G, I and J show that such injection wells are capable of delaying or even avoiding such intrusions. Scenario L was built as an attempt to resemble the reality where a large number of private

35

wells exist of average abstraction rates of 2-3 l/s. intrusion is observed in model layers 3 and 4, but an injection well can still be a successful counter measure as in scenario K. see figures 5.5 and 5.6.

Figure 5.5: Scenario H, cross sections showing the permanent flow path of seawater induced by abstraction well at 3000 m away from the coastline.

Figure 5.6: Scenario I, cross sections showing that the injection well (in blue) would delay seawater intrusion during summer period.

36

July-2012

Chapter VI Conclusion and Recommendations VI.1 Conclusion Study reveals that seawater intrusion is a very heterogeneous phenomenon. Its occurrence is very possible because of the geological property of the Lebanese coast formed of highly fractured and jointed limestone in direct contact with the sea. Unlike the homogeneous flow of water in porous media, the karstic media formed of big cavities together with the fractures give wide possibility of seawater intrusion provoking the formation of saline zones inland. Such permanent flows of seawater through fractures are difficult to trace and much time and labor consuming. This requires greater effort and higher techniques of tracing regarding the specificity of each region. Unfortunately, human intervention along the coast is making the situation much worse. Huge number of wells drilled to high depths and exploited at high rates is speeding the rate of seawater intrusion and inducing new paths for seawater flow. Seawater continue to encroach inland, it is much developed in Khalde, Bchamoun El Maderes, Dawha, Jiyeh, and Saadiyet which coincides with areas of high population densities. Hence, the inevitable outcomes from wells in these areas means that its locals are causing the rampant overabstraction of the coastal aquifers, namely the Sannine aquifer (C4) being in direct contact with the sea. In these zones, groundwater is no more fresh and the situation is thought to become much worse if people continue to exploit the groundwater at the same rhythm and no counter measures are developed. All of the investigated wells in these areas show TDS values in the range of 1000 ppm and above, which would classify them as being slightly saline except for wells A23, A17, A05, A16, C09, and B23 that would be categorized as moderately saline. However, groundwater in Marj Barja, Baasir, Dahr El Mghara, Der kobel, Qoubeh, Baaouerta, and Haret Naame still serves fresh water, wells there are also tapping the Sannine aquifer, but they rarely have salinity concentrations exceeding 650 ppm and TDS values exceeding 1000 ppm which would classify them as fresh. The explanation for this appearance could very well lie in the distance of these wells from the coastline, monitoring measures applied by the municipalities and the less dense population in some areas as in Baaouerta. Monitoring systems shall still be applied to avoid future intrusions. Big attention should be applied for Damour region regarding its big fresh water reserve. Upconing is well developed due to water abstraction to feed Beirut and which induced higher salinity and TDS values exceeding 1000 ppm in some wells. As such wells G15, G16, G17, G18, G20, G21, and G25 can be classified as slightly saline. Thus abstraction rates should be reduced and a monitoring system should be developed to avoid such upconing. Exploiting available groundwater is much cheaper than importing water from other regions mainly because of the higher development and transmission cost. Monitoring and counter measures should always be applied to protect this valuable source from any possible seawater intrusion.

37

The total water needs for the study area should be well studied to build an assumption about the maximum water usage and avoid great losses. Municipalities should apply good water management plans including abstraction and distribution of water to satisfy people‟s needs, thus encouraging the population to abandon groundwater abstraction individually. Only then could the effects of seawater intrusion begin to be reversed.

VI.2 Recommendations Several counter measures and monitoring actions should be applied by Government, social communities and individuals all together to overcome such problem. Nevertheless, some potential methods for tackling seawater intrusion are presented in the following recommendations. Some regions necessitate the use of one or more of the following measures:  Prohibiting well drilling in areas much close to the coast of critical seawater intrusion situation. This measure requires periodic inspections to detect any infringement.  Supporting municipal capabilities to provide water needs to all the population which encourages them to exploit groundwater legally and reduces many infringements.  Lowering pumping rates of coastal wells or even turning off the pumps every now and then to mitigate the problem of salinity in the wells and reduce abstraction stresses on the groundwater.  Relocating, if possible, abstraction wells in some regions further inland where the water table is higher and thus any abstraction operation will not reduce much the water heads.  Drilling injection wells in properly chosen regions. Thus coastal aquifers can be artificially recharged by increasing infiltration of surface water, probably domestic treated water, into designated recharge wells. This measure will reduce the stresses caused by excessive abstraction and avoid additional seawater flow due to the decrease in recharge or lowering the piezometric heads. An example is the injection well in Gallery Semaan in Beirut suburb; the ministry is re-injecting 700,000 m3 of domestic treated water yearly into the well to lower the salt concentration in the aquifer prior to abstraction and distribution.(Saadeh, 2008)  Applying well logs for newly drilled wells, these well logs should include all data relative to the physical properties of the well (drilling depth, casing material and diameter, pump type and depth, pumping rate, and pumping hours). Seasonal water table fluctuation should be periodically measured and implemented in the well log. Moreover, periodic chemical tests for the water should be performed and added to the well log to monitor the variation in water salinity and predict any new signs of salinisation or further deterioration. Borehole logs for newly constructed wells should always be performed and saved in the well log. A municipal database for all well logs should be built and updated periodically. This measure will facilitate all future studies in all fields concerning groundwater investment and management.

38

 Treating water abstracted from the slightly saline wells, this would be much cheaper than desalination processes applied in some countries or even importing water from other far regions.  Supporting data availability for future academic researchers to facilitate and accelerate their work, and reduce any additional effort that would be labor and time consuming.

39

References Abdallah, C., 2009. Hydrology and Watersheds. Lebanese University Ecole Doctorale of Science and Technology. Abi Rizk, E. (2005). Evolution du trait de côte Libanais entre 1962 – 2003 (Master„s thesis) Abu-Jawdeh et al., (1999). Lebanon: environmental and sustainable development issues and policies. Retrieved online on: http://www.planbleu.org/publications/prof_lbn_a.pdf Arkadan A., 1999. The Geology, Geomorphology and Hydrogeology of the DamourAwali Area Coastal and Hinterland. Thesis, American University of Beirut. Arab Resources Development (ARD), October 2003. Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) in CAMP area with demonstration in Damour, Sarafand and Naqoura Municipalities, Final Report. ARD, 1999. Geological and Hydrogeological Investigation of Mouafca Property-Damour River. Barlow, P.: Groundwater in Freshwater-Seawater Environments of the Atlantic Coast, Tech. rep., USGS (2003). Bear, J., Cheng, A.H.-D., Sorek, S., Ouazar, D., Herrera, I. (Eds), 1999. Seawater Intrusion in Coastal Aquifers - Concepts, Methods and Practices. Kluwer Academic Publishers. British Geological Survey. Seawater Intrusion. © NERC. All rights reserved [IPR/47–4], UK Groundwater Forum. CAMP Lebanon project, December 2003. Coastal Area Management Programme, Final Report. UNEP, MAP. Coastal Area Management Programme, CAMP, Lebanon, July 2004. Damour Report, UNEP, MAP. Council for Development and Reconstruction (CDR), (2005). National Physical Master Plan for the Lebanese Territory. Beirut: CDR. Custodio E. Salt-fresh water interrelationships under natural conditions, Chap 3. In: Custodio E, Breggeman GA, editors. Studies and reports in hydrology: groundwater problems in coastal areas. Paris, France: UNESCO; 1987. p. 14-96 Dar al Handasah- IAURIF, CDR, 2002. Schéma d‟Aménagement du Territoire Libanais, Phase 1, Diagnostic et Problématiques. Dausman A, Langevin CD. Movement of the saltwater interface in the surfacial aquifer system in response to hydrologic stresses and water management practices, Broward

40

County, Florida. US Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2004-5256; 2005. 73 p. Dubertret, L., 1945. Cartes geologiques du Liban à l‟echelle 1 :50000. République Libanaise, Ministère des Travaux publics. Beyrouth, Liban. Eeman S, Leinse A, Raats PAC, van der Zee SEATM. Analysis of the thickness of a fresh water lens and of the transition zone between this lens and upwelling saline water. Adv Water Resour 2011; 34: 291-302. ESRI: Geostatistical analysis toolbox http://webhelp.esri.com/arcgisdesktop/9.3/toc.cfm?Action=1&LID=2018&rand=226#2018 Anderson, M.P. & Woessner, W.W. 1992. Applied groundwater modeling. Simulation of flow and advective transport. Academy Press, Inc., San Diego. 381 p. G.H.P. Oude Essink, September 2000. L4018/GWM I Groundwater Modelling. Utrecht University, Interfaculty Centre of Hydrology Utrecht, Institute of Earth Sciences, Department of Geophysics. Gualbert H.P. Oude Essink, March 2001. Density Dependent Groundwater Flow, Salt Water Intrusion and Heat Transport. KHTP/GWM II Hydrological Transport Processes/Groundwater Modelling II, L3041/L4019. Utrecht University, Interfaculty Centre of Hydrology Utrecht, Institute of Earth Sciences, Department of Geophysics. IHP/OHP, 2002. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Low-Lying Coastal Areas – Hydrology and Integrated Coastal zone Management, in IHP/OHP-Berichte, Sonderheft 13, ISSN 0177-9915, Kolbenz, pp. 219-224. Kinzelbach W, Bauer P, Siegfried T, Brunner P. Sustainable groundwater management – problems and scientific tools. Episodes 2003; 26: 279-84. Koussis, A.D., Mazi, K., Destouni, G., 2011. Analytical single-potential, sharp-interface solutions for regional seawater intrusion in sloping unconfined coastal aquifers, with pumping and recharge. 2011. J.Hydrol. 416-417 (2012) 1-11. Kumar, C. (2003): Management of Groundwater in Salt Water Ingress of Coastal Aquifers, National Institute of Hydrology, p. 20 Llamas, R., Custodio, E., 2003. Intensive Use of Groundwater: Challenges and Opportunities. Balkema Publishers, The Netherlands, ISBN: 90 5809 390 5. Michael HA, Mulligan AE, Harvey CF. Seasonal oscillations in water exchange between aquifer and the coastal ocean. Nature 2005; 436: 1145-8 Millero FJ, Feistel R, Wright DG, McDougall TJ. The composition of standard seawater and the definition of the Reference-Composition Salinity Scale. Deep-sea Res Pt I 2008; 55: 50-72.

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MOE/UNDP, Climate risks, Vulnerability & Adaptation Assessment (final report), Costal zones, prepared by ELARD. Vulnerability, Adaptation and mitigation chapters of Lebanon‟s second national communication. Mutasem F., 2002. Environmental impact assessment. Cultural heritage and urban development project. Lebanon. Paster A, Dagan G, Guttman J. The salt-water body in the Northern part of YarkonTaninim aquifer: field data analysis, conceptual model and prediction. J Hydrol 2006; 323: 154-67. Saadeh Mark. Influence of Overexploitation and Seawater Intrusion on the Quality of Groundwater in Greater Beirut (Doctoral thesis). 12. February 2008. Beirut, Lebanon. Saliby Carole, Effets de l'intrusion de l'eau de mer et de l'expansion de l'urbanisation sur la qualité des eaux souterraines dans la bande côtière libanaise allant de Choueifat jusqu'à Rmeylé. USEK/ Agriculture - 2001-02 (Master„s thesis). http://www.ibrahimabdelal.org/master_links/absSalibyC.html. Silavisesrith, W., Matott, S., 2005. ArcAEM: GIS-Based Application for Analytic Element Groundwater Modeling; Documentation and User’s Guide, Draft Version 2.13

State Water Resources Control Board, Division of Water Quality, GAMA Program. Groundwater Information Sheet, Salinity. Revised March 2010. UNDP, 1970. Liban: Etude des Eaux Souterraines, Programme des National Unies pour le Development, N. Y. University, H.: Principles of Geochemistry, http://www.soest.hawai.edu/krubin/GG325/ lect17-18.pdf (2006). Volker RE, Rushton KR. An assessment of the importance of some parameters for seawater intrusion in aquifers and a comparison of dispersive and sharp interface modeling approaches. J Hydrol 1982; 56: 239-50. Werner AD et al. Seawater intrusion processes, investigation and management: Recent advances and future challenges. Adv in Water Resour (2012), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.advwatres.2012.03.004 WHO.

Guidelines

for

drinking-water

quality,

4th

ed.;

2011.

p.

564.

www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/2011/dwq_guidlines/ [last accessed 11.10.11].

42

ANNEX I UNDP Seawater Intrusion Limit Map Geological Cross Sections

ANNEX I UNDP Seawater Intrusion Limit Map, 1970

ANNEX I Geological Cross Section at Jiyeh (UNDP, 1970)

ANNEX I Geological Cross Section at Damour Plain (UNDP, 1970)

ANNEX II Investigated Wells Map Field Questionnaire List of Investigated Wells and their Physical Properties Chemical Results for Well Survey Images for Site Investigations

ANNEX II Investigated Wells Map

Field Questionnaire Investigator: Date:

Well Locality ID

x

y

Lat.

Long.

Well Drinkable Well Type water Depth (Pvt/Pu) (Y/N) (m)

Well elevation m asl

⁰ Casing Water Pumping Rate EC TDS Salinity Temp 3 Diameter level m (m /day) or Pipe μS/cm (ppm) (ppm) ( C) (inch) BGL Diameter inch

pH

Notes

ANNEX II List of Investigated Wells and their Physical Properties

Well ID

Locality

X

Y

latitude

longitude

Elevation m asl

A01

Dawha

727663.00

3738392.00

33.76100

35.46000

4

NO

12

NA

NA

Pumping Rate m3/day or Pipe Diameter inch 4''

A02

Damour plain

727231.00

3736060.00

33.74020

35.45286

20

YES

101

NA

35

1.75''

A03

Damour plain

727180.00

3734855.00

33.72942

35.45200

22

YES

75

NA

65

2''

A04

Saadiyet

726133.00

3731902.00

33.70304

35.43995

5

NO

10

6

10

4''

A05

Saadiyet

725162.00

3731079.00

33.69581

35.42929

17

NO

37

10

37

1.25''

A06

Saadiyet

724523.00

3730432.00

33.69012

35.42223

39

NO

55

NA

55

4''

A07

Saadiyet

724311.00

3730372.00

33.68962

35.41992

23

NO

45

NA

44

NA

A08

Saadiyet

724192.00

3730296.00

33.68897

35.41862

17

NO

NA

NA

NA

NA

A09

Saadiyet

724257.00

3730253.00

33.68856

35.41963

22

NO

28

10

28

1.25''

A10

Saadiyet

724454.00

3730241.00

33.68840

35.42146

41

NO

15

NA

15

NA

A11

Saadiyet

724218.00

3730111.00

33.68730

35.41887

17

NO

27

10

27

1.5''

A12

Saadiyet

724271.00

3730128.00

33.68746

35.41952

21

NO

23

10

22

2''

A13

Saadiyet

724421.00

3730024.00

33.68648

35.11210

25

sometimes

27

10

27

1.5''

A14

Saadiyet

724611.00

3729905.00

33.68536

35.42302

26

NO

34

NA

33

NA

A15

Saadiyet

724593.00

3729829.00

33.68467

35.42287

22

used to

27

10

27

NA

A16

Saadiyet

724589.00

3729809.00

33.68449

35.42279

22

NO

NA

NA

NA

NA

A17

Saadiyet

724425.00

3729569.00

33.68237

35.42096

22

NO

NA

NA

NA

NA

A18

Sahel Jiyeh

724190.00

3729229.00

33.67936

35.41834

5

NO

20

NA

20

NA

A19

Jiyeh

724436.00

3727621.00

33.66481

35.42059

14

NO

NA

NA

NA

NA

A20

Saadiyet

725153.00

3730301.00

33.68880

35.42900

106

NO

93

10

87

2''

A21

Missiar-Dahr EL Mghara

726264.00

3730485.00

33.69013

35.44099

186

NO

160

10

145

1''

drinkable water(Y/N)

Well Depth(m)

Casing Diameter inch

Water Level BGL

Well ID A22 A23

Locality Missiar-Dahr EL Mghara Missiar-Dahr EL Mghara

drinkable water(Y/N)

Well Depth(m)

Casing Diameter inch

Water Level BGL

Pumping Rate m3/day or Pipe Diameter inch

X

Y

latitude

longitude

Elevation m asl

726040.00

3730402.00

33.68953

35.43857

166

NO

175

NA

170

1.25''

726151.00

3730315.00

33.68870

35.43974

159

NO

185

NA

170

1.5''

B01

Khalde

728878.00

3740319.00

33.77828

35.47172

10

NO

11

12

11

6''

B02

Khalde

728840.00

3740178.00

33.77705

35.74129

10

NO

8

14

NA

2''

B03

Naame

727297.00

3736996.00

33.74868

35.45381

16

NO

12

NA

11.5

NA

B04

Naame

727211.00

3736979.00

33.74855

35.45287

12

NO

12

NA

11

NA

B05

Naame

728246.00

3736717.00

33.74553

35.46397

100

NO

125

NA

NA

NA

B06

Naame

728374.03

3736958.18

33.74811

35.46543

124

YES

>130

NA

NA

NA

B07

Dawha

727864.00

3738137.00

33.75885

35.46010

35

NO

125

NA

100

1''

B08

Dawha

727885.00

3737913.00

33.75684

35.46040

53

NO

55

NA

NA

NA

B09

Dawha

727886.00

3737915.00

33.75680

35.46041

53

NO

100

NA

NA

NA

B10

Dawha

728235.00

3738115.00

33.75856

35.46421

77

NO

80

NA

NA

1.25''

B11

Dawha

728800.00

3738245.00

33.75972

35.46504

173

NO

200

NA

NA

NA

B12

Dawha

728431.00

3738418.00

33.76123

35.46635

70

NO

75

NA

NA

NA

B13

Dawha

728080.00

3737763.00

33.75542

35.46244

93

NO

100

NA

NA

NA

B14

Dawha

728223.00

3737828.00

33.75598

35.46402

124

NO

120

NA

120

NA

B15

Dawha

728641.00

3737984.00

33.75720

35.46857

182

NO

182

NA

175

1.5''

B16

Dawha

728790.00

3737717.00

33.75485

35.47010

184

NO

350

NA

NA

NA

B17

Dawha

728904.00

3737950.00

33.75693

35.47142

211

NO

200

NA

NA

NA

B18

Dawha

728803.00

3738169.00

33.75894

35.47035

187

NO

220

NA

NA

NA

B19

Dawha

729144.00

3737723.00

33.75487

35.47394

210

NO

220

NA

NA

NA

Well ID

Locality

X

Y

latitude

longitude

Elevation m asl

B20

Dawha

729156.00

3737732.00

33.75491

35.47407

210

NO

220

NA

NA

Pumping Rate m3/day or Pipe Diameter inch NA

B21

Dawha

728875.00

3737791.00

33.75548

35.47105

203

NO

NA

NA

NA

NA

B22

Dawha

728508.00

3738883.00

33.76542

35.46736

60

NO

56

NA

56

NA

B23

Dawha

728635.00

3739006.00

33.76650

35.46877

54

NO

65

NA

65

1.5''

C01

Aamrousiyyeh

731840.00

3743185.00

33.80342

35.50445

65

NO

160

12

NA

NA

C02

Qoubeh

732039.00

3742672.00

33.79880

35.50646

170

NO

NA

14

NA

NA

C03

Qoubeh

731970.00

3742598.00

33.79815

35.50568

182

NO

253

NA

250

2''

C04

Qoubeh

732202.00

3742621.00

33.79831

35.50822

205

NO

350

NA

NA

2''

C05

Der Kobel

732685.00

3742230.00

33.79472

35.51331

226

NO

400

NA

320

~2000 m /day

Bchamoun- Yinnar 732763.00

3741133.00

33.78490

35.51450

318

YES

250

NA

200

NA

C06

drinkable water(Y/N)

Well Depth(m)

Casing Diameter inch

Water Level BGL

3

C07

Bchamoun

730893.00

3741838.00

33.79155

35.49386

102

NO

107

NA

85

C08

Ram Bchamoun Bchamoun-EL Maderes

731324.00

3740786.00

33.78197

35.49824

170

NO

160

NA

NA

~ 190 m3/day 2''

730352.00

3740912.00

33.78330

35.48781

139

NO

NA

NA

NA

NA

C10

Baasir

725803.00

3726916.00

33.65816

35.43508

184

NO

215

NA

NA

2''

C11

Baasir

725969.00

3726652.00

33.65575

35.43685

189

NO

180

NA

180

3''

C12

Barja

727273.00

3725765.00

33.64747

35.45071

348

NO

200

NA

NA

NA

C13

Marj Barja

728006.00

3725892.00

33.64848

35.45861

353

NO

500

NA

NA

NA

C14

Bourjein

730597.00

3726866.00

33.65660

35.48676

509

YES

450

NA

350

2''

C15

Dibiyeh

729844.00

3729115.00

33.67701

35.47907

460

YES

NA

NA

NA

1.5''

C16

Dibiyeh

729130.00

3729641.00

33.68202

35.47169

413

NO

380

14

280

2''

C17

Dahr EL Mghara

726862.00

3729982.00

33.68562

35.44737

260

NO

300

NA

NA

1.5''

C09

drinkable water(Y/N)

Well Depth(m)

Casing Diameter inch

Water Level BGL

Pumping Rate m3/day or Pipe Diameter inch

Well ID

Locality

X

Y

latitude

longitude

Elevation m asl

D01

Khalde-Haret Chbib

729025.00

3739991.00

33.77530

35.47325

37

NO

45

NA

NA

1.5''

D02

Khalde-Haret Chbib

729149.00

3739977.00

33.77514

35.47461

59

NO

50

NA

50

1.5''

D03

Khalde-Haret Chbib

729126.00

3739975.00

33.77513

35.47431

35

NO

42

NA

42

1.5''

D04

Khalde-Haret Chbib

729299.00

3740094.00

33.77617

35.47620

86

NO

45

NA

NA

1''

729381.00

3740045.00

33.77578

35.47705

82

NO

NA

NA

NA

NA

729400.00

3739924.00

33.77459

35.47734

111

NO

90

NA

NA

NA

D05 D06

Khalde-Haret Chbib Khalde-Haret Chbib

D07

Damour

728022.00

3735323.00

33.73346

35.46122

101

YES

130

12

85-90

6''

D12

Mechref

727626.00

3732758.00

33.71041

35.45627

90

YES

~100

NA

NA

NA

D13

Damour-Naame

728663.00

3735492.00

33.73483

35.46817

169

NO

NA

NA

NA

NA

D14

Damour-Naame

728736.00

3735504.00

33.73492

35.46895

183

NO

80

NA

80

4''

G01

Barja

726306.752 3725157.912

33.64222

35.44012

356

340

10

NA

240 m3/day

G02

Barja

726234.654 3725499.115

33.64531

35.43943

343

460

12

NA

1200 m3/day

G03

Barja

726767.193 3725743.633

33.64740

35.44523

327

285

12

NA

800 m3/day

G04

Barja

726501.698 3726295.549

33.65243

35.44251

212

310

12

NA

360 m3/day

Drinking Domestic Drinking Domestic Drinking Domestic Drinking Domestic

latitude

longitude

Elevation m asl

724859.347 3726361.181

33.65337

35.42483

98

Baasir

726672.891 3727061.982

33.65930

35.44455

255

G07

Baasir

726672.891 3727061.982

33.65930

35.44455

255

G08

Haret Baasir

726726.717 3728433.777

33.67165

35.44548

256

G09

Mechref

728705.842 3732510.371

33.70796

35.46786

213

G10

Mechref

728489.329 3732605.073

33.70886

35.46555

187

G11

Mechref

727934.911 3732673.962

33.70960

35.45959

114

G12

Mechref

728228.221 3732703.154

33.70980

35.46276

139

G13

Mechref

727632.285 3732763.301

33.71047

35.45635

87

G14

Mechref

728710.644 3732929.975

33.71174

35.46802

207

G15

Mechref

728130.636 3733216.861

33.71445

35.46184

139

G16

Mechref

728130.636 3733216.861

33.71445

35.46184

139

G17

Mechref

728017.822 3733280.755

33.71505

35.46064

144

G18

Mechref

728093.271

33.71526

35.46146

129

Well ID

Locality

G05

Jiyeh

G06

X

Y

3733305.86

drinkable water(Y/N) Drinking Domestic Drinking Domestic Drinking Domestic Drinking Domestic Drinking Domestic Drinking Domestic Drinking Domestic Drinking Domestic Drinking Domestic Drinking Domestic Drinking Domestic Drinking Domestic Drinking Domestic Drinking Domestic

Well Depth(m)

Casing Diameter inch

Water Level BGL

Pumping Rate m3/day or Pipe Diameter inch

135

12

102

500 m3/day

350

12

162.5

360 m3/day

350

10

NA

well not in use

375

10

NA

480 m /day

240

12

NA

1080 m /day

275

12

NA

450 m3/day

145

12

NA

780 m /day

175

12

NA

1080 m /day

120

12

NA

720 m3/day

267

12

NA

480 m3/day

170

14

NA

2400 m /day

181

14

NA

2400 m3/day

165

14

NA

2400 m /day

182

14

NA

3600 m /day

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

latitude

longitude

Elevation m asl

727835.946 3733362.979

33.71583

35.45870

89

Mechref

728066.844 3733441.729

33.71649

35.46121

110

G21

Damour

727667.288 3733474.375

33.71687

35.45691

77

G22

Damour

727667.288 3733474.375

33.71687

35.45691

77

G23

Damour

727895.032

33.71697

35.45937

93

G24

Damour

727791.727 3733506.194

33.71713

35.45826

86

G25

Mechref

728022.33

3733519.46

33.71720

35.46075

107

G26

Damour

727490.56

3733964.007

33.72132

35.45513

38

G28

Naame

728002.704 3736129.143

33.74072

35.46121

103

G29

Naame

727848.333 3736187.605

33.74128

35.45956

54

Well ID

Locality

G19

Damour

G20

X

Y

3733490.9

drinkable water(Y/N) Drinking Domestic Drinking Domestic Drinking Domestic Drinking Domestic Drinking Domestic Drinking Domestic Drinking Domestic Drinking Domestic Drinking Domestic Drinking Domestic

Well Depth(m)

Casing Diameter inch

Water Level BGL

Pumping Rate m3/day or Pipe Diameter inch

135

12

NA

420 m3/day

156

14

NA

2592 m3/day

135

14

NA

2880 m3/day

140

14

NA

5040 m /day

60

12

NA

960 m /day

130

12

NA

420 m3/day

152

14

NA

2592 m /day

130

12

NA

336 m /day

80

12

NA

360 m3/day

105

12

NA

420 m3/day

3

3

3

3

ANNEX II Chemical Results for Well Survey

Tested Physico-Chemical Characteristics ⁰ Well ID

Locality

Well Classification

EC (μS/cm)

TDS (ppm)

Salinity (ppm)

Temp. ( C)

pH

A01

Dawha

2200

1570

1180

21.7

7.87

Slightly Saline

A02

Damour plain

1012

717

523

21.9

7.83

Fresh

A03

Damour plain

950

673

490

22.9

7.25

Fresh

A04

Saadiyet

2180

1540

1160

22

7.87

Slightly Saline

A05

Saadiyet

5140

3650

2900

27.6

7.31

Moderately Saline

A06

Saadiyet

2120

1500

1170

26.4

7.45

Slightly Saline

A07

Saadiyet

1799

1290

1000

42.8

7.29

Slightly Saline

A08

Saadiyet

1596

1150

882

32

7.33

Slightly Saline

A09

Saadiyet

3140

2220

1768

22.4

7.05

Slightly Saline

A10

Saadiyet

3800

2670

2130

22.2

7.4

Slightly Saline

A11

Saadiyet

3480

2460

1950

25.2

7.3

Slightly Saline

A12

Saadiyet

2680

1900

1490

22.3

6.99

Slightly Saline

A13

Saadiyet

2550

1800

1400

24.4

7.32

Slightly Saline

A14

Saadiyet

2830

2000

1580

32.7

7.38

Slightly Saline

A15

Saadiyet

4090

2910

2330

22.4

7.41

Slightly Saline

A16

Saadiyet

5020

3560

2900

25.4

7.67

Moderately Saline

A17

Saadiyet

7030

4990

4170

31.9

7.25

Moderately Saline

A18

Sahel Jiyeh

3630

2610

2180

24.4

7.27

Slightly Saline

WHO/EPA Guidance Value

NA

1000

NA

_

6.5-8.5

Fresh

MOH Guidance Value

1500

500

NA

_

6.5-8.5

Fresh

Tested Physico-Chemical Characteristics ⁰ Well ID

Locality

Well Classification

EC (μS/cm)

TDS (ppm)

Salinity (ppm)

Temp. ( C)

pH

A19

Jiyeh

2670

1890

1500

23

7.68

Slightly Saline

A20

Saadiyet

2600

1890

1510

24.5

7.62

Slightly Saline

A21

Missiar-Dahr EL Mghara

848

601

457

24.4

7.99

Fresh

A22

Missiar-Dahr EL Mghara

3200

2290

1840

22.5

7.5

Slightly Saline

A23

Missiar-Dahr EL Mghara

13370

9380

8480

29.3

7.4

Moderately Saline

B01

Khalde

19100

> range

>range

22.6

-

Very Saline to Brine

B02

Khalde

2900

2100

1680

22

7.22

Slightly Saline

B03

Naame

1820

1310

1030

21.3

7

Slightly Saline

B04

Naame

1930

1370

1080

22.2

7.06

Slightly Saline

B05

Naame

1973

1400

1110

22.6

7.67

Slightly Saline

B06

Naame

1889

1320

1040

23.3

8

Slightly Saline

B07

Dawha

3780

2720

2220

22.9

8

Slightly Saline

B08

Dawha

3300

2370

1920

23.9

8.5

Slightly Saline

B09

Dawha

4100

2820

2310

22.7

7.6

Slightly Saline

B10

Dawha

3230

2280

1820

22.3

7.8

Slightly Saline

B11

Dawha

2900

2100

1700

24

7.47

Slightly Saline

B12

Dawha

NA

1500

NA

NA

NA

Slightly Saline

B13

Dawha

3780

2650

2150

22.5

7.67

Slightly Saline

WHO/EPA Guidance Value

NA

1000

NA

_

6.5-8.5

Fresh

MOH Guidance Value

1500

500

NA

_

6.5-8.5

Fresh

Tested Physico-Chemical Characteristics ⁰ Well ID

Locality

Well Classification

EC (μS/cm)

TDS (ppm)

Salinity (ppm)

Temp. ( C)

pH

B14

Dawha

3120

2200

1780

24.5

7.5

Slightly Saline

B15

Dawha

2200

1590

1260

25.2

7.98

Slightly Saline

B16

Dawha

1750

1240

990

27.5

8

Slightly Saline

B17

Dawha

1907

1400

1090

21.9

7.65

Slightly Saline

B18

Dawha

2900

2120

1700

23.7

7.71

Slightly Saline

B19

Dawha

1160

832

639

22.4

7.37

Fresh

B20

Dawha

1674

1190

930

23.3

7.53

Slightly Saline

B21

Dawha

2280

1640

1300

23.9

7.85

Slightly Saline

B22

Dawha

2040

1450

1150

23

8

Slightly Saline

B23

Dawha

4180

3010

2450

22

7.48

Moderately Saline

C01

Aamrousiyyeh

920

656

488

21.7

7.7

Fresh

C02

Qoubeh

612

432

320

21.8

8.34

Fresh

C03

Qoubeh

810

570

430

24.1

8

Fresh

C04

Qoubeh

514

364

269

22.5

8.15

Fresh

C05

Der Kobel

658

466

343

20.5

7.8

Fresh

C06

Bchamoun- Yinnar

770

551

409

23.6

8

Fresh

C07

Bchamoun

835

599

448

21.3

7.28

Fresh

C08

Ram Bchamoun

698

496

367

21.6

7.55

Fresh

WHO/EPA Guidance Value

NA

1000

NA

_

6.5-8.5

Fresh

MOH Guidance Value

1500

500

NA

_

6.5-8.5

Fresh

Tested Physico-Chemical Characteristics ⁰ Well ID

Locality

Well Classification

EC (μS/cm)

TDS (ppm)

Salinity (ppm)

Temp. ( C)

pH

C09

Bchamoun-EL Maderes

4340

3080

2500

24.9

7.38

Moderately Saline

C10

Baasir

770

544

410

21.3

7.54

Fresh

C11

Baasir

796

565

422

21.6

7.55

Fresh

C12

Barja

384

277

204

24.1

8.25

Fresh

C15

Dibiyeh

675

482

359

30.8

7.7

Fresh

C16

Dibiyeh

659

470

348

28.5

7.6

Fresh

C17

Dahr EL Mghara

688

488

363

22.8

7.72

Fresh

D01

Khalde-Haret Chbib

2720

1810

1530

24.4

7.7

Slightly Saline

D02

Khalde-Haret Chbib

2820

2000

1580

23.8

7.6

Slightly Saline

D03

Khalde-Haret Chbib

2680

1930

1520

22.4

7.9

Slightly Saline

D04

Khalde-Haret Chbib

3160

2240

1770

21.9

7.7

Slightly Saline

D05

Khalde-Haret Chbib

1730

1230

944

23.7

8.1

Slightly Saline

D06

Khalde-Haret Chbib

1630

1160

889

23.2

7.8

Slightly Saline

D07

Damour

1541

1090

834

23.2

7.5

Slightly Saline

D13

Damour-Naame

636

454

336

22.6

8.1

Fresh

D14

Damour-Naame

720

512

380

22

8

Fresh

G01

Barja

530

376

288

20.8

7.55

Fresh

G02

Barja

550

393

301

21.9

7.6

Fresh

WHO/EPA Guidance Value

NA

1000

NA

_

6.5-8.5

Fresh

MOH Guidance Value

1500

500

NA

_

6.5-8.5

Fresh

Tested Physico-Chemical Characteristics ⁰ Well ID

Locality

Well Classification

EC (μS/cm)

TDS (ppm)

Salinity (ppm)

Temp. ( C)

pH

G03

Barja

570

405

310

17

7.5

Fresh

G04

Barja

601

426

328

20.2

7.54

Fresh

G05

Baasir

640

455

349

19.9

8.07

Fresh

G06

Jiyeh

624

440

336

19.8

8.3

Fresh

G08

Baasir

612

432

332

18.7

8.5

Fresh

G09

Mechref

257

178

140

17.7

8.1

Fresh

G11

Mechref

255

178

145

18

7.9

Fresh

G12

Mechref

243

177

140

17.8

8

Fresh

G15

Mechref

3540

2410

2000

17.9

7.8

Slightly Saline

G16

Damour

3000

2660

2100

19

7.8

Slightly Saline

G17

Damour

3430

2420

1950

18.5

7.7

Slightly Saline

G18

Damour

3400

2510

2200

18

7.4

Slightly Saline

G20

Naame

3500

2410

1800

18

7.2

Slightly Saline

G21

Damour

2540

1790

1460

20

7.27

Slightly Saline

G25

Naame

3330

2600

1950

18.5

7.5

Slightly Saline

G28

Haret Baasir

560

461

402

18.2

7.7

Fresh

G29

Mechref

571

500

410

18.1

7.7

Fresh

WHO/EPA Guidance Value

NA

1000

NA

_

6.5-8.5

Fresh

MOH Guidance Value

1500

500

NA

_

6.5-8.5

Fresh

ANNEX II Images for Site Investigations

A II.1 Multi-parameter Tester

A II.2 GPS and Field Questionnaire

A II.3 sufficient volume of water is first removed by pumping

A II.4 the device is rinsed well with distilled water after every testing operation.

A II.5 Investigation well

A II.6 Overview for Damour plain and Sahel El Jiyeh

ANNEX III Geostatistical Surface Interpolation for TDS in ppm Geostatistical Surface Interpolation for EC in μS/cm Geostatistical Surface Interpolation for pH

ANNEX III Geostatistical Surface Interpolation for TDS in ppm

ANNEX III Geostatistical Surface Interpolation for EC in μS/cm

ANNEX III Geostatistical Surface Interpolation for pH

ANNEX IV Map of Drawdowns in Groundwater levels due to Damour-Mechref Public Abstraction Wells. Some Cross Sections for Pumping Scenarios in Saadiyet Area

ANNEX IV Map of Drawdowns in Groundwater Levels due to Damour-Mechref Public Abstraction Wells.

A IV.1 Drawdowns in groundwater levels in the second model layer.

A IV.2 Drawdowns in 3rd layer

ANNEX IV Cross Sections for Pumping Scenarios in Saadiyet Area

A IV.3 Scenario D, No seawater intrusion in 2nd layer

A IV.4 Scenario D, No seawater intrusion in 3rd layer

ANNEX IV Cross Sections for Pumping Scenarios in Saadiyet Area

A IV.5 Scenario E, Seawater intrusion in 3rd model layer

A IV.6 Scenario F, Severe seawater intrusion in 3rd model layer